Abstract

The bending is normally a process by which the material such as metal, alloy and etc can be
deformed by deforming the material and changing its shape from the original shape. The material
is applied to the type specimen to calculate how much the specimen can deflect. The material is
stressed beyond the yield strength but below the ultimate tensile strength. The surface area of the
material does not change much when the load is applied. Bending usually refers to deformation
about one axis. Bending is a flexible process by which many different shapes can be produced.
The experiments done to learn about theory and use or apply in real life by visualize the
experiment.

Objective

To determine the elastic modulus (E) of beam specimen by method of deflection of mild
steel, aluminum and brass.

To compare the data between experimental and theoretical values.

To understand how much the specimen can be deflect by list of type the specimen is use
in the experiment.

Introduction
Bending is a flexible process by which many have different shapes can be produced. Standard
die sets are used to produce a wide variety of shapes. The material is placed on the die, and
positioned in place with stops and gages. It is held in place with hold-downs. The upper part of
the press, the ram with the appropriately shaped punch descends and usually forms the v-shaped
bend.
When the real life or the experiment the bending characterizes the behaviour of a
slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal
axis of the element. In this experiment, the deflection of the beam when load is applied to the
specimen at is to measured point along the specimen and from that the elastic modulus can be
calculate by given data. Bending is done using Press Brakes and Programmable back gages, and
multiple die sets available currently can make for a very economical process.

The figure shows that the standard bending moment in experiment. The calculation to
calculate bending moment that usually done is using the Euler-Bernoulli bending. After a
solution for the displacement of the beam has been obtained, the bending moment and shear
force in the beam can be calculated using the relations.

Usually the specimen is subject to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero,
and that no torsional or axial loads are present. The material is isotropic and homogeneous. The
material obeys Hooke's law that it is linearly elastic and will not deform plastically .The beam is
initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the beam length.

In the Euler-Bernoulli theory of slender beams, a major assumption is that 'plane sections
remain plane'. In other words, any deformation due to shear across the section is not accounted
for no shear deformation. And this linear distribution is only applicable if the maximum stress is
less than the yield stress of the material. For stresses that exceed yield refer to article plastic. At
yield, the maximum stress experienced in the section at the furthest points from the neutral
axis of the beam is defined as the flexural strength.

The Euler-Bernoulli equation for the bending of slender, isotropic, homogeneous beams
of constant cross-section under an applied transverse load is

Where E is the Young's modulus and I is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section,
and W(x) is the deflection of the neutral axis of the beam.

Theory
Bending is a major concept used in the design of many machine and structural
components, such as beams and girders. In Applied Mechanics, bending which is also known
as flexure, characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an
external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.
The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small
fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two. When the length is considerably longer than the
width and the thickness, the element is called a beam. For example, a closet rod sagging under
the weight of clothes on clothes hangers is an example of a beam experiencing bending. On the
other hand, a shell is a structure of any geometric form where the length and the width are of the
same order of magnitude but the thickness of the structure (known as the 'wall') is considerably
smaller. A large diameter, but thin-walled, short tube supported at its ends and loaded laterally is
an example of a shell experiencing bending.
In the absence of a qualifier, the term bending is ambiguous because bending can occur
locally in all objects. To make the usage of the term more precise, engineers refer to the bending
of rods, the bending of beams, the bending of plates, the bending of shells, and so on.

Bending of an I-beam

When a beam experiences a bending moment it will change its shape and internal stresses
will be developed. The figure below illustrates the shape change of elements of a beam in
bending. Note that the material is in compression on the inside of the curve and tension on the
outside of the curve, and that transverse planes in the material remain parallel to the radius
during bending.

Shape change of elements of a beam.

Four-Point Bending
The pure bending shown in the figure can be produced by applying four forces to the
beam, two of opposite direction at each end. This configuration is known as four-point bending
and produces a uniform bending moment over the center section of the beam as illustrated in (b)
opposite.
In the Euler-Bernoulli theory of slender beams, a major assumption is that 'plane sections
remain plane'. In other words, any deformation due to shear across the section is not accounted

for (no shear deformation). Also, this linear distribution is only applicable if the maximum stress
is less than the yield stress of the material. For stresses that exceed yield, refer to article plastic.
At yield, the maximum stress experienced in the section (at the furthest points from the neutral
axis of the beam) is defined as the flexural strength
The Euler-Bernoulli equation for the quasi static bending of slender, isotropic,
homogeneous beams of constant cross-section under an applied transverse load, q(x) is;

EI

d 4 w( x )
d x4

= q(x)

where E is the Young's modulus, I is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section, and w(x) is
the deflection of the neutral axis of the beam.

After a solution for the displacement of the beam has been obtained, the bending
moment, M and shear force, Q in the beam can be calculated using the relations

Simple beam bending is often analyzed with the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. The
conditions for using simple bending theory are:

The beam is subject to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero, and that no
torsional or axial loads are present.

