Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Armour of the
Crusading Era,
1050-1350
Western Europe and the
Crusader States
David Nicolle
!P.
Greenhill Books
This edition of Arms and Armour ofthe Crusading Era, 1050-1350 first published 1999 by
Greenhill Books, Lionel Leventhal Limited, Park House, I Russell Gardens, London
NW119NN.
and
Stackpole Books, 5067 Ritter Road, Mechanicsburg, PA 17055, USA
David C. Nicolle, 1988, 1999
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or
otherwise without first seeking the written permission of the Publisher.
Publishing History
Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era was originally published with text and illustration,
in separate volumes (Kraus International Publications, New York, 1988). This ne~.
revised and upd1ted edition contains text and illustrations integrated in two volume~
of which this is the first.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn
Contents
Preface
Introduction
Author's Note
Acknowledgements
7
9
11
13
Maps
A: Christendom ~d its neighbours, mid-llth century
B: Christendom and its neighbours, c.1200
C: Christendom and its neighbours, mid-14th century
16
17
18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Northern France
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Southern France
Aragon, Navarre and Catalonia
Leon and Castile
Portugal
The Empire - Germany
The Empire - Bohemia
The Empire - Aries
The Empire - Italy
Southern Italy and Sicily
The Crusader States
The Western Balkans
Hungary
Poland
Scandinavia
The Baltic Peoples
Figures
Dictionary of Terms
Bibliographies
Index
19
45
93
99
Ill
125
143
163
167
203
207
213
247
273
293
301
325
339
353
359
539
579
623
Preface
This new work is based upon many years of academic study. It forms a
reshaped, reorganised and corrected version of my earlier Arms & Armour of
the Crusading Era, 1050-1350, originally published in a limited edition in 1988.
The most obvious change has been to divide the subject into two parts by
culture or civilisation rather than having all the text in one volume and all
the illustrations in another, as in the earlier work. Hopefully this will enable
readers interested in only one of the civilisatiol_ls to purchase just the volume
they require.
Where the illustrations themselves are concerned, some have been
redrawn because better sources have become available. Most obviously,
however, several oversized pictures which characterised the first edition have
now been reduced to average dimensions. Similarly, a smaller number of tiny
pictures have been enlarged. In both cases this has been possible because I now
have access to more sophisticated equipment than was available in Yarmouk
University, Jordan, where I worked during the writing of the first edition.
Finally, a section on China and the Far East has been added to the second
book. This is for the simple reason that, since writing the first edition, I have
become increasingly convinced that many aspects of military technology seen
in the Middle East, Eastern Europe and even Western Europe either had their
origins in China or were strongly influenced by developments in Chinese arms
and armour.
Introduction
European arms, armour and military technology have been studied for many
years in many countries. All too often, however, such studies have focused upon
one 'nation'' even when'. that nation did not exist in medieval times, or have
assumed too great a degree of uniformity across the whole of western
Christendom. The serious study of Byzantine, Islamic, Central Asian, Indian
and Far Eastern arms has be~n,a more recent phenomenon but is already
suffering from the same parochialism or oversimplification. Nevertheless, it is
becoming increasingly obvious that while there was considerable regional
variation within each -of the great religiously based civilisations of what
Europeans call the Middle Ages, there were also varying degrees of stylistic,
technological or fashionable influence spreading from one civilisation to
. (iriother. This seems to have been particularly true of the period under review,
whiCh. may seem surprising given the fact that this has been characterised as an
era of distinct and separate regions. Such varied influences are perhaps more
obvious in the early mec1ieval p~riod (5th to 1Oth centuries), when Byzantim
was the main stylistic leader in I?urope, than in the Crusading era ( 11 th to l 4th
centuries) which is the subject of this book. On the other hand the 11 th to l 4th
centuries saw the emerg~nce or'greater regional variation across Europe, <ind
indeed Christendom as.. a whol~. Furthermore, such variation reflected bpth
local developments and. the influence
of neighbouring regions, particularly
..
when the latter did not themselves fall within the medieval.Christian world.
One P<?int which will, I hope, become clear is that no single culture or
people had a monopoly of technological innovation or even of leadership in
fashion. Of course, some peoples had more influence than others, while others
were largely the receivers of influence or remained wedded to archaic forms
suited to their own military situations. Yet the very fact that the three great
cultural blocs of European Christendom, Islam and Turco-Mongol Central
Asia came into such violent and widespread contact during the 'Crusading'
centuries makes the history of the arms and armour of this period particularly
interesting. In turn the study of military technology can throw a useful light on
other aspects of a warlike period. In Western Europe the 13th and l4th
centuries saw the first phases in the reintroduction of plate armour for body
and limbs. Plate armour and its associated technology had, of course, never
dropped out of use where the m.anufacture of helmets was concerned. This fact
alone casts doubt on a widely accepted view that the disappearance of plate
body-armour during the lateRoman and early medieval periods, and its
10
INTRODUCTION
l. R.P. Lindner, 'The Impact ofth~ West on Comnenian Anatolia', in XVI lnternationaler
Byzantinistenkongress, Akten (Vier~na, 1982).
Author's Note
The main purpose of this book is to present information in as readily accessible
a manner as possible. Such information falls into three main categories: the
illustrations themselves; the dictionary of terms; and the bibliography.
The illustrations consist of archaeological, pictorial or other representational evidence. These are combined so as to assist comparison, and are
grouped into the main geographical and cultural zones of medieval western
Europe. But the order in which these are presented remains an unsatisfactory
compromise. There is little reason why northern France should come first,
except that it was seen as the 'fountainhead of chivalry' at the time, while
England comes next for the simple reason that it was a cultural colony of
France. Similarly, the division of the Balkans into two regions, Western and
Eastern, is somewhat arbitrary. Essentially this part of south-western Europe
was a region of cultural competition between Latin-Catholic. western
Christendom, and Byzantine-Orthodox eastern Christendom. Nevertheless,
my division of the area into Western and Eastern geographical units remains
rather unsatisfactory, particularly as this also divides the Balkans between the
first and second books.
Within each region the material is generally presented in chronological
order. Brief introductory sections describe the region's historical, military and
technological circumstances in a very general manner. The following text then
endeavours both to describe the archaeological or pictorial evidence and to put
it into context. While there is some cross-referencing between items, the reader
is recommended to rely on the comprehensive' general index for this purpose.
The second main category consists of terminology. This is an enormous
but very unevenly studied subject. Some languages, such as Middle English
and Old French, have received considerable attention for many years. Others,
such as Occitan, remain relatively neglected. Of course, the precise meanings
of much medieval technical terminology remains unclear or even unknown.
This book hopes merely to suggest some solutions and to present a great many
problems. It cannot claim to be an even-handed survey but is intended to
juxtapose as many relevant terms as possible in the hope that specialised
scholars may note certain interesting linguistic connections, as well as become
more aware of both the problems and the potential of comparative
terminology.
The third main section is bibliographical. No bibliography on this
enormous subject can claim to be comprehensive, but this work is designed to
12 AuTHOR'sNoTE
Acknowledgements
My thanks arc due to a great number of people who helped and encouraged me
during the long preparation of this book, both in its first and second editions.
Some directed me to sources, made information available, helped in travel and
field research or with translations. Any errors in the latter, as in other aspects of
the book, remain entirely my own. Nevertheless, I feel bound to offer my
particular thanks to the following individuals and libraries: Dr Abdelhadi Tazi
(University of Mohammed V, Rabat), Dr M.I. Al Hindi (Damascus), Dr N.
Atasoy (Istanbul University), Dr A.S. Atiya (University of Utah), Mr D.S.
Begley (Chief Herald, Dublin), Dr J.H. Beeler (Greenboro), Mr Borosy
Andras (Budapest), Dr P.E. Chevedden (Salem State College), Dr A.B. de
Hoffmeyer (Jarandilla), Dr L. Der Manuelian (Tufts University, Medford),
Mrs Ludmila Eltsov (St Petersburg), Dr G. Fehervari (London), Dr M.
Gorelik (Moscow), Mrs V. Gyenes (School of Slavonic Studies, London
University), Dr A. Halpin (Dublin), Mr H. Harke (Hameln), Mrs Dalujones
(London), Dr T. Kolias (lonnina University), Dr Y. Lev (Bar-llan
University), Prof R. Lindner (University of Michigan), Prof A. Nadolski
(Lodz), Dr J.A. Nelson (University of Alabama), Dr H. Nickel (New York),
Mrs C.A. Nicolle (always at my side), Mr M.P. Nicolle (London), Mr A.V.B.
Norman (London), 11r R.A. Olsen (Kobenhavn), Mr P-R. Royer (Paris),
Prof E. Rynne (University College, Galway), Dr M. Scalini (Florence), Prof.
G. Scanlon (American University, Cairo), Mr J.K. Schwarzer II (North
Carolina), Dr V. Simoniti (Ljubljana University), Dr J. Smith (University of
California, Berkeley), Dr J.F. Verbruggep ,{Vilvoorde), Mrs H.M. Zijistra
Zweens (Paterswolde), Yarmouk University Library (Irbid), Nottingham
University Library, and Finchley Central Library (Barnet, London).
Finally I want to offer special thanks to Mr Lionel Leventhal, not only for
encouraging me to prepare this second edition but also for 'clearing the way' so
that it became practical for me to do so.
Maps
A: Christendom and its neighbours mid-11 th century
B: Europe and its neighbours c.1200
C: Christendom and its neighbours mid-l 4th century
Greenland
Tung us
-=
Inuit
.Wetarn
~Stttement
Markland?
a
Lapp
Iceland
Samoyeda
Algonklan tribes
4
Eastern
Settlement
:" Kl ngdom of
:-'- ,.
;'\:f
the Isles
. , ..1
I
h> ,
\ ... -~
.-.J Norway ;
... 5
... _....
..
-~
Denmark
England
Ireland
~\nf\.,.-
Q,..
-va
'lill"A
.. ,
~~\&
\ Pol-..........,...
' '-.. , ltf>cl \
.....---. :_~ 2
...,,..
Ser._ -
_.
Andalualan amtratea
,,. 1
-~
.
~a
~'&
.,
..
...~
.. ..... _.,....
...
'-.. G hina
-. ..... .. ... ..
- ..
Tekrur
11
NEIGHBOURS
MID 11th CENTURY
..............
...,.
... .
Kanem-Bornu
''
..
.. ...--
."
.,.,
~ _ .......
"'--.
.." .
..
'
....
'IJb
~ .
... ...... ~
~~
'oman
'
,...........-.
'
_...
- ---
'
- "' states
Indian
-- ..
.-..,
.\
.
~~ v .,
IT
~\.~\O
'~
.~J
~
0
t: 1 Ganda
Rwanda
~.
Zanj
lJ
...~~.
"'~Yemen
4!)
.,
-~-~1
...... .........
.....
'
\.
' -.=....
,,;(.
:... Qllaznawf ds
.. .,
Tibet
'
...
'
..
"
. I
.
..
..
~
.....
,...... .... .'
... ~--:'\ .
-....
~
Ulgura
\
.,.
. .~ .... . ..... .. . .. .. -. . .... ..
::::i
..... .
l'l..
~ ,..
'-: Alwa ~
,
\
.
... !).. .
.......
'~ ~.,~
--
,/'
..
...'-.... . . .
..., .,_
--~IA&.:-.
.
.
,,
Saljuks
8,~
.,.<' ...'. Q~
..
~lq8
,/'
..c::Oara-K.hl ta y
--~,.~~
\l
,i . . ' ..................
_
". ~4.''aa
~
~.",.'
,.
..\
~"'"'
Hause
.-
. ...
. \...
.. "
,
,--,...-~,J<
( Arab '\ '-.5' _
.
.... ,
~
Kimak a
..... , ..
KlrQ!:lJz
Baa bglrts
~uzz
(\
".
\ _)_:
! /
../
...'.....
..........
7\
.
'
Mossl
:Bulgara .
./
.i
..'
.......
amlratas .! '....
<;;;
..Muriblta
.. ... .
-........;
8y~nt1'i:,;;
I!!>
"
Vol ga
..
/ / S' / ,.~
~-
.1
<...,
d
._,..,_,. ..
..
"'
"
' i . F-a,l m I s
-.............
,,,.
..
..
".".,,.rf
c:ta.
~
..
'._..,.
....
~a.(v-...~
~.
' ...
~.
..
~.
',
"" .. .
.'
.
.
-
.
.,.
,.~
'
'' ''.
-~
, 1 _, :I
. b :
-.,
{ \
\
gJf;I>
_,.
..
Slblr
,>
, .. -
..:
tUs
'l
\:
..~'
Spanish Kl ngdo ma -:t,....r
...
~l.._(
-- -.... t. .
tr .P. . . u1'0.. 8
...-\
<' ~~
... _ ..
""
. t_ --1 ~\e-.a
~ --- - ~ (..
--.
fb6''-" ~--
.
; ....
Chud
A-
.. o
~ ~... .
Scottand
Vlnland?
&
~ucara\ns
ct(J
Cho fas
Saylan
\
\
11~,,,.;
- . .............. .
I
(
'.
'c
.,
., .
"
.\
...-~
.
.....
.....
,.
'
'
......
..... .,,
- ... ._._
. .-
:.
:I
..
-.-c
"" --------......
..
'
--c
.. --
..... --
.......__
"- .....
'\
.,
.
.
.....
...
- -
.,,,-'
'
_,,,,..
CG
t1
'
ID
"
..
..
.. ... .
..
..
co
~
Q~
\. -0 :iea
.......> m
... ,
>
:e
-
....
...
. ..
'O
,,.
. (0
..
-0..
----,
~ l ..
._ .,.,,.
..
.
--
.
.
.
. '-
''
t I
-,,
,,,
.
.
-
- / e
~~.
'
L.
"
'
.......:.
..
..
..
"'-..E
___,
..
-.,,
G>
.,.-
CU
(.)
" ..
>-
" .
.
.
....
.,,,,..
........
,.... to (
....-..d)..
............
-/,.
.. ....._.....
....
..... . . .
'
. I
ID
0
,..
-...
-w u
.. '
%0
o~
... ... .
S<
mo
'
z a: c
c
en
'E0
ea
'
:-.,
..
~
-
s:
....
CD
...... ........
...
... ...
.,,, .,.-~...
l'
...
'
--"'\
c
f!
-..
\.
--
. ........... ....-........
-~
.....
,_
........
"ii;~~,."'
.,
--..,
. ,"'--;j~;.ZeJ!Mif)i
lllf _
.. .,. ..
. ,
0 ..-... ..-,,.
I
.....
i ~
\\ cl>
a:
..: ...
CU
0.
ea
...,\,~
t :J
"O
.....
:.
--.,,
.,
-""'
't)
...
.,
.... . .. . - 1....
. - t.'
.
.
l_
,
e:
0 ,.:
.
I I I o
...,
\
...
'
.... ..
...
Iceland (to
~Denmark 1360)
Greenland aettlement~
(In decline)
,'lij----
.@
_ ...
Norway
'... ,,.#'
,....
'"
..
~'(\ - .r-- . ../.\~
.......
!--........
:..........(\ .. .
'
... ~ .. ..Jr" " \
<fjQ
\~~~~~~~::;r(
.
.
~~
"
''.~~::
\ "a ~
,
Madi era
<!!>
<\
....
'
....
Darfur
''""- --
I T"""Juqs
. ;,,,,,.."
_,,,,.---
..
.. ' '""':.
~~~.J
~. '/\:'>~" : . ' o"
a..'6
\.
.....
Kanem-Bornu
~~
\,, __ ~//
~
~
,,.. crff
Chapter I
Northern France
The frontiers of northern and eastern France during the medieval period were
very different from those seen today. For example, in the mid-11 th century the
County of Flanders, in what is now western Belgium, formed part of the
Kingdom of France, whereas Brabant and Hainault to the east, also today
forming part of Belgium, then lay within the German Empire. Champagne
was within France, though rarely under the control of the French Crown,
',whereas Alsace and Upper Lotharingia (Lorraine) lay within the Empire.
The Duchy of Burgundy around Dijon was part of France whereas the County
of Burgundy around Besan~on again lay within the Empire. To the south
almost all territory east of the rivers Saone and Rhone formed part of the
Empire, while even some districts west of these rivers remained Imperial
territory. Little, however, changed along these north-eastern frontiers and the
French monarchy's gradual push towards the Rhine had hardly begun by the
mid-l 4th century.
Northern France was also by no means culturally nor militarily
homogeneous during this period. Brittany was, of course, still largely Celtic in
language and preserved its distinctive military customs well into the late 12th
century. In the I Ith century Normandy still differed from the rest of the
country in certain military matters, though,:the Normans had by and large
learned their extraordinarily successful military techniques from the French.
Most distinctive of all were the Flemings; a large proportion of whom spoke
Flemish (Dutch) and could not really be described as Frenchmen at all.
Infantry also played a much more prominent role amongst them than they
did elsewhere in France.
Although northern France was the main source of Western European
military styles during the medieval period, this was in terms of fashions rather
than technological or tactical innovation. From the 9th to 11 th centuries there
had been a steady decline in the importance of poorer vassals serving either as
infantry or unarmoured cavalry. The term milites now came to refer
specifically to a horseman, usually with armour, 1 and this was part of a general
process of military specialisation which became even more noticeable in the
12th century. These centuries similarly saw a general rise in the power of
20
NORTHERN FRANCE
government, though at a regional rather than national level and being more
noticeable in some areas rather than others. 2 The richer and more powerful
Counts or Dukes made less use of a general levy or arriere ban of all men owing
military service, this being yet another indication of growing military
specialisation. 3 Nevertheless very large armies, including regional levies, were
sometimes seen in the l 2th century. 4 However, towns did not as yet have much
5
military significance either as sources of troops or as centres of defence. The
'Peace of God' movement and its regional variations were found in northern
France as they were in the south. By limiting the extent of warfare they again
contributed to the professionalisation of the warrior class. 6
By the end of the 11 th century full military equipment, particularly for a
cavalryman, had become very expensive, and its proper use demanded
considerable skill. Men trained as units rather than individuals, while tactics
demanded ever more command and control as well as professionalism. 7 The
'feigned retreat' was now an accepted tactic, at least among the Normans and
Bretons. The latter may, in fact, never have abandoned it since late Roman
times. 8 The development of the 'couched lance' technique with its associated
high saddle, straight-legged riding position, very long shield and close
formation 'shock' tactics, might be the most noticeable Western European
military development of the fate l lth and l 2th centuries, 9 but heavier and
longer swords probably remained the most important weapons, particularly
amongst cavalry. 10 On the other hand the origins of the couched lance tactic
and its associated conrois closely-packed cavalry formation remain a matter of
debate. While they are widely assumed to have originated in l lth century
Western Europe, evidence for their use in I Oth century Byzantium is
convincing, while there is also evidence for their use in 9th century Middle
Eastern Islamic armies.
Archery similarly increased in importance, though again more so in some
areas than in others, Normandy having claim to some precedence in infantry
archery. I I In France, as in most parts ofWestern Europe, the crossbow would
have a bigger military impact than the hand-held bow from the l 2th to early
l 4th centuries. I 2 The importance of crossbowmen is indicated by the
emergence of crossbow-armed mounted infantry from the late l 2th century
onwards. I 3 Such men were largely professionals, and the first known 'Grand
:Master of Crossbowmen' in France was recorded in 1230. 14 Furthermore, the
crossbow was largely responsible for the reintroduction of plate armour in late
13th and early 14th century Europe.
The process of specialisation was yet more pronounced in the l 2th and
13th centuries. A decline in feudal-military service among those members of
the knightly class who did not take up the profession of arms accompanied an
increasing employment of mercenaries by the King and his leading barons. IS
The forces maintained by the King ofFrance on the Norman border in 1202-3
may be taken as a reasonably typical small professional army of this period.
NORTHERN FRANCE
21
16
mercenaries.
Flanders remained a major source of mercenary troops, both cavalry and
infantry, well into the l 4th century. Many now came from the cities, which
were also developing their own effective guild-based militia systems. 1 7
Elsewhere in France other towns were growing in importance, both as centres
of military organisation and defence, and as sources of military manpower. 18
Infantry continued to play a vital role during the first part of the 14th century,
though subsequently declining once again. They included javelin-armed light
infantry known as bidauts, who seem to have operated in close co-operation
with the cavalry. 19 Gunpowder firearms similarly made their first appearance
in French hands in 1338, and were often mentioned in the 1340s. 20
Note that items which have not been specifically linked to southern France
are also included in this section on northern France.
22
NORTHERN FRANCE
Figures
1 Gospel, Duchy of Brittany late lOth/llth centuries
(Bib. Munic., Ms. 8 f.5v, Boulogne, France)
The figure shown here has a great deal in common with those in the
Bayeux Tapestry, which makes an 11 th-century date likely for this
manuscript. The shield is, nevertheless, an early example of the large
kite-shaped type.
FIGURES
l-9A-D 23
24
NORTHERN FRANCE.
1120-5
(in situ central tympanum, Church of La Madeleine,
Vezelay, France)
c.1120-30
(in situ Cathedral, Autun, France)
Joseph's weapon appears to be another example of a large, singleedged blade mounted on a short thick haft. Such a weapon could have
evolved out of the single-edged, but long-hafted, so-called 'warscythe' and may in turn have evolved into the l 3th-century falchion.
FIGURES
IOA-G-16A-C 25
26
NORTHERN FRANCE
sleeved mail hauberk, a conical helmet sometimes with a forwardangled crown (A), a broad tapering sword and a long kite-shaped
shield held by enarmes (B).The long-hafted 'Danish' war-axe was still
in use, mostly in England, Germany and Scandinavia. Its inclusion
here could indicate that this manuscript was made in eastern France
or in the Kingdom of Arles.
'
FIGURES
17-23A-T 27
28
NORTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
24-28A-M 29
30
NORTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
29A-J-33A-B 31
32
NORTHERN FRANCE
c.1220
(Archaeological Museum, Le Mans, France)
Although a crude and early effigy, it displays a number of interesting
features. The most unusual is the flat-topped but still apparently
segmented helmet. This lacks both face-mask and nasal, though a
remarkably early example of the nose-covering mail flap or bretache
may hang from the man's chin. The round objects apparently on his
shoulders are, in fact, censers swung by attendant angels. Raoul de
Beaumon~ wears a long-sleeved mail hauberk with a coif and mail
chausses, and has a large flat-topped kite-shaped shield hanging from
a guige, and a sword hanging at a peculiar angle across his groin.
FIGURES
34-42A-B 33
1300
(in situ inside west front of Cathedral, Reims, France)
This figure is believed to represent the King of Sodom alongside
Abraham and Melchizadek, the priest-king of Salem following the
defeat of Chedorlaomer (XIV Gen. 12-24). The king is dressed in
one of the finest and most elaborate versions of fanciful armour in
l 3th-century French sculpture. Various features may reflect reports
by soldiers returning from Spain or the eastern Mediterranean, or the
influence of booty and souvenirs brought back by such men. The
fluted helmet and the decoration of the round shield, as well as the
waist sash, could be examples of this influence.
34
NORTHERN FRANCE
carvings. Both seem to have unnaturally short quillons but this might
be a result of inadequate stone carving skills. The sword of Richard I
has straight quillons, a grip with vertical decorations or anti-slip
devices and a small octagonal pommel. The sword of Henry I I has a
diamond-shaped pommel and short down-turned quillons. One is
tempted to see Spanish influence in this latter sword and it should be
remembered that Henry was also Duke of Gascony as well as suzerain
of the Viscounty oJBearn-Soule in the Pyrenees.
FIGURES
43A-D-49A-AT 35
36
NORTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
46-49A-AT 37
38
NORTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
50A-C-6 l A-C 39
'
'
40
NORTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
62-72A-D 41
42
NORTHERN FRANCE
helms but could also be a form midway between agreat helm and a large
bascinet, both of which could have large flat visors.
FIGURES 73-79 43
Notes. ,
1. J.F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (Oxford,
1977), p.25; P. Van Luyn, 'Les Milites dans la France du Xie Siecle', Le Mayen Age
'
.;. '
44
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
NORTHERN FRANCE
Annales: Economies, Sociitis, Civilizations vol. XIX ( 1964), p.839;].F. Verbruggen, 'La
Tactique Militaire des Armees de Chevaliers', Revue du Nord vol.XXIX (1947),
pp.161-5, 168-9, 172 and 175-80; Van Luyn, op.cit. pp.29-30;]. Bradbury, 'Battles
in England and Normandy, 1066-1154', Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies,
Proceedings vol. VI ( 1983), pp.8-12.
B.S. Bachrach, 'The Feigned Retreat at Hastings', Medieval Studies vol.XXXIII
(1971), pp.346-7; B.S. Bachrach, 'The Origins of Armorican Chivalry', Technology
and Culture vol.X ( 1969), pp.166-70; M .J. Swanton, The Spear In Anglo-Saxon Times
(Ph.D. thesis, Durham University, 1962), p.633.
R.A. Brown, 'The Battle of Hastings', Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies,
Proceedings vol. III ( 1980), p.12; Swanton, op.cit. p.625.
Brown, The Normans and the Norman Conquest, op.cit. p.169.
Swanton, op.cit. p.570.
Verbruggen, 'L' Art Militaire', op.cit. pp.398 and 408-9.
Contamine, op.cit. p.1165; J. Alm, 'Europeiska Armborst: En Oversickt', Vaabenhistorisk Aarboger v /b ( 194 7), p.126.
C. Bosson, 'L'Arbale.te', Les MuseesdeGeneve (February 1956), p.2.
J .R. Strayer, 'Knight Service in Normandy in the Thirteenth Century', in Anniversary
Papers in Medieval History by Students of Charles Homer Haskins (Boston and New York,
1929), pp.315 and 320; Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare, op.cit. p.25,J. Beeler, Warfare
in Feudal Europe, 730-1200 (Ithaca, 1971), p.42.
Verbruggen, TheArtofWarfare, op.cit. p.142.
W.J. Smith, Aspects of Military Organization in England under King John (M.A. thesis,
University College of North Wales, 1951), pp.22-6; Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare,
op.cit. pp.129, 132, 147 and 159-61;].F. Verbruggen, 'De Goedendag', Militaria
Belgica vol. III (1977), p.65;J.F. Verbruggen, 'De Ikonografie', in De Kist van Oxford
(reprint from De Leiegouw vol.XXII, Kortrijk, 1980, pp.163-256), pp.205-7.
Contamine, op.cit. pp.183-4.
Contamine, op.cit. pp.250-1; Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare, op.cit. p.168.
Contamine, op.cit. p.261.
Chapter 2
46
47
48
Figures
80 Sword from Windsor, Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Norman,
10th-12th centuries
(British Museum inv. 1929.2-6, London, England)
This very corroded sword still has slightly-curved quillons. On the top
of these lies a decorative plate of some less corroded material which
originally acted as a washer between the presumed wood of the grip
and the quillons themselves.
centuries
(after Swanton)
An earlier form provides a contrast to the previous example. Its blade
is flatter, broader, and has a much less substantial socket. Such
weapons would clearly not be so effective against an armoured foe.
They could also have been used laterally to provide a sweeping cut
as well as a penetrating thrust.
FIGURES
80-90 49
centuries
(University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, inv.
34.971, Cambridge, England)
Such a spear is a further development of the narrow type, with a thick,
almost diamond-section blade and a long, strong socket. This weapon
would seem suitable for cavalry warfare against armoured foes.
50
centuries
(Museum and Art Gallery, inv. 236.62, Reading, England).
An early version of a spear with wings or lugs beneath the blade. Such
a style was common throughout Europe and around the
Mediterranean. The example from Reading has a longer, broader
and relatively slender blade with a short socket, which either
indicates that it is early or that armour was not particularly common
in the area where it was used.
centuries
(after Swanton)
Clearly this weapon, with its decorative strengthening bands around
the base of its blade, is within a long Anglo-Saxon tradition, but it is
also a more substantial weapon. This probably indicates a later date,
which in turn suggests a large degree of continuity between some of
the weapons of the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman periods.
llth century
(in situ tympanum of the Minster, Southwell, England)
Here the Archangel carries a small round buckler with a pronounced
boss and a broad sword with down-turned quillons.
FIGURES
91-97A-AQ. 51
52
of ways, including the couched style (AD and AJ) on horseback and
overarm on foot (X and AN). Some have gonfanon pennons (B, AD
and AF) which should not be confused with a leader's banner (AB, Y
and AH). The latter are shown, perhaps inaccurately, as roughly the
same size as gonfanons.J avelins are, contrary to some opinions, present
but only in the hands of Anglo-Saxon infantry (AC). Swords are
straight and broad with straight quillons and round pommels. Some
have their hilts emerging through a slit in the mail hauberk (B).Others
are more or less clearly worn on a belt over a tunic and sometimes,
though not always very clearly, outside the hauberk (M, Y, AC, AE,
AF, AL and AM). Swords are also shown in their scabbards but
unbelted (N and 0). Another interesting example has a stored
weapon with a loop around its pommel (AA). The fearsome 'Danish'
axe of the Anglo-Saxons is frequently shown (H, AM and AN), once
even in the handsofaNormannobleman (L). Such weapons are quite
distinct from the long-bladed, short-hafted work-axes ofcarpenters U
and K). Maces appear only rarely, once a knob bed or flanged variety
in the hands of a senior Norman (AP) and also being thrown by
Anglo-Saxons at the Normans (F). Maces of Mediterranean form
could well have reached Normandy from Norman Italy and Sicily,
but the supposed Anglo-Saxon maces are harder to explain. The type
appears again in the hands of fleeing Anglo-Saxons at the very end of
the Tapestry (W). Its form recalls small-headed bronze maces of
eastern Europe and the Baltic region. Such a weapon probably
reached England via Scandinavia. The wooden club or baculus (G, S
and AG) must not be confused with a mace. It was almost certainly
not a weapon, as it is inconceivable that the most senior figures in the
Norman army chose to arm themselves with a wooden cudgel, but
may have been a symbolic weapon or staff of office, perhaps
descended from a pagan symbol used by the Normans' Norse
forebears. Most shields in the Bayeux Tapestry are kite-shaped,
including many of those carrie,d by the Anglo-Saxons' armoured elite
or huscarls (AC, AL, AM, Al'{ and X). This does not necessarily
indicate that these armoured Anglo-Saxons were dismounted
cavalry, since the large kite-shaped shield may have originated in
the eastern Mediterranean as an infantry protection. The Normans
all use such shields (I, AE and AJ), many of which are shown from
the inside exposing a variety of enarmes and guiges (F, P-R, Z, AD
and AK). Such a variety of straps also accounted for the varied
patterns of rivets shown on the outside of shields. It is interesting to
note that many kite-shaped cavalry shields do not seem to be
supported by guiges, perhaps suggesting that the couched lance and
all the pieces of equipment and harness associated with it, were still
in the process of adoption. Other shields include larger round and
considerably convex types (E, Y and AI) and an almost rectangular
shield being used by an 'aged', bearded Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Dane
FIGURES
97 A-AQ 53
(H). Such a shield could indicate contact with, or service in, eastern
Europe or Russia. Helmets are, by and large, straightforward. Most
are tall conical types with long and apparently broad nasals. Many
have a segmented appearance with a broad band around the rim.
