19 Strzelecki.

qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 27

MARCIN STRZELECKI

TRACKING THE PSYCHOACOUSTICAL FEATURES

OF PERFORMANCES OF CHOPINS MUSIC:
MEASURING THE MUSICAL TIME FLOW
EASURING MUSICAL TIME.

Performing Chopins works is the

most natural and straightforward way of showing the expression that they possess. Although it is very difficult to examine
this expression, scholars, aware of the significance of this aspect of his
music, do not reduce the object under analysis to formal relations alone,
but they also look for ways of talking about its affect.
Recent studies have adopted a number of different approaches. One
is an empirical approach, which mainly consists of acoustic, psychoacoustic and cognitive analysis of recordings. Empirical analysis allows
only for the collection of data, which must subsequently be interpreted.
Within the scientific paradigm one may find the conviction that the
possibilities of empirical methods of analysing music are epistemologically unlimited. In other words, they are restricted only from the technical point of view, and theoretically there is no evidence that there are
any aspects of aesthetic experience which cannot be subjected to scientific study. There is also no evidence to the contrary. It is ultimately a
question of the attitude chosen by a particular scholar.
There is, however, no doubt that analyses are restricted in technical terms, their penetration depending upon the sophistication of the
tools that we are able to develop. Yet in material such as music recordings all the information available to the listener is included, and only
requires extraction from the digital signal. For example, technology
now enables us to carry out systematic studies on the timbral aspect of
orchestral works. In the case of performances of Chopins music, timbre is difficult to analyse because of differences in the sound
engineering of recordings.

27

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 28

Marcin Strzelecki

Research into deep semantic interpretations can be enriched in general terms by new methods of analysis employing advanced techniques.
Here I would like to present my own method of analyzing the flow of
time in performances. Whilst recordings are not comparable in terms of
timbre, they are easily subjected to comparison in respect to timing.
Theorists very often write about general parameters, such as the
duration and average tempo of performance, pedalisation contour and
dynamic shape. However, the problem of indicating a strict relationship
between musical and physical time has yet to be resolved. Such studies
may prove crucial, and provide a basis for new ways of studying recorded performances.
For this presentation, I have chosen six recorded performances of
three preludes from Op. 28, according to particular problems concerning time flow. The table below contains information regarding the six
performances:
Figure 1. F. Chopin, Preludes, Op. 28 Nos. 7, 14, 20
recordings analysed:
Artur Rubinstein
Shura Cherkassky
Martha Argerich
Grigory Sokolov
Jerzy Godziszewski
Maurizio Pollini

BMG Music GD60822

Philips Classic 456 742-2
Deutsche Gramophon 415 836-2
Opus 111 AD070
Polskie Nagrania PNCD014
Deutsche Gramophon (analog release)

Amplitude Graphs as Analytic Material

Common amplitude graphs allow us to examine the global dynamic
gesture of a performance. However, they do not make it possible to
locate particular musical events, such as notes, phrases, chords, and so
on. In other words, in order that these graphs may be read efficiently,
one must indicate the relevant bars in the score. In respect to pieces with
salient onsets, one may count dynamic peaks manually, although this
remains difficult when the dynamic is very low (e.g. Sokolovs performance of Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20):

28

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 29

Tracking the psychoacoustical features of performances: measuring the musical time flow

Figure 2. F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20

In the case of another prelude, we encounter difficulties regardless of

the dynamic some chords are better marked than others (e.g.
Prelude, Op. 28 No. 7):
Figure 3. F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 7

Moreover, it becomes impossible in respect to pieces with a sparkling

or smooth textural flow, such as the Prelude, Op. 28 No. 14. In such a
situation, one is forced to employ the time-consuming method of indicating bar onsets by ear, while listening to the recording.
Figure 4. F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 14

29

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 30

Marcin Strzelecki

The prevalent method of segmenting the acoustic representation of

performance is to take dynamic change as the criterion for division.
However, given the unreliability of this method, I would like to present
here a method of recording segmentation based on another criterion,
namely harmony.

Alternative Proposition: the Harmonic Image

In this alternative method, dynamic shape no longer serves as analytic material. It is replaced by a kind of harmonic image obtained by
reducing the whole spectrum to one octave (a set of abstract pitch classes):
Figure 5. F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20 - harmonic image

Since this image still lacks segmentation, we need some kind of point
of reference in order to localize musical events. The procedure is supported by another harmonic image, obtained by processing information
contained in the composition score. From the score we may create a regular MIDI file, represented here by a kind of piano roll:
Figure 6. F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20

30

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 31

Tracking the psychoacoustical features of performances: measuring the musical time flow

The next step is to produce an acoustic simulation of the piece.

Analyzing this simulation in the same way as a performance recording,
we obtain a similar harmonic image. What is most important, at every
stage of this process we are fully aware of the location of the onsets of
both the bars and the notes of the piece (red lines in upper chart). The
analysis enables us to transfer the onsets to the recording, which is then
split accordingly (lower chart).
Figure 7. Transformation of onsets to the recording
a) MIDI simulation splitted

b) Performance

Obviously, the timings of the performance and the simulation differ

from one another. In order to indicate particular notes in a performance
recording we must synchronize the performance with the simulation. I
used a method of stretching out and stretching in the harmonic image
of the simulation, in order to obtain the best overlay of the two images.
It is important to note that when stretching the image we shift the markers of the bars and rhythmic units.
In the computer implementation of this idea, I applied genetic algorithm technique, which processes thousands of different versions of a
stretched image. Each version is treated as an individual. By processing whole generations of individuals by means of genetic operators
(selection, crossover, mutation) we obtain better and better individuals,
in terms of their fitness. The algorithm is stopped immediately when
individuals achieve a sufficient level of fitness (Figure 8).

31

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 32

Marcin Strzelecki

Figure 8. Algoritm procedure

From this point on, the simulation is synchronized with the performance, which allows us to copy the bar and unit markers from the
simulation to the performance.
Figure 9. Synchronization of the simulation and the performance

The charts present the results of using this method. We obtain the
precise segmentation of the performance, according to the score (vertical lines represent bar onsets):
Figure 10. Segmentation of the performance
a) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 7

32

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 33

Tracking the psychoacoustical features of performances: measuring the musical time flow

b) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 14

c) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20

The basic advantage of this kind of segmentation is that it enables

us to compare in recordings the duration of particular bars, or even
single rhythmic units. It is possible to compare not only timing but
also the dynamic proportions between the volume of overtones in particular chords. This consequently makes it possible to analyse the
depth of pedalising in performances by comparing the spectral correlation at a particular moment in the performance with its
MIDI-based audio simulation (lacking pedalising). It is also possible
to estimate the correlation with the preceding moments. But pedalising calls for a separate analysis.

Rubato
I would like to move on to the most interesting advantage of applying the method described above, which is the measuring of rubato. As a
qualitative category rubato is a factor in the expression of the performance. It is often described in literature as one of the main features char33

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 34

Marcin Strzelecki

acterizing performances of Chopin. One may treat rubato as an aspect

of the psychological flow of time. It is strictly linked to the cognitive constraints of the way in which humans perceive time. Consequently, it is
associated with the ontological aspect of aesthetic experience (for example, Bachs adagio). Regardless of what philosophy may tell us of musical time, it is possible to describe rubato in quantitative terms, as the
relationship between the musical and physical time flows.
The method described allows us to indicate the duration of particular rhythmic units in a given recording. In order to indicate the tempo
of each unit, it suffices to inverse its duration:
unitTempo [BMP] = 60 / unitDuration [s]
Finally, we can observe the differences between performances in
terms of local tempo changes:
Figure 11. Differences in local tempo changes
a) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 7

b) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 14

34

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 35

Tracking the psychoacoustical features of performances: measuring the musical time flow

c) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20

The tables below show the combination of statistical data that it is

possible to obtain:
Figure 12. Summary of the tempo analysis
a) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 7

b) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 14

c) F. Chopin, Prelude, Op. 28 No. 20

35

19 Strzelecki.qxd

2005-11-05

22:35

Page 36

Marcin Strzelecki

Summary
This paper has demonstrated a method for the non-subjective and
precise measurement of local time flow in performances of musical
works. The application of psychoacoustic procedures not only renders
analysis of performances more effective (by localizing musical events)
but also provides an empirical basis for new interpretations. Time flow
measurement makes it possible to carry out research into other aspects
of performance.
However, we must keep in mind that the only thing presented here
is a method of analysis, i.e. a method of gathering information. It is necessary to elaborate a further interpretation of this data, within the wide
context of our knowledge of Chopins works and their performances.
The method presented provides one example of the application of
advanced information processing techniques. Within this approach the
amount of information which we are able to extract depends more on
the level of technological sophistication (and on having a good idea)
than on deep, introspective research. It must be said that in order to
avoid concentrating on technical problems alone, it is necessary to consider those problems of most interest from an artistic point of view, as is
undoubtedly the problem of time flow in performances of Chopin.