The material is isotropic and homogeneous.

The material obeys Hooke's law (it is linearly elastic and will not deform plastically).

The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the beam length.

The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending.

The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending rather than by crushing,
wrinkling or sideways buckling.

Cross-sections of the beam remain plane during bending.

Bending moments in beam

The classic formula for determining the bending stress in a beam under simple bending is;

Where;

is the bending stress

M - the moment about the neutral axis

y - the perpendicular distance to the neutral axis
Ix - the second moment of area about the neutral axis x.

In this Applied Mechanics Lab, we are interest in the determination of the deflection of
the bending of beams. Of particular interest is the determination of the maximum deflection of a
beam under a given loading, since the design specifications of a beam will generally include a

maximum allowable value for its deflection. Also of interest is that the knowledge of the
deflections is required to analyze indeterminate beams.
A prismatic beam subjected to pure bending is bent into an arc of circle and that, within
the elastic range, the curvature of the neutral surface can be expressed as;
1

M
EI

Where M is the bending moment, E is the modulus of elasticity, and I is the moment of inertia of
the cross section about its neutral axis. Denoting by x the distance of the section from the left end
of the beam, we write;
1

M (x )
EI

To determine the slope and deflection of the beam at any given point, we first derive the
following second-order linear differential equation, which governs the elastic curve
characterizing the shape of the deformed beam;
d2 y
dx 2

M (x)
EI

If the bending moment can be represented for all values of x by a single function M(x), as
in the case of the beams and loadings, the slope =

dy /dx

and the deflection y at any point

of the beam may be obtained through two successive integrations. The two constants of
integration introduced in the process will be determined from the boundary conditions indicated
in the figure. However, if different analytical functions are required to represent the bending
moment in various portions of the beam, different differential equations will also be required,
leading to different functions defining the elastic curve in the various portions of the beam.

Deflection of a beam deflected symmetrically and principle of superposition

Apparatus

Mild steel
beam

Aluminum
beam

Dial caliper
Weight

Brass beam

Gauge
Plier

Screw driver
Weighthanger
Vernier
caliper
Steel rule

Experimental Procedure
1

The dimensions of the all beam were measured and recorded.

The length (L) was measured from the wall to the end of beams and the reading was
recorded.

The lengths (x1 and x2) were measured from the wall to the center of the dial calipers
and the readings were recorded.

Weight (W) was hanged on the weight-hanger starting from lowest 2N, and then

increased by increments of 2N until it reaches 16N.

5 Weight (W) was recorded and deflection max was measured at every increment.

Result
Experimental
The dimension of the 3 specimen
Material

Length (mm)

Height (mm)

Width (mm)

Mild Steel

1000.00

4.40

20.7

Aluminium

1000.00

6.56

20.1

Brass

1000.00

6.60

20.0

The experimental magnitude of load and the beam maximum deflection

Beam maximum deflection (mm) x 0.01
Load, W (N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

Aluminum
0
0.24
0.478
0.698
0.948
1.188
1.428
1.668
1.908

Brass
0
0.17
0.33
0.5
0.85
1.02
1.19
1.37
1.55

Mild Steel
0
0.25
0.5
0.76
1.02
1.27
1.52
1.78
2.03

Graph of Mild Steel Deflection VS Load

Deflection (mm) x0.01 vs Load (N)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

12

Graph of Aluminium Deflection VS Load

14

16

Deflection (mm) x0.01 vs Load (N)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

12

14

16

Graph of Brass Deflection VS Load

Deflection (mm) x0.01 vs Load (N)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

12

14

16

Theoretical
W

W
b
d
a

beam cross-section

M
X

Bending moment diagram

W = 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16 (N) a = 0.15m b = 0.020m d =0.004m l = 0.4m

This is a simply supported beam subjected to uniform bending moment.
It can be shown that the central deflection relative to the supports in the arrangement of
the diagram
Maximum deflection between the supports:=

Wa l 2
8 EI

where

I=

b d3
12

The theoretical value for elastic modulus of steel, aluminum and brass is 210Gpa,
70Gpa and 100GPa.

Sample calculation
I=

b d3
12
3

(0.02 m)(0.004 m)
12

10
= 1.067 x 10

Wa l 2
8 EI

(2 N ) (0.15 m)(0.4 m)2

8 ( 210 Gpa ) (1.067 x 1010 )

0.00026m / 0.26mm

The theoretical magnitude of load and the beam maximum deflection

Beam maximum deflection (mm) x 0.01
Load, W (N)

Mild Steel

Aluminum

Brass

0
2

0
0.26

0
0.24

0
0.13

4
6
8
10
12
14
16

0.54
0.80
1.07
1.33
1.55
1.77
1.98

0.55
0.89
1.12
1.43
1.67
1.81
2.15

0.25
0.38
0.50
0.63
0.75
0.88
1.00