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Review
Abstract
The thermal losses to the ambient from a building surface or a roof mounted solar collector represent an important portion of the
overall energy balance and depend heavily on the wind induced convection. In an eort to help designers make better use of the available
correlations in the literature for the external convection coecients due to the wind, a critical discussion and a suitable tabulation is
presented, on the basis of algebraic form of the coecients and their dependence upon characteristic length and wind direction, in addition to wind speed. Finally, simple average correlations are produced from the existing ones, useful for quick, gross estimates.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: External convective losses; Wind loss coecient; Forced convection heat loss; Review of heat convective coecients
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The traditional correlation for the wind loss coefficient and its variants . . . . . . . . .
Boundary layer type correlations for the wind loss coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlations for the wind loss coefficient explicit in V, L, and/or the wind direction
External convection algorithms used in building simulation programs . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
It is well documented that the thermal losses from
external building surfaces and such solar components as
collectors, chimneys, and ventilated photovoltaic arrays,
constitute a large portion of the respective energy balance.
In support of this statement, recent calculations and midwinter data regarding a tilted solar chimney mounted on
an NTUA campus buildings rooftop showed that glaz*
1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.12.005
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801
802
804
806
806
807
807
802
Nomenclature
A
C
cp
hw
j
k
L
L1, L2
LR
l
Nu
Nux
NuL
Pr
Re
Rec
Rf
St
Ta
u
v
V
Vaz
Vo
Vw
Vf
w
Wf
x
z
z0
Greek letters
a
angle of attack ()
a, b
terrain-dependent coecients, dim/less
h
wind direction (), + east of North
l
shear viscosity of air (N s/m2)
m
kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s)
q
density of air (kg/m3)
u
yaw angle ()
Subscripts
L
average over the length L
x
local value
wind tunnel measurements and model studies on relatively small plates and blu bodies-obstacles (cf. [19
21]);
full-scale/eld data recordings, i.e. measurements on
actual building facades and roofs (cf. [2226]).
Thus, the prospective designer/modeler must be aware of
the diversity of the available correlations and must make
sure that he has examined the specic conditions under
which they have been produced, before he can safely use
them. After all, there is an obvious lack of physical equivalence between easily controlled indoor experimental studies
and the hard reality of the eld. Out there, monitoring the
wind or establishing uniform conditions for the relevant
measurements is a formidable job. It has been reported,
for example, that average wind speed measurements in the
proximity of an external surface such as a solar collector
cannot have less than a 0.5 m/s variation [27].
2. The traditional correlation for the wind loss coecient and
its variants
In its most general form, the NusseltJurges correlation
between the wind convection coecient, hw, and the parallel to the surface component of the wind velocity, Vw,
which drives the convection can be written as
n
294:26
hw 5:678 a b
V w 0:3048
1
273:16 T a
a
0.99
1.09
Table 3
Relation of the parallel component of the wind velocity to the free stream
value [22]
0.21
0.23
1
1
0
0
0.50
0.53
n
0.78
0.78
that is, it includes a decay term. This equation was specialized two years later by Jurges [31] for three types of surfaces (cf. Table 2). However, it was the original authors
who rst suggested that, for practical calculations, it is sufcient to use a linear interpolation formula for wind speeds
up to 5 m/s and to ignore the second term for higher speeds
[5]. In SI units, the proposed original linear equation would
be
hw 5:8 3:95V w
Surface texture
Hydraulically smooth
Rolled
Very rough
0.973
1.005
1.087
0.214
0.214
0.226
1
1
1
0
0
0
0.499
0.497
0.522
0.775
0.780
0.784
0.6 V
803
Vf > 2 m/s
Vf < 2 m/s
Windward
Leeward
Vw = 0.25Vf
Vw = 0.5
Vw = 0.3 + 0.05Vf
This power law equation (which, aside from the S.I. units,
was actually derived by Kimura on the basis of earlier data
of his Japanese group [37, p. 78]), as well as the linear Eqs.
(3) and (4) have been adopted as algebraic forms by most
researchers for their own data tting procedures. An extensive but not exhaustive tabulation of such equations are given in Tables 4 and 5.