This points to a spangenhelm construction (A-B, D, U, V, Af., AJ-AL
and AQ). Others have a vertical division but no band (G and AC),
while one (G) has an apparent button or ring on top. Such helmets
could be of the directly riveted segmented type popular in eastern
Europe, but are just as likely to represent helmets painted in various
colours. Some are of one piece with a broad brow-band (I, X, Y, AB,
AG, AH, AM, AN and AP), while others lack the brow-band (E, F
and AI). One such (F) seems to be a precocious example of a helmet
with a forward-angled crown. Such a helmet is not normally seen in
England until the l 2th century. Another helmet appears to be round
(V). A few senior Normans wear mail chausses which either go inside
their shoes or are an early type that does not include protection for the
foot (AF-AH, AP and AQ). Comparable arm defences are rarer (AG
and AH). These might indicate a second, long-sleeved mail hauberk
being worn beneath the first, but given the fact that long-sleeved
hauberks are otherwise not shown this seems unlikely. Separate mail
sleeves are perhaps a transitional form of armour that was worn
before a general adoption of long-sleeved hauberks in north-western
Europe. As to the hauberks themselves, these have been the subject of
more controversy than any other piece of military equipment in the
Bayeux Tapestry. The varied surface patterns have been explained as
the seamstresses' experimenting to find the most suitable way of
representing mail, but if so they could be expected to have been
concentrated at the start of the Tapestry. Some variations might be
explained in this way (A, B, L, T, AD or AF), all of which almost
certainly indicate mail. But this still leaves one other very distinctive
variation (G and S). In both cases the pattern is not only different but
the multiple colouring is quite disfol'ctive. Also note that on one figure
(G) the neck and back of the head are given the same stylised mail as
most other men in ordinary hauberks. The second example (S) wears a
long-sleeved garment. One of these figures represents Bishop Odo of
Bayeux, who was probably responsible for the Tapestry's
manufacture. Perhaps the fact that he has been distinguished in this
way suggests specific information concerning the Bishop's costume at
the Battle of Hastings, perhaps provided by Odo himself. Neither of
these distinctive costumes has the rectangular 'chest piece' which will
be discussed below. The most likely interpretation of these two
armours is not a scale hauberk, as has sometimes been suggested, but
ajazerant or jazrain hauberk. These terms are now known to be
European corruptions of the Persian and Arab term ka;:,ag.f!:_and. This
in turn referred to a mail-lined cloth garment, usually with some form
of padding beneath the mail. Such Middle Eastern garments were
54
FIGURES
97A-L-103 55
56
l 4 IGURES 1U4- l l
:>I
'i
58
FIGURES
l l 4-l 23A-D 59
'
60
FIGURES
l 24-l 32A-B 61
the sides to make a rectangular slit or, more probably, cut away all
round the back. Note that the garment also has a slit at the front.
The hauberk is worn over another garment which is similarly cut away
at the back. This is probably a padded or quilted gambeson. The figure
wears mail chausses laced up the back of his legs and around his ankles.
His straight sword has a round pommel and thick straight quillons.
62
FIGURES
133A-C-139A-K 63
may have been round rather than conical. The mail hauberk also
includes mittens.
64
:'!
of the newer small, flat-topped kite-shaped type (B-G and 1-K) with~
one exception (H) which has a round top and an apparent boss. Such
shields tend to push the paintings into the l 3th century. Spears are
used, as well as broad tapering swords with long straight, curved or
down-turned quillons and round pommels. In only one case a large
domed pommel is shown (D).
""'
FIGURES
l 40A-B- l 4 7A-B 65
Long-sleeved mail hauberks are worn beneath the surcoats, one of which
has horizontal heraldic stripes (C).The mittens ofJoshua's hauberk (A
and B) appear to be of a transitional type in which the fingers and
thumbs are unarmoured, protruding through slits in the glove.
66
helmet and nasal. The pattern on his legs indicates fabric, not mail.
No distinction is drawn between Israelites and Philistines except that
a minority of the former still have pointed helmets with forwardangled crowns (B).
FIGURES
148A-B-156A-B 67
of the true great helm. The king's hauberk naturally includes mittens, but
his mail chausses are of the lighter type which do not cover the back of
his legs. His shield, though flat topped, also looks large and old
fashioned.
68
; \~'
'
..;
FIGURES
157-165 69
f;
70
FIGURES
166-173 71
72
FIGURES
174-182 73
74
FIGURES
183A-B-190 75
(.
h::i<:
:;!
tiP nnnPr thP ]pft ::irrn S11rh ~ loo<:P CT~rrnPnt '\AT()llln h~rnlv
76
need a laced opening at the sides, so this little lace could be fastened to
some gambeson or semi-stiff armour worn inside the surcoat. The little
cross on the knight's shoulder could be a purely iconographic symbol
but it does recall the shoulder-mounted ailettes of half a century later.
If it is in any sense realistic, this little cross appears to be mounted on,
or fastened to the shoulders of the man's apparently padded surcoat.
His sword is a typical mid-13th-century weapon, with long straight
quillons and a decorated but essentially round pommel. A complicated
system of straps and laces attaches the belt to the scabbard, which has
a large decorated chape.
FIGURES
191A-C-l97 77
78
FIGURES
l 98A-E-20 I 79
The Chanson d' Aspremont is in the sahie style as seen earlier, but the
armour is slightly more advanced. T,wo great.helms are shown, both of
the round-topped variety. The mail hauberks, chausses and horsearmour are the same. One figure (C) might also have padded cuisses
over his knees: The surcoats stand higher on the shoulders, suggesting
that a padded gambeson or semi-rigid,cuirie might be worn beneath. A
domed helmet that looks like a war:.,,at with a minimal brim is also
seen (A). It has an unexplained knob on top which might be a
carrymg rmg.
80
FIGURES
202A-B-209 81
82
FIGURES
210-215 83
84
FIGURES
2 l 6-223A-M 85
86
movable visor (B).Such helmets may, at least as far as their visors are
concerned, be seen as a transitional stage leading to the later visored
bascinet. Other helmets include a large and almost pointed great helm
with a crest (C), a tall and broad-brimmed chapel defer war-hat of
somewhat Germanic form (D), and many close-fitting cervellieres or
early bascinets (E-G and 1-M). Another figure (D) also has an early
example of a throat-covering barbote. Such a piece of armour would
become popular in various parts of l 5th-century Europe but at this
period seems mostly to have been limited to Italy and the Balkans.
Mail hauberks with mittens and coifs are seen (E, F, H andj-M).
Roundels protect some shoulders (C-G and M) while rectangular
ailettes are seen twice (Hand I). One or two men have roundels at their
elbows (D and E) and tubular arm defences are shown in a somewhat
rudimentary manner (E-G), as are greaves (E, H, Mand K). A series
of small circles might indicate a coat-of-plates worn by a figure without
a surcoat (I). This figure also shields himself with a large round-based
infantry mantle!. Spears are widely used, but another foot soldier also
carries a spiked weapon. with a hook at the back (K).
FIGURES 224A-F-228 87
88
Creke. Ailettes are still present, as is a full mail coif Some garment,
perhaps a cuirie or coat-of-plates, is worn over the long-sleeved mail
hauberk and is visible where the surcoat opens at the groin. Arm
defences over the mail sleeves include roundels for the insides of the
elbows and shoulders, half-tubular rerebrace and vambrace, plus
perhaps domed couters for the elbows. His legs are protected by mail
chausses, some form of cuisses over the thighs and greaves for the shins.
The knee defences are harder to interpret as they look more like closefitting and flexible extensions to the cuisses than rigid metallic poleyns.
Perhaps they are, indeed, of semi-rigid leather but have been
decorated in the same manner as the plate armour for arms and legs.
Note that his sword is suspended in the old-fashioned way with straps,
to a sword-belt that apparently lacks a buckle. Altogether this
monumental brass includes a number of odd features suggesting that
its designer was not fully familiar with the details of armour and its
construction.
c.1350
(in situ church, Elsing, England)
Certain important developments had taken place by the time this
brass was made. The figure shown here is, in fact, one of seven
surviving minor supporting figures, five of whom are armoured
warriors. An eighth figure represents St George. New features
include a bascinet with a hinged visor, this latter being of domed form
with a long extension to protect the throat. Roundels have
disappeared from the elbows to be replaced by small wing-like
extensions to the domed, elbow-covering couters. The mail hauberk
lacks mittens, as the hands would now be protected by plated
FIGURES 229-232 89
Cheshire,c.1335-50
Notes
l. F. Barlow, Edward the Confessor (London, 1970), p.170; M. Powicke, Military
Obligation in Medieval England (Oxford, 1962), pp.2-5; P. Contamine, La Guerre au
MoyenAge (Paris, 1980), p.139.
2.. Powicke, op.cit. p.3.
' '
3. Barlow, op.cit. p.170; R. Glover, 'English Warfa~e in 1066', The English Historical
Review vol.LXVII ( 1952), pp.5-9; M.J. Swanton, The Spear in Anglo-Saxon Times
(Ph.D. thesis, Durham University, 1966), p.572; E. John, 'The End of Anglo-Saxon
England', in The Anglo-Saxons, ed.]. Campbell (London, 1982), p.237.
4. Glover, op.cit. pp.8-9; D.C. Nicolle, Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon Wars (London, 1984),
p.18.
5. Barlow, op.cit. pp.93-4, 175 and 206.
5. J.F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (Oxford,
1977), p.100; Swanton, op.cit. pp.618-20 and 636; W.A. Seaby and P. Woodfield,
'Viking Stirrups from England and their Background', Medieval Archeology vol.XXIV
(1980), pp.87 and 102.
7. Powicke, op.cit. pp.4-7.
~. Powicke, op.cit. pp.8-9 and 18; H.L. Turner, Town Defences in England and Wales
(London, 1971), pp.28-9.
}. Swanton, op.cit. pp.301-2, 328 and 610-12.
90
91
Reformation Effigies of Cheshire' (part two), Transactions ofthe Lancashire and Cheshire
Antiquarian Society, vol. LXI ( 1949), pp.95-8.
I am grateful to Mr C. Thomas of the Institute of Cornish Studies (University of
Exeter) for this information.
Chapter3
Scotland
The Kingdom of Scotland was theoretically under English suzerainty
throughout the period under review. During the late Anglo-Saxon and
Norman era it was also und~~, ~o1:,1Siderable military influence from England.
When, in the late l 3th and early'. 14th centuries, influence and interference
,was succeeded by attempts at direct political control the Scottish Wars of
:;;.Independence began, culminating in England's defeat on the field of
Bannockburn in 1314.
At the same time Scotland had embarked upon a process of cultural,
political and military unification that would not be completed until the 18th
century. The heartland of the kingdom had been the Pictish-Scottish state
which, known as the Kingdom of Alba, dominated Scotland north of a line
between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. This area had subsequently been
divided once again by Scandinavian colonisation of the Western and Northern
Isles plus certain neighbouring coasts. The decline of Anglo-Saxon
Northumbria led to a Scottish conquest of the Lothians and eastern Lowlands
as far south as the present English border by the early 11 th century. The British
or Welsh Kingdom of Strathclyde, with its substantially Scandinavian subkingdom of Galloway, was only drawn into Scotland in 1034. This created an
Anglo-Scottish border which cut through presebt-day Cumbria, far to the
south of the existing frontier. 1 Almost inevitably the centre of the Scottish
kingdom now gravitated southwards towards Edinburgh and Glasgow. The
existing military aristocracies of the Anglo-Saxon ex-Northumbrian eastern,
and the Celtic-Welsh-Scandinavian western Lowlands remained, and they
retained their own military traditions. Scottish monarchs also began a policy
of feudalisation, using late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman institutions as
their model. They even encouraged Normans to settle in Scotland, where these
newcomers eventually had a profound military influence. 2 Nevertheless, 12th
century Scotland was still a deeply divided land, between the Lowlands of the
east and south and the Highlands of the north and west. 3
In the 11 th century the military organisation, tactics and equipment of the
Scottish Lowlands was very like that of northern England, in particular
Northumbria, with cavalry playing a minor role before the year 1000. 4 The
94
SCOTLAND
favoured infantry weapons were axes, 5 swords and spears, though the warriors
of regions such as Galloway remained notably poorly equipped throughout
this era. 6 Despite the emergence of a small feudal armoured elite in the l 2th
to l 4th century, Lowland Scottish warfare still relied primarily on infantry,
armed at first with swords and javelins, and later with long spears or pikes. 7
Unlike the situation in England, where war was now largely the business of
professionals, the Scottish peasantry continued to play an important role,
raiding, booty apd plunder were the prime objectives. 8 Nevertheless, by the
late l 3th and 14th centuries the Scots were using much the same siege engines
as the English, and there had been a moderately widespread adoption of
archery amongst Lowland communities. 9
By contrast, warfare in the Highlands and Islands preserved many archaic
features, though even these changed gradually. War fleets and the need- to find
crews for ships had been fundamental to the military organisation of the old
Scots-Irish Kingdom of Dalriada (present-day Argyll) IO and a feudalised
development of this form of 'ship service' could still be se.en in 12th and l 3th
century western Scotland. I I Generally speaking, Highland warfare remained
a matter of raiding and skirmishing, for both of which lightly-equipped
infantry and a few lightly-armoured cavalry were most suited. Their
equipment generally reflected Viking origins or Scandinavian influence. I 2
Even as late as the l 4th century the arms and armour of the Highlands
remained lighter than that of the Lowlands, which in turn was old-fashioned
when compared to neighbouring England. I 3
FIGURES
233-237 95
Figures
233 War-axe from Caerlaverock, Dum.friesshire, 1050-1100
(Burgh Museum, Dumfries, Scotland)
An excellent example of the early deyelopment of the medieval axe
from the 1Oth and 11 th century 'DaniSh axe'. Here the blade already
has a very slight upwards sweep.
234 Seal of King Alexander I, Scotland, 1107-24
(British Library, Dept. of Seals, London, England)
Here the King of Scotland is equipped in the same style as his English
neighbours except that his armour looks slightly old-fashioned.
Alexander has a large kite-shaped shield, and a conical helmet of
apparent segmented construction with a forward-angled crown and
a nasal. His mail hauberk has long, rather broad sleeves without mittens.
Judging by the line of an apparent shoe around his ankle but well
above his spurs he also lacks mail chausses for his legs.
235 Sword, Scotland, c.1250
(Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, Scotland)
This fine sword of the mid-l 3th century was probably made in
Germany, although so little is known about arms manufacture in
medieval Scotland that it is impossible to say for certain whether or
not top-quality weapons were made there.
236 War-axe from Lumphanan, Aberdeenshire, 12th
century
; ,f
96
SCOTLAND
FIGURES
238A-B-243A-C 97
Notes
I. G.W.S. Barrow, The Kingdom of the Scots (London, 1973), pp.142-4 and 149-54; G.
Menzies, Who are the Scots? (London, 1971), p.85;J.G. Scott, 'An llthcenturyWarAxe in Dumfries Muse um', Transactions ofthe Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History
and Antiquarian Sociery vol.XLIII ( 1966), p.120.
2. Barrow, op.cit. p.161; F. Barlow, The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042-1216 (London,
1961), p.158; F. Barlow, William Rufus (London, 1983), p.317; D.C. Douglas, The
Norman Fate, 1105-1154 (London, 1976), p. 74; W.C. Dickinson, A New History of
Scotland, uol.1: Scotlandfrom the Earliest Times to 1603 (London, 1965), pp.83-91.
98
SCOTLAND
Chapter4
Ireland
In the mid-11 th century Ireland was still recovering from the Viking attacks of
the preceding century. These had a profound effect on the country's military
and political institutions. ln particular they lec;l to some consolidation of royal
authority. Nevertheless, prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion of the later 12th
century Ireland was still divided into five kingdoms, some of which had already
begun to adopt Norman court ceremonial. 1 The Anglo-Norman invasion was
not complete, occupying no more than half of the island. Thereafter a local
Norman-Irish aristocracy evolved within the conquered area while a Gaelic
nobility continued to rule the rest of the country. By 1300 the Norman-Irish
. effectively dominated the island and had come to terms with their Gaelic
opposite numbers, while both recognised the increasingly ineffective
suzerainty of the English Crown.
Traditional Irish warfare had been a relatively restrained affair compared
to conflicts on the mainland of Europe. It largely seems to have consisted of
cattle-raiding and combats between champions. 2 The Viking invasions
changed the character of war and the numbers of people involved but had less
impact on military organisation and technology. The only probable exception
were swords and axes. 3 Archery remained extremely primitive and was
reserved almost entirely for hunting, where fli!lt arrowheads were still used.
'The descendants of the Viking settlers in eastern Ireland may, however, have
made greater use of the bow.
The new military structures established in eastern and southern Ireland in
the latter part of the l 2th century owed much to Anglo-Norman systems, 4
though there was also a substantial Flemish element amongst the invaders
and settlers. These men played a very important military role, both in the
initial conquest and in subsequent wars. 5 Meanwhile Scandinavian influence
could still be seen in Gaelic regions of western Ireland, even after the AngloN orman invasion. 6 Whether these were residual survivals from an earlier
period or reflected continuing contact with the largely Scandinavian regions
of north-western Scotland is unclear.
A form of guerrilla warfare proved to be the most effective defence against
Norman-Irish attack, and here traditional Irish weapons such as the javelin
100
IRELAND
FIGURES
244-246A-D 101
Figures
244 Longbow from Balinderry, Viking or HibernoScandinavian, lOth century i
(after Rausing)
245A-D Spear and javelin heads, Viking or HibernoScandinavian, lOth-1 lth centuries
(National Museum, Dublin, Ireland)
These three relatively light weapons (A, C and D) were almost
certainly javelins; a weapon which remained popular in many Celtic
areas long after largely being abandoned elsewhere in the British
Isles. Such a survival almost certainly reflects a lack of body armour
and even helmets in Ireland.
102
IRELAND
FIGURES
24 7A-B-256 103
centuries
14th centuries
(National Museum, no.Wk.3:F341, Dublin, Ireland)
A large and typical Western European sword, again probably not
made in Ireland. The similarity between its curved quillons and those
on the Movilla carving depicted in fig.256 are clear. Such weapons
should probably be associated with the Anglo-Norman or, by this
date, the Anglo-Irish aristocratic elite, though some may also have
been acquired by the native Gaelic-Irish elite of western Ireland.
255 'Centaur', relief carving, Ireland, 12th century
(in situ Cormac's Chapel, Cash~l, Ireland)
The centaur is shown using an accurately represented simple bow
with the kind of barbed arrow widely used in warfare by Western
European warriors. He also wears a conical helmet with a slightly
forward-angled crown and a substantial nasal. This may be taken as
evidence for the spread of normal \Vestern European military
technology into the previously somewhat isolated world of Gaelic
1 /
Irish arms and armour.
256 Relief carving on a coffin lid, County Down, 12th-13th
centuries
(in situ Movilla, Northern Ireland)
The carvings at Movilla are very simplified but even here some
features can be identified. The blade is straight, with the quillons
distinctly down-curving in l 3th-century European style, while the
pommel seems to be a development of earlier Scandinavian styles
which are believed to have survived for a long time in Ireland. The
weapon looks, in fact, like a mixture of new and traditional
influences.
I 04 I RE LAND
blad~s, have evolve~ alo~g different lines from a?other style o.~.,.1.,'..;
medieval war-axe in which the upwards-sweeping blade was:.
developing a thrusting point.
'"";~
258 War-axe from Derryhollagh, County Antrim, late 13th/c';,
14th centuries
FIGURES
25 7A-B-266 I 05
106
IRELAND
' '
A substantially-made blade, being
diamond-shaped in section. The
socket is similarly almost rectangular, to stop the blade turning on
its haft.
FIGURES
267-278 107
I 08
IRE LAND
This heraldic shield portrays a very simplified sword of a typical l 4thcentury type with a tapering blade and large round pommel.
FIGURES
279-283 l 09
Notes
I. F. Barlow, The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042-1216 (London, 1961 ), p.333; J.F.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Lydon, The Lordship ofIreland in the Middle Ages (Dublin, 1972), p.82.
M. and L. De Paar, Early Christian Ireland (London, 1958), pp. 77-9 and 84-5.
De Paar, op.cit. pp.158-61; G.A. Hayes-McCoy, Irish Battles (London, 1969), p.19; E.
Rynne, 'The Impact of the Vikings on Irish Weapons', in Atti de Vl Congresso
lnternazionale delle Scienze Preistoriche Protostoriche-Roma 1962 (Rome, 1966), p.182.
Lydon, op.cit. pp.83-4; G.H. Orpen, Ireland under the Normans (London, 1911-12),
pp.338-40.
Orpen, op.cit. pp.396-8.
Rynne, op.cit. pp.182-4; E. Rynne, 'An Irish Swo.rd of the 11 th century?' Journal ofthe
Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland vol.VIIC ( 1962), pp.208-9; T.E. McNeill, The
History and Archaeology of the Anglo-Norman Earl(iom of Ulster (Ph.D. thesis, Belfast
University, 1973), p.255.
M.J. Swanton, The Spear in Anglo-Saxon Times (Ph.D. thesis, Durham University,
1962), p.594; P. Contamine, LaGuerreauMoyenAge (Paris, 1980), p.356.
Orpen, op.cit, p.328.
K. Simms, 'Warfare in the Medieval Gaelic Longships', The Irish Sword vol.XII
(1976), p.106.
Hayes-McCoy, op.cit. p.41.
P. Harbison, 'Native Irish Arms and Armour in Medieval Gaelic Literature, 11701600', The lrishSwordvol.XII ( 1976), p.280; Hayes-McCoy, Irish Battles, op.cit. pp.36
and42.
Harbison, op.cit. pp.176-7; Lydon, op.cit. pp.100-l.
Harbison, op.cit. p.281.
Hayes-McCoy, op.cit. pp.40 and 48-9; Harbison, op.cit. p.282; G.A. Hayes-McCoy,
'The Gall6glach Axe', Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society
vol.XVII (1937), pp.103 and 113.
Hayes-McCoy, 'The Gall6glach Axe', loc.cit.; A. Borg, 'Gisarmes and Great Axes',
Journal ofthe Arms and Armour Society vol. VIII ( 1974-6), p.341.
Contamine, op.cit. p.165; C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages
(London, 1924), vol.11, pp.101 and 119; S.J. Burley, 'The Victualling of Calais,
134 7-65', Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research vol.XXXI ( 1958), p.51; J.F.
Lydon, 'The Hobelar: An Irish Contribution to Medieval Warfare', The Irish Sword
vol.11 (1954), pp.13-16.
Chapter 5
Southern France
This region is taken to include all the old Kingdom of France south of the River
Loire and most of what is now known as the French Midi. Regions east of the
Rhone are excluded because they formed part of the Kingdom of Burgundy or
Arles, which will be dealt with as a section of the Empire. The area under
consideration consisted of the enormous Duchy of Aquitaine, the lesser Duchy
of Gascony, and various smaller counties or marquisates. By the mid-1 lth
century these had their own distinctive culture, language (Occitan) and
military traditions.
During the mid- l 2th century almost all this region, except for the County
of Toulouse, fell under the control of the Count of Anjou. Henry Count of
Anjou then became King Henry II of England, as a result of which most of
the Midi soon formed part of a huge Angevin (Anjou) empire spreading from
Scotland to the Spanish border. Perhaps inevitably the French monarchy felt
bound to break this realm, a large part of which was, in feudal-legal terms,
theoretically subject to the French crown. Between 1180 and the outbreak of
the Hundred Years War in 1337, the kings of France succeeded in reducing
southern French territory controlled by English monarchs to the southern
Saintonge and western Gascony. Meanwhile the reduction of'English' control
in northern France was even more dramatic. J .'
Meanwhile southern France, and above all'the County of Toulouse, had
suffered the full effects of the Albigensian Crusade. The Albigensians were a
heretical, partially Manichaen, sect similar to and influenced by the Bogomils
of the Balkans, who had in turn emerged as an offshoot of the Paulicians of
eastern Anatolia. The Albigensians' activities made them the target of a savage
Crusade in the early 13th century, one result of which was to greatly increase
northern French military influence in southern France.
The military styles of the Midi were not fundamentally different from
those of the north. Nevertheless, the extreme fragmentation characteristic of
the southern French feudal system had earlier led to an excess of'private war'
amongst a large and anarchic military class. This in turn prompted an early
development of the 'Peace of God' movement among the non-noble classes. 1
The turbulent milites or knights of the Midi also played a leading role in the
112
SOUTHERN FRANCE
Iberian Reconquista, 2 and many of their own military styles mirrored those of
northern Spain. On the other hand the success of the 'Peace of God' movement
and the diversion of the Midi's military energies southwards seem to have led
to relatively peaceful conditions and a neglect of urban fortifications during the
12th century. 3
Even after the Albigensian Crusade, or perhaps in some ways because ofit,
mercenaries from the French Midi were still widely recorded in the l 3th
century. Amongst the most highly-regarded were Gascon infantry. 4 Bordeaux
may, meanwhile, have grown in importance as a centre of arms production,
and there is plenty of evidence to suggest that southern France, like Italy, was
one of the first regions to adopt new types of sharply-pointed thrusting sword.
These were designed to counter newly-adopted forms of armour such as the
mid- or late 13th-century coat~f-plates. 5
Further militarisation of the Midi was characteristic of the 14th century,
particularly after the outbreak of the Hundred Years War in 1337. This was
most noticeable in the cities, where there was a great expansion of urban
militias and an increase in their military significance. 6 There also seems to have
been some degree of militarisation in rural areas.
FIGURES
284A-D-286A-C 113
Figures
284A-D Carved capitals, County of Toulouse, c.1100
(in situ Cloisters, Abbey of St Peter, Moissac, France)
A-Sacrifice oflsaac; B-St Martin; C-D-Crusaders (?).Once again
a clear distinction is drawn between a general purpose knife (A) and a
sword (B). The down-turned quilions of the latter are early and
suggest Spanish influence in this part of southern France. The placing
of so broad-bfo.ded a spear (C) and a war-axe with a spike at the back
(D) in the hands of Crusaders similarly shows a link with Spain,
where such weapons would in turn probably reflect Arab-Andalusian
influence.
114
SOUTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
287A-B-291A-B 115
helmets with nasals seem to mirror the slightly simpler conical helmets
of northern France (C, E and F). A similar form, though lacking a
nasal, is worn by the unarmoured Horseman of the Apocalypse. Most
mail hauberks have mid-length sleeves and reach only to the upper or
mid-thighs. A very interesting feature of these mail armours is their
integral coifs with ventails across the lower part of the face. All would
be laced at the left temple and are twice shown laced in this manner
(C and E).Elsewhere they hang down from the chin (A, B, F and G),
forming a roughly rectangular shape which probably explains the
square shapes shown below the throats of mail-clad warriors in two
Catalan Bibles and in the Anglo-Norman Bayeux Tapestry. Shields
are basically kite-shaped. Swords are broad and straight with round
(A), qua trefoil (C) and nut-shaped (F) pommels. One is carried
beneath the hauberk with its hilt protruding through a slit in the mail
(A). Another is carried from a knotted sword-belt (F). Two war-axes
are shown, both with half-moon blades (F and G). One has a
substantial spike at the back which makes it closer to the weapon seen
at Moissac and others in Spain. Such a feature was not characteristic
of Northern European weapons at this time. Another figure (G) also
illustrates a substantial but rather mysterious glaive-like hafted
weapon. It has a long, apparently single-edged blade but the haft is
mostly obscured.
'
116
SOUTHERN FRANCE
'. FIGURES
292A-D-298A-B 11 7
118
SOUTHERN FRANCE
verbal reports from the Islamic world or Byzantium. The rest of the
Philistine giant's weaponry is also interesting in its own right. Here
we have a clear and detailed view of the straps on the inside of a kiteshaped shreld, while his short, broad-bladed spear may have some
kind of binding around its lower end to improve the grip.
FIGURES
299A-B-303A-J 119
120
SOUTHERN FRANCE
FIGURES
304-309A-H 121
122
SOUTHERN FRANCE
indicate a later date for the picture. The helmets are pointed (A and
C), and though many are partially obscured by the edge of the
painting, most have nasals (A, C, D and E).Some helmets even have
swept-back crowns.
FIGURES
310-315A-E 123
Notes
1. D. Bates, Normandy before 1066 (London, 1982), pp.52-3.
2. A.R. Lewis, The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718-1050 (Austin,
1965)' pp.382-3.
3. R.P.R. Noel, Town Defences in the French Midi during the Hundred Years War, c.1337-1453
(Ph.D. thesis, Edinburgh University, 1977), pp.231-2.
4. P. Contamine, La Guerre au Moyen Age (Paris, 1980), p.206.
5. A.B. De Hoffmeyer, Arms and Armour in Spain: A Short Survey, vol.11 (Madrid, 1982),
p.73.
6. Noel, op.cit. pp.97, 100-2, 110, 115-19, 132, 143-7, 170-1and176.
Chapter 6
Italy.
In the first half of the 11 th century Catalonia was divided into no less than
eight counties, all theoretically under the FrericH Crown. By the time of the
First Crusade these had largely united to take part in the Reconquista by pushing
south as far as Tortosa in 1148. Thereafter Catalan military history was linked
to that of the Kingdom of Aragon. Generally speaking, all these sub-Pyrenean
states were under increasing southern French military influence from the 11 th
century onwards. 1 Nevertheless, there were clear differences between these
various regions. Navarre, being almost entirely a land of mountains and
valleys and never breaking out into the great plains of central Iberia, remained
an infantry area. 2 Navarresejavelin-armed infantry were, however, highly
regarded, and were employed as mercenaries in many parts of l 2th-century
Western Europe. The same was true of the neighbouring and militarily similar
Basques 3 and Gascons, 4 though the latter often used bows instead of javelins.
Navarrese infantry were still in demand during the 14th century, 5 at which
time the Kingdom of Navarre was itself employing Muslim troops, possibly
126
from the Tudela area and probably serving as light cavalry in the style known
..
6
as a l a)lneta.
In Aragon, light cavalry soon played a major role as the kingdom spread
across the Ebro plain. 7 Meanwhile, most Aragonese mercenaries outside the
Iberian peninsula still seem to have been infantry. 8 The most famous and
characteristic of such Aragonese troops were the almogavers (Arabic almugf{awir, 'raiders'). These light infantrymen specialised in guerrilla warfare
and rapid manoeuvre. 9
Very similar military traditions evolved in Catalonia following a wave of
strong Islamic influence in the lOth century.1 Catalan cavalry still served as
mercenaries in Muslim Murabif forces in th~ early l 2th century, 11 but by the
13th century it was crossbowmen who were the most highly-regarded of
professional Catalan soldiers. 12 The crossbow was, of course, now the main
weapon in Mediterranean naval warfare, a field in which both Catalans and
Arag6nese were becoming expert. 13 Firearms had yet to take to sea, but as
early as 1359 Aragon was using bombards in defence of a harbour. 14
FIGURES
316A-B-319A-B 127
Figures
316A-B Tomb ofDoiia Sancha from the Convent of Santa Cruz
de la Seros, Aragon, mid-12~ century
(Benedictine Convent, Jaca, Spa~)
I
128
which makes it the same as those used with the late-Roman crossbow
and some late l 2th/early l 3th century Middle Eastern crossbows.
'""
. FIGURES
320A-B-322A-M 129
130
l~th/early
12th centuries
12th century
(Museum of Fine Arts, no.28.32, Boston, United States)
This beautifully carved arch may be responsible for one of the greatest
popular fallacies in arms and armour, one that Hollywood continues
to perpetuate despite massive evidence to the contrary. Namely that
the 'ball and chain' was a typical knightly weapon. The doorway from
San Miguel de Uncastillo includes one of a small number of
representations of this device which is here shown in association with
an apparent crowbar (H). Both were probably wall-breaking or
demolition tools rather than weapons. Other true weapons carved on
the doorway are tapering straight swords (B and G), one having
quillons with slightly down-turned tips, a curved knife or dagger (A),
a bull-headed mace (C), two bows of apparently simple construction
FIGURES
323A-E-329A-B 13 l
(E and F), and a spear with a very broad leaf-shaped blade. The
persistence of such broad spearheads may reflect Arab influence and
the use oflight cavalry tactics a lajineta. Similar spears also appear
around the same date on the 'Triumph' arch in Ripoll (next figure).
132
fFIGURES
330A-D-337A-AQ 133
134
[FIGURES
337A-AQ-339A-F 135
interesting form ofjavelin also appJars (R, AL and AM). This clearly
has a grip or lug approximately midway down its haft. A similar but
not identical grip is shown on a spear or javelin in an early l 3thcentury Sicilian source. Other weapons seen in the Bible ofKing Sancho
are a wooden club (AA), a spherical-headed mace (L), two narrowbladed axes with spikes at the back (A and B), and an unclear weapon
or agricultural tool with a curved blade and hook. Since most of these
unusual weapons are seen in the illustration of the Betrayal they
should be treated with some caut~on, as the Betrayal traditionally
incorporated an exotic variety of w~apons in Byzantine, Romanesque
and even Gothic illustrations. If 4ny reality is to be found in such
pictures it is probably that of thd varied, sometimes home-made,
weaponry of a peasant levy despisea by the aristocratic warrior elite.
I
2290~
Paris, France)
136
Boston~
United States)
is
347A-F 'Conquest of Majorca by James I of Aragon', wallpainting, Catalonia, late 13~ ::=entury
(Museo de Artes de Cataluiia, Barcelona, Spain)
A - Islamic flag; B-E - Islamic garrison and army of Majorca; F Arag6nese warriors. Various details indicate that this wall-painting
provides an accurate representation of both Islamic and Christian
troops. The latter is only to be expected but the reliability of the
pictures of the 'Moors' is strongly suggested by the inclusion of the
'Hand of Fatima' as a totemic device on one shield (D) and by the
form of three Islamic flags (A and E) which correspond to surviving
specimens from the l 3th century. In fact, the 'Moors' are more varied
in their equipment than might at first appear. Their shields are round
and small or middle-sized rather than being the expected kidneyshaped adargas. Foot-soldiers are unarmoured and use sword and
buckler (D), staff-sling (C), or spear and buckler (B).The swordarmed cavalry are, however, almost as heavily armoured as their
1329
'
FIGURES
348-354A-E 139
140
'
Notes
1. J. Beeler, Warfare in Feudal Europe, 730-1200 (Ithaca, 1971 ), p.158
2. Beeler, op.cit. p.165.
3. J.F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (Oxford,
1977), pp.119-21; C. Oman, A History of the Art of Warfare in the Middle Ages, vol. I
(London, 1924), p.379.
4. M.J. Swanton, The Spear in Anglo-Saxon Times (Ph.D. thesis, Durham University,
1966), p.570.
5. P. Contamine, La Guerre au MoyanAge (Paris, 1980), p.251.
6. P.F. Russell, The English Intervention in Spain and Portugal in the Time of Edward III and
Richard II (Oxford, 1955), pp.262-4.
7. Beeler, op.cit. p.166; Contamine, op.cit. p.165; Russell, op.cit. pp.128-9.
8. Verbruggen, loc.cit.
FIGURES
355 141
146
developed into the face-mask, which in turn preceded the allenveloping great helm. The shields in this ivory panel (B) include both
an early round-based version of the kite-shaped shield and a small
round buckler.
FIGURES
363A-B 147
Spain seems incongruous and might indicate that the artist was
illustrating a feature that he did not fully understand. Helmets
include conical and perhaps segmented types (L), plus versions with
forward-angled crowns (I and J). (fhis latter style would become
popular throughout much of Europe in the 12th century. Both these
forms of pointed helmet have relatiyely small nasals. A very unusual
third form (C) appears to have an advanced shape, but might be the
product either of the artist's imagination or a confused reference to an
ancient or classical prototype. With the exception of a large wallbreaking crowbar (D) the only weapons are bows (not shown here),
spears and swords. The spears are/:,traightforward if stylised, and
generally have single or doubled ~tanges or wings beneath their
blades. This strongly suggests that ~he couched lance technique was
not yet commonly used in Iberia. 'f;he swords show some interesting
features. All have trilobate or, as in tP.e case of Goliath's weapon, even
more decorative pommels. Such a style was fast going out of fashion in
the rest of Europe. Nebuchadnezzar's sword (K) is shown without
any form of quillons or guard. This might be taken as an artistic error
were it not for the fact that he is illustrated a second time holding
exactly the same kind of weapon. Swords without quillons are seen in
North African and Sicilian sources and even in southern French
representations of Moors.
I
!.
144
armour and combat techniques, though there was less copying of French
military organisation. 8 By the l 3th century heavier armour, helmets and
weapons, the use of the couched lance and some use of horse-armour were very
apparent. 9 As Castilian power grew relative to neighbouring states, so
Castilian military influence spread.
Heavily armoured infantry and the use of the crossbow were another part
of this trend, 10 but the appearance of crossbow-armed cavalry in the l 4th
century and the re-adoption of light cavalry fighting a lajineta reflected the
influence of the small but militarily significant Islamic Andalusian Amirate of
Granada. 11 Nevertheless, Castilian military ?rganisation and general tactical
concepts were regarded as old-fashioned by t~e French and English in the l 4th
century, probably because of the internal nature of Iberian warfare and the
necessity of facing Islamic forces on their OW<n terms.1 2 Perhaps as a result of
this the later l 4th century saw the imitation of Anglo-French systems in
northern or Old Castile.
Military developments on the Iberian peninsula are illustrated in a
number of very important pictorial manqscripts. Although Andalusian
manuscripts are extremely rare, those maqe by the Christian community
under Islamic rule, and by their descendant~I who retained the same artistic
style, are abundant. This com~rmnity and its associated art are known as
Mozarab, meaning 'those who became Aralf or 'Arabised'. Most surviving
Mozarab manuscripts were made within the pow expanding Christian states,
but their artistic style and origins are almost entirely Andalusian. As such they
probably illustrate the traditional military 'technology and costume of the
Iberian peninsula, both Christian and Muslim, before the latter came under
strong Maghribi (North African) influence and the former under even stronger
French influence. Mozarab manuscripts are highly stylised and lack pictorial
detail, but although they are often difficult to interpret they contain a wealth
of information. In addition to the Mozarab manuscripts, those sources not
linked to a specific Christian-Iberian kingdo111'have also been included here.
'
FIGURES
356A-B-358A-B 145
Figures
356A-B Mozarab missal, Castile, lOt----11 th centuries
(Archivo de la Real Academia 4e la Historia, Madrid,
Spain)
;
Though Mozarab manuscripts are bighly stylised and lack pictorial
detail they contain a wealth of info~mation. This particular example
shows a spear-armed, turbaned warrior with baggy trousers but no
apparent armour (A). A second filgure (B) holds a spear of clearly
exaggerated dimensions with 'lugs' projecting from beneath the
blade. He also has a small round shield and a straight, slightly
tapering sword with a trilobate pommel.
Chapter 7
148
FIGURES
364-B-37 l 149
kite-shaped and large round, but there is nothing else to suggest that
one warrior represents a Christian, the other a Muslim.
d,r
!
f
150
FIGURES
372-378A-B 151
152
Ovied~,
Spain)
154
figure (D) has the down-curved rim and neckguard seen elsewhere in
northern Spain. Another (F) appears to be simply a mail cap over
some kind of presumably padded hat. Though rare, such a form of
protection is seen elsewhere in Spain, though not very clearly; also in
France being worn by a Saracen, and in Iran.
FIGURES
388A-G-393 155
bladed spear and carries a straight s~ord, probably from a baldric (C).
The presumed Andalusian infantryman is shown as 'alien' or
'barbarous' by his bare feet (F). Otherwise he is given basically the
same arms and armour as his foe: the scabbard of a tapering sword
hanging from a sword-belt, a flat-t~pped but round-based shield,
and a round helmet with a fixed face-mask, secured by a chin-strap
over a mail coifwhich forms part of a long-sleeved mail hauberk. Three
other swords are also shown, all straight. Two have broad, straight
quillons and rounded pommels (D and ,G), while the third is thrust like
a dagger (H) . It lacks quillons and alsb has no apparent pommel.
1~80-95
156
Mudejar art, the art of the Muslims who continued to live in the
Christian kingdoms after large areas of Islamic al-Andalus had been
conquered, includes a few representations of warriors. This example
may be from Spain or may have been made by Muslims in
Hohenstaufen southern Italy. It shows a huntsman, perhaps in a mail
hauberk, being devoured by a lion. He carries a short, tapering sword
with apparently non-symmetrical quillons.
FIGURES
394-399A-AG 157
158
FIGURES
399A-AG-40 I 159
widespread use of the crossbow, which also appears here (F and X).
These weapons now have regularly curved bows instead of the
recurved outline seen earlier. Two figures who wear the scale cuirass,
this time over a mail hauberk, are a s~ege engineer (Y) and a heavily
armed infantryman (AE). Surcoats with raised and acutely-angled
shoulders (Mand Z) are again seen elsewhere in Europe and almost
certainly indicate considerable padding or even a semi-rigid lining,
perhaps of hardened leather. Horse-armour is illustrated, always with
a rigid chanfron, but both with and without a cloth covering (N, AF
and AG). Swords are straight and generally slightly tapering, with
curved quillons and either round or '~ear-drop'-shaped pommels. The
spears of North African warriors or ~hose riding a lajineta generally
have much larger blades than thjose of the heavily-armoured
horsemen. These large blades alsbI seem to have various, often
multiple protuberances beneath the 91ade itself (V, W, Z and AB).
160
FIGURES
402A-H-407 161
held kite type (E) and a larger flat~topped cavalry shield (D).A
horseman, the Pharaoh, wears a full mail hauberk and rides a
caparisoned horse, while the foot-soldiers have mail coifs or conical
helmets (E).
I
Note$
l
3. Al-'fur!iishi, Mul_iammad Ibn Walid, Siraj al Muluk (Cairo, n.d.), pp.303 and 309,
and Ldmpara de Los Principes, trans. M. Alarcon (Madrid, 1931), pp.321 and 334.
4. Sanchez-Albornoz, op.cit. p.333.
J
5. W.S. Hendrix, 'Military Tactics in the "Poem of the Cid'", Modern Philology vol.XX
(1922), p.46.
6. Lourie, op.cit. p.60; P. Contamine, LaGuerrep.uMoyenAge (Paris, 1980), p.169.
7. J.F. Powers, 'The Origins and Development of Municipal Military Service in the
Le6nese and Castilian Reconquest, 800-1250', Traditio vol.XXVI (1970), pp.91-2,
97 and l09;J.F. Powers, 'Townsmen and Soldiers: The Interaction of Urban and
Military Organization in the Militias of Medieval Castile', Speculum vol. XL VI
(1971), pp.641-5 and 652-4.
8. Beeler, op.cit. pp.158 and 168; A.B. De Hoffmeyer, Arms and Armour in Spain: A Short
Survey, vol.I (Madrid, 1972), p.140.
9. A.B. De Hoffmeyer, Arms and Armour in Spain: A Short Survey, vol.11 (Madrid, 1982),
pp.33-4 and 82; C. Oman, AHistoryoftheAr;tofWarinthe Middle Ages (London, 1924),
vol.11, p.181.
, .
l 0. Hoffmeyer, vol.11, op.cit. pp.84 and 87.
11. Hoffmeyer, vol.11, op.cit. p.212; Oman, vol.11, op.cit. p.180; P.E. Russell, The English
Intervention in Spain and Portugal in the Time ofEdward III and Richard II (Oxford, 1955),
pp.98-9.
12. Russell, op.cit. pp.4-5 and 98-9.
Chapter~
Portugal
French influence gradually spread from the ~ast to the west of the Iberian
.~~.Peninsula. It ~as not, ?owever, a steady intrltra~i?n of ideas but rat~er. a
jgradual adoption of vanous Northern Europet,n m1htary styles and tactics m
:'different places at different times. As a resu~t the process which started in
Catalonia before the Crusading era only really reached Portugal in the l 4th
century.
In the early 11 th century the County of J;>ortugal extended as far as the
river Douro and still formed part of the Kin~dom of Leon. Culturally and
militarily it had much in common with Galici. to the north, both areas being
!~i~argely free of Frenc~ military influence. BYi the l 2th cent~ry Portuguese
~~autonomy was effectively complete, and th: routhern frontier of what had
~now become an earldom reached beyond the l\1ondego river. In 1143 Portugal
r~chieved the status of a kingdom, and in 124~ the reconquest was. completed
'with the capture of the Algarve (Arabic al-Gharb, 'the west'). Thereafter
Portuguese efforts focused on securing the eastern frontier with Castile and
ensuring independence. Portugal's interest in maritime expansion began in
the l 4th century, but at the same time the country could not escape the threat
of Castilian intervention and, by extension, involvement in the quarrels
between England and France.
, ,
Medieval Portuguese military history remains a largely neglected subject.
While it is generally agreed that the country's military styles and organisation
were very old-fashioned until the 14th century, there is disagreement on the
degree of survivals from the pre-Islamic Visigothic era in culturally isolated
areas such as the Asturias, Galicia and what became Portugal. 1
The role of cavalry clearly rose in importance as the Christian offensive
against Islamic al-Andalus gathered momentum, raids aimed at the
destruction or seizure of enemy property being the main form of warfare. 2
The role of infantry meanwhile declined as Spanish campaigns spread into
the central Iberian plateau. In Portugal the situation may have been a little
different, as most of the country consists of rugged mountains and valleys.
The longbow was also popular in the l 4th century, although this might have
. been a result of English influence. 3 It may, in fact, have replaced composite
164
PORTUGAL
FigureS
409 Carved relief, Portugal, early;12th century
(in situ portal of the church ofVfilar de Frades, Portugal)
Relatively little is known about thelappearance of early Portuguese
armies, although they were likely jo have been similar to those of
neighbouring Leon and Galicia. Th, s crude carving shows a warrior
in a mixture of European and lslaipic Andalusian equipment. His
shield is a typical 11 th or early I ~th-century large, kite-shaped
variety, held both in the hand and
straps around the forearm. He
might wear a conical helmet, but his broad, non-tapering, blunttipped sword is of a form unlike tha't used in the north. Such blades
were in the Byzantine and early Isla!mic tradition but were also seen
in other parts of Arab-influenced Mediterranean Europe. The man
seems to be riding with a bent knee a'd shortened stirrups, these latter
probably having a broad triangulai profile. Such stirrups remained
characteristic of Islamic Andalusia! and the Maghrib until modern
times and were probably introduced into the Iberian Peninsula from
North Africa in the 11 th century. f
b,y
166
PORTUGAL
longer than those of his foes ~(B) and he carries a rather confused
representation of a flat-topped, probably triangular, shield on aguige.
The 'Moors', North Africans or Andalusians, are far more interesting
for they are shown in apparently realistic detail. They are armed with
light but broad swords of the type associated with light cavalry tactics
a lajineta and carry similarly light adarga shields. One of these is shown
from the inside, exposing the handgrip. Armour and helmets are not
visible, which probably identifies these riders as Moroccans rather
than men from Granada. They ride with very short stirrups of
typically North African type. This carving may, in fact, celebrate
the defeat of a mixed Granad~n and Moroccan army by a combined
Christian force at the battle o(Salado in 1340.
Notes
. '
l. C. Sanchez-Albornoz, 'El Ejecito y la Guerra en al Reino Asturle6nes, 718-1037', in
Ordinamenti Militari in occulente nell' alto Medioevo, Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di
Studi sull'alto Medioevo vol.XV, no.I (Spoleto, 1968), pp.331-2, andJ. Beeler, Warfare
in Feudal Europe, 730-1200 (Ithaca, 1971), p.158, both emphasise the degree of
continuity, while P. Contamine, La Guerre au Moyen Age (Paris, 1980), p.14 7, denies
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
such continuity.
Contamine, op.cit. pp.117-8.
A.B. De Hoffmeyer, Arms and Armour in Spain: A Short Survey, vol.11(Madrid,1982),
p.212.
Hoffmeyer, op.cit. p.213.
Hoffmeyer, op.cit. p.102; D.R. Hill, 'Trebuchets', Viatorvol.IV (1973), p.102.
P.E. Russell, The English Intervention in Spain and Portugal in the Time of Edward III and
Richard II (Oxford, 1955), pp.129 and 202.
Russell, op.cit. p.333.
Chapter 9
I
The Empire will be discussed in four sections.l These approximate the 12th/
l 3th-century Imperial subdivisions of: (a) the Kingdom of Germany; (b) the
Kingdom of Bohemia plus Moravia; (c) the ~ingdom of Burgundy or Arles;
and (d) the Kingdom of Italy including thel Patrimony of St Peter. Such
general divisions of that most complicated an~ rapidly-changing of medieval
states, the German Empire, are bound to be potentially misleading. However,
differences
in the military
some form of division is necessary as there were blear
I
.
traditions, arms and armour of, for example, Germany and Italy.
The Kingdom of Germany evolved out~f the Kingdom of Louis the
German, which was itself created by the Ca olingian Treaties of Verdun
(843) and Mersen (870). It consisted of pres t-day western Germany, the
Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg a~d large parts of north-eastern
France. On the eastern frontier the Marksj or Marches of the Billungs,
Nordmark and Thuringia in eastern Germany had been incorporated into
the Empire by the year 1100, as had the March of Austria. To the south the
Kingdom of Germany also included eastern Switzerland, the rest of modern
Austria and much of Slovenia.
These frontiers remained largely unchanged, apart from the addition of
Pomerania, Polish Silesia and, temporarily, sprpe Baltic regions ruled by the
Teutonic Knights in the l 3th century. From the mid-l 2th century, however,
the central authority of the Emperor, as King of Germany, declined sharply.
This in turn had profound political and military consequences. 1
The concept of knighthood had, in fact, been slow to develop in Germany,
dating from the late 11 th and early l 2th centuries. Nor did the associated term
2
rifer necessarily apply only to a horseman. The general ban or levy of all free
vassals also survived longer in Germany than in France or England. This led to
large but often ill-trained and inadequately armed forces. 3 The military role of
the peasantry was another feature of parts of Germany long after it had been
abandoned further west. .Many such peasant warriors were of un-free serf
origin yet still served as cavalry. 4 While the Emperor-King's authority
declined, so the military obligations of the feudal military elite similarly
decreased, particularly those of the leading aristocracy. 5 As in England and
168
FIGURES
413-416 169
Figure~
170
If we assume that the quillons have been broken, the warrior appears
to be using a sword similar to one of those shown above. If, however,
the missing quillons never existed, then the weapon is the most
northerly, and one of the earliest, European representations of a
sword with non-symmetrical quillons.
FIGURES
417-425 171
Lotharingia, c.1046
Gfrm.any)
172
FIGURES
426-432A-B 173
174
THE EMPIRE-GERMANY
176
kind of turban wound around their helmets (D, 0 and P), while
others carry substantial crests (L-N and P). Another unusual but
not unique feature for Europe is the wrist-strap around the pommel of
one sword (H). The swords themselves are much more conventional.
Mail hauberks now include mittens (I, L, M, 0 and P), and mail chausses
are worn (A, I, N, P and Q). Shields are kite-shaped but shorter, held
by enarmes (D and I) and sometimes supported by guiges (I, L, P and
Q). Two horses wear caparisons or bards, the decorations of which are
clearly not heraldic and probably indicate padding, quilting, or even
mail linings (L and N).
.'
441A-E Das Rolandsli.ed des Pfaffen Konrad, Franconia, 1170
)
FIGURES
439A-B-44 7 177
This sword might be German. Its long slender quillons suggest a date
well within the l 3th century but its somewhat blunt-tipped blade and
nut-shaped pommel point to an earlier period.
178
FIGURES
448-459 l 79
.
454 Statue of Count Dedo von Wettin, Saxony, c.1240
(in situ Cathedral, Wechselburg, Germ.any)
Count Dedo's sword is virtually identical to certain surviving
examples, while the statue is also very similar to the better known
examples in Naumberg Cathedral.
an
1~30
180
FIGURES
460-466A-E 181
I
I
182
cut-away sides of their surcoats, which are themselves worn over the
sword-belts. The third figure has short cap-sleeves with scalloped
edges (A and D), which might indicate another form of soft armour
or coat-of-plates being worn beneath the surcoat. Other features of
interest are a relatively smallgreathelm (C), typical almost-triangular
shields, a sword with a small round pommel but a ribbed grip (Band
E), and two broad war-hats (A, Band D).Both of these have had their
brims damaged. One is also shown with a split chin-strap.
FIGURES
467A-C-473 183
weapons they show but for the light they might shed on warfare in
Thuringia and neighbouring Saxony. This region has been known
for its effective levy of peasant archers in the early medieval period.
An archer using either a longbow or a large form of flat-bow (C)
appears in the PsalteriumB. Elisabeth.The quiver that hangs at his belt
is slightly more sophisticated than normally seen in l 3th-century
Western Europe. This, plus the crescent-bladed arrows that are held
points uppermost in the quiver, might point to a large degree of
eastern influence on ThuringiaJ?. archery via the Slavs. Two
armoured figures are unlike mosf other l 3th-century German
warriors since they wear short, tiglrt-fitting tunics with decorative
lower edges (A and B).These migh be padded gambesons. The men
certainly have padded cuisses overt eir thighs and knees with mail
chausses worn beneath. Their mail ,oifs appear to be separate from
their long-sleeved hauberks and to ~ave squared lower edges. One
man (B) also wears an early form of decorated great helm. Swords have
long straight quillons and are carried!from knotted sword-belts.
I
i
184
FIGURES
474-484 185
I
earliest attempt to make a movable visor by dividing the helmet at its
most obvious point, across the eye slit. Ailettes are seen twice and
Alexander also appears to have greaves around his shins with possible
poleyns over his knees. Otherwise the armour is all of mail. In two cases
laces are apparently drawn around the mail sleeves to stop them
flapping uncomfortably, not only at the wrist but also at the elbow.
186
fIGURES
485A-B-493A-Q 187
188
~uremburg,
Germany)
FIGURES
This form of dagger, while similar ~o the basilard, also has parallels
with the later rondel dagger. Its double-sided blade was narrower than
that of a basilard but seems to have been thicker in section.
I
190
FIGURES
508A-B-514A-D 191
192
and armour during the years of transition from the 'age of mail' to the
'age ofplate'. Beneath his head lies a great helm, which shows the internal
support consisting of split leather laced at the crown. His bascinet with
mail aventail would have been worn under this. The Landgraf wears a
mail hauberk with mid-length sleeves over arm defences of which the
lower-arm vambrace is visible. On his hands are gloves over which he
would presumably have put the plated gauntlets which lie on top of his
sword (A-C).From the chest of his hauberk run a series of chains to
which great helm, sword, dagger and any other important weapons
would be attached. Their pre~ence virtually proves that some form of
rigid or semi-rigid coat-of-plate,s is worn beneath the surcoat, though this
is not visible at the shouldets or armpits. An additional garment
between the surcoat and mail hauberk is, however, visible on his hips
below the point where the surcoat is fastened by three buttons. Mail
chausses are worn on the legs. Poleyns cover his knees and are laced
behind, over apparently padded cuisses (A and D).
FIGURES
515-519 193
194
wears a tight surcoat with decorated cap sleeves over a presumed coatof-plates and a short-sleeved mail hauberk. Heavy plated gauntlets
appear to include padded wrist protections, although this is not clear.
On his legs are extremely bulbous flutedpolryns and mail chausses. The
quillons of his sword have been damaged, but on his right hip he carries.
an early version of an 'ear dagger'. This should not be confused with
the later 'ballock dagger', in which the 'testes' form the guard or
quillons rather than, as here, the pommel.
FIGURES
520-524A-I 195
196
and fingers (A, E, F-1). Two shields are shown; round (B) and oval
(G). The former is an infantry shield but the second is held on a guige
by a man in apparent riding boots (G).Perhaps this latter figure
represents the specialised light cavalry who made their appearance
in many parts of l 4th-century Europe. Only a few weapons are
shown. The axe (A) is a modern restoration. A basilard dagger (A
and F) is shown in considerable detail. It is apparently suspended
behind a kind of small purse (E). Afalchion appears at first sight to
be straightforward, but on closer inspection poses some difficult
questions (B and E). While the weapon itself is a typicalfalchion
with a blade that broadens tow~rds the tip, the scabbard does the
same. How might the weapontbe drawn from such a scabbard?
Presumably the scabbard was slit down the side for some distance,
so perhaps the otherwise apparently redundant buckle (E) on the
outside had something to do with closing such a slit.
t
.t
FIGURES
525-531 197
Swabia, 1325
(Archives Departmental, Strasbourg, France)
Here Ulrich de Werd is shown in a slightly earlier style of equipment
than appears on his effigy (fig. 514) '. His great helm has a large horned
crest and he has an ailette on his right shoulder. The possibility that a
single ailette was sometimes worn al9ne cannot be dismissed, for if such
shoulder-pieces were solely for hef.aldic purposes they would have
been largely redundant on the left ide, where a shield with its own
heraldic device would be far easier o see.
i
198
,-over his mail hauberk (C). The presJnce of scale armour in other l 4th
century sources means that this picture cannot simply be dismissed as
fanciful. Yet the story of St Catherine, a martyred noblewoman of
Egypt, leaves open the possibility that the artist is attempting to show
Islamic or at least 'eastern' lamellar armour. Note that this figure also
wears poleyns and greaves over his mail chausses.
200
FIGURES
539A-C-544 20 I
Notes
1. P. Contamine, LaGuerreauMoyenAge (Paris, 1980), p.159.
2. P. Van Luyn, 'Les Milites clans la France du xie siecle', Le Jlo_ren Age vol.LXXVII
( 1971), pp.5-6.
3. Contamine, op.cit. pp.117-19.
4. Contamine, op.cit. pp.117 and 119-20.
5. Contamine, op.cit. p.175.
6. ].F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe in the .\fiddle Ages (Oxford,
1977), pp.120-1 and 124;]. Boussard, 'Les Mercenaires au XII le siecle', Bibliotheque
de l' Ecole des Chartres vol. CVI ( 1945-6), p.193; C. Oman, A History ef the Art of War in
the A1iddle Ages (London, 1924 ), vol.I, pp.376-7.
7. Oman, op.cit. vol.I, pp.476 and 484-7.
8. Oman, op.cit. vol.I, pp.499-502.
9. C. Gaier, 'L'Evolution et l't~age de !'armament personel defensif au Pays de Liege
du Xlle au XIVe siecle', :{,eitschriftfiir historische Waffen- und Kostumkunde vol.IV
(1962), p.66.
10. Contamine, op.cit. p.182; Gaier, op.cit. pp.65-6; A.Joris, 'Remarques sur les Clauses
Militaires des Privileges U rbains Liegeois', Revue Beige de Philologie et d' Histoire
vol.XXXVII ( 1959), pp.298, 301 and 306.
11. J.F. Verbruggen, 'Vlaamse Gemeentelegers tegen Franse Ridderlegers in de 14de en
15de Eeuw', Belgisch Tijdschnft voor Militaire Geschiedenis vol.XXIV, no.4 (1981),
p.382.
t
12. Contamine, ~p.cit. p.~60; A.VfB. Norman, 'Notes on Some E.arly Representations of
Guns and R1baudekms', Journal of the Arms and Armour Society vol. VIII ( 1974-6),
p.236; H. Rathert, 'Wann
wo ist die Pulverwaffe erfunden?', Blatter far deutsche
Landesgeschichte vol.LXXXIXi ( 1952), pp.84-6.
13. Rathert, loc.cit.
.
14. Verbruggen, TheArtofit'arja're, op.cit. pp.100-1.
15. Contamine, op.cit. p.165.
urp
Chapter 10
204
Figures
545 Helmet from Ohnutz in Mahren, Moravia, 11 th-12th
centuries
(Waffensammlung, Kunsth;torisches Museum, Vienna,
Austria)
i
Perhaps the most typical of surviving so-called 'Norman' -style
helmets. Its dating is far from certain and might even be I Oth century.
The helmet has a slight keel or comb running fore and aft but is also
slightly pointed. It is thicker at the crown than around the rim,
indicating sophisticated iron working techniques in which the helmet
was beaten from a single piece of metal.
mail hauberk with mittens, a separate mail coif with a squared lower
edge, no leg armour, and a straight sword with a large round pommel.
206
of the later Hungarian hussar and the Ottoman deli, both of whom
were to become the typical light cavalry of south-eastern and Central
Europe.
Notes
1. B. Warner, Slavonic Terms for Weapons and Armour in the Middle Ages: A Lexico-Historical
Study (MA thesis, London University, 1965), p.13 7.
2. C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages (London, 1924), vol.I, p.519.
3. Warner, op.cit. pp.144-5 and 149.
4. Warner, op.cit. pp.137 and 144-5; K.Cs. Sebestyen, 'Bogen und Pfeil der Alten
Ungarn', Dolgozatok vol. VIII (1932), p.254 .. ,
5. W. Wilinbachow, 'Poczatkowy Okres Rozwoju Broni Palnej w Krajach Slowianskich
(Note on the Initial Period of the Use of firearms in Slavonic Countries)', Kwartalnik
Historii Techniki vol. VIII, no.2 (1963), pp.234 and 245.
Chapter 11
i
~
ttbe Kingdom of Aries, which was also known as the Kingdom of Burgundy,
~~as created in the lOth century out of the st~tes of Burgundy and Provence,
~hie~ w~re in turn relics of th~ old Kingd?m of Lothair created by the
~parohng1an Treaty of Verdun in 843. By t~e end of the 11 th century the
.kingdom - consisting of what is now western Switzerland, France east of the
'Rhone and Saone, plus a few districts west of these rivers- had been drawn into
lhe Empire. During the l 3th and first half of the l 4th centuries much of the
southern part of the kingdom was gradually absorbed by France. The
. Kingdom of Aries seems to have had no distinctive military features, except
for the persistence of peasant infantry forces in the Swiss mountains. It was
~
! German, and some Italian
lR~herwise
under considerable French, sole
'hfluence.
,
l;;:' The feudal levy remained important th~oughout the 11 th and into the
'.12th century. As in other western parts of the Empire and in Italy, such feudal
troops still had to be paid if sent beyond their o~n locality. 1 As elsewhere in the
Empire the feudal host declined in the 12th century, with greater reliance
being placed on mercenaries, but still survived as a genuine part of the army. 2
The mounted crossbowmen who made their appearance in the l 3th century
were presumably paid professionals. Cross~ows were also vital weapons in
Provenc;al fleets, 3 but were not recorded among the Swiss until the early l 3th
century. 4
The mountain peasantry of what is now Switzerland, both those living in
the German Duchy ofSwabia and in the Burgundian north of the Kingdom of
Aries, were to become some of the most effective and famous crossbowmen of
the later Middle Ages. Many Swiss served as mercenaries in northern Italy
during the 13th century, where they learned advanced infantry tactics. 5 By
the time they burst upon an astonished Europe, first in successful defence of
their mountainous homeland against knightly cavalry and later as the most
effective mercenary infantry of the l 4th century, the Swiss had developed their
own highly-disciplined tactics. In the early l 4th century these relied primarily
on the halbard, with the long pike being added in the mid or late 14th century. 6
;0
208
Figures
554 Seal of the Abbey of St Maurice, Savoy, late llth/early
12th centuries
(Abbey of St Maurice, Valai~ Switzerland)
sl
210
FIGURES
563A-C-564 211
as the wearer would not wish to h~ve his hearing impaired by a layer
of padding. His long-sleeved mail hauberk with mittens is worn under a
surcoat. What at first glance appear to be tassel-like objects on his
shoulders have sometimes been interpreted as decorative items
functioning like ailettes, whereas in fact they are the heads of two small
lions who lie beneath the recumbent knight, supporting his shoulders.
Notes ::
l
Chapter 12
!;, As part of the Empire, the Kingdom of Italy included all the present Italian
~:.;state north of the Abruzzi, plus part of the Campagna south of Rome. Its
~:.northern borders were roughly those of modern Italy excluding the northern
;, parts of the Trentino and Trieste. Venice, strictly speaking, lay outside the
,~ Empire, but it has been included in this section of the book for the sake of
simplicity. By the mid-l 4th century the Papal States, consisting of Rome,
Latium, Umbria, Spoleto, the Marches and ,much of Emilia-Romagna, had
, also drifted out of the Empire.
'I\.< Three main themes dominate the history of northern and central Italy
Jrom the 11 th to l 4th centuries. These are the decline of Imperial feudal
rauthority and the rise of the cities as centres of both regional government ~nd
~{pow~r
(~ars of the Lombard League and the_ ~eague ~fVerona), the growmg
.
~, terntonal power of the Papacy, and political strife between Pope and
; Emperor. The latter struggle passed through various phases, from the
' Investiture Contest (1075-1220) and German invasions in the 12th and 13th
' centuries, to the rivalry between Guelph and Ghibelline - pro-Papal and pro. Imperial factions - within the bounds of Italy. Early in the l 4th century the
Papacy went into its 'Babylonian Exile' in th~city of Avignon on the frontier
between France and the Imperial Kingdom of Aries, where it remained until
1377.
Although the 11 th-century Kingdom of Italy theoretically consisted of
relatively few Duchies, Marches and such subdivisions, in reality the country
. was extremely fragmented and full of castles built by almost all levels oflocal
.. authority. 1 Feudal military obligations to a distant German Emperor were
light, while most of Italy's cities had already slipped out of feudal aristocratic
control, being either directly responsible to the Emperor or lying under local
ecclesiastical authority. 2 On the other hand Italian military styles and
technology were quite advanced, early forms of couched lance technique
having already been seen in 9th-century cavalry training. 3
The decline of feudal obligation and of a rural-based military aristocracy
:continued during the l 2th and l 3th centuries, the cities meanwhile extending
~~heir authority over surrounding territory. These now formed a city's contado, a
214
IT AL y
FIGURES
1
569-660 215
surviving urban militias than with professional foot-soldiers, was the early use
of firearms in Italy. The earliest but far from clear reference comes from
Florence in 1326, then from Friuli in 1331, and more certainly from Lucca in
1341. Earlier and much more problematical is a record of sclopeti or sclopi,
meaning hand-held guns, being used at Forli in 1284. Bombards or field-pieces
were, however, still much more common, even in such an isolated
mountainous region as Savoy and in otherwise backward areas such as the
17
Papal States.
216
ITAL y
Figures
565 Sword, Italy, c.1100
(Museum of Art, no.1977.167.529, Philadelphia, United
States)
;
This sword certainly looks 11 th or ~arly l 2th century, but its peculiar
spiked pommel sets it apart from other Western European weapons of
the period.
218
Italian sources. Mail coifs are now separate (C); mail hauberks have
long sleeves though they still lack mittens; mail chausses are worn (A,
Band E); but swords are still of the broad, blunt-ended type with
large round (A) or nut-shaped pommels (D).A large bow seems to be
of composite construction judging by its complicated recurved shape
(F), but arrows are simply thrust into a belt.
FIGURES
5 79-585A--0 219
with lances, plus straight tapering swords with straight quillons and a
large tear-shaped pommel ( C). An interesting but far from clear
feature might be the strap or belt that seems to pass around Faragut's
waist (A) from his cantle to his saddle pommel. Such a means of fixing
a man in his saddle is mentioned, though very rarely, in documentary
sources. It also appears much later in the l 4th century, though
interestingly enough again at Verona.
220
"
FIGURES
586A-C-590A-I 221
'
584 'Sleeping Guards at the Holy Sepulchre',
carved ivory
panel, Venice, late 12th/early 13th centuries
I
,,
222
IT ALY
.~
FIGURES
591A-B-600 223
224
f
~
FIGURES
601-608A-I 225
226
ITAL y
FIGURES
609-614A-D 227
A-B- Martyrdom of Stjames; C;-Condemnation ofJames; D-GMassacre of the Innocents; H-I - The Betrayal. The silver altar in
Pistoia Cathedral consists of panels made at different periods, of
which this is the oldest. Some of the figures are clearly based on
Byzantine traditional archaisms - for instance, the pseudo-Roman
cuirasses with splinted arm and thigh defences ( E-G). Other figures
do not appear to be so archaic. They wear a variety of helmets,
including simple round cervellieres (A, D and H), brimmed two-piece
proto-salets (B), and a form of similar two-piece helmet which, though
it sometimes has fanciful decorative additions, is probably rooted in
Italian, Byzantine or Balkan arms (C, E-G and I). One man has a
mail collar without any other apparent armour (A). Such a colliere
appears again in Italian art relatively few years later. Other figures,
including those with conventionalised Byzantine 'classical' armour,
228
also have full mail hauberks but without mittens (D-H). Two men wear
mail chausses, perhaps inside ordinary shoes, plus greaves of iron or
hardened leather (H and I). Most shields are small round bucklers
(A, C and D), though this need not necessarily be an archaism at a
time when light infantry were becoming increasingly important in
Italian warfare. One shield is of the much larger kite-shaped variety
(I). Swords and scabbards are typical of the late 13th century (A-C,
H and I). Large daggers or small-swords (E-G) are common. Some
have almost triangular blade~ and hilts which are in one instance
quite clearly those of a basilard ~.E).Again, this kind of weapon makes
its appearance earlier.in Italy than in most other parts of Europe.
FIGURES
615-625 229
230
....,
Ber~
Switzerland)
The Val d' Aosta cannon weighed 60.5 kg and was 40 cm long.
625 Bascinet, ltaly, c.1350, cut down and re-used in the 15th
century
(Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. 29.158.44, New York,
United States)
One of the earliest pieces of armour in a large collection of weaponry
found on the island ofEvvoia (Euboea-Negroponte). The tall fluted
bascinet originally had longer sides and back, as well as a straight brow
(here indicated by dotted lines). At some time later it was cut down,
had eye-slits added and was clearly worn lower on the head.
232
"'
FIGURES
small plates to protect the back of~he hands and the fingers. Poleyns
and greaves cover the legs and, though very worn, there seem to be
traces oflacing on the inside of his left leg.
630 Tomb slab of Filippo dei Desideri, Romagna, c.1315
4
leather armour in southern Italy. Such armour is shown in
considerable detail on this effigy. The mail hauberk has a raised collar,
perhaps attached to the garment beneath. A lion-shaped epaulette
hangs from the coat-of-plates, which appears to be covered in rich
brocade. Splinted vambraces protect his lower arms and he has plated
gauntlets on his hands. A long dagger with a decorated hilt hangs on his
right hip, while his sword has an even more decorative hilt with an
elongated pommel and angled quillons. Splinted cuisses seem to be worn
above poleyns which, like the epaulette, are shaped like lions' heads.
Small flaps of mail protect the vulnerable joints between poleyns and
probably tooled-leather greaves. Another flap of mail hangs below the
greaves, overlapping the upper part of the laminated sabatons.
c.1345-50
(Museo Lapidario Estense, Modena, Italy)
The tomb slab of Bernardino dei Baranzoni, though broken, is still in
a remarkable state of preservation, and provides a number of details
unseen elsewhere. These include the extra flap from the mail aventail,
which hangs like a curtain around his neck. His mail bretache is clearly
visible, as are details of his sword-belt and sword-hilt, and - of
greatest interest - his arm defences. The mail of a long-sleeved hauberk
can be seen at his armpits and around his lower arms. A decorated
couter is visible on his elbow, while a tubular rerebrace goes around his
upper arm. The rivets on this piJce of armour strongly suggest that it
is of splinted construction with a decorative fabric or leather
covering. The flap of mail hanging from the rerebrace over his elbow
could simply be an additional piece fastened to the rerebrace, or
indicate that either two mail hauberks or a hauberk and a shorter
haubergeon are both worn beneath the coat-of-plates. His gauntlets
appear to have no pieces of plate attached, although the wrist area
might be made of stiffened leather.
FIGURES
638-643 235
whose name Skanderbeg's own wtt.s derived, was known as Dhu alQarnayn, 'He of the Two Horns'. Hhe, 'Pride's' helmet is a decorated
early salet made in two pieces and worn over a mail coif His splinted
neck and shoulder-covering collar clearly have parallels in Byzantine
and Balkan art while his flowered cuirass seems to be an uncovered
coat-of-plates with apparent epaulettes. He might have a vambrace under
the sleeve of his mail hauberk, while his hand is protected by a simple
mail gauntlet. The sword is clearly fanciful but he seems to have a
straightforward dagger on his hip. Other figures have more orthodox
equipment, including bascinets with~mail aventails and with or without
bretache nose-guards (A, E and D).fOne figure has an early salet (C)
like a simplified version of that worn by 'Pride'. Another figure has
an old-fashioned long-sleeved maiJ hauberk, perhaps over a padded
gambeson but worn with modern\ plated poleyns and greaves plus
laminated sabatons (A). Yet another has a mail hauberk under a
possible coat-of-plates (D). He, tod, has up-to-date leg defences of
plate, and seems to have his shield 'slung across his back. The man's
weapon looks like a massive mace, club or iron staff (D). Ifit is such
a specialised mace, then perhaps the comparable object wielded by
'Pride' should not be dismissed as merely fanciful (G).Other weapons
include broad swords with long qui~lons and large round pommels (AB), an ordinary infantry spear (C)~ and a probable composite bow
with angled ears (F).
f
236
-l
'
FIGURES
644-652A-D 237
around his waist. Mail is visible belQw this. On his arms are a fullyplated rerebrace, couter, vambrace and ;gauntlet. The rivets of his cuisses
are seen above his plate poleyns arid greaves, below which are his
laminated sabatons. On his hip is a telatively small dagger, and his
spear has a roundel to cover his hand, although this appears to have
1been reversed. Like Mastino II, he i$ secured in his saddle by a strap
from cantle to pommel. His shield seems to have a rounded base and an
almost rectangular top. The horse clearly has a chanfron over its head
and what looks like a small peytral to protect its chest.
238
. ~"
===================:;i;===========;::;;;;:;",;,j
.tk~
While leading figures like the Centurion are almost invariably;
archais~d in early l 4th century a~t, the lesser soldiers ar~ given::
many pieces of contemporary eqmpment. Here such eqmpment .~\j
includes a number of interesting helmets: a tall bascinet (A), a wide-)
brimmed chapel-de-fer (B), a similar helmet with a mail aventail (C), a )!
partially obscured helmet with a single antler as a crest (D), a round
bascinet with an aventail (F), a helmet of apparent two-piece '
construction (G ), and an early form of cabacete or salet with a barbuta :
neckguard.
f
The painting also shows a basilard 'rith a broad triangular blade, and
leg defences consisting of a poleyn, greave and mail chausse.
~.~
,:r:
!"
A-Slaughter ofJob's family; B-C- Slaying ofJob's shepherds; DArrest ofjoseph's brothers. This seqhence of pictures has a number of
unusual features, including an apparentfalchion with a hooked grip
but no quillons or guard (A). A massive basilard dagger is more than
one-third of a man's height in length (B).A riveted bascinet has either
a small neckguard or an additional flap of mail (C), and a somewhat
fanciful but certainly very slender-bladed sword is slung from a sashlike belt in clear imitation of normal Middle Eastern style (D).This
latter feature probably reflects some knowledge ofMamliik Egyptian
or Turkish fashion rather than reflecting current Italian usage.
240
THE EMPIRE-THE
KINGDOM OF ITALY
.
'
:j
FIGURES
658A-BG 241
242
"
ii
FIGURES
658A-BG 243
legs are fully encased in plate cuissef, poleyns, greaves and sabatons. His
sword is a long tapering weapon ~ith straight quillons and a round
pommel. The object hanging from his sword-belt on his right hip might
have been to hold a dagger. The other pictures in Sabbionara Castle
reflect northern Italian and possibly southern German arms and
armour. Some cavalry wear great h~lms with lambrequins and massive
crests (B, D and S), but most seem to' have tall or low rounded bascinets
with large movable visors and mailaventails (A, C, Q, R, T and U).
Some clearly, and the rest probably,,wear coats-of-plates (D, Sand U).
Various forms of plate or splinted atjd riveted arm defences, vambraces
and rerebraces, plus couters, are worn KC, D, Q, Sand U). Gauntlets are
shown, but not in sufficient detail for their construction to be analysed.
Leg-harness is only clearly visible op two figures, where it consists of
poleyns and probably cuisses, plus ~reaves which mirror the clearly
splinted (Q) and probably fabric-tovered (S) construction of the
wearers' arm defences. The only cavr.lry weapons are lances with (D)
or without (S) hand-protecting rounfels, large swords (D and T), and
large daggers (S). Some horses weaj caparisons or bards, one of which
clearly has the eye protections that b~tray a chanfron beneath the fabric
(S). It is, however, the infantry wr1o make these wall-paintings so
important. They are shown in cons~derable detail and even greater
1
variety. Most men wear tall bascinets\ some of which come right down
the neck (G, I and W), butmostofwh chhaveelongatedsidescovering
the ears (H, M, 0, V, AE, AK, AO,jAQ, AU, AW and BB). A few of
these bascinets have decorative caps coverings over them (AF, AH,
AS, AU and AW). Other men show~ in plain cloth coifs 0 and K) are
probably engaged in training or mock combat. A few helmets might be
simple conical types, without the extensions around the ears which
would make them into bascinets (N, AF, AV, AZ and BE). Some of the
'Oriental' allies of the Guelphs are identified by very tall hats with
upturned brims. These seem to be a largely conventionalised headgear
based upon Mongol prototypes. As such they may identify the troops as
. '
Cumans, Hungarians or Balkan tronps. This is not, of course, to deny
that similar or comparably tall hats were worn by various south-east
European warriors of Central Asian or Turco-Mongol origin. Most of
the infantry haveonlypaddedorquiltedgambesonoraketonjerkins (F, I,
J, K, L, P, V, X, AD, AR, AU and BC). These have various patterns of
stitching, with a clear distinction being drawn between the arm above
and below the elbow. This has already been seen in Como. All have
raised stiffened collars, and while some are buttoned down the front
others are not. They also have scalloped lower hems reaching to midthigh. Two of these quilted garments may be worn together (P). Over
such soft armours, a small mail hauberk or haubergeon could be worn (G
and AC). Elsewhere another but shorter cloth-covered garment forms
a top layer. These reach only to the hips, generally with short sleeves,
and often have apparent rivets spaced across them. They are probably
244
I
\
FIGURES
569-660 245
Notes
'
eler, op.cit. pp.208-9 and 238;J .F. Verbruggen, jThe Art of Warfare in W:stern E~rope
the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1977), pp.125-6; C. Oqian, A History ofthe Art zn the Middle
,IJ,s (tc>ndon, 1924), vol.I, pp.448-9.
I
'..:Jamison, Admiral Eugenius of Sicily (London, 1~57), p.114; G. Ra using, The Bow,
ome Notes on its Origins and Development (Lund~ 1967), p.160; F.C. Lane, 'The
Crossbow in the Nautical Revolution of the Middle Ages', in Economy, Society and
'
GovernmentinMedievalltaly (Kent, Ohio, 1969), p~161-71.
: M. Giuliani, 'L'organizazzione militare a Firenzt fra XIII e XIV secolo, forme di
aggregazione e carattari generale d 'eserci to fiorentino', in Guerre e assoldati in Toscana,
1260-1364, ed. L.G. Boccia and M. Scalini (Florenlce, 1982), pp.37--49; H.L. Oerter,
'.Campaldino, 1286', Speculum vol.XXXllI ( 11968), p.434; E. Oakeshott, The
.rchaeologyofWeapons (London, 1960), pp.279-8(l!
ontamine, op.cit. pp.165-6 and 206; Waley, o~.cit. pp.4-5;J. Alm, 'Europeiska
:rmborst; En oversickt', Vaaben-historisk Aarboger v/b (1947), p.127; V. Maglioli,
a balestra', ArmiAntichi ( 1955), pp.98-9; P. Pieri~ 'I Saraceni di Lucera nella Storia
;militare medievale', Archivio Storico Pugliese vol. Vil( 1954), p.96.
D.R. Hill, 'Trebuchets', Viatorvol.IV (1973), p.104;J.-F. Fin6, 'Machines dejet
medievales', Gladius vol.X ( 1972), pp.28-9 and 321; U. Barlozzetti and M. Giuliani,
S, 'La Prassi Guerresca in Toscana', in Guerre e assoldati in Toscana, 1260-1364, ed. L.G.
~t: Boccia and M. Scalini (Florence, 1982), pp.51-65.
J~ Cardini, loc.cit.
Barlozzetti, loc.cit.; Waley, op.cit. pp.15-20; D.Pi Waley, 'Le origini della Condotta
~': 'nel Duecento e le Compagnie di Ventura', Rivista Storica Italiana vol.LXXXVIII
{1976), pp.533-5; D.P. Waley, 'Condotte and Condottieri in the Thirteenth
f Century', Proceedings of the British Academy vol.LXI ( 197 5), pp.339-40, 344, 348 and
f 350; Guiliani, loc.cit.
~'3. L.G. Boccia, 'HIC IACET MILES: lmmagini guerriere da sepolcri toscani del Due
~.... e Trecento', in Guerre e assoldati in Toscana, 1260-1364, ed. L.G. Boccia and M. Scalini
~ (Florence, 1982), pp.81-99.
14. L.G. Boccia and E.T. Coelho, 'L'armemento di cuoio e ferro nel trecento Italiano',
ey
L'illustrazione italiani vol. I, no.2 ( 1972), p.245.
15. Contamine, op.cit. p.251.
~6. Barlozzetti, loc.cit.; Contamine, op.cit. p.167; Giuliani, loc.cit.; Pieri, op.cit. pp.100-1.
Barlozzetti, loc.cit.; Contamine, op.cit. pp.260-1; General A. Gaibi, 'Un raro cimelio
piemontese del trecento', Armi Antiche ( 1965), pp.29 and 32; S. Pasquali-Lasagni,
.. 'Note di Storia dell' Artiglieria della Stato della Chiesa nei secoli XIV e XV', Archivio
.. della R. Deputazione Romano di Storia Patria vol.IX ( 193 7), p.150.
.J. Swanton,
I,'
J2.
l?-
I
.'
.,.,,,,., '"'~'
'
..
\
'
,...
't:.r
f
ii.
'
e south of Italy and Sicily were politically and to some extent culturally
"i~:.3"
. . .. -: rate from the rest of the country throughout the period under review.
ng the first few years Sicily remained u11der Islamic rule and parts of
.,......'k"'....m ainland under Byzantine. The arms and armour of these areas during
atttime are consequently found in the second of these two volumes, being
n... . .c.. luded in the chapters on the Islamic Mag.h_rib and Byzantium
rCspectively; the independent and semi-independent cities and duchies of
-1lth-century southern Italy, however, are coyered
here.
After
the
Normans
.~~~!;;
.!':...
'
248
The military heritage of the south a.lso reflected Islamic influence from
neighbouring Sicily and North Africa, many earlier Arab or Berber invaders
and mercenaries having settled in the area. These gradually converted to
Christianity and became absorbed into the local population. 5 It should also
be remembered that coastal cities like Amalfi still had close political as well as
trade connections with the Islamic world. On the other hand, it is possible that
the Christian community within Islamic Sicily retained some form of military
role. 6 Local troops were similarly availa:ble in the ex-Byzantine areas after
these were conquered by the Normans, the defence of such provinces having
already passed to local forces after the Bytantine theme armies were disbanded
around 1040. 7
l
Although Normans naturally played the dominant role in the Norman
conquest of southern Italy and Sicily, qther Northern warriors were also
involved. These included Bretons, Flemings, Poitevins and men from Anjou, 8
but their military styles and tactics would have been virtually identical to those
of the Normans. After the conquest there was considerable feudalisation of the
countryside while towns were garrisoned by government troops. 9 In theory the
entire male population had a military role but in reality only a minority were
called upon. 10 This seems to have been even more true in Sicily, where the
indigenous Islamic population in the west[of the island also played a vital role.
Such Siculo-Muslim warriors became, inf some respects, the most loyal and
reliab~e troops in the Norman army, as w~l as being ~mong the most ~ffective..
They included cavalry, some of whom wei;e armed with the bow, plus mfantry,
the most famous of whom were, again, archers. 11 The Normans, Italians, and
other Christian communities probably provided the bulk of heavily-armoured
cavalry and infantry forces, these being recruited from knightly classes, urban
militias and northern Italian mercenaries. 12 The important role of Italian
troops in both the initial conquest and in subsequent ltalo-Norman armies
has, in fact, only recently been recognised. 13 Mercenaries from these and other
sources became increasingly importapt.,in royal armies during the l 2th
century, 14 just as they did elsewhere in Europe. Nevertheless, militias - urban
and rural- seem to have survived as vital elements in most such armies, though
many were apparently of serf origin, unlike the militias of northern Italy. 15
The subsequent Hohenstaufen and Angevin take-overs of the southern
Italian-Sicilian state had little impact on the military structures created by
the Normans. This was particularly apparent in the continuing, though
gradually declining, military role of Sicilian Muslims into the late 13th
century. The transferral of the last Muslims to Lucera on the mainland was,
in fact, essentially the enforced relocation of a military community. 16
The possession and carrying of arms was strictly controlled in the midl 3th century Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily which, of course, also included
southern Italy. 17 At the same time a number of interesting technical
developments were seen in southern Italian arms and armour in the l 3th and :+
fS o uTHE RN
249
'
'"~"'~.. uence, while others might have done so. Whether the last generations of
'
riginally Sicilian Muslims had any direct itjfluence is, however, unclear.
elatively short stabbing swords and large h4silard thrusting daggers were
18
ar;acteristic of the 13 th century, as were ~oun ted cross bowmen, though
19
mounted
!infantry,
while
extensive
use
ese
were
almost
certainly
serving
as
--.I
20
Of hardened-leather armour appeared in the ea~ly and mid- l 4th century.
250
Figures
661A-B 'Crucif'"ixion', Exultet Roll, southern Italy, IOth-llth
centuries
.
Uohn Rylands Library, Ms~, Manchester, England)
The Exultet Rolls, so characterisJc ofsouthern Italian Romanesque art,
are a useful source ofinformation but ar.e difficult to interpret. Here a
man wieldsaspearwithobviou~wingsorflanges beneath its blade (A).
He also carries what looks like~ straight sword with a single, slightly
curved edge (A). Such a weapon is also held by a second figure (B) and
probably reflects Byzantine influence or even influence from Islamic
Sicily or North Africa. Both wea'.ponshavesimplenut-shapedpommels.
l
~i'
,,
jFIGURES
...
661A-B-667A-E 251
only has a tall helmet with a probable nasal (A), but he wields a
broad-bladed spear with an apparent bamboo haft. His coat or tunic
appears to be padded or quilted. AU these features suggest strong
Islamic, or more particularly North African, influence. The other
two figures also have short spears, on'e with wings or flanges (B), but
their main interest lies in the dist,nction drawn between their
apparently ordinary tunics and that qf the first figure.
I
ff!.
".
252
belt is visible. The hauberk itself includes a coif, though its surface
patterning looks remarkably like lamellar. A lamellar cuirass and a
lamellar aventail are not inconceivable, but are unlikely in the 11 th
century central Mediterranean region. It is more likely to be a crude
representation of an ordinary mail hauberk. He clearly wears a lowdomed helmet, perhaps fluted, ~ith some kind of separate rim, the
curved lower edge giving it an ot~tline different from that of normal
European helmets. It has similarities with much later bascinets, which
might indicate that the bascin\et did, in fact, originate in the
Mediterranean, more specifically in Byzantine or Islamic regions.
The foot-soldier (E) is in several fespects even more interesting and
unusual. He has a slightly pointdi helmet with a nasal. The helmet
appears to come down over the sides and back of his head, in common
with the later bascinet. The lower rim seems to indicate that the mail is .
attached. This could refer to an av~ntail, although a helmet worn over
a mail coif and hauberk would seertj' more likely at this early date. The
man almost certainly wears a shorj:-sleeved mail hauberk which comes
to his waist but has a flap down the front. It is worn over a sash and
has much in common with variouS:other Sicilian and Middle Eastern
sources. His sword is of the broad Mediterranean form and his shield
is a very tall kite-shaped mantlet, p~rhaps with the flattened base seen
elsewhere in Italy and the Middle East.
FIGURES
668-673A-X 253
finding echoes and maybe even origins in the art oflndia, from which
the Arab world imported the hig~ly-prized sayf al-hind or 'Indian
sword'. His small round or oval stjield, with its pattern of multiple
rivets holding the internal straps, seems to have more in common with
North Africa and al-Andalus than :with northern Italy or the rest of
I
Europe.
\
254
the second figure (B). The cloth or c'oak across the first figure's chest
(A) is also seen elsewhere in the Mezizogiorno. Both figures also wear
some form of sleeveless armour on thJ upper parts of their bodies. This
is rendered in such a stylised form that its construction can only be
. . . guessed at, though its lack of sleeves! and its length, reaching only to
. ;1~; 1 the waist, does suggest a small lamel,ar cuirass .
256
.
.
f
l
1153
681 'Centaur', carved relief, Apuli~
I
t
This little carving of a centaur seemsJo draw upon images oflslamic
warriors and weaponry, perhaps the amous Siculo-Muslim archers.
The beast has a stylised turban a d wears a mail coif, which is
probably part of a hauberk worn bene ; th his tunic. He has a recurved
bow .and a quiver on his belt simiir to that seen on one of the
Monreale capitals (fig.690Z).
,
.,
258
..
!1IGURES
686A-C-690A-A U 259
260
FIGURES
691A-M-695A-J 261
262
{ FIGURES
~
696A-0-700A-G 263
'
A-B - The King and his people; G-D - The Emperor's Guard; E Crucifixion; F - The Emperor's quard. The two armed figures (A
and B) represent a Protospathius, a trtle of Byzantine origin. One man
wears a tall helmet (D) with an ext~nded neckguard that looks like an
early salet or bascinet. Once aga~p a Southern European or even
eastern Mediterranean origin mig9t be. indicat.ed for these la~er forms
of helmet. Both guardsmen have prdmary kite-shaped shields but
hold swords with broad triangular blades, curved quillons and large
round pommels. As has already been suggested, such weapons may be
the ancestors of the later medieval cinquedea. The soldier at the
Crucifixion (E) has a broad-bladed spear with multiple flanges or
one set of wings and two securing rivets. His sword seems to taper to
a point, judging from the shape of its scabbard, but its pommel looks
like a fanciful development of the earlier trefoil type.
'
264
'shaped shields (C), spears (B), couched lances (C) and heraldic
gonfanons (E and F) - would be among the standard equipment of
halo-Norman cavalry. A pointed helmet with a decorative finial
(G) seems to recall certain I Ith century sources and may reflect an
earlier, or Byzantine, type of helmet.
FIGURES
701-703A-AV 265
similarly seen in the Middle East (A, J and X). There might be a
problem of interpretation with some objects having half-moon
apparent blades attached to them: (C and D).These could be the
nachakh axes of a ruler's elite guard or could simply be light fans to cool
the ruler's brow. One other long-hafted axe (F) has an unmistakably
I
upwards-sweeping blade and as su~h is a typically north European
weapon descended from the 11'.th century 'Danish axe'. Its
appearance in Palermo is interesting and might suggest the presence
of Anglo-Norman infantry. Only one mace is shown, with a broken
haft and in the hands of a fleeing warrior, the same man who carries
ajanuwiyah. Perhaps he represents~ defeated infantryman who has
seized a horse. Swords are by far tlfe most common weapon on the
Cappella Palatina ceiling. Most art straight, barely tapering, with
blunt or only slightly pointed tips.1\1ost have thick but short bar-like
quillons. Other variations have broa~-curved quillons with a langet (M)
and what could be the non-symmetrcal quillons of a slightly curved
weapon (Y). Pommels are generallr obscured, although that of a
dearly visible, narrower-bladed feapon (H) seems to be round.
Others might also be (F, R and Wt), while another might be nutshaped (P). Some blades have centr;~l ridges clearly indicated (I and
S). One of these ( E) lacks quillons or guard. As such it is another
example of a type of sword associa~ed with North Africa. A much
shorter and perhaps more tapering \\jeapon (V) that is, however, held
like a sword rather than a dagger, is placed in the hands of an
infantryman. A final interesting fig~re holds a long-hafted object in
a kind of waist sling that hangs alm<?st to his ankles (N). This might
be a means of supporting a large .'.banner or perhaps the ruler's
ceremonial parasol although a short, pointed, mace-headed or
sword-like object seems at present to be held in the sling.
266
SOUTHERN
IT AL y
AND SICIL y
Pi
'
FipuRES
703A-AV-705A-AJ 267
I
pommels and straight, generally flared quillons, and are slung from belts
rather than baldrics.
268
sleeveless. One of their shields (L) has tassels from its rivets, reminiscent
of certain 13 th century Andalusian styles. Another artist dresses the
Muslims either in archaised or stylised Byzantine armour of mail or
lamellar, but identifies them with stylised turbans (E, G-K, N, 0 and
Q-S). This latter artist or group of artists gives his subjects a wider
range of swords, from straight types which,judging by their scabbards,
-are non-tapering (Kand Q-S), to very curved sabres (M) and curved
or single-edged weapons without quillons (N and 0). These last two
swords are wielded by Hispano-Arabs; men specifically identified as
Islamic world. Weapons lacking
coming from the western part oftpe
I
quillons have already been tentativ~ly identified with North Africa and
Sicily. Saljiik and other possiblylTurkish troops (D and U-X) are
identified firstly by their long hair, secondly by a bow (D) which is
otherwise a weapon that appears rarely in this manuscript, and finally
by a form ofhat or helmet which consists of a small dome set on a larger
one (D and V). Helmets with such an outline were certainly used by
early medieval Turks in the Eurasi~n steppe regions and may still have
been correctly associated with Ttlrkic peoples. Such helmets are, of
course, given to 'alien' warriors in other Italian sources. Byzantine
troops (C) are given long lamellar cuirasses and pointed helmets, one of
which appears to be a form of earlylbascinet with a possible mail aventail
(C).Specifically Western troops (Zand AA) have similar pointed or
rounded helmets and kite-shapedjshields. Other features of interest
are two distinct forms of man-powered mangonel, one small (AE and .
AJ) and the other larger (C).The Madrid Skylitzes may also include
one of the very few representations of a 'Greek Fire' siphon from this
period (T). This simple and slightly damaged picture seems to indicate
a small projection, almost like a fore-sight, on top of the siphon tube.
Perhaps this was intended to show a means by which the inflammable
liquid was ignited as it shot from the mouth of the siphon. A single
apparent horse charifron is also illustrated (F).No other horse-armour
is present and this isolated piece,is,given to the mount of a leading
Muslim warrior, perhaps the defeated leader 'Abuzachar' himself. A
comparable chanfron is worn by the horse of an Egyptian religious figure
in a manuscript from the Fatimid period, but both these pieces of
equipment may well have been ceremonial rather than really
protective.
706 Carved and painted ivory box, Sicily, late 12th/early
13th centuries
(Staatliche Museum Dahlem, Berlin, Germany)
FIGURES
706-710 269
'Murder of Becket',
century
wall-+g,
J.
270
arms and greaves for the legs. Roundels are laced to the elbows and a
mail hauberk is worn. The impression that a broad, elbow-length
sleeve is worn over another tighter sleeve is probably the result of an
inferior style of carving. A padded surcoat with somewhat raised
shoulders is worn over the hauberk, and simple mail chausses are worn
beneath the hardened-leather greaves. A very long but otherwise
straightforward sword with straight quillons and a round pommel hangs
at his left side.
'
1'.
~J
FIGURES
71 l-714A-B 271
1,.
~',.i
'''
,.
Notes
fic.A. Loud, 'The Church, Warfare and Military 0 bligation in Norman Italy', Studies
apter ,4
.
,'
I
t
f
I
,
I
'
I
I
I
,
r
...,
section includes the Crusader States ir! Syria and Palestine, Cyprus
ollowing its conquest by Richard I of Engla d, and the Latin 'Empire' of
ohstantinople plus its successor principalities in Greece. The history of the
rusader States in Syria, Palestine and the Le anon began with the arrival of
''"''""'
Ule F irst Crusade in the Middle East in 1098, , nd ended with the fall of Acre
!Dd the rernaining Crusader-held coastal cities to the Mamlliks in 1291,
.although the Templars rer11ained in possession of the offshore island of Arwad
,tntil 1303. The Crusader 'Empire of Romani;p.', based upon Constantinople
;:(Istanbul), lasted only from 1204 to 1261, but Crusader principalities in
~$0~thern Greece survived i11to the fifteenth cer; tury. The Kingdom of Cyprus
-~,,., as annexed by Venice in 1489.
~
r
.,,..,.".1;
.
~he
small,
vulnerable
character
of
all
Crt1sader
States,
with
the
possible
1
1
' Xception of Cyprus, clearly had an effect o~ their military development.
lfowever, it would be wrong to think that only.the leading knights among the
2
First and later Crusaders were well equipped. Nevertheless, a shortage of
3
!fiorses was clearly a problem in the early years and may have remained a
~source of weakness later. A shortage of manpower, though serious, seems to
Have been exaggerated by earlier generations ofhistorians, who misllnderStood
the figures for Crusader military personnel :a~d grossly overestimated the
""'f""'numerical strength of their Islamic foes. On the other hand the numerical
~ problem was exacerbated following the establishme11t of Crusader States in
'Greece in 1204, when large numbers of men saw a more promising future in
._L
'R
4
...,.".u11s new
omani a' .
interesting features of these later years were, however, the vital role of Military
6
Orders such as the Templars and Hospitallers and that of the town-based
7
m ilitary 'confraternities'. Generally speaking, the Crusaders had little to
.teach the warriors of the eastern Mediterra11can region. On the contrary, they
,atlopted much that was to be seen in Byzantium, though possibly through a
H.iA 5. .
f*''i':"'
. . ,,, .Ji
Chapter
~4
I
t
'
This section includes the Crusader States id Syria and Palestine, Cyprus
ollowing its conquest by Richard I of Englapd, and the Latin 'Empire' of
onstantinople plus its successor principalities in Greece. The history of the
rtisader States in_ Syria, P~lestine an? the Le~anon began _with the arrival of
the First Crusade m the Middle East m 1098, t nd ended with the fall of Acre
and the remaining Crusader-held coastal cilties to the MamlUks in 1291,
'although the Templars remained in possession iof the offshore island of Arwad
. ntil 1303. The Crusader 'Empire of Romani:[t', based upon Constantinopl e
(Istanbul), lasted only from 1204 to 1261, but Crusader principalities in
.~outhern Greece sur~ive.d into the fifteenth ce1tury. The Kingdom of Cyprus
_)Vas annexed by V eruce m 1489.
:
' The small, vulnerable character of all CrJsader States, with the possible
:xception of Cyprus, clearly had an effect o~ their military development. 1
,However, it would be wrong to think that only the leading knights among the
First and later Crusaders were well equipped. 2 Nevertheless, a shortage of
.horses was clearly a problem in the early years 3 and may have remained a
source of weakness later. A shortage of manpower, though serious, seems to
have been exaggerated by earlier generations ofhistorians, who misunderstood
the figures for Crusader military personnel ;aR-d grossly overestimated the
.numerical strength of their Islamic foes. On the other hand the numerical
problem was exacerbated following the establishment of Crusader States in
.Greece in 1204, when large numbers of men saw a more promising future in
this new 'Romania'. 4
Crusader tactics and military organisation have been stud ied in some
5
detail, though greater attention has been given to the initial conquest and
the first expansionist century than to th e second, defensive phase. Two
interesting features of these later years were, however, the vital role of Military
Orders such as th e T emplars and Hospitall ers 6 and that of the town-based
military 'confraternities'. 7 Generally speaking, the Crusaders had little to
teach the warriors of the eastern Mediterranean region. On the contrary, they
adopted much that was to be seen in Byzantium, though possibly through a
,Parallel response to similar military situations rather than by learning directly
274
.,
FIGURES
715-718 275
F1gure~
.~ '
276
~~'
,; '*
,.,,
====================11============="'''
.
....
-.
'
-~
FIGURES
7 l 9-729A-C 277
278
..
t-
'"
'
732A- K
en Melis
1131-43
(British Library, Ms. Egerton 1139, London, England)
A- H - The Betrayal, f. 7v; I - Guards at the Holy Sepulchre, f. l Or;J Sagittarius, f. l 8v; K - decorated initial, f.23v. Queen Melisende's
Psalter was probably one of the earliest products of a school of
FIGURES
730A-B-734A-I 279
F)
t
280
FIGURES
735-740 281
Two sleeping guards outside the Hol)f Sepulchre (A) have tall conical
helmets without nasals, pi us long-slee~ed mail hauberks, coifs, and in one
case mail chausses. Two other soldier~at the Crucifixion (B) have the
same armour, though they lack helmets and their hauberks lack mittens.
':,Swords are straight and in one case apparently non-tapering. A lack of
, ' surcoats seems to reflect current ByzanHne styles and there is no reason
. why the Larnaca sculptor should not have chosen to use Byzantine
models for these men. After all, the Byzantines regarded themselves as
descendants of the Romans (and, ind~ed, called themselves Romans)
and were often seen as such by their al~ies, rivals and foes.
282
.J
..
f1GURES
741A-K-744A-C 283
'
1-
284
=====~============;;r;=::===============-i
745A-L Histoire Universelle, Kingdom of Jerusalem, c.1286
:;:i
286
FIGURES
749A-K-752 287
288
FIGURES
753-760 289
~.
1.
1
Jf
)59 Fragment of a sgraffito-ware ceramic dish from alMina, Principality of Antioch (?), early 13th century
'1'
290
'
..
Nicos~a,
Cyprus)
This worn and damaged stone slab almost certainly dates to the l 4th
century. It shows a round helmet of two-piece construction, probably
with an aventail or, less likely, .worn over a coif. The two-piece
construction with a slightly raised comb clearly remained popular in
the eastern l\1editerranean for manyT)ears.
FIGURES
many Balkan states. Most of the swords would probably have been
exported to these areas from the main arms manufacturing centres
of Germany and northern Italy.
f
'
l.......
'
Notes
P. Contamine, La Guerre azi j.\foyen Age (Paris, 1980), p.156; J. Richard, The Latin
Kingdom ofJerusalem (Oxford, 1979), p.256.
F. Duncalf, 'The Peasants' Crusade', America11 Historical Review vol.XXVI ( 1921 ),
pp.441- 2.
Richa1. d, op.cit. pp.16- 17.
Richard, op.cit. p.210.
292
5.
6.
R.C. Smail, Crusading Waifare, 1097-1193 (Cambridge, 1956), pp.120-3, 130-3, 1567 and 201-2;]. Prawer, The Crusaders' Kingdom (New York, 1972), pp.327 and 341-2
J. Beeler, Waifare in Feudal Europe, 730-1200 (Ithaca 1971 ), p.144, Contamine, loc.cit.'
R.C. Smail, 'Crusaders' Castles in the Twelfth Century', The Cambridge Historical
Journal vol.X ( 1951), p.148; J. Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of
Jerusalem 1174-1277 (London, 1973), pp.28-9.
Richard, op.cit. pp.284-5.
Smail, Crusading Waifare, op.cit. pp. l I0-1 I'.
N. Elisseeff, .NUr al Din: un Grand Prince .Musulman de Syrie au temps des Croisades
(Damascus, 1967), p.732.
J.F. Verbruggen, The Art ofWaifare in W~Jtern Europe during the Middle Ages (Oxford,
1977), pp.115-16.
i
Verbruggen, op.cit. p.93.
Prawer, op.cit. p.219; Smail, Crusading Waifare, op.cit. pp.52-3; Richard, op.cit.
pp.140-2 and 366; D.C. Douglas, The Norman Fate, 1100-1154 (London, 1976),.
p.184;J. Laurent, Etudesd'HistoireArminienne (Louvain, 1971), pp.145-6; C.J ...
Y arnley, Byzantine Relations with the Armenians in the Eleventh Century, with Special~
ReferencetoCilicia (B.Litt. thesis, Oxford Upiversity, 1972), p.149.
'
Smail, Crusading Waifare, op.cit. pp. l l l-12i Prawer, op.cit. pp.109 and 140.
H.E. Mayer, The Crusades (Oxford, 1972),'p.164.
,;-I
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
I
I
li
t
I
,_
l
r!.
')
lI
~
...
~
aris, Dalmatians, Croats and Sl<:>venes. Oflthese, the last four groups were
v.."'Y Catholic until the Ottoman conquest, a d as such they will be discussed
--~lis \{olume, as will be the non-Slavic Albania s. After the Ottoman conquest
,.,_.,,,. ,. ......majority
ofBosnians
gradually
converted
to
,
slam,
but
interestingly
enough
.
.~. ere:was already a substantial non-Christian rrlinority within medieval Bosnia
ting before this. These were the Bogomils, tfollowers of a version of tl1e
~ anichaean faith which had earlier been seentiri eastern Anatolia (where its
. Her~nts were known as Paulicians), and whicl~ would also emerge in southern
ce, where historians generally refer to its ' ollowers as Albigensians. The
.al>itants of medieval Dalmatia were also partly Italian in culture and
. h. ahe Greeks of the Aegean and Ionian S~a coasts are not dealt with here
e llie section on Byzantium in the second Yolume for these), nor are the
achs. Although these semi-nomadic ancestors of the n:iodern Rumanians
~fil~!'.,l; ~re found across a large part of the Balkan~, including some western and
'uthern parts of the peninsula, they too will be covered in book two .
. Early in the 11 th century most of the western Balkan peninsula, except
p'P~a. . rts of Slovenia and Croatia, formed part of
the
Byzantine
Empire.
By
the
,
.
~.time of the First Crusade the Croats, after a period of independence, were
falling under Hungarian rule. With the Fourth Crusade's capture of
Gonstantinople (Istanbul) in 1204, the whole Balkan region fragmented once
again. Northern and western Greece was itself di-vided between minor
.Crusader princ-ipalities and the Byzantine Despotate of Epirus. Even the
Albanians soon won a brief independence, but by the mid- l 4th century Serbia
~3.d conquered a large though ephemeral empire from the Danube to the Gulf
?f Corinth. The souther11 Italian Kingdom of Naples was also deeply involved
In Albanian and Greek affairs. The Crusader principalities held a small part of
southern Greece, while Venice and Genoa struggled for control of most of the
.6"ireek islands.
Culturally and even politically Byzantium had, of course, been the main
'liufluence on most of the Balkan peninsula. However, during the period under
..,,
....,._,,
.u ;.,.
., ,;o. ._.,,.,,,,,
. 294
,
I
295
Like so many other Balkan peoples, the 4\1 ba11ians were dominated by
tlr neighbours throughout most of the Midklle Ages. The coastal cities of
~e
as well
6. The next phase came with an invasion byi the Angevins of southern Italy
il in 1272, established another Albani n kingdom under Angevin
1
~nage. This was followed by a considerable wave of southern Italian and
nch military influence which was at first '.eagerly accepted by the local
itary elites. Angevin control, however, n~ever extended far beyond the
~.
12
~,~&
e \vild highlands of Epirus. When Albania, bdth Angevin and Despotate, fell
nder Serbian control in the early 1330s the a 'ea was said to sup.p ort no less
14
an 15,000 cavalry, almost all being lightly.iarmed tribesmen fighting with
ar. and sword. Such troops would later mak< a drainatic impact - normally
~""'-ler the Venetian flag - in l 5th century Italy~ where they were again known
, .,[,. .; tradiotti.
'
296 THE
WESTERN BALKANS
Figures
768 Carved relief on a choir-screen from Biskupija,
Dahnatia, c.1070
.
Although coming from a Slav area, this carving has much in common.
with Romanesque Italian art, }Vhich in turn reflected the high degree:
of Italian influence in Dalmatia. The man's sword is straight, barely~
.,
'f),
r
~
't
FIGURES
'
<
'
~Z4.it-F
'
,.
.
Bronze JDace-heads, Dal1nati13-, llth-14th cent11ries
These were again found in the bed oftte River Cetina, at a ford near Trilj,
near Split. The first, spiked example {A) is so small that its identification
as a weapon remains debatable. The ~econd (B) is flimsy and hollow, and
would presumably originally have been filled with lead .
. '
.
Here a fully-armoured warrior is shown in purely Western European
style. In fact his acutely forward-angled conical helmet and nasal look
-.
disti11ctly Italian.
298
THE
w ESTERN BALKANS
'
FIGURES
This seal is totally within the \\'l estern European, and more
specifically Italian, tradition. The a~ccuracy with which the mid to
late l 4th century armour and horse-hb.r11ess is portrayed suggests that
either the seal-maker was himself I talia11, or that the ruling elite of
Bosnia did indeed equip themselves iih this manner .
.
...,,
Notes
.,.. . ,}. G.A. Skrivanic, 'Armour and Weapons in Medie\tal Serbia, Bosnia and Dubrovnik',
.
in Serbian \vith English summary, Posedna /zdani~ vol. CCXCIII (Belgrade, 1957),
pp.203-4; V . Subotic, Guide, Military Museum (Belgrade, n.d.), pp.12- 13.
2. D. Petrovic~ Dubrovako Oru'ZJ.ie u XIV veku ( i11eaponsiof Dubrovnik in the 14th century) with
~~~r-"-,-~ ~ En.gl'ish summary (Belgrade, 1976), pp.278- 9.
:
~ 3. S. Shaw, History ofthe Ottoman Empire and Modern T~rkey, vol.1, 1280- 1808 ( C~mbridge,
t~~c~.,... 1978), pp.50-1; H. Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: TJ:e Classical Age 1300- 160.0 (London,
.
~~~S-~: } 973), p.11.
f
~~,,: Petrovic, op.cit. p.268.
~
~. D. Pribakovic, 'O srednjovekovnom oruzju na umetnikim spomenicima Hrvatske
(Les Armes du Moyen Age sur les Monuments des Arts de la Croatie) ', Vesnik Vojnog
Muzqa vol. II ( 1955), pp. 70- 1.
6. Skrivanic, op.cit. p.204.
l
I
'
&
'.
e medieval Hungarian state was very large, and included many provinces
~~!k; .:-r bited by non-Magyar peoples, though some of these latter areas did have
stantial Hungarian minorities. Many cities also included German
orities or could even be described as Germanic islands set in a Hungarian
, In fact the Hungarian state had many of~he characteristics of an empire .
e most important non-Magyar regions wdre Transylvania (which had a
ed
Hungarian,
Romanian
and
German
population),
and
Zips
(Slovakia..
uthenia), Croatia, Bosnia, Temesvar (northern Serbia), and northern
almatia, all of which were essentially Slav. !croatia, Bosnia and Dalmatia
ave already been discussed separately, as pet rt of the Wes tern Balkans (see
h:a:Hter 15). To the east, 'Vallachia and Moldavia were for some time under
rungarian suzerainty, but this was relatively short-lived, and as a result these
o Vlach-Rumanian princip~lities are considered part of the Eastern
kans, covered in volume two.
The original Hungarians, or Magyars, were a nomadic people of basically
~inno-Ugrian origin, though incorporating a large Turkic or Khazar element.
, .~. ~.ter an era of intense warfare, in which the Magyars raided across much of
Central Europe and the Germans tried to destroy the nascent Magyar state,
the
Magyars
suffered
a major military defeat. at Lechfield in 955. Part of their
.
,
.
military aristocracy \Vas slaughtered by the victors following this battle, and
from then on the Magyars were gradually integrated into Christian European
civilisation.
Hungary officially became Christian in 1001 with the accession of its first
.king, Stefan. Previously it had been a duchy or principality. Western European
feudal institutions were introduced and most of the elite came to adopt
Western military systems and styles. While remaining on the defensive along
its western frontier, the new Christian Kingdom of Hungary started to press
against its northern, southern and eastern neighbours. Following the Magyars'
first occupation of the Central Danubian Plain, their boundaries had rested on
the crests of the Carpathians to the north, east and south-east, though there is
some doubt about the effectiveness of Magyar control over eastern
Transylvania. This was probably inhabited by semi-nomadic Vlach tribes.
lo.W!;H
_,,,
~~~i:
~t;
~-
302
HUNGARY
'
To the south the Danube and Save rivers formed a frontier between Hungarian
and Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian and Syzantine territories. From the midlOth century the western frontier incorp~rated Slovakia but not Moravia. It
then ran slightly west of the present Hungarian-Austrian frontier, where it
remained throughout the period under review. By the mid-l 3th century 1
Croatia and Dalmatia had been drawp into the Hungarian kingdom by
marriage alliance. Bosnia was conqu~red from the Serbs and western
Wallachia lay under Hungarian suzerai*ty. Hungary next felt the full effect
of the Mongol assault in 1241, but the cpuntry was never incorporated into
the Mongol world empire. In fact Huqgary recovered quite quickly, and
during the l 4th century developed into aj powerful centralised state modelled
almost entirely along Western lines. Bosn~a was retaken, temporarily, in 1328,
both Wallachia and Moldavia remaininf under Hungarian suzerainty until
!
;
the 1360s.
Traditional Magyar military styles rad relied on a small tribal elite of
cavalry; mostly lightly equipped horse-arFhers though a minority might have
used heavier armour. Tactics were basica1ly in the Eurasian steppe tradition, 1
though in the version characteristic of the\western rather than eastern steppes.
In addition early-medieval Hungary ha~ many characteristics in common
with Iran rather than with the Central A~ian Turks. Bows were also closer to
the Sassanian, Caucasian, Byzantine or ejt ly Islamic style than to the Turkish
form, 2 as were several aspects of arms an armour. 3 There is also evidence to
suggest that Magyar horse-archery tactic were closer to those of the Middle
East than to those of Central Asia. In addition the early Magyars used quite
sophisticated siege engines. Cultural as well as trade contacts with the Islamic
world were, in fact, very important in lOth and 11 th century Hungary. 4
The first phase of 'Westernisation' from the 1Oth to l 2th centuries
probably only affected the royal household, mercenary troops, and the leading
barons. Some sections of Magyar society, particularly in the Great Plain,
remained tribal and at least transhumant if not strictly nomadic well into the
l 2th century. 5 But the majority of the population, especially in the Slav areas,
had always been agricultural. Many Magyars also settled down, which in turn
led to increasing feudalisation of the country and of the army. Light cavalry
did not disappear but they declined in importance, while arms and armour
became largely, but not entirely, Western European. 6
The process of military 'Westernisation' was apparently more
characteristic of the Slav provinces of the Hungarian kingdom. Here arms,
armour and military traditions had never ceased to be within the wider
European tradition. By the 12th century Hungary was making use of Balkan
troops drawn from areas which had been under Western European influence
since Carolingian times. 7 Despite a considerable Magyar impact, the military
traditions of the northern Carpathian mountains also remained essentially
Western. 8
I
I
l
'r
r
HUNGARY
303
~..n.
The same process could be seen in the l 3th and l 4th centuries. By then the
4
.. .....
11
gh most such troops came from Slat areas such as Slovakia. The
. . .- .w then rapidly became popular throughout the kingdom, though even
12
e 15th century it had not completely qusted the composite hand-bow.
e Hungarians used other tactics associattd with the peoples of the western
13
t: Ees, such as wagons drawn up to form field fortifications, although this
~. . . 1 articular idea may never have been aba11doned since early Magyar times.
~~'it:Many so-called oriental features see11 in lat<~ Hungarian armies are sometimes
explained as betraying Ottoman influence, put the Hungarians hardly met the
'""""'-. _~tomans face-to-face until the late l 4th century. Meanwhile various features
late .l 4th and early l 5th-century Ottoma~n military practice, such as the use
'
agons as field fortifications and tpe adoption of firearms, could
14
espondingly be seen as examples of Hungarian influence. .
I
-~~
Figures
784 Lance blade from Pecs-Uszog, Hungary, lOth-llth
centuries
~
(Archaeological Museum, Budd.pest, Hungary)
I
Many lance blades ofextremely Central Asian form have been found in
f
Hungary. This example has been associated with the Magyars, but
similar types seem to have been us~d by the Avars in the 7th and 8th
centuries. The Avars were, however, even more typical representatives of Eurasian steppe cult\ire than were the Finno-Ugrian
Magyars.
'f
f
lOth-1~ centuries
FIGURES
784-794 305
~-:-C
A-B
centuries
(National Museum, Budapest, Hungary)
This beautiful sabre has a non-tapering blade with an angled tip. In
many respects it recalls some fine, and very much later, Japanese
swords. The origins of both groups of weapons almost certainly lay
in Central Asia. The bulbous quillons are of an unusual and probably
early form.
306
HUNGARY
===================================:!=,==========================~~
llth-12~
centuries
A simpler and probably slightl~ later weapon still has quillons related,
to those of the magnificent Esztergom sabre. The blade is, however, of
a later form with a broadened tip and angled back, designed tot
delive~ a more powerful blow. Such weapons were characteristic o~~
the Middle East from the l 2th century onwards and were presumably~~i
developed in response to a wide~ use of armour.
'
FIGURES
795-806 307
Ge~man
i~;;,
308
HUNGARY
Arrowheads from the Slav regi~n of Slovakia are very different from
those of Magyar areas to the south. They are of the socket instead of
the tang type and often have broad barbed heads.
'
.
I
FIGURES
807-817A-C 309
.f
This large socket-type arrowhead cotnes from the western end of Lake
Balaton, an area that retained a Sl~v character and Slav minority
well into the Middle Ages. Gene~ally speaking such minorities
survived in hillier areas, while th~ originally nomadic Magyars
dominated the wide plains.
310
HUNGARY
However, the third (C) is differe_nt in form. Whereas the first two look .
like infantry weapons, the third ~as the appearance either of a cavalry
lance head or perhaps another e~ample of a large bolt head, to be shot
A typical European sword ofi the type which, like the previous
example (fig.809), was adopted;by the Hungarian knightly class.
i
~
These metal stiffeners also servep to protect the sheath from the single
cutting edge of the weapon. ThFY are, however, too small to be from
dagger sheaths and almost certciinly were for a kind of working knife.
i
'
FIGURES
8 l 8-829A-B 311
l
(Archaeological Institute, Nitra{ Slovakia)
centun.es
This weapon was clearly designed to; penetrate armour. The fact that
it has a tang rather than a socket could
indicate Magyar influence,
I
but such bolt heads were also seen ;lsewhere in Europe by the l 3th
and l 4th centuries.
!
~
12th-14th centuries
{Local Museum, Trencin, Slovakia)
An unusually large barbed head which might have been used on a
javelin, if such weapons were still in use, or which could have formed
part of a large crossbow bolt to be shot from a frame-mounted siege
bow.
312
HUNGARY
li~1
'
12th century
Pee~
FIGURES
830-839 313
A typical mid or late l 3th century slword, except for its peculiar flat
pomm.el.
1
...
314
HUNGAR
"
\.
cent1111es
13th/ear~y
14th
Though longer and narrower ~than other similarly dated weaR:. .ti
this sword has a relatively thick blade clearly intended for thrusti
designed to counter newly adopted plate armour.
14th centuri~s .
(National Museulll, Budapest, Hungary)
13th/e~rly
These swords from Hungary itielf show the same va~iety offo~
those found in Slovakia, thus i!llustrati ng a high degree of milit
uniformity across the central and nort.hern parts .of the.meai
state. Two probably qate from the late l 3th or early l 4th c entu...
(A and B), while the third (C) 1fiight da.te from tl1e early or mid~l~
century.
.
;r
..
This broken blade, which also l acks a hilt, is exactly the same tyP.e
the example depicted in fig.844.
1L1
'l-
FIGURES
840-854A-B 315
Basically the same form again, though!with a slightly wider fuller. Its
pommel is different and unusual.
The narrow, tapering and relatively sho.rt blade of this weapon indicates
a later date. The grip is also longer, and ~~he round pommel larger.
brol~en
.
.!
I
centuries
.....__...__~_
These two axes seem to stem from very different traditions, both of
which are unlike the narrow-bladed form seem above (fig.845 ). The
first example finds parallels in the northern European 'Danish' axes of
an earlier period, while the second (B) has similarities with some
Polish weapons .
316
...
HUNGARY
One figure (A) is probably eFirlier than the other (B). The ma ::w
differences are in the increased length of later quillons. The fact tlia
so many of these swords have lost the lower parts of their blades, bu
are otherwise largely undamaged, suggests that in battle su
weapons often broke against the increasingly strong armour of
period.
~
~
I:
t
*&!-!
IO
13(h century
regions.
FIGURES
855A-C-864A-G 31 7
'
No full study has yet been made of the relatively small maces, usually
of bronze, that were so widely used throughout Eastern Europe. The
dating of these examples remains doubtful. They do, however, seem
to have remained in use for many centuries and to have been popular
among the horse-raising semi-nomadic peoples of the Great
Hungarian Plain.
'
sword-belt~
318
HUNGARY
The original shape ofthis complet~ly fused and smashed mail shirt is
impossible to determine but the amount of surviving mail suggests
that it was quite .small, perhaps b~ing similar to examples from the
Ukraine. The fact that it also included a pair of shoulder-protecting
plate epaulettes is potentially very inlportant. Such pieces of plate were .
not seen on Western armour untif, the l 4th century, which may be
taken as further evidence that the ~uropean coat-of-plates with which
such epaulettes are normally associated was inspired by, if not directly
copied from, various forms ofTurc~-Mongol body-armour. The gold
belt mounts found with this m~il hauberk are from a typically
European sword belt.
~
!
FIGURES
865-875A-G 319
1
I
320
HUNGARY
socket variety (D-G). The latter are so large that they are likely to have
been used on crossbow bolts. 1
'
If
&c
~i~
l\ihr.
~r,.
~.
32 l
hel~ets
l .
(after Ruttkay)
'I
The coin is both simple and worn. Nevertheless, it clearly shows a
man with a long, flat-topped kite-sh4ped shield and a straight sword.
'
~; ~:e:::..7~:~pear
(
~:..
322
HUNGARY
nomads. Ladislas himself is shown with a couched lance.and flat' wears a long surcoat over probably
topped kite-shaped shield (A). He
mailed chausses having plated poleyns (C), and with a 'ballock dagger'
on his right hip (C and F).The Kipchak is naturally shown as a horsearcher with a recurved composite bow and the box-type quiver normal
among Eurasian steppe peoples (B). He wears a peculiar, almost
winged hat, with a coif (Band D).The construction of this headgear is
a bit of a mystery, for when it is removed in the last scene (I) the coif
comes off with it. The spirited rpaiden contributes to her own rescue
by striking the Kipchak in the a(ikle with an axe (E) and subsequently
helps to decapitate him with his pwn curved sabre (H).
)
.f
FIGURES
888A-G 323
!.
IF,
cf"
Notes
J.F. Verbruggen,
The Art of Waifare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (Oxford,
1977), p.92; K. Leyser, 'The Battle of the Lech, 955: A Study in Tenth Century
Warfare', History vol.I ( 1965), pp.2-3.
324
HUNGARY
'
Chapter 117
t
t
Poland
Great Poland around Poznan and Little Polanp around Krakow to the southeast were united at the end of the lOth century. ~azovia north-east ofWarsaw,
Silesia to the south-west and Lausitz in what isi now eastern Germany were all
drawn into the Polish state in the early 11 th ceptury. Pomerania on the Baltic
coast was ?-lso occupied for a while before falli~g under German domination,
as, briefly, w~re ~hat are now the Czech Rept&blic and Slovakia plus parts of
Ukraine'further east. By the year 1100 Poland occupied much the same
territory as it does today, with the exception otPomerania on the Baltic coast
and the southern Prussian lands. These ftontiers remained relatively
unchanged, though Lausitz and Silesia wer~ lost to Germany in 'the 13th
century. Such losses were partially compen~ted by eastern gains. In the
1340s, for example, Ruthenia and Galicia '4ere acquired from the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania, which had itself onlyl recently taken them from a
fragmented and weakened Russia.
During the period when the Polish state was being formed, the northwestern Slavs appear to have had few cavalry. The Poles may have had
rather more than other Slav tribes such as the Wends, Wiltzes or Obodrites, 1
and they also seem to have been moderately well armed. By the early 12th
century the coastal Slavs possessed war-fleets which raided as far as Norway
and had also developed effective light cavalry tactics similar to those of the
neighbouring Prussians and Lithuanians. By the early l 3th century the Slav
princes of what are now the Baltic coastal provinces of Germany were
Christian members of a German warrior aristocracy. They joined in
Crusades against their pagan neighbours and fought in typical European
style. 2
The Polish Slavs never, of course, became German, but they remained
under considerable German military influence. An armoured cavalry elite
emerged in the 1Oth century, although the majority of Polish horsemen still
fought as unarmoured light cavalry like their pagan neighbours to the northeast. 3 The question of Polish archery is less clear, though on balance it would
appear that the simple bow or longbow was an important weapon among
Polish infantry from the 1Oth to l 2th centuries. 4
)
326
POLAND
In the south-east of the country Central Asian influence, which might have
come via Kievan Russia or from Hungary, 5 ~as apparent in horse-harness and
some weapons. Elsewhere 1Oth to l 2th-cent~ry Polish military equipment was
closer to that of Germany, from where most swords seem, in fact, to have been
imported, 6 as too may have been some spearheads and other weapons.)
However, arms such as long-hafted light a,xes, and helmets of the directlyriveted form, were a specifically Slav featur~. 7
.
In the mid-l 2th century the Polish kingdom began to disintegrate into a
series of petty principalities, 8 but this did not halt the process of
'Westernisation'. Crossbows began to replace bows as an important infantry
weapon, 9 while cavalry equipment beca*1e virtually identical to that of
Germany or Bohemia, but somewhat more old-fashioned. Nevertheless,
cavalry tactics still showed some Eastern features. 10
As in so many parts of Eastern Europe, not least among the Poles' Baltic
neighbours, the Mongol invasions led. to considerable military and
technological changes in the later 13th and!~arly 14th centuries. This applied
to light cavalry tactics, which began to betriy yet more Eastern influence; 11 to
armour, where lamellar might have become more common in the east of the
country; 12 and to the limited introduction of horse-archery in the south-east
of Poland, which might date from the l 4tli century. 13 Nevertheless, even in
the 14th century Polish forces still included large numbers of infantry. For
example, the army led by Wladyslaw Lokie!ka in 1330 reportedly consisted of
2100 heavily-armoured cavalry, 20,000 light cavalry and some 30,000 assorted
"nf:
i
antry. 14
Figures
889A-B Helmet from. Gierz, Pozna.D, Great Poland, lOth-llth
centuries
(Archaeological Museum, Pozn~n, Poland)
A - present condition; B - reconshuction of original state (after
Warner). This helmet is very similar in construction to the example
from Gorzuchy (fig.890). The decotative fillet of copper between the
' many such helmets and is
riveted iron plates is a feature'.of
particularly apparent here.
i
I
'
328
POLAND
r
1
FIGURES
892-902 329
!A-F
.'
330
POLAND
In con~rast to the previous axe, thi~ example has a very long 'beard' or
extens10n to the blade.
;
i
.
(Museum of the First P1asts, ;o.257, Ledn1ca, Poland)
,
A large number of medieval swords have been found in Poland and;~
their survival may reflect the pers.\stence of pre-Christ~an folk rituals. :1
Most such swords, particularly tpose of the 1Oth to l 2th centuries, ,:
were probably imported from qermany. This might be one such :
t
example.
l
FIGURES
~!}09
':'
903-914 331
'
h::,
~.
. , I ~th centuries
I~:'~
t
:.,
(Diocesan Museum, Plock, Polanfi)
.
The pommel and quillons of this sword look late but the blade seems
early. The weapon might have been; cut down and re-used. Such a
practice is likely in an area that had~. relatively small domestic arms
industry and in which backward peoples such as Pomeranians,
t.
Prussians and Lithuanians would ~aturally have tried to re-use
~.'.!. captured weapons, however damageq.
tt
t
,.?12. Scabbard from GdaDsk, Pome~ania, llth century
(Archaeological Museum, Gda.D.sk, Poland)
This scabbard is made of wood around a hide inner sleeve; the whole
being covered by linen. Pomerania, where the scabbard was found,
was ruled by Poland from c.980 to 1033. Thereafter it was
independent until conquered by Germans in the l 2th and l 3th
centuries.
' '
913 Sword from Katowice, Little Poland, 11 th-12th
centuries
(after Warner)
[
century
(after Warner)
The curvature of this otherwise typical 11 th or early l 2th-century
sword is the result of damage. The blade would originally have been
straight.
332
POLAND
.
-~
"~
. ,,1
-~
Princejacza seems to have been one of the last native Slav princes of
the Berlin area, which was divided between the German Nordmark
and independent Pomerania in the mid-l 2th century. The prince
appears in a strange mixture of Eastern and Western styles. His spear
and banner look somewhat German and.he ~ight have a large kite-
FIGURES
9 l 5-924A-H 333
~zczecin, Pomerania,
i
334
POLAND
from the l 3th century. All can be seen as essentially European. Twci
arrowheads are, however, of the tanged variety (E and F) and ar .
much closer in style to those used by the horse-archers of the Eurasia
steppes.
927
;:.::=::;- Szcepanktv~ P~
12th-13th
~1
.'
t
t
\
FIGURES
925-932 335
.,.
l
336
POLAND
:~
Brandenburg, c.1350
(probably lost in Second World War)
century
(National Museum, no.V-3457, Krakow, Poland)
Very similar to the preceding example but with thicker quillons and a
slightly broader blade, perhaps indicating an earlier date or local
Polish manufacture.
' -- '
14th century
(Archaeological Museum, no.10124, Krakow, Poland)
Again a typical 'hand-and-a-half sword of the mid-l 4th century.
FIGURES
933-93 7 33 7
originally had a visor. It may also te a form used by some of the troops
of the greatly expanded Lithuanit.n state.
Notes
r
;i
1
t
l. K. Leys er, 'Henry I and the Beginnings of thti Saxon Em pi re', The English Historical
Review vol.LXXXIII (1968), p~.10 and 15;J{ Herrmann, 'The Northern Slavs', in
The.Northern World, ed. D.M. Wilson (London 1980), p.202.
2. E. Christiansen, The .Northern Crusades: Thetsaltic and Catholic Frontier 1100-1525
(London, 1980), pp.33 and 69.
f
3. B. Warner, ~lavonic Terms for Weapons and Armo~r in the Middle Ages: A Lexico-Historical
Study (M.A. thesis, London University, 1965)ip.172.
4. A. Nadolski, Bron fredniowieczna z ziem polskich (Medieval Arms and Armour in Poland)
(Warsaw, 1978), pp.57-60; Warner, op.cit. p.137 takes an opposite viewpoint.
5. Nadolski, op.cit. p.59.
6. Nadolski, op.cit. p.58.
7. Warner, op.cit. pp.76-80, 137 and 172-3; Nadolski, op.cit. pp.57-61; A. Nadolski,
'Ancient Polish Arms and Armour', Journal oJthe Arms and Armour Society vol.IV
(1962), pp.32-7.
8. Nadolski, Brofdredniowieczna, op.cit. p.54.
9. Nadolski, Bron fredniowieczna, op.cit. pp.6 l-2; Nadolski, 'Ancient Polish Arms', op.cit.
p.32; \Varner, op.cit. pp.175-6.
10. Nadolski, Bron sredniowieczna, op.cit. p.60; Nadolski, 'Ancient Polish Arms', op.cit.
p.38; Warner, op.cit. pp.174-6; AN. Kirpicnikov, 'Russische Helm aus dem friihen
Mittelalter', <,eitschriftfiir historische Waffen-und Kostiimkunde vol.XV ( l 973), p.89.
11. Nadolski, 'Ancient Polish Arms', op.cit. p.38; Nadolski, Bron fredniowieczna, op.cit.
pp.61-2.
12. Nadolski, Bron fredniowieczna, op.cit. p.64; B. Thordeman, Armour from the Battle of
J1'isby 1361 (U ppsala, 1939), p.270.
13. G. Ra using, The Bow, Some .Notes on its Origins and Development (Lund, 1967), pp. l 43-4.
14. Warner, op.cit. p.l 76.
'
..'
-or-
.;,;r..:;:.;
ada.
. ,. t'.".B y the mid-11 th century the great age of Viking expansion had ended and
~~
~'f.~
340
SCANDINAVIA
~
warfare was still dominated by infantry usjng spears, swords a11d long-hafted
2
axes well into the first half of the 12th century. In Denmark a highly.
structured military system had already appeared in the 11 th century, where
training schedules were regularised and mounted infantry played a leading
3
role. The many Anglo-Saxon refugees wl~o migrated to Scandinavia in the
4
late 11 th and early 12th centu.ries had nQ difficulty fitting into this system
and may even have reinforced it. Lamella~ armour might have been used in
Sweden, which would indicate contact wi~l1 Eastern Europe or beyond. The
5
longbow was an important weapon, p<irticularly in Norway, though
composite or reinforced wooden bows ofiEastern inspiration were almost
certainly also known. Such weapons r~maiiied popular among the Lapps and
r.
.
6
.
Finns 1or many centunes.
The l 2th to l 4th centuries saw further changes. By the mid-l 2th centu
Sweden had been drawn into the mainstream of European military culture.
Denmark was also transformed into a rea~onably typical European feud~
state and, after a period of retrenchment! returned to the offensive in th~
8
Baltic during the mid-12th century. Danish armies now included large . . -.
9
0
numbers of cavalry, and, by the 13th century, also many crossbowmen.I .__-;;;~
Crossbows subsequently spread throug4out Scandinavia, I I eventually
becoming a central, almost mystical, feature of the Kalevala, Finland's!~
.
I
.
12
nat1ona epic.
~
Military developments on the fringei of the Northern world, in such
areas as Finland, Lapland and among the neighbouring Finno-U grian
peoples of what is now northern Russia, were, of course, chronologically
behind developments in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Harsh climatic
factors also played a part, the flat bow of simple construction continuing to
be used in sub-Arctic areas like Lapland where it was apparently less
3
sensitive to low temperatures. I The Finns remained a tribal society without
a military elite, having much in common :w ith the Balts to their south. Like
14
the Perms to the east they used javelins in warfare. The K.arelians were
15
partly nomadic, having more in common with the Lapps, though the
16
coastal Finns were 'Europeanised' in the l 3th and l 4th centuries. The
Lapps themsel\ es were apparently dependent on trade for all metal object~,
17
including weapons. The neighbouring Finno- U grian peoples of the
northern Ural region also seem to have relied on trade for iron, some of
18
which came from the far south via the Volga Bulgars. The southernmost
Finno-U grian tribes were, however, more advanced even in the 11 th
century, when small towns already existed in which archaeologists have
recently found weapons and evidence of Christianity.
On the even more far-flung western fringes of the Scandinavian world
were the Skraelings, or 'screamers'. This name was given by Norse settlers or
explorers to all indigenous inhabitants of Greenland and North America. In
reality these aboriginal peoples differed considerably among themselves, from
~
-- ~-~ .
ScANDINA VIA
341
mo hunters,
19
342
SCANDINAVIA
Figures
..
~~
.~
!
l~.
};~
'
This weapon, which has been ceremonially
'killed' by heating and\
bending, is basically very similar to the preceding example.
FIGURES
946A-B 343
344
SCANDINAVIA
,
J
FIGURES
94 7A-C-954 345
r .
(after Nordman)
.
One of the last areas to be drawn mto medieval Western European
military culture was Finland, and her~ certain archaic technological
and stylistic traditions survived for mary years. This bronze hilt is a
oase in point. The pommel is very 019-fashioned, and the missing
quillons were clearly very broad. The;~ may even have been carved
1
from horn, as earlier seen in Poland.
I
llth century(?)
(National Museum, Stockholm, Sweden)
Highly-decorated weapons such as this probably had ceremonial
functions and might have been symbols of authority. The bulge
between the socket and blade appears to be hollow and pierced.
346
SCANDINAVIA
..
~
The flat bow seems to have been popular in various parts ofNorthe \
Europe. Its name derives from the fact that the arms were thin 1
section (A). The bow charactetistically took on an almost ang('
profile when drawn, as distinct from the regular curve of the norma .
;t'.
~
self bow.
(after Rausing)
959 'Herod and the Cock' (?), carved relief, Sweden, 1130-50
(in situ entrance to the sacristy, Cathedral, Skara, Sweden)
Here King Herod's guards draw their swords in alarm. The weapons,
though crudely carved, have straight tapering blades and relatively
long quillons. Their hats or helmets may reflect tall pointed forms used
among Slav and Baltic nations to the east and south.
FIGURES
~960
~J ~.
955-964 34 7
~62
~{'.
Perha.ps more typical of Finland, thJ hilt of this sword is all bronze
and, as well as being abundantly decorated, is very archaic in form,
with short, broad quillons and a basically trefoil pommel.
c.1300
(in situ nave of Cathedral, Linkoping, Sweden)
Originally from the south door of the cathedral, this carving again
shows a soldier in some kind of scale armour. Here, however, the
armour looks much more realistic. Similar scale-covered coats also
appear in Polish and German art; nor are they always worn by the
'wicked'. It is possible that they were genuine pieces of armour worn
for the same reasons as the coats-of-plates that were being developed
during the same period. This warrior also has a long-sleeved mail
hauberk with mittens, a mail coif, and a round cervelliere helmet. His
tapering sword has curved quillons and a somewhat diamond-shaped
pommel, the latter being a feature that is also seen in Germany.
348
SCANDINAVIA
'<
...
...
ir
:~It-
"'
]
Stockholm, Sw~den)
.l
. .
. .
. :~J
A-C - reconstruction of arm~ur as used m 1361; D - ongmal lacmg}
system; E-F - proposed reconstruction of armour in its original state.~
One of the most important armours to be found in mass graves at the-~
site of the Battle ofWisby was this remarkable lamellar cuirass. The
armour, as used in 1361, had been modified and reconstructed some
time earlier by riveting the lamellae together and thus forming a sort
of coat-of-plates (A-C).By then the armour might already have been
half a century old. In its original state (D-F) it was a fine lamellar
cuirass in which the individual lamellae were laced together in striking
similarity to the better known lamellar armours of Eastern Europe,
Asia, and the Islamic world. It may originally even have had flap-like
sheets oflamellar to protect the shoulders and upper arms. The Wishy
cuirass may have been made in some region to the south and east,
areas with which Gotland was in close trading contact.
W 1sconsm
~unrecorded
site in
c.1340
(National Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark)
This fine though corroded sword has lost its tip. The length of the hilt
also suggests that it was an early example of a 'hand-and-a-half
sword, which could be grasped by both hands to make a more
powerful blow.
350
SCANDINAVIA
~r
'~r
977A-B Painted altar front from Nes Sogn, Norway, early 14th
century
(Historical Museum, Berge~ Norway)
'
F,muRES 974A-B-982A-C 35 l
..
.
'Heraclius with the True Cross;, painted wooden altar
t
352
SCANDINAVIA
Notes
;
... 'i.
3. A.E. Christensen, 'Denmark betwee.n the Viking Age and the time of th~:
Valdemars', Afedieval Scandinavia vol.~ ( 1966), pp.33-6, 40 and 44-6; H.R.E~i
Davidson, The Sword in Anglo-Saxon Englmfd (Oxford, 1962), pp.198-202.
.;'
4. J. Shepard, 'The English and Byzantimp; A Study of their Role in the Byzanti
Army in the Later Eleventh Century', Trfzditio vol.XXIX ( 1973), pp.54-7.
5. Musset, op.cit. pp.251-2; G. Ra using, TheBow,SorneNoteson its Origins and Develop
(Lund, 1967), pp.62-3; E. Christianse~, The Northern Crusades: The Baltic a
Catholic Frontier 1100-1525 (London, 1980), p.65.
.,
..
6. Rausing, op.cit. p.64.
7. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades, op.cit. pp.23-109.
);:,
8. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades, op.cit.[Pp.22-4 and 64-5; Musset, op.cit. pp;287'.
8.
.;
:~
.-r
apter
lo
\,
c;
..
r
f
['
..rr.
~
.,.~
ring the medieval period the modern Baltic St< tes and certain neighbouring
. . .}~" along the southern and eastern shores of the{ Baltic Sea were inhabited by
.....aus tribal peoples speaking Finn, Bait and Slav languages. They included
:Pomeranians, Prussians, Lithuanians, Livon' ans, Latvians and Estonians
:o fo:r some centuries, maintained their indept ndence from Poles, Russians
;
'
nH Germans. These Baltic peoples were also th target of a series of so-called
or.t liern Crusades. Their conquest and conversi' n was, in fact, the ~eason for
..;}_ ~ e creation of the Brethren of the Sword, a Gern._ an military order which was
: , a lgamated with the larger Teutonic Ordetr in 1237-9. Although the
-rte.u.tonic
Order
had
been
founded
in
Palestine
:
(
n
1190,
its
greatest
strength
- . -~eloped in the.Baltic region, where it was actlVe from 1228 until the midfill century.
t'
t"'"'- Pomerania won its independence from P.oland in I 033 but became
creasingly Germa.nised until, as the Duchies of:Slavinia and Pomerania and
~rt of the March of Brandenburg, it was fully absorbed into th~ German
mpire in the 13th century. The invasion of neighbouring pagan peoples by
~ rman Crusaders began in 1231, their first target being the Prussians. The
ensuing wars continued well into the 14th century. Further north, presentJlay Estonia and Latvia had been invaded in 12~3. Squeezed between these
two attacks, Lithuania retained its independence and even its paganism into
~&t,.. he second half of the l 4th century. By that time, however, the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania had gone on the offensive, eventually becoming the largest
. ~ territorial state in Europe. Subsequently uniting with Poland in 1386 to create
. a vast Eastern European empire, Lithuania's paganism was only officially
~'":"', a. bolished in all areas in 13 8 7.
.
Prior to these efforts at enforced conversion by German Crusaders, Poles,
. Danes and Russians, the pagan Baltic peoples had been tribal and backward .
. ._-_"T
'_ hough always warlike they became militarised during the 11 th and l 2th
1
centuries with the appearance of mounted warrior elites. Their military
equipment was simple and very few men possessed armour. Weaponry was
.generally imported from Russia or Scandinavia, and although archery was
~~
, despread it was relatively primitive. More sophisticated weaponry was soon
"
:o ..... _,..,,r.
....e;_..
\l~':
354
'~
"
~
'm
=============i::===========-=-=l
'
-~
captured or purchased from their foes or !1eighbours, and the Baits also learned~
to copy their enemies' siege engines. 2 Nevertheless, swords were to remain rare'
until the l 4th century, spears being by far the most common weapons. 3
The Lett and Liv tribes of present-day Latvia had been small, weak, and.
previously preyed upon by their more w~rlike neighbours. They soon came to,
terms with the predominately Gerni.an invaders, but the Estonians,4
Lithuanians and Prussians were quite a qifferent matter. 4 Relatively rich and numerous, the Prussians adopted guerrill;i tactics in their marshy and forested ~
homeland to counter the invader's arrrtoured cavalry and crossbows. The ]
Lithuanians were poorer, fewer, and livep in even more inaccessible country. ~
They had plenty of horses, however,~ which enabled them to develop ;r.
devastating light cavalry tactics. 5 So effef2tive were these Baltic warriors that:"
many of the Prussian aristocracy, once converted to Christianity, wer '1,
encouraged to maintain their own military traditions in the service of thd~,,
Teutonic Knights. A similar process was 5Fen later in some Lithuanian areas.6,f
The German Crusaders and Military <!>rders were themselves, of courseJ
equipped in typical Central European style. 7
T\
By the mid-14th century part of thetLithuanian elite wore full armour,
probably in Western European style, 8 !but the majority still fought in a ;
traditional manner. Their military orgknisation may have become more ~
sophisticated by the l 3th and early l 4th tenturies, but the entire nation still ..,'~
had genuine military obligations which enabled the Lithuanian leadership to:~.
mobilise remarkably large armies of horse and foot. By now more warriors had :_
mail, and the Lithuanians also copied both Polish and Russian military '~
technology. Their strategy mainly rested on fast raids for cattle, slaves or
booty, particularly in summer when the swamps hindered the heavy Christian
cavalry. In return the Crusaders preferred to attack in winter, using the frozen
rivers as highways. 9
Following Mongol raids in the 1240s: and 1250s, the Lithuanians adopted
various Central Asian cavalry tactics, though using javelins and swords instead
of bows, while their infantry was still armed with spears, axes and perhaps
crossbows. Eastern European military influence also grew stronger, and
Lithuanian arms and armour were in some ways similar to those of both Russia
and the Mongols. This was particularly true of eastern Lithuania, centred
upon Vilna (Vilnius) after the establishment of the Diarchies in 1345. This
system of government meant that Lithuania was administratively divided into
two regions though remaining legally one state. Eastern Lithuania soon
adopted Orthodox Christianity and recruited many eastern mercenaries,
including Mongols. Western Lithuania clung to its paganism for another
generation but was correspondingly influenced by the Western European
military technology of the Teutonic Knights. 10
Figures
~
centuries
(Historical Institute, Academy
Spearheads with wings or lugs at thd base of their blades seem rare
among the non-Germanic Baltic peoples. This example might be an
import from elsewhere, or it could '.show foreign influence. Such
weapons do, however, seem to have been known in 12th-century
Finland. Although culturally akin to the Estonians, the Finns were
under much stronger Swedish influence.
986 Spearhead from Matkule, Kurland, 12th-l4th centuries
356
989 Spearhead from Martina Island, Lithuanian (?), 11 th12th centuries (?)
::
(National Museum, Riga, LaiNia)
A large number of decorated spearheads have been found in the Balti':
republics. Most certainly predate the area's conquest by the Germa
religious orders, as they are generally associated with pre-Christia'
burials and other rituals. The stp.ndard of metallurgical technology;
indicated by these weapons is ~ery high and belies the supposed t
backwardness of the pagan cult~res which produced them. The form'!
of this particular spear, with its qroad blade and very short socket, is, )i
however, old-fashioned, and sugtests that armour was rare.
~
k
;?~
:;
FIGURES
989-999 35 7
Notes
E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and Catholic Frontier 1100-1525
(London, 1980), pp.35-6.
Christiansen, op.cit. pp.36-7, 65 and 97; A.N. Kirpifoikov, 'Russische Helm dem
friihen Mittelalter', .(eitschriftfiirhistorische Wa.ffen-und Kostiimkunde vol.XV (1973),
p.89.
A. Antiens, 'The Old Arms of Basilsimsa (History of the Ventspilskaya Okrug) ',
Sovietskay Venta I (3 March 1983, Leningrad); A.K. Antiens, 'Structure and
Manufacturing Techniques of Pattern-\-V elded Objects found in the Baltic States',
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute ( 1968), pp.565-7.
W. Urban, 'The Organization and Defence of the Livonian Frontier in the
Thirteenth Century' Speculum vol.XLVIII ( 1973), pp.525-6 and 530.
.,
358
.J
fredniowi~c;:,na v:.iem p~lskich ( M edie~al arrr:s and armour in Po.land) (Warsaw, 1978): P~. i.
10. J. Deve1ke, 'The L1thuaman D1arch1es', Tqe Slavonic and East European Revi'
vol.XXVIII (1949-50), pp.392-7.
(after Angus McBride, Richard Hook, Cl1ristopher Gravett and David Nicolle)
A Second half of the 11 th century (France)
.
360
EXEMPLARY FIGURES
..'-- -
Quill ons
Vento II
Mittens
Pommel
Gui9c
(of sword)
Pomm'I
Chonfron
Sword b1lt
(of soddl)
(under caparison)
Surcoot
Soddl~ cloth
~-~~,.._.-Copor Ison
:::::::---~-Girth
Helm
Vcntoll
--ftlo
Chousscs
Polcyn
Guigc - -
,.._ Avcntail
l
Cutsscsl
I
.:Jtt'
Rcrcbrocc
.,'1
(tote form)
Sword ~
lI
Hauberk
i~
Bositord--
Akcton--
T"nlc
'
Scobbdrd
Akcton or
Gambcson
,
I
I
: r
Polcyn
';;,
.;'
Vombracc
Lombrcquin --1+-
hilt
Hatt
Cout1r
Great Helm
Hose
..
I
Grcovc_..,.
'
I
Axe
l.
Cho pc
'
Sabot on
,
I
SpouSdcr or
Epa u lcttc
Rowel spur
l - 9A 361
FIGURES
c.
\.
c. '
(.
'
\
\
4a
I
\
5
4b
---
~
0
'\..)
""'-
,.
9a
. .. :'
...'
'
..
8
,...
ea
..
...
...
,..
0
-.
CJ)
.ll
.....
,..
~-..>
-0
,..
')
~ L .... ... , ...... ,, ;...
!4 I .tl.H ~
'
. ...., .
i' - ~
"
11.-:.::.'. -
,.
,,
).f.t ....~ ~
,.
,..
('I)
..,
! ,,. ~
r-'
&
'--
--.,..
0
,..
<
~
s
,..
~
~
:I::
~
~
.,Q
O>
_.-0,
,.\\~
(N
<..O
C<")
''
'
FIGURES
',.
i
t
'
~
a
,
'
-.
1
16a
15
16b
It \
14b
148
"
i
t
I
0 0
19e
Oo
..
..."" '
,,
,,
,, ,,
"" \. .
,. '
\
18a
1.- , ,
..
I I ''
18b
19d
,, ,
,,\' ,,'\
, , ,'
\\\
364
..
NORTHERN FRANCE
21
22b
.'
'
20
-C>
'"
t
~
....
\.
-,
,,
+
23b
23a
"
23e
23f
23d
23c
FIGURES
,.
tt.
'
1"
t.
I
23g
'
l
l
t;
-
23h
;
I'
....
.-....
23j~
I
231
r,.
..
23k
231
23m
230
23n
\J
23t
23p
23q
\\"1\
23r
238
26c
26a
(?
25
11 I
II t
(I ( I
'
,.
,,
"1
~"15
\ $)1
r
//1
II\'
24
26b
\\
,,
\\ \
,,
"I
"
l\
.:-
\\ \
\ \
'
\\'
\I
\
\
\I
II
\\
27
28a
\\
\\
28b
c~.:
>
;;
'
(J
28d
--
~---
28c
~
~
,,
II
368
~,
NORTHERN FRANCE
r"
28f
28e
()
'
C'
)
C:::~.,..;rc;,.q t" c;::'("
~....L.....1.--
28g
tf
~ : //, tlt.
28h
\
..
.o
oo
0 0
0 0
"'\
\.
\\\
\ \\
~~\
~--:::-,__;}
'-'
28i
\ \'
\\
,,
,,"' ,,--.....
\\' ,,,
"'' ,,
---~-- (
28j
,
\\ \
\.
\\
\
..._
__
,,,.
\.{\ \
~1
FIGURES
'
28E-29D 369
281
\\
(/
~
28k
)) J
""
28m
,,
0 - ""(
\'
29a
\,\.
/)
...
29b
I
II
L/
..
'\
)
~-
\\
~
' \ \\ I t t
,___
29d
,,,
I (I
({
( (
'rf rt ''''t I
\
370
NORTHERN FRANCFJ'
..,.
29e
l)
29f
291
29h
29g
/
...._
. '
. 29J
I t I/
0
0
0
0
\\ \
'
30
I
31
~1
FIGURES
29E-36 3 71
32b
32a
33b
33a
34 'i ,
,' /1
_.. - --
'
--
'\
\
--
--
'\
'\
\.'
iI
''
35
....
._
--
\
I
'\
,~
36
372
NORTHERN FRANCE
38
It I I I
I I
39
37
42a
,;
/( \
40
-.
--
'
41a
lI
..
41b_
.
,
r.
j
l
/'>.
\
'"""'
41c
FIGURES
44
,,
I' f
~~
f.-J
'' '
(., ', f,
1
"-'T.
.....::>..
'-'
r
'-
.:
--
......
I( I
1,, ,,,
,,,11,,r11,,1I
J.
It 'r t
'
1, I t
I
I
I
'r lq'
'1 I~'
~.,
ll \
' ,,
,, ,..
43d
t I
,,
, I'
41
488
'1'
49c
..
...
49b
48b
49d
49e
49g
49h
491
49i
491
49m
49j
49k
49r
49n
c
49p
490
49s
49u
49t
49v
49w
49x
49y
49D-49AN 375
FIGURES
49z
.,
49aa
49ab
.
'
'
..
'.
'\
.'' I f
'' '
I I
49ad
''
.
,,,, .. ,, .. '
, , ' ' . .' .
I
,,
'
'
11 1
'
\ \
'
49ae
00
49ac
'
49af
49ai
-- ...--
'\......
49ag
_.
49ah
49aj
49am
49ak
..
.'~'
.. .'
'' .:'' '
f I
'
49an
J//
49al
49ap
49ao
49aq
49at
50a
50b
49ar
..
{){: -
0
49as
I,
SOc
51b
51a
54
52b
53b
I
\
l I
I
11 I
52a
55
53a
'
t
..
56
--- -
57
61b
..
,,,,,,,
61a
58
'59
60
-- -
66
65
68
63
67
69b
69c
11
I
71
70
72b
72c
72a
72d
73
75
76c
74
76a
76d
76e
I
t
\
c
"\ ...
...
97c
96
94
""
I~
ll
r
97a ~ '#
.:
' -
' I',
""'
'\
r-
:,
~ '+-.LH"'l:r
97d
97e
~~
97j
971
97k
971
97g
97h
---
97p
97n
97s
970
97q
97m
97r
97v
97u
97t
77a
0
78
77b
BO
81
\\
83
84
~
I
88
I
'
'
90
86
91
92
87
- -
85
93
.,
380
.,\
.,. .
97y
97x
97w
--
97ac
97z
97ae
97af
97ad
,'
97ah
.t
'
97ai
97ag
97aj
FIGURES
97W-101 381
..
97ak
97al
98a
97ao
98b
98c '
97am
97ap
97aq
98i
98e
98h
98k
981
98f
98j
989
99a
_....
,,,,,'
"",, ,, ' '~''''..
100
'
'
,,,,,,,' '
,
'
..,,,,
''''''
t t I t
II
111 ,
101
99b
.
.
""
103
A.:
105
.
.
- . ..
...........
102
'
104
I
\
107
108
106
..
111
\
.........
I..
'
110
109a
II
109b
114
115
112
113
~,
F~'GURES
102-123D 383
,. .
I\I
c-..
0 I
\,
,...,. -
.-
'
,
,/
,/
J '
119b ,, / 11
119a
116
122
~)
118
'~
'
I
ifli
"w ~
120
I2 3a
.
,
.'
I '
I ' '- ~
___r
...
121
'
...
"-
123c
'
- --~..,..~ -
\.., V ,,
...'"
..
..
.. ..
'-
/o
, '
.....
\.
123d
Il
\ s=>
123b
'
ro
t 0
126
124
125c
12sa
225d
125e
125f
125b
127C
128
127a
127b
129d
'
I f
..... .
.........: ..
.....
.. ..
.
'
, ,
\.
''
'
.. ..... . .. .
.....
...''......
.....
0
129C
129b
I
I
I 11
129a
..
130
131
.,
tf
j
FIGURES
,,.
133a
,... I
~r
I
132b
133b
.....
\,_.
132a
')
'
'~ ..
(
'
-.
135
134
137c
136
-
137b
~~
--"
---
'
'
r
./
'1 t
.._
..,
'
.I
'
..
139a
~I
-----
'
..
\
-- --..---.
--- -... --.,--....,-- ----....-._,.
... .-.- ..
.
..
......
.
---- ..
------. -.-------..--..-....-----. ------- -- -._
..
,.
.-
.,
138a
138b
139b
'
..
..
(. (o,
139c
<.;
0
J)
. .,'
139d
"-_
t1
F1GU1RES
139e
1391
., -.
--- : ,,;I
,
,,
'
. .. .
CJ
139k
I I\
)}
dl'JJ
~ \
?
-~
1391
139j
139h
388
140a
c <~"l....cr""r-~....__
,.,
143b
143c
.
.. .
,.
11.......... .
.,,.'
141
,,,
,,,,
>----~,:;,,"-;,,
-:. /
140b
143a
146b
,,,,,,,
,,,,
~,,,,,
..
~~=-
...
142
147b
146a
,,,,,,.
145
....
.,,,
.,,,,,..
.,, ........
''''"'"
,,,,,,,
,,,,, ,....
,,,,,,,,,
'''"'''
\ \
,,,,, ,,,
,,,,,,,.,
'''to.\.',, .... ,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
'''''""'' ,,,,,,
,,,.,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,, ,,,,,
\\\\
'\,\\.\\,\Y.. , , , , ,
\\~
1 , ,
147a
'\\))
\4.
J)'\
144
... ,,,.
,. '
Nl,#I
(ll
JI)
(Cl
. '.
#I 11
..~--, .,
';
;~
, I ,,I r,
I
, ,
,, ,
,
l
ll
)l
\t
148a
148b
..
149a
..
'
,,
,
149b
...
149d
( I I
149c
~1
FIGURES
140A-16Q 389
151
--1,
~,,)
~\
150a
153
\\
I
152a
152b
150b
150c
154c
154b
154d
/
PL.-
) \ 11
r--"U(;
154a
155
156a
156b
157
158
0
160
159
-==========d t - - - . J /
'"
""' I
.,
.,
390
.'
163a
162
161
163b
I
164c
163c
\
\
'
'
166
'
167
FIGURES
161-175
168
170
169
171b
171c
..
~I
173
.t
175
,' '
172
174
3~1
j
::SY~
--
179b
_,
,
f
'
179a
I f
176
,'
177
980A
It
179c
179e
178a
178b
I
'/t
FIGURES
l 76-186B 393
180b
181b
180a
182
181c
"\'.
\\
\\\
,,,
\.
J
0
'o
( ....., t---1
o-U&ll Ill~
Ill
111
II
0
0
111
al1
II
181a
---
-I
\\
183b
-c
185
- --
186b
186a
--
\
/
394
188b
190
188a
189b
187
189a
191b
191a
191c
'
,,,
,,,,,
\I
,'<, '''
'',,
192c
I l
f1
192b
.'
I It I I
'
If I
' I
( fl
I
l( t t I I
( CI I I
,,,11111
lf
,,,,
11
,,,,,
.,,,,,,,,
,,, ,,,,,
(\ I
l \
(
I
,,
lf I ' I
.,t
/(
( t ( '
fI I
l I
f (
,
\
194c
194a
193
firr;;;l
..,',
194b
194d
FIGURES
187-1~)7 395
'
195b
195d
195c
--
195a
195f
195e
195h
195f
195g
196c
196d
196a
196b
196e
197
198b
. # ,
....
:.;
~~~~~
198a
198e
.....'',..
'(\\\\' \
IC( t
r-..J.r 'lll<ll l 1 q,
I.I
,,,,,,,,,
''''''' '"""
Cllt1C1
n
''''"'
...
".. ---..... ....
....
\Lett
198c
..,
'' c
198d
'
...... -'"'~ ~.-., q:_ c,
, ....
<"' P ,.-;:;:=u
.....
~
'I \\
I
/1 J
,,
C
t It I
~ I
199
,
t
FIGURES
-"-
II
========-;;;;;;:;====================~;=============================
--
I
~
--
'
200b
~I\;
'
201
200c
I
I
,,
l
..
-.
,
/
-'
I
I
'
202a
'
202b
C (((f
JI
t))JI
..t
203
204
205b
205a
ft
398
'--'>
206c
206a
((
//
(.. 00
'
206d
t
<
~.
206f
206e
0
l,,
(~)
It
207
-------
399
F1auREs 206~L21
s
.,
210
--
~
...
208
1~o
209
-, ,
J
I
'
I
llll\11
~l \ t l I '
'' '.
\
..--
--~c-
"
,,
,
211
?
0
,~
'
,
"
213
0
'
212
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
'
''
'
215
. 214
'
I
I
I
I
4UU
l ~ NG L AND
AND WALES
j'
218b
218c
218a
217
216
f
I
..
218d
'
..
-=====~~
. . . . . . "- }
'(
.,
219
,\..
l '
~
l~
-\..\
~~
220a
220b
FIGURES
216-227 401
222
223a
223c
223e
223b
0
223f 223g
223h
2231
223J
223k
223d
2231
223m
224d
224c
224e
224a
227
. '
2241
224b
'
'
..,
'
225
fI
'
229
231a
230
231b
228
234
232
--- -~
233
..
235
236
>""
"'
--
_J \
~
'-')
237
FIGURES
228-243C 403
.
238a
242
238b
239a
/;
''
--
239b
240
I/
.' }
~
.........
243a
:
- /
(" -1....
.,,.
--
243c
241
----
11ii..._--.._
_, _,
--..., __
-. ,,,
- - : -, "
--
<.
--
,.
243b
-
404
it
SCOTLAND/ RE LAND
246c
245c
245b
246b
- --
.
1
--
245d
246d
245a
,,
248
247a
250
244
247b
.....
'
'
-.
,
:>@
C>
_)
0 rvoo
.I
251
252
--JC
(
253
'
(-~}
249b
249a
I
I \
)
.__
"I
.
I
'~. .
,'
'!
FIGlJ
., RES
244-272 405
257b
255
(
.,
'
'
254
,
::.
.....
'
'
258
256
~
I
259
260
---- ----- --
265a
'
I
-o
261
'
266
265b
'\)
'\
262
'
'
-.
267
263
-0
-0
268
--
264
271
270
'
'
271
--
272
~1
.,
406
IRELAND/SouTHERN FRANCE
274a
275
273
274b
I
I
276
l
I
277
279
280
'
282
283
oO
oo
273-2881 407
FIGURES
'-I
..J!...
,,
t\ 284a
....
'
31
///
284c
284d
284b
286a
286b
285
I
'
287a
,
''
''
..
f , f
(
288f
,,, ,, f ,( (
( f ' (
287b
286c
'
''t le ff
l '
cl ( (.
c,,
If t ( l
(\\\t\\
IC
288b
' ,,
cl\(
'
J
__./
288d
288c
'
.
,.
'
'
''.
, ,,,
'--.,--:, (Cl I
,.
C\ (
..
('
, ,,,
' ' ','c,, c'
,,,,
l \ '
288a
288e
I\ &
'
I '
'
I '
'-
'
1, ,
.' .
I C1
'
>"'-=-----co<>
It I
288g
288i
288h
408
SouTHEI~N
FRANCE
.,
289c
289a
289b
289d
289e
(.
289h
2891
289g
I
'
c "' . ...
I ,.. "
r- '"
...
.... _/
'
290
291b
292a
291a ___,
291d
.~
'
'f
FIGURES
I
,
0
295
I ''
J
0
289A-30 l 409
294
293
297a
296a
296b
---- I
----''
L..___
__.\
' 297b
0
299a
298b
298a
Qj
301
300b
I
300c
300a
299b
410
SOUTHERN FRANCE
303b
302b
302a
303a
303c
-.
303d
303e
303h
302c
303g
3031
Oo
303J
\\\\
304
..
-'
306b
306a
,,
I I
J
303f
FIGURES
307b
302A-309E 411
0
307c
308a
308b
308c
308d
307a
309a
307d
\"-1
,I
309b
309c
309h
3D9d
\
' I
) r
309e
412
1t
311c
311b
311d
311g
310
.. f
..
''
\
311e
311f
314b
""\
'
314a
...__...-/
315b
'1
FIG.O RES
"J
310-320B 413
315c
315d
316a
00
0
'
---;
315e
316b
318
317
319a
320a
319b
320b
00
414
,,.. . 321 b
321a
.-::}'
321d
321f
321g --
321e
321h
321c
.3211
321m'
321k
321j
321n
321u
321v
321q
3210
~-~
~---
321r
321w
321t
321ad
321aa
321x
.. . '
~-~
'
'
321ag
-
321ae
321y
321z
321ab
321ac
321ah
321af
~1
FIGURES
"
322e
<'
(pJ}
322m
.... L=--
322a
322d
3221
322k
3221
322c
323b
323a
323e
323d
324
323c
326e
326d
--
326c
326b
326a
. /', - -
,, . . .y~f~
/'
326g
326i
326h
'
416
'
~.,,5-a
327d
327a
--
327c
I
(
<..
((
:>
~I
'
327h
\)
I
327b
- -
327j
3271
3271
330d
330b
I
I
I
328
. ,.
I , .:
330a
330c
329b
)
\..:..) I
331
't
~' IGURES
327A-3370 417
>
334a
334b
335a
336
33Sc
337c
335b
337a
,
I
t
,
337d
337b
)
I/
337h
337f
'
337j
"'
,,, \
,,
Cl 1
337;
337e
337m
337g
337k
-.
-l'I
-9-
337n
3371
'
3370
337q
..... f'
337p
337r
337x
337w
337t
337s
337v
337u
,
337y
'
- [a----...J]
337ag
337ab
337z
l
~1~
_ _ __ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . - -
337ad
337aa
337ac
337ae
337af
1
j
FIGURES
33 7P-339F 419
337ah
337al
'
337ak
337aj
-- 337am
338
337ap
337an
(( (
))
({(
...t
(f(
) )))
C>
337aq
339b
339e
339f
339a
339c
339d
420
____:?
342a
0
I)
..
342b
0
0
340b
...
341
340a
344
( (
343
,'
I I I ft
'
II
' I 1,'1'
I f
1
f ft I
1
( , 1 t1 I
~ t 1I I (
,,
,,,,,
I
'
I I
11
345a
,'
. I
'
-'
345b
v\
346
"'
'
~1
FIGURES
.J
340A-353 421
347a
(
347e
V(J,
- - - _ _ . . : . . . ! . __
___,)
347d
7b I
I /
'',(flt
C<c'
\((
347f
,..~ '
=-1
347c
I I
,.~~:f
f ;
'-
\\
348
..
I U
349
--
351
352
353
I
350
FIGURES
354A-360L 423
357
356a
359
356b
358b
l
360a
'
360b
\
360c
360d
360f
&
.. \ \
l60e
3601
I
360g
I
1
360k
I
1
I I
.._.
,_/
* *
~
*
'-
....
II
tJ
\--
360i
\
r'" ....
360j
.....
....
\
360h
..
~1
424 LEON
AND CASTILE
362
''
365
361a
361b
~o
364
363a
367a
367b
368c
'
366
370
369
371
....
FIGURES
--,
(
Ii\
rf/I ~ ,,
373c
Jf
(( (< (I
...
- l
((<<<<1,
r ,,
r I f
cC. C le t {
372
I f
--
~"---
ll
11,,,'<1
,,
'<
,ft,.I tc,,,,
(
,"
'
( (
1_l
I ('.
\Lll
373b
II
_ "\..
,,,
'"' \ '
__ ,,,,.
-""' ....
...- ~
-,
\
'
.....
T7
' (>--.
' '
373d
....
~
.f
~
~~~
....
...
~-
""
,_
J '
~""
,/
1-
'...
'
......
.... i-..
~L ~
"
~ ..... ...._,
.....
~ ~ '"~ :- .' ..... ~
...
...
"'~
'';:-......( ..
'
...... L
...... ~
'~
LI
'
/~
I.
~....._
'
374
l. 1,'1
.L
,
1
,,
......
...."
.......
I I
I
c:>O
375
,........,
I
I
_,...
-~
~t-
'
I I
373f
'
'
-'
,
313~
373a
--
"" .................
Dl'f..."
~"""'
....
"""
'-
~~
~No
~v~ ~
....,
-~
"'....
....
'
....
,,....
... ~
.
w
I -.
"
'
- ''
'
...
\)
C
.. '/
...
,...
~"'
'\.
''
!'-
....
~~-
1'...
..
~,..
'1,J
426
~1
377
.' ,_
I ...
'
378b
378a
376
379a
380b
380a
\\
383a
382
-.....-.....
\\\ \
379b
383e
383b
383c
383d
FIGURES
384a
376-390H 42
385
384d
384c
384e
0 0
388a 388b
384b
388C
388d
388e
... ,,,,.
,,' . ,,
,,,, .. '
''' ,,
ff I
,,, , #It
387a
386a
388g
388f
387d
:0C.
cr""l ,;;:::;:: .
387e
389c
(0
387b
....<:.
,,,,
389b
387f
386b
'"
-- I
\
390a
389f
.. 389e
390b
389a
(\_
,,,,
3890
,___.
I
390d
390d
390f
390e
\\
- ->p-- -
3909
390h
...
428
392d
392b
392a
391
(s 1mpll tl ed)
()
394
oo
I
I
0
0
00
392c
D
~
00
393
395
396
398e
'
398b
397b
397a
397c
397d
398c
398a
397f
397e
397g
398d
429
398J
3981
398h
3981
398g
. 398s
398p
398t
398n
3980
l})
)
398q
398k
3981
398u
398m
398r
398w
'
\\\ \
398v
ccrl<1t1
ff,,,,,, ,,
1111 fff,,
1111111111
(I ftf/I l/11
lf1,,
'''''''"
ft
,,,
,, '' ,
"''''I\\
\.-__..~,,,
"'
/,
398x
398y
430
'/
399d
399c
399g
399e
399b
399h
399a
))
))
))
( I
J) )
399f
399j
\
3991
3991
399s
399t
3990
399r
399p
:399v
399u
399q
399y
399w
399x
'/
FIGURES
399z
399A-40 I 431
399aa
,,
)}
'
---... -
'
( ( (1
.X I((~
400b
400a
400c
399ab
400d
399ac
400e
399ad
400g
,
,-.
=i
400h
399af
400f
401
If
399ae
399ag
'\--
~1
CASTILE/PORTUGAL
402e
402h
402b
402c
403b
402f
403c
403d
~
402d
403j
402a
403f ':
403e
403k
403h
4031
- - --403i
1rlb
405
404
406
F1au'kEs
402A4
l
2D
433
r
J
~
-
..
-~
L ..
407
~ ~\\
"L
-/,~
.---
.......
"
I
!1
,
J '
,,
..,,~
F """' v
'
.
(
\\
~-
~
'"Al<-1 l
IJ->
,~
~"7
~
'
1\ \ \
)
>
fr
..,,
.....
"' L
408
410c
409
~f
......
410a
410b
II
412a
'
. . , 412b
411b
412c
412d
411a
(
t
J
I
~.;
""'
~/
//
' --
434
..
416
(s imp I if ~d)
413
--
....I
,
I
,_ - ..,
I
'
I
,,
,
'
I'
,,
, ,,
'
'
,'
'
''
'.\
... -,
''
417
'
,I '
' '
'.
_____,,_
414
. ' ..
......
'
'
__
;
'
'
415
419
418
421
~---,
J
v
----
420
-~
'-
"c:
~
~1
FIGURES
4 l 3-428B 435
423
422
424
l II
00
---
..,
(
c!
""
c..
z-
2v
"'"
fv
-
<t
'1.-(
,-
"
C!.
t-
\./
(Simplfi~d)
425
'
7
'i
:>
~'
426
427
428a
( 428b
436
429b
429c
430
429d
429e
429f
429g
I I
t
II II
I
I
I
431c
431b
431a
.. -
c:.r11c:a
..
432a
433a
-...
'
433b
434b
434c
434a
432b
~!
436b
FIGURES
.
429A-438Q 43 7
436c
437a
436a
437b
436d
436e
437c
,35
438a
438d
438b
438h
438c
438j
438e
438f
438k
438f(
438g
438n
4381
438m
4380
438p
438q
438
'/
~
J
440c
439b
439a
440b
,,,.,,.,
440a
441a
441b
441c
441d
444
442
445
.' ''
.
'
441e
443a
443b
443c
446
'
443d
\\
\
'
(.,
443e
447
I l
FIGURES
449a
439/<\-455C 439
449d
449c
449b
I
448
I
I
'
449e
450
~'I.~
")
/~\
452
oO
.'
'
'
'
453a ~
..
455a
455b
455c
I
~.l-40
'
,
,
~,
"""""'
,
..,,' '
457
456
(f;-;-:~~o
0
0 0 0 0-
OL------:-:~
0 0 0{
-0 0
0
0
---0
0 0
458a
'------ "'
' (- ..~
(\
'//
459
460
i..----
V"
(f orshortcncd)
\
\
\.;
~
'-
.,
I..
...
""......
~L.
'-"
"
\
...,
... ,
v
""'-"'
...,
458b
462b
462a
I
'
'
462c
461
FIGURES
456-466 441
463a
463c
463b
464
">--
>---
463d
\\ \
'I
I(t
III
II I II
I I I II
I
463e
465a
I I I
465b
456c
456d
466a
. 466c
r--.J-c ,
.....
'"-...
..
_
... _,
l
466e
. t
. .. ... .
..
466d
66b
442
}'
,
( ' ,
c < ',,
( (''
467a
-'
,,
467b
,..):
467c
470
... .. . .. . .',
471d
471c
471a
471e
471f
471b
472c
472a
472d
/I
.., -
,
'
-_J
472b
c::a"
I
' ...
FIGURES
467A-481 443 ~/
f
475
474
473
(((
')
\
(((
ll
~(
V<
(( (
'(l l
llt,
I\
,,
476
477
478 '
479
480
444
482
484
,, ,,, ,s
, r ,'
<t ,
.
' ' ' '
' ' ' 1\----"""".:.:
'.. ' '
'
485a
l ' ,.,
\ I
.,,
c4I
485b
483
.. '
'
',,,,.
t I ''
I I I
'. '
1I I
486
.''
\\'
I
'
487c
489c
487b
488a
489b
487a
489a
488b
488c
489d
488d
490d
490a
490c
\ I
490b
490e
,.
482-497 445
FIGURES
'
491a
491c
491b
.....: .
# '
492
/
0
0
0
0
..
..
0
0
.. :
493a
0
- - - -- -----...J- - - I
(C ((ff-
493c 493d
~
493b
493g
493f
r--....--., - - - - -
493h
4931
___.,,_ --
'-
493k
493n
4931
493m
0
493q
.'
497
..
446
'
498
0
0
'
,~
'
...
0
0
f>
41
'
0 0
oO
0
0
0
'\
506
501
'
'
499
}"
...
#
500
502
508a
503
-...
-...-
-,,
.,...
..
~
e:
&:
--
. e
e.'
..
'
508b
.~
~.~
505
504
..
:o
:o
507a t>.....
.. 0
"0
.'.. . ....
: () 0
5 07b
,,
''
1)~ -'-
.?
....
0 0
1
\
FIGURES
'...
..
~
1-.
511
='
r - = =
________
~>-----..,.--1.,
...
::~
'
'
512d
512e
!
..._-:
,I .
L
'
'
II
I
512f
-- ~
513d
512a
513c
513b
513a
513e
:>
448
~1
514c
514b
515
'
,' '
514a
..
,...-
514d
0
. '... _.....,
t
'
.
,
'
518
~ ''tttt\&
"1 '''""" "rr
'''''"m1t
............
,"
.,''.........
,.. .
.
..............
...... ,,,,,,...
.......
,...,,,,,,.,
"''''''''''''''
.. ,.'
...........
.........
....., .. .
u,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
...,.,.,.,,"'
..
.
......
..........
.....
.....,......
..,,,,,,
...
..............
I \ ........ . . . . .
_...
...........
\l\11, , ,
''" "''
...
' ;~: ......, .'
-
, ,...,~"
516
1,':S
.........
,,,,,....:'
,,,,. ...' 517
':'.'.'!!'"
,
..
J\
t.:.,.
'
FIGURES
I
1
520
,
519
521
522b
-'
.lit
-1(
523a
523b
523c
JI(
5 l 4A-523C 449
FIGURES
524A-533A 4~/ 1
!
'
527
525
,
'"'"'
528
'
- ...
-"'
,__..
530
531
532b
'
532a
532c
533a
. 452
l :..
,.'
(.
t
,;.
534a
533d
534c
0
533g
:~
533e
534b
t
535c
533f
534d
fI
'
536a
'~
--.
,\
535b
......
~~
535a
~~~
l=======~ll
536b
537b
538a
537c
537d
5378
538b
FIGURES
'
533B-540 453
-,.
~-
'
'
538c
538d
>'
538e
...
\
539a
.. -
f
I
- ----
('
-"\
'
L
'
t
I
Ir
539b
,
( ,.
539c
540
538f
-I~
454
'.t
..
'
..
't.
5418
..
541b
'
I
541c
541d
541e
541f
't'I
'
~
'
541g
~ 543b
0
0
543e
..
IJ
~
"
543f
,
542
,, ' '
,
c
,
,
'
543a
'
c'
4#
(
'
'
,,
ft I I
,,,
543d
'
FIGURES
..
>
t
f
rl.
r
rI
f
I
I
~
'
. ..
..
545
t"
'\
..c
l
I"
, ,, ,
544
--'
547
546a
!.
t'
549
r
I
548
'c
\
546b
-=
550
456! .
J'
0
551c
551a
II
} JI
552
551b
551d
553a
553c
'
553b
(
(({({ c
(~
~(=-==~:>~
..
(((((((( (
(.l
(~~~
tc.
((((.(((((.((<.
(.( ((<.(((.(((.((<.((((
'lt\..<..(.l(((.l,(..(.((.(.(l
FIGURES
551A-557D 457
556b
556a
554
r
>
~
555
'
'
---
557a
,,,.
.......
'
557d
'
557c
~1,,
458
'
558b
( (((
) ) ))
''\))
),<2
(((
))))))
558c
(' '
\\
~((({((
- c. ,,
\-4.:1
rr,,J))))))
)rrc(CC((<
)))))))l
(( (
(( c
r;. J))
,.
'
560
(i (
((
))
((
))))
559b
559a
559d
.t
561a
561c
I
561d
561b
0. 0
~!
FIGURES
558A-562D 459
562a
,\ , I . . . ,
~-n
526b
I I
562c
562d
ll...l -==
-_,
.:!:)
-~U
(!..
c'
~
\,
460
.'
-.'
-
:.
'
!
"::ici
'
--
,,
'
'
562e
)
\.
I
563a
',t
,-
,'
,_
562f
l'
-.'
-,
~'
..>f
563c
w
'
~,,
563b
.......:,
.
t
. -__c_,
..
,,.,_
,- "'
,,
~ , _____ ,
,,,..
--------
564
--
'i
FIGURES
t,
,.....
-~
566a
565
568
567
'
\.
569a
569b
570b
I
~
570d .
I/
570f
570e
462
570h
t
570g
571
574b
572a
572c
--
573d
574a
~~
/~,
573b
573c
573a
573e
575e
5751
(
I
..
'
., ..........
..' ..
.'
.... .. .
573f
575g
.,.
575a
......
'.... ' ...
-..........
'
' '... ..
.:::.
....
....
.....
...
... '
..... ...
...
.................
.........
, .....
~
.. .. ...
-'
................
... '
~
575c
575b
575d
FIGURES
570G-579 463
576b
576a
/\\;--,
~~
-fi(~(~
>> >
,\' A-?----
.,,
576d
578a
576c
578c
A{
":
'
((((
I '
({(
'
578g
I '
I I
I I
578d
578h
'
'
''
\
\
...
578f
-,,
<. l
578e
.,.
579
578j
5781
578n
~
\
578k
578m
5780
45:1
!
THE EMPIRE -
IT AL y
580
581b
581a
581c
I
581d
0
0
'
,r=...
,--..
<:::>
_.,I
581e
C?
.,
\.....,.J
:::::..
-
---
'
5811
581f
581h
581g
'I
FIGURES
581k
I
I
581J
--
-- ,...-"-"'.,...,.,J
'
5811
I I
I I
583a
582a
583b
5831
582b
. 0
,~..,.,..~J~
I '
. ( \.
l'
I
'
' I
583c
583d
'
583e
~I
'
(. (
)))
I
I
l. I
I
(( (J-r--JI
,
({(
'I
.\
584
.,
466
IT AL y
THE EMPIRE -
'./
!
SB Sb
OoOO
5850
0
o t 0 o
585e
585d
-'
585a
585f
585g
585c
'
585i
585h
585m
585k
,-
\..-
.......,.....
... .' .
,l\ ,r'
F))
5851
585n
585j
/
'
FIGURES
585A-589
586b
586a
588
c
587b
..
. '
587a
rL...--""""1 0
--
\'
'
--
'-
-_/
589
\\
'
I
'-
468
..
j.
..._.
'
-
590b
590a
l
c
--
590d
590c
......... \...
590e
ui I .
~
y'
//
/ ' 11 - , ,
\
"'
i'
1,- - l 1
' ,~llf
5901
1 ,-,-_ 1I I
,-- ,
--
590g
590h
591a
590i
591b
1'
#
~.
f "'1c;tJRES
i..
ii'
..
592d
592c
O OOoo
592b
tt f f
T
I
I
1 ~ i
'c..
f t
t t
>
t t
l i
to
594
'
596b
1
~
..
~I
O\r
-0
'e'
-
'
---r---..
_
.....
0
0
'
!
I
599
598b
4/U
.,
1 HE ~MPIRE - lTALY
602a
602b
---
600
'
I
601
604
603
.,____,____ . .'
'
,.,
'
//II
605b
605a
607
606
...
..... ,..... .
, .. ,, '
It I f I
I t t I I t
FIGURES
600-6131 471
608b
608a
608c
608e
608d
608t
608g
608h
6081
613b
613c
610
609
613g
613h
'
612a
0
611a
. . : .
612b
- -
611 b
613i
I..
\I
613f
614b
00
614a
0 0
....
..)
--
614d
614c
\
'
'
617b
,'c .... ,.1
"""'
r-
""'"f ',,, ,. ,
C
'r'
.. -~
, --,
,, "'
---
617e
'
f ,
(,
,, ,. .
C (
l I
'
I C ' (I
ft
, '
rr',.
r (
f I
!
,
<' I
r(ff
((
' I
?-l.....-.,.
(,
,,,
'
#'
615
617d
617a
617c
616b
616c
.. '
"
61 6a
616d
6 l 4A-628 473
FIGURES
.618a
618b
,
\
'
'l
'
..
,,
... f.
-..)
'
'
'
621
I
'
I
I
''
I
'
'
I
I
I
'
--
I
I
'
'
'
',
'
622
'I
--
'I
'
I
'
I
'
'' - - - -'
'
'
619
''
'
'
--
,_
-J
' - -
I
I
'
I
...
--.........,
I
t
... ,
623
,J
I
I
' -
-- -
'
624
- - - - - - - -.....
620
625
'
---
I
(( (
,,,
HI
>1,.,,,,lf
-'
-' .
,, "'
I
'
474
'/
\
'
IT AL y
THE EMPIRE -
\\
~~ [:
\J~:"l
}\
,,
'
t~'
~'-'
\.
\
"'
- J
1-
' l
~
l
,,
(j
~ 6'
.., ''
,,,
!<,, ,,
~,
ec'f'
''
.,
..,
(' I
l(
JJ
~-
631
'
\
629
630
,.
c.< )
'
'
632
' I
' '
'
))
(.
,,
~
r;
c.(/
,.
Ill
'
\I t
\\\
1\1
C(C
lt fh ' - - " ( ' ' ' - tel l
I
- - \ \ l t t \\11\ lllll l\tC
ccf((
~\I
'
633
((1 1
"
, , , ,11'
~1
FIGURES
629-637T 475
634a
634e
634b
634d
634f
637d
637a
634g
637e
l
637f
'~
635
. 636
637g
637q
637h
637i
637j
637p
6371
637m
637n
637r
6370
. .. .
'
637k
476 -, THE
!
EMPIRE - ITALY
640a
I
638
639
c..
640b
..+
641
644
'
'
642
643
'
'
..
..
f
""'' ,,
. ..
.
.
,
:>
c 3"
' .
'
645
'
FIGURES
638-650 4 7 7
647b
6478
646a
0
647d
647c
648a
649a
649b
_/
649c
.-
649d
646b
649e
;$.
478
'$.
',
'..
~
-it
'
652a
652b
651
J
...'
,.
"'"' ""...
..."""' \."".,_""_,,.._.....,
. .........
...'"' ""....
't
._. ....
"-' '-
0
0
..... . . . , - -
..
""''oJ ....
........,,--~
....~.:<J <J-
"
..,
"'.,._
....
~...-~.,,,
i.
652c
-c.
654g
""'-w'WV .,,,
.., "
,r-..,;_
~ ... ~
---..,
~.
'-
652d
654h
654c
654b
654d
654e
6538
654a
654f
6p41
li
654J
654k
653c
653b
655
FIGURES
.
/..
r
'
'
657a
656b
"
'
,.
..'
,..
'
I
'
657c
657d
657J
..
'tt
'
657g
657e
6571
657k
f
657h
\
0
657f
480
THE EMPIRE
~1
- ITALY
657q
657r
657s
657m
--
657p
6571
657t
657n
6570
"
'\I
0
0
0
,,,
, ,
__ ,,-:-',
, ,
.... ,
,
,,
, ,,
,
,,
--_---..--- .,,
, ,
,.,.,
"".,,,,
, ""
,., ,-,
''
,,,
---... -
---
657aa
657z
'
657w
657v
657x
657y
657u
--
657ab
,.
FIGURES
658b
658c
658a
658e
658d
,,,
6589
658f
658h
658i
,,,. , ,,. ,
)~'>>>>.'
'
'\
,,.
\\
,,.
\\ \ \ \
\.
I/I
658)
~-
...
658k
482
IT AL y
THE EMPIRE -
658n
658m
6581
___,~
6580
658p
--
u
0
658t
'-/
658q 658r
658s
c
'
---,r\ .,._
/
658v
FIGURES
658y
658w
658aa
658z
658L-658AS 483
658ab
658ac
658x
I
~))
c cc f
,, : #
'
658af
658ag
658ah &SSai
658ad
l \\
658al 658am
.f
658an
658ao
658aq
658ap , ,. . . .
658ar
t:::::H
\
)
658ak
658as
658aj
'/484
658au
658at
658aw
658av
658ay
658ax
-'-
0 0
J.-.....
0 0
0
'
-~
--
658ba
658bb 658bc
658bd
).
658be
658bf
~ ..\'
658az
658bg
660
661b
661a
--
. ~'
FIGURES
663
664b
' - --
662
664a
665c
'
\ '
665a
665b
\\\ \\
667c
667b
667a
' ,.,,,_
........
,,
0"'
""\
667d
667e
.,
668
669
486
SOUTHERN
IT AL -x AND
~1
SICILy :
,, .
673c
672
573b
673a
671
'
673)
673g
673n
673k
673e
'\
-~ 673m
. )
6730
673d
6731
._____ 673s
673q
673t
673u
673h
..
6731
673f
673p
673r
67Sa
.,
673w
675c
675b
674b
673x 673v
676
FI G URES
679a
679b
677
678a
679c
-,..
678c
678b
680c
680e
680a
_..
....
680b
{}>
6809
680h
680f
c; ~
488
1
S1c: 1LY
J
680i
670k
680j
682
680m
6801
~~
L/
633a
/j\1
685a
683b
683d
683c
684
68Sb
t
683e
--~ic::.._-..:.686c
'?// ---
686a
686b
685c
I
I
FIGURES
687b
687c
687a
689b
688
,..
689a
...
'
690d
'
'
-9.~F
690f
<
690b
690g
. '
690a
690c
690e
'
'
I
'-
690n
690j
6900
690k
6901
(
690h
690q
690i
690p
690m
)
'-
,
490
.
J
i.
690u
'
- J.
~t
--
...........
f'
\
--
...
r
..
----~ 1
(J
.
.-
690w
690y
,.-
690aa
690x
)
.>
'
690z
690ab
690at
II
690ad
I
0
II
690ac
690ae
.,,.
'
...
FIGURES
,
'
.
.
690ah
..
f'
'
. 69089
.......
---~-
(
.,f
690al
'
690ak
--~
0 0
0
"
oO
690am
'-......
Of
-.: '
890ao
tf
~
r
'
~~~~' I
l . l .J.
_l j \
690au
~__,l
690ar \
\)
690at
690as
\/
r
l
>
492
f
~
,
691a
691c
-..
"-
692
691g
691h
6911
..
691J
691m
691k
691n
694b
694a
693
694c
694e
694d
,
~
FIGURES
r~
695b
695a
695c
,,.~
- ..
--
i
I
I
f
..
,.."
695d
.'
~
'.
c
.
,..
~-
t,
695g
695f
695h
'UP'
f'
6951
695e
.__,
--....___).
r
t'
69'6d
696b
696e
696c
696a
696h
696f
6961
696g
.. ":I'
--)
696j
--
6961
697
696k
696m
699c
699d
699a
696n
698
699b
699f
699e
., '
.
__......~
700d
700b
700e
7001
700g
700c
700a
701
'/
702b
702a
\\
'-...
\
\
702e
I
\I
702d
\ I
-"""
'' \ d. ~~
702f
f
\
~I
702c
702g
\I \
l )I
.l
UV U 1 OLK!~ .1. l
.l\.L
lf
Al" V
ul ~1 LY
702j
702h
'
__........-
702i
I
702k
702m
l~
...
702n
--
\ ,
____...
7020
,,,_--
'
-'
" (
((
'
.. ...
'
'
"
,
...
.'
I
--...,_.....
/
~
702p
1'1&
)~
r-702s
C::""
. <
702q
'
702r
702t
702u
702w
'
\1
702x
s~-...-
702v
I
..___
(\
,..._. ->'
.\
' .
';/
/
_.' _) >:r
c.
-
'
t
'
' c
((
\I
702z
702aa
...
...
"'
...
...
' ...
... ..
.. ..
...
'
... ...
...
...
'
'~
498
::-
>
,.;.
\.
703a
703b
703c
703h
703g
,
'
t
f
..
\
7031
703d
703e
7031
703f
703n
703p
7030
703q
703t
'
703r
703w
703u ~
703v
703ab
703ad
(..
703s
'-
703z
703x
703y
703aa
703ac
,
'1
f
'
FIGURES
J.
-
~
{
r
-
t
[.
t
703al
703af
703ag
703ah
t 703ak
703am
703ai
(.
703an
703ao
:t:t:!:'
703ar
703ap
70388
704b
703at
704a
..."...
704c
703au
703av
704d
500
'1
SOUTHERN
ITALJY AND
705a
SICIL y
705b
7 0 5 d _.....-('::-.,..._
705c
705e
705k
7051
;JI
705m
7051
705q
7050
705n
70Sr
~'
. '
705p
705s
..
705v
705u
70Sw
705t
705x
501
70Sah
70Sae ,,....,
705z
( -=i_ /
705aa
705ab
705af
705y
00
0
705ag
705ad
705ac
706
705aj
707
--708b
70Ba
,
..
\ ( \..v
"''.
709b
~~'
\
~(
...
'fJ.
.,,
c
(
~( {
S''
<
709a
709c
',f
710
II
,,..
711
713
'
--[:\-
712
I
714b
714a
- 716
715
717
...... ......
718
710-731 503
FIGURES
722
. _. ., ,. ,_ 7 2 3
721
J
719
,'
724
727
)~ 726
c.
725
728a
\
'
729a
1111
) ) I \
I)
)1
II I
1,,
I~
,,'''
'
r c , ,','r',
((((
l f
(((((((((
729b
-.
729c
728b
730b
'
I
,, I
I
II I
\
\
v
731
~04
732d
732b
732a
732f
732e
732c
733b
7329 732h
733c
"
732J
733d
732i
733e
~732k
,,~
: 734a
734c
734b
- - --
-----.
. --
-734h
7349
734e
734d
.------
'
,.. '
L-''l
735
7341
734f
' .
I
I I
'
,,
- ------ - ..
,.,. ,
736b
, ,
I
,--.....
., ' '
--
---
(
738a ~ '-
I
~
736e '"----.J
736c
)
"
-<>
c.
736d
736a
737a
...
739a
739b
739c
739d
1;.
4\
740
~
.._
~
. "
;:
()
_,
'-
'
(~ ~ )
-_...,,
'
738b
~1
!
FIGURES
732A-744C 505
741c
741b
741a
741k
7411
741f
..... '
I I
741 J
741d
741g
. -
742b
741h
742d
742a
742e
743a
-. -. . . .
...
743b
I
...
.. @
..... ::.0
.
..
q...
/~,
'
7421
742c
743c
..
744a
-. ...
. . -.
744b
I .'
.... '
743d
I
I
I
4 -
743e
744c
..
506
THE LA T I N EAST
745a
.
,....
745b
754c
745d
745e
' ( c.
7451
'
,,, <
(({
745i
('( (.
( (.
( (.
745j
745g
t(
745h
7451
' '
..
'
( (
\( t
'
,_.1.--i
'
' ,
,,
'
~...- 1\.,.-
'
"~-
\\
i.;-1~"'' '.
II
,,
~\
t
747a
.. .... .. ... ..
' ' ..
.. .
... .. . .
( l (
: 145k
(I
747b
t.C.. I
I ff
( "
(( I
746e
I( I
746b
746a
746c
7461
~---~--11.--~
747e
746d
746i 746j
746g
747c
746k
()
746h
747d
Jll
7461
__/
FIGURES
745A-7500 507
749d
749b
748
749e
1 I
749k
749c
749g .,
,
749h
..
.., 'I
7491
749j
749f
750d
750c
750a
750e
750b
. t
f'.
-.LL.4-lJ.J-LLl][U:ITIIID=TIIOL[lli ~
750f
.l
750g
7501
,,
-.
750k
1'
'
I I
'
\ (
(
f
7500
750j
..'' ...'
' _, a
k-.l~
. '1
'~.1..
,.,
'
... \
"""-->
..' ,.
750m
750h
,. ' l
.. 1
1 ,
I I tl
750i
1(/1
I 1
1l I
' .
(
' '
'
.,,
'"
- - - .l " ' .
750n
753
752
751
754a
t
I
754b
I
(
,......
756a
754d
756b
754c /
----
--' -
757
\I
758
~1
FIGURES
751-767B 509
759
764
763c
760
,,,
,,
,,,,'
"-rr.-.....1 ,, ,
762
761
(I I (
\\ \
763b
763a
765
....:
766
\
111
_/
767b
5 10
THE
w ESTERN BALKANS
769a
/"')
'!
76 9c
770d
769d
~
....
770f
770a
\ ...._,,,rJ/
770e
770b
768
r1
/;i. o''
769b
769e
769f
769g
769h
769i
770c
770g
769J
769k
769p
7691
769m
771a
7690
771g
771c
771b
771h
769v
. ,,----..........___
771d
7711
., '
769q
771e
771) '
769r
769s
769t
769u
771f
772a
771k
772c
773c
\
').6......
--
772b
772e
772d
773a
nab
'
I
I
FIGURES
774b
774
c 774d
c:
768-778D 511
I\
775b
c:
C' ,_
1741
775a
776 .
' '
, ,,,
, ,
,, , ' f
'
"
,
<' I 't
I
774e
777b
774a
777e
777d
777f
777g
778a
..._I
777c
'
)
L----"""'
___
---.:..__
---
778b
\I
'
778d
I
512 THE WESTERN BALKANS/~.1:UNGARY
I
779
782
780
785
-,
784
I
..t
789
I
786
I
j
'
788
----787
''
'
790a
790b
790c
FIG\ RES
'
792
793
794
795
'
'
''
0
...
791b
791a
796
797a
797c
797b
- -
798
(
. ....
'
______.
,
800
,.
....
~-
~1
~~l.>
799
'
&::"
I"
~ -
.,,
...
...
801a
j
\. J
...
- 801c
514
'J
HUNGARY
602
804
-$
805
808
813
811
'/
FIGURES
802-818 515
816
814a
..--\
~
0
10
cm.
817a
..
,'\
'
-'
I
I
817b
'I
I
817c
516 H UN GARY
'/
---
'/
FIGURE;S
'
819- 838 51 7
837
et:
'./
518
HUNGARY
842b
840
842c
839
841
843
-/HI
'/
FIGURES
854a
851
855c
85Sb
839-855C 519
520
HUNGARY
858c
858d
85Be
r1
assa;:
856b
\I
1
~
; 859
'
B59b
BS90
:.~ ~
w
'
'
'(.:{
~5Se
859d
c::C_~--~-
$~; w~ ..,. _
:'
//I~"""
II
@t~~
'
861e
'
'
861h
<t;:
~~======::::::::::~===~
f 1GUR1':S
856A- 867 52 J
866f
522 H UNGARY
FIGURES
876c 876d
r.
l
'
875a
872a
875f
875c
875g
875d
877
878a
f@
878b
876f
8769
879
S24
HUNGARY
882d 882e
884
(f ~
886c
FIGURES
888q
8881
526
HUNGARY/POLAND
893
FIGURES
..~ := ======
c .:;;:
905
528
POLAND
,
9078
906
I
912
FIGURES
906-923 529
530
POLAND/SCANDINAVIA
924f
924h
924g .
929c
929b
front
bock
--
+--
FIGURES
933
c::::::::==============~~~~
935
I
f
~941
942
939
532
SCANDINAVIA
946b
947b
FIGURES
948d~
_~<2____~
~r
~======~i.~~~94~9~
~
950
C;~=C:::O CS ;: ~
954
534
sCANDINAVIA
962
FIGURES
~:-~;967b
967d
$67c
.- ~ ~
95 7- 970 535
'
..I
~.
'I
..,
7'"
<
"
,'
IX
""II
.w
'"'I~
I
"'II
It
,~
(bock)
967e
'
...IS~;:: g
9671
I
I
..'
~r
~.
'
.,
"
,.
(front)
LI
..
'I
~
'
'
ruff
II
I
I
'
' r~
' ~[
'
..
I
'
I
, ,'
'
'
t!
,I
,
\
I
r
968a
'!
II
0
H\
'
...
---- -......
-- .
968b
'
-..
..... .
.
'
:= ... ; .
969
536
974a
971a
971c
976
973
,,
971b
972
978c
982c
981
FIGURES
(b nt ovtr)
I
<'..
,,
I
985
990
992
996
993
994
995
997
Index
A
Aachen: 168
Abruzzi: 224
Acre: 273
adarga (see shield, adarga)
aillettes: 42-3, 76, 85-7, 185, 190, 197-8,
200,205,237,569
flower-shaped (see also shoulder tufts,
decorative).: 198
'
right shoulder only: 32, 197
round: 198
aketon: 146, 152, 15~, 157, 243
Alba, Kingdom of: 93
Albania, Albanians: 293, 295
Albanian light cavalry: 295
Albigensians (heretical sect; see also
Bogomils): 111-2, 119
Algarve: 163
almogavers: 126
Alsace: 191
Amalfi: 24 7-8, 250, 252
America, North (see also Canada;
.
Greenland): 339, 341, 344-5, 349, 3;'H
Ancona: 231
Aquitaine: 111
Aragon: 159, 267
Aragonese mercenaries: 126
Arbanite (Catholic Albanians): 295
archers, mounted infantry: 4 7
archery (see also finger-draw; horsearchery; infantry archery; thumb-draw)
Anglo-Saxon: 46
French:20
in Baltic States: 353
in Bohemia: 203
in Germany: 183
in Iberian Peninsula: 145
in Ireland: 99-100
in Italy: 214
in Poland: 325
Aries, Kingdom of: 207
mercenaries in: 207
armaments, manufacture: 112, 291
arm defences, separate mail sleeves: 53
arm defences, tubular: 86
arming cap: 58, 62, 69, 71, 137, 139, 201,
210, 284, 287,
flat-topped: 62, 69, 71, 284
padded band around head: 62, 69
arming coat: 82, 230
armour for arms (see couter, rerebrace, roundel,
spaulder, vambrace)
exotic and fanciful in Gothic art: 31
non-symmetrical for limbs: 146-7, 219, 269
arriere ban: 20
arrowheads
broad or double-headed: 105, 183
incendiary: 102
surviving: 280, I 02, l 04-6, 308-9, 311,
317-20,333
thrust into belt: 58, 218, 67
artillery, pre-gunpowder (see individual
weapon types; siege engineering).
Asturias: 153, 163
Austria, March of: 167
Avars (Turkic people): 304, 309, 327
aventail: 22, 72, 74, 81-5, 87, 89, 122, 169,
188-90, 192-7, 199-201,205,221,229,
232-9,241-3,252
with additional mail flap: 81, 201
624
INDEX
B
baculas (cudgel or staff of office): 51-2
Balearic Islands: 125, 131
Balkan Slavs (see also Slavs, Balkan)
influences: 168, 270
troops from in Hungary: 302
ball and chain: 118, 130
bamboo spearshafts: 148, 228
ban, levy of all free men: 167
Bannock burn, Battle ( 1314 A.D.): 93
barbote (throat protection): 86
Barcelona, County of: 125
1
bard (see also horse-armour): 77, 85, 123),
176, 197,236,243,289,318
mail: 38, 77, 80, 185, 198, 285
bardiche (war-axe): 40
Bari: 247
bascinet (see helmet; bascinet)
;
basilard (dagger): 67-8, 79, 139, 160, 18~,
191-4, 196,201,228-30,232-3,238-9,
242,244,249,254,270-1,286;
surviving: 189
Basques: 125
Beam-Soule: 34
Benevento: 247,252,254,267
Berbers: 160
berdish (see bardiche)
Besan~on: 19
bevor (neck protection): 139-40, 165, 193
bidauts (French light infantry): 297
bill(axe):40, 114
Billungs, Mark of: 167
boathook: 24
Bogomils (Balkan 'heretics'): 111, 293
Bohemia, Bohemians: 167, 203, 205, 265-6,
307,326,328,335
bombard: 126, 215
bombardella: 231
boots: 133, 196, 291
Bordeaux: 112
Bosnia, Bosnians: 293-4, 299
bow:20,37,47,54,99, 125, 130, 145, 147,
248,254,256,266--8,274,284,297,354
composite: 67, 120, 157, 160, 163, 218,
220,244,257,262,266,277,284,
289, 294, 297, 302-3, 312, 321-3,
334, -'.340; with angled cars: 117, 220,
235,250,258-9,261,266,277;with
angled grip: 261, 264, 266, 279
flat-bow: 47, 183, 340, 346; surviving: 346
longbow: 24, 46-7, 51, 55, 58, 67, 149,
163, 175, 183,217,266,325,340;
surviving: I 0 I
simple self-bow: 24, 51, 58, 103, 130, 132,
149, 159,206,216-7,259,312,326
simple short: 51, 67, 77, 86; surviving:
107,334
bowcase: 289, 321
BraQant,Braban~ons: 19, 168, 184
Brandenburg: 180,336,353
breastplate: 244
bretache: 32, 189, 191, 194, 197, 232, 234-6,
239,241,337
Brethren of the Sword: 353
Brittany, Bretons: 19-20, 22, 26, 31, 248
bronze:48,52,85, 105,297,306,317,333,
343,345,347
bucine: 235
buckle on scabbard; 42, 196
securing helmet to coat-of-plates: 43
buckler (see shield, small round)
Burgundy: 19
Burgundy, Kingdom of: 111
Byzantine art conventions and archaisms: 323
i.nfluence of: 32, 55, 59, 74
INDEX
Byzantines: 46
influence of: 118
c
Calabria: 24 7
calthrop, surviving: 320
Campagna: 213
Canada:339,344-5
cannon:85,231
caparison (horse-covering): 30, 77, 79, 85,
120, 122-3, 137, 161, 165, 176, 184,
197,201,205,210,229,234,236,239,
241,243,290,298,318,351
front part only used: 184
in one piece: 285, 289
rear section only: 136-7
Capua:247,265
Carinthia: 168, 294
Carniola: 168, 294
Carolingians (Franco-German dynasty
750-887 A.D.): 22, 54, 65, 125
Carpathian mountains: 301-2
Castile: 125, 163, 222
influence: 144, 146, 158
Catalan mercenaries: 126
cavalry
Anglo-Saxon: 45
Aragonese: 126
armoured close combat: 20, 46-7, 14_3,
158
;.
ofCatalonia: 126, 138
cooperate with infantry in Italy: 21
Flemish: 21
Irish: 100, l 05
Scots: 93-4
Welsh: 47
unarmoured light (see alsojineta, light
cavalry): 19, 100, 126, 130-1, 137-8,
143-4, 158
Celts: 19,45,47, 101, 103
cervelliere (see helmet, cervelliere)
chains, from coat-of-plates to support
weapons: 42
Champagne: 19
chanfron: 79,85, 159, 165, 184,205,229,
234,236-7,239,241,243,268
chape: 72, 76, 290
chapel-de-fer (see helmet, brimmed)
chausses: 25, 27, 29-32, 34, 36, 38-9, 41-:-2,
53,58,61,63-4,69-71, 73-4, 77, i982, 84-5, 87-8, 96-7, 134, 137-9, -157,
161, 166, 174-6, 179, 181-7, 191-3,
195-200,205,209-10,218,222,225-6,
~,,
228-9,232-4,237,239,241,257,~66,
625
270-1,281-2,284-6,288,317,320,
322,348,350-1
covering only front of leg: 61, 65, 67, 76,
175,282
one leg only: 146, 219
possibly scale or mail-lined: 66, 75, 269,
322
without foot protections: 78
with sole: 190
cheek-pieces (see helmet, movable cheekpieces)
chin-strap: 24, 35, 43, 66, 75, 151-2, 155,
179, 181,222,236,240,283,298
circlet around brows: 69, 97
citizen knight (see knight)
Chiusi: 235
claymore (see sword, claymore)
cloak: 33, 67, 101, 107, 178, 225, 255, 277,
288
'
over arm as shield: 199, 264
club probably of wood: 37, 114, 131, 135,
147, 157, 198,235,260-1,266,284,290
symbolic function: 52
cnihtas (Anglo-Saxon warrior): 45
coat, padded: 251
coat-of-plates: 42-3, 70, 74, 82-3, 86-8, 112,
135-6, 139-40, 180-2, 187-8, 192-8,
201,205,225,227,229,233-7,240,
242,244,270,274,284,288,322,348,
351
chains from: 42, 192, 197, 232-3
from back: 201, 239
possible eastern origin: 274, 318
surviving: 348-9
coif
cloth: 140, 229, 243, 251, 254, 259-60,
284
fabric-covered: 251, 269
face-covering or partially face-covering
(see also ventail): 5 7, 149-50, 17 5,
217-8,255,266,281
mail: 23, 25, 26, 29-30, 32-6, 41, 54, 5660, 62, 64, 66, 69-83, 87-9, 96-7,
114-6, 118, 122, 134, 136-40, 151-2,
154-5, 157, 159-61, 166, 171-6, 17880, 183-4, 186, 188, 190, 195,200-1,
205,208-10,217-23,225-7,229-30,
232,235,251-4,256-60,263-4,266,
271,278,281-6,290,317-8,321-2,
335,345,347-8,351
scale or lamellar: 218, 256
separate:31,54,63,69, 79,88, 136, 138,
177, 179-80, 183, 187, 205, 210, 227,
238,256,263,269,281-2,298
surviving: 80
626
INDEX
D
dagger:70,83, 118, 134, 137, 145, 155-6,
160, 177, 191-2, 194, 198,222,226-8,
232-3,235,237,243,260,265,279,285
'ballock' dagger: 194, 196-7, 270-1, 322
basilard: 78, 139, 160, 191-4, 196, 229,
232-3,238-9,242,244,249,254,
270-l, 286; surviving: 189
'burgundian' surviving: 107, 189
curved: 130,254,260
'ear dagger': 194
'kidney' (see dagger, 'ballock' dagger)
sheath: 310
surviving: 67-8, 107, 328-9
triangular: 37, 254
Dalmatia, Dalmatians: 293-4, 296-7, 301-2
Dalriada:- 94
Danube Ri~er: 293, 301, 314, 320
deli, light cavalry: 206
Denia: 125.
Denmark: 278, 339-40
Deventer: J 68
diarchies, of Lithuania (1345-1440 A.D.):
354
Dijon: 19
Dithmarschen: 168
Dol: 51
Douro: 143, 167
drawbridge, raising mechanism: 37
drum: 318
Dubrovnik (see Ragusa)
E
ear defences (see helmet, separate ear
defences)
Empire, the German (see Arles, Bohemia,
Germany, Italy)
Emperor, German: 213
enarmes: 26, 51-2, 69, 81, 133, 171, 176, 187,
239
England, Angevin and Plantagenet,
mercenaries in: 46
England, Anglo-Norman (see AngloNormans)
England, English: 99
archers: 46
INDEX
627
628
INDEX
gun,hand:85, 126,214-5,231
gunpowder: 21, 47, 168, 214
H
Hainault: 19, 184
halhard: 24, 40, 84, 207
hat:55,59, 154,216,220,222,250,275;
289,322
broad-brimmed: 36, 205, 283, 286 ~
large: 86
pointed: 129, 157, 204, 264, 266, 268, 285
tall:81,251,282,323
41,53,57-60,62,64-5, 73-4,88,
121, 128, 135, 137-8, 145-6, 149,
154-5, 157, 170, 173-6, 180, 183,
185, 193, 195,200,209-10,217-8,
220-l,226,228,233-5,239,254,
256,258,263-4,266,269-71,281,
284-5,298,312-3,321-2,345,348,
350
mid-length sleeves: 36, 56, 65, 74, 87,
114-5, 118-9, 137, 150, 152, 157,
l 74-6, 178, 188, 192, 195, 200, 235,
264,270,321
raised stiff collar: 230, 233, 241, 286
scale or lamellar: 28-9, 116-7, 186,
208-9,218,227,251,259,335
short-hemmed and shirt-like: 59, 66, 78,
114, 136, 150, 188,243,251,259,268
short-sleeved: 50, 53, 56-7, 65, 97, 114,
116, 122, 128, 146, 152, 169-70,
172-3, 177, 187, 194, 196-7,218,
220-1,223,251,253,256,259,268,
288-9,291,321,334
single sleeve: 25
sleeveless: 222, 227, 275, 288
slit on hip for sword: 23, 53, 115-7, 133,
209
slit at .side of hem: 26, 118, 169, 171, 173;
220,253
square patch on chest: 53-4, 128, l 77
surviving: 188, 318
two worn: 53, 229, 234
wide sleeves: 95, 115, 147, 151, 224, 241
with mittens: 29-32, 34, 36, 42, 58, 61-4,
69-70, 75-7, 79-81, 85-8, 96-7, 119,
134, 137-8; 160, 176, 179, 181-3,
185-7, 190-2, 195, 198,200,205,
209-10,225-6,230,270,281,284-5,
288,317,347,350-1
with one mitten only: 269
head-cloth: 118, 130, 148, 175,210,229,
267
Hebrides: 104, 339
helmet
barbuta: 238, 241
bascinet: 34, 74, 81-6, 108, 123, 191-2,
196-201,205-6,210,220,226,
230-2, 235-42, 252, 261, 26l, 268,
332,350;fluted:87, 194-5;great
bascinet: 158; surviving: 188-90, 231,
336-7; tall: 72, 201, 231, 236, 238,
243; two-piece construction: 85, 89,
205; very deep neck-guard: 81, 84,
190, 198, 232-3, 244; visored: 42-3,
84,86,88, 190, 195,200,236,243,
322, 350-1
INDEX
629
helmet; painted: 27
helmet; pendant ear and neck defences:
343-4
helmet; plumes; 286
helmet, surviving: 30, 307, 3 I 2, 327
heraldry: 62
Hispano-Arabs: 268
hobelar: I 00
Hohenstauffens: 156, 209, 248
hood:251,259,260
horn, hunting: 70
horse-archer: 36, 42, 47, 130, 149, 260, 294,
326
horse armour: 77, 144, 159, 243, 285, 351;
mail: 204
horses, shortage of: 273
Hospitallers: 273
Hundred Years War: 111-2, 143
Hungary, Hungarian: 22, 168, 175, 205-6,
222-3,243,293,296-7,326-7,331,333
Huns: 327
huscarl: 45, 52
hussar: 206
I
Iberian peninsula: 10 l
Iceland: 339, 351
India: 253
infantry: 19,45,47, 78, 168
infantry archers: 46, 274
infantry, armoured: 144
infantry, crossbowmen: 21, 303
infantry, disciplined: 214, 219
infantry, javelin armed: 125
infantry, light: 60, 100, 126, 206
infantry, mounted: 20, 45, 47, 168, 249, 274
infantry, Polish: 325
infantry,spearmen:47,94
infantry, Scots: 94
Investiture Contest: 213
Iran, Iranians: 154, 253, 261, 264, 277, 287,
291, 312,
Ireland, Irish: 30, 94
Ireland, mercenaries in: 100
Islam, Muslims: 24, 28, 60, 68, 77, 100, 116,
125, 129-31, 134-5, 143-4, 146, 148,
152, 154, 158, 162, 167,214,247-8,
250,253-4,248-9,256-60,264,274,
282-3,286,297,306,309,335
Islamic armies: 20
islamicinfluence:24, 73, 119, 127, 155,216,
284,289,291,311
Isle of Man: 339
Istanbul: 293
!stria 294
630
INDEX
'
K
kalevala: 340
Karelians: 340
karr wasfarr (see tactics, karr wafarr)
''
l
kazag!.!;_and:53, 134, 136
I
Kent: 46
kernes: 100
khanjar: 222
Khazars: 301
Kiev: 326
kilt: 150, 253, 258, 276
Kipeak: 303, 322
knee defences (see also poleyns): 210
knife (see also dagger): 60
knight, knighthood: 20-1, 45-6, 167, 213,
286,290,313,318
Kolo: 168
Krakow: 325
;
Kruja: 298
kufic: 155
'
Kurshi: 357
L
Labrador: 341
'i
lambrequin: 169, 200, 205, 232, 23 7, 243 -.
lamellar construction: 28-9, 63, 136, 159,
171, 175, 180, 186, 208, 225, 251-2;
255-9,262,267-8,275,277-8,283,
291,298,335,340,343-4
lamellar armour, surviving: 348
laminated construction: 70
lance,couched:22, 127, 152-3, 161,205,
213,255,258,264,274,305,313,318
lance, heavy: 21 7
lance, roundel ahead of grip: 23 7, 240, 243
lance-blade, triple pointed: 199
!angel: 35, 56, 59, 61, 68, 73, 119, 132, 151,
184, 191, 265
Lapland, Lapps: 340
Las Navas de Tolosa, battle ( 1212 A.D.):
143
Laterina: 235
Latium: 213
Latvia: 353, 356-7
Lausitz: 325
League of Verona: 213
leather armour: 30, 39, 46, 214, 226, 228,
233,249,270-1
Lechfield, battle (955 A.D.): 30 l
leg armour: 42
Letts: 354
levy: 20
levy, feudal: 207
Lisbon: 164
/itham: 118
Lithuania, Lithuanians: 325, 331-2, 336-7,
353-4
Livonia, Livs: 353-4, 356
Loire: 33, 111
Lombard League: 213
Lombards, of southern Italy: 247, 251
Lombardy: 214, 239
Lorraine: 19
Lotharingia: 19
Lothians: 93
Lucca: 215
Lucera: 248
Luxembourg; 167, 203
M
~fa'arat
al-Numan: 286
mace:24,26-7,37,46,52,59,67, 129, 148,
157, 160,222,235,252,257,260-2,
265-6,279,283,286
mace, zoomorphic: 130
mace, bronze: 52
mace, flanged: 78, 120, 127
mace, fluted: 218, 224
mace,knobbed:52, 135, 177,219,284,334
mace, long hafted: 160, 200
mace, spherical: 135
mace, spiked: 37, 78, 135, 153, 266, 279
INDEX
I
mercenaries, Christian in Islamic service:
158
mercenaries, Muslims in Navarre: 125
mercenaries, north Italian: 248
Mercia: 65
'
Mersen, treaty (870 A.D.): 167
Metz: 168
Meuse: 168
Middle East: 115, 130, 132, 252, 258, 2~0,
265,277,297,306
Middle Eastern influence: 53, 82, 120, l 36,
216,239
Milan: 218
milites: 19, 111, 217
militia: 21, 24
,
militia, urban: 143, 168, 214-5, 218-9,:248
militia, rural: 168
'
Modena:220,223
Moldavia: 30 l
Molise: 258
:~
Mondego river: 163
Mongols: 180,243,285,289,302-3,31~,
318,322-3,326,335-6,354
Mont St. Michel: 51
631
Montfort: 279
Moravia: 167,203,302,305,331
Morocco: 159-60,66
mozarab art: 118, 130, 132-3, 144, 146-7,
149, 153-4, 161
mudejar art: 156
mughawir, al- (see almogavers)
Murabi{in: 126, 129-30, 143, 1+8
Muslims (see Islam, Muslims)
muwaMidin: 143
N
naf~ (see also Greek Fire): 282
Najera, battle (1367 A.D.): 164
Naples: 233, 247, 265, 293, 298
nasal:26-8,32,34,36,54-5,59-60,63,66,
75, 95, 103, 108, 113-5, 117, 119,
121-2, 128-9, 131, 134, 137, 145, 147,
l ')0-2, 157, 172, 174-6, 193-4, 204,
209,217-21,226,241,251-2,255-6,
258,264,266,275-6,281-2,285,288,
297,313,328,334,343-5
Naumberg: 335
naval organization, Italy: 214
Navarre: 143, 145
Nazareth: 23, 277
Netherlands: 167-8
New Brunswick: 341
New England: 341
Newfoundland: 341
Nicea: 41, 283
Nordmark: 167, 332
Normans, Normandy: 19-20, 22, 25, 42,
45-6,50,60,93,99-100, 103, 128,
247-8,251,256,258-9,264-5,268,
274,
North Africa, North Africans: 129-32, 144,
146-7, 158, 160, 165-6,210,247-8,
250-1,253,258-60,262,265,268
Northumbria: 67, 93
Norway:278,307,325,339-40
Nova Scotia: 341
0
Obodrites: 325
Occitan: 111
Orkney Islands: 339
Ottoman Turks: 206, 234, 291, 293, 303,
335
p
Palermo: 256
Palestine: 273, 353
Papacy: 113,213,254
Papal States: 213, 215
632
INDEX
Q
Quebec: 341
quillons: 227, 344; angled: 97, 233, 328; barlike: 260, 265; bifurcated: 79; broad:