It turned out that in many cases the linear regression
equations were equally eective in tting the experimental
data, even though fundamental heat transfer theory predicts a power relation between convective coecient and
wind speed. On the basis of data generated by thirty such
linear correlations listed in Table 4 for windward surfaces,
a purely empirical average correlation of this simple but
convenient form can be derived, namely
hw 7:4 4:0V f
windward
In the wind velocity range 04.5 m/s, the maximum deviations of the individual windward equations predictions
from those of Eq. (6) average to 18%. A similar average
correlation can be derived for leeward surfaces, using the
remaining six correlations of Table 4
hw 4:2 3:5V f
leeward
804
Table 4
Linear equation form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = a + bV
a
Comments
References
5.8
5.7
6.2
6.05
5.82
7.82
8.9
10.7
23
11.4
5.7
0
5.8
8.7
2.8
6.22
6.22
7.55
5.8
4.5
8.55
0.036
5.1
5.1
7.0
6.47
4.955
8.91
4.93
10.03
12.2
8.3
6.5
6.42
4.47
4.214
5.82
5.5
3.95
3.8
4.3
4.08
4.02
3.50
3.71
4.96
5.7
5.7
6.0
5.7
2.9
9.4
3.0
1.824
0.4864
4.35
4.1
2.9
2.56
2.2
1.7
1.7
2.1
6.806
1.444
2.00
1.77
4.687
6.548
2.2
3.3
3.96
10.21
3.575
4.07
2.2
[5]
[28]
[4]
[30]
[30]
[39]
[39]
[39]
[6]
[6]
[40]
[6]
[22]
[22]
[35]
[41]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[11]
[44]
[3]
[23]
[23]
[65]
[45]
[13]
[24]
[24]
[12]
[12]
[46]
[46]
[26]
[26]
[9]
[67]
[68]
a
For smooth surfaces hw = 3.12 + 3.83V 0.047 V2 excluding the constant 5.11 W/m2 K radiation contribution. A recent similar equation is
hw = 12.667 + 1.5946V + 0.0041V2 [63].
b
ASHRAE proposes a = 5.62, b = 3.9 ([60], p. 3.14). Another variant is a = 5.67, b = 3.86 [64].
2L1 L2
L1 L2
805
Table 5
Power law form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = a + bVn
a
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.685
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18.192
7.13
7.11
7.52
7.2
7.6
6.97
6.60
18.65
11.8
2.38
2.86
16.15
16.25
16.21
14.82
15.06
9.4
0.0378Tav
0.78
0.775
0.784
0.78
0.78
0.666
0.6
0.605
0.5
0.89
0.617
0.397
0.503
0.452
0.42
0.53
0.5
0.8
Comments
References
a
Wind tunnel measurement (WTM), plate, parallel ow, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s
WTM, plate, parallel ow, hydraulically smooth surface, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s
WTM, plate, parallel ow, very rough surface, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s
Recast of data in [5,31], V > 5 m/s, smooth surface
Recast of data in [5,31], V > 5 m/s, rough surface
WTM, at plate, measurement on the rear
Vertical surface behind wedge-separated subsonic ow
Field measurements (FM), VwKimuras 6th oor modelb
WTM, small (0.16 m) collector mimic
FM, window, low-rise building, forced convection only, windward (MoWiTT)c
FM, window, low-rise building, forced convection only, leeward (MoWiTT)c
FM, at vertical panel, windward, Vw = f(Vf) = 0.68Vf 0.5 and 0.2Vf 0.1
FM, at vertical panel, Leeward, Vw = f(Vf) = 0.157Vf 0.027
FM avg correlation for combined windward and leeward conditions
FM on a 6th oor vertical surface in 200 mm recess, windwardd
FM on a 6th oor vertical surface in 200 mm recess, leewardd
FM, collector mimic on 35 pitched roof, Vf
External coecient in large commercial ducts, Tav = (Tduct,surf + Texterior)/2
[5]
[31]
[31]
[28]
[28]
[47]
[48]
[37]
[49]
[45]
[45]
[24]
[24]
[24]
[50]
[50]
[46]
[66]
Comments
References
0.10
0.20
0.42
0.931
0.86
0.930
0.86
0.0253
0.036
0.032
1.23
0.90
0.568
1.067
f2(Re, Pr)c
0.023
0.666
0.666
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.524
0.466
0.8
0.891
0
0
0
0.333
0.333
0.333
0.333
0
0.333
0
0.333
0.333
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
f1(Pr)b
84.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
[47]
[47]
[14]
[18]
[19]
[38]
[15]
[20]
[3]
[3]
[51]
[51]
[52]
[52]
[9]
[26]
0.0296Rf
0.037Rf
0.664Rf
0.037Rf
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.8
0.333
0.333
0.333
0.333
0
0
0
f3(Pr)d
a
b
c
d
e
[25]
[25]
[25]
[25]
The hydrodynamic dimensions are used for the characteristic length in Re.
f1(Pr) = 95.0Pr1/3.
f2(Re, Pr) = 0.037/(1 + 2.443Re0.1(Pr2/3 1).
f3(Pr) = 871RfPr1/3.
The characteristic length is L = L1L2/(L1 cos u + L2 sin u), with L1, L2 the collector side lengths and u the yaw angle.
Another experimental series involving a real (albeit halfsize) solar collector under controlled environmental conditions in the laboratory [3], produced a slightly dierent correlation for the average Nusselt Number, namely,
4=5
10
806
L1 L2
L1 cos / L2 sin /
u < 90
11
12
evaluation of the thermo-physical properties which participate in the Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers, for specic
temperatures, although the latter are not always reported
(cf. [17]). They have the general form hw = aVb/Lc, that
is, they include a decay of the wind convection coecient
along the surface in the direction of the wind. For example,
the fully turbulent ow convective coecient can be written as
hw 5:74V 4=5 L1=5
13
15
Table 7
Explicit in V, L form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = aVbLc
a
Comments
References
8.6
5.79
2.537WfRfa
2.537WfRfa
5.74
5.1
11.42
5.15
3.34
4.78
4.05
3.54
5.11
4.60
3.67
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.5
0.891
0.81
0.84
0.71
0.77
0.76
0.78
0.79
0.85
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.109
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
[14]
[65]
[16]
[16]
[17]
[46]
[26]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
a
b
c
d
e
Wf = wind modier (1 for windward surfaces, 0.5 for leeward ones), Rf = surface roughness multiplier, L = (surface area/perimeter).
Vaz = V0(z/z0)1/a (z0 = 9.14, a is a terrain-dependent coecient).
Vaz = V0b(z/z0)a (a, b are terrain-dependent coecients).
Pr has been evaluated at 293 K.
DT = surface-to-air temperature dierence = 10 K, wind speed 15 m/s.
807
808
[19] E.M. Sparrow, J.W. Ramsey, E.A. Mass, Eect of nite width on
heat transfer and uid ow about an inclined rectangular plate,
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[20] X.A. Wang, An experimental study of mixed, forced, and free
convection heat transfer from a horizontal at plate to air, Trans.
ASME J. Heat Transfer 104 (1982) 139144.
[21] J.L. Francey, J. Papaioannou, Wind-related heat losses of a at-plate
collector, Solar Energy 35 (1985) 1519.
[22] N. Ito, K. Kimura, J. Oka, A eld experiment study on the convective
heat transfer coecient on exterior surface of a building, ASHRAE
Trans. 78 (1972) 184191.
[23] S. Sharples, Full-scale measurements of convective energy losses from
exterior building surfaces, Build. Environ. 19 (1984) 3139.
[24] D.L. Loveday, A.H. Taki, Convective heat transfer coecients at a
plane surface on a full-scale building facade, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 39 (8) (1996) 17291742.
[25] R.D. Clear, L. Gartland, F.C. Winkelmann, An empirical correlation
for the outside convective air-lm coecient for horizontal roofs,
Energ. Build. 35 (2003) 797811.
[26] A. Hagishima, J. Tanimoto, Field measurements for estimating the
convective heat transfer coecient at building surfaces, Build.
Environ. 38 (7) (2003) 873881.
[27] G.L. Morrison, D. Gilliaert, Unglazed solar collector performance
characteristics, Trans. ASME J. Solar Energy Eng. 114 (1992) 194200.
[28] W.H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, third ed., McGraw-Hill
Kogakusha, Tokyo, Japan, 1954, p. 249.
[29] J.A. Clarke, Energy Simulation in Building Design, second ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 2001, 7.6.2.
[30] A. Schaak, Industrial Heat Transfer, Chapman & Hall, London,
1965.
[31] W. Jurges, Der Warmeubergang an einer ebenen Wand (Heat transfer
at a plane wall), Beiheft Nr. 19 zum Gesundh.- Ing. (1924),
appearing in Gesundheits-Ingenieur 9. Heft, 48. Jahrg., 1925, p. 105.
[32] J.A. Due, W.A. Beckman, Solar Energy Thermal Processes, third
ed., John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006, 3.15.
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2000, p. 98.
[34] G.N. Tiwari, Solar Energy-Fundamentals, Design, Modeling and
Applications, Alpha Science International Ltd., Pangbourne, UK,
2002, p. 74.
[35] J.H. Watmu, W.W.S. Charters, D. Proctor, Solar and wind induced
external coecients for solar collectors, Comples. Int. Rev. dHellio
Tech. 2 (1977) 56.
[36] M.V. Oliphant, Measurement of wind speed distributions across a
solar collector, Solar Energy 24 (1980) 403405.
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loads for computerizing energy calculations. Algorithms for building
heat transfer subroutines, ASHRAE, New York, 1975, pp. 7678.
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[39] B. Jennings, Environmental Engineering, International Textbook
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Publishers Ltd., London, England, 1977.
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[43] CIBS, Chartered Institute of Building Services Guide Book A, Section
A3, CIBS, London, 1979.
[44] F.L. Test, R.C. Lessmann, A. Johary, Heat transfer during wind ow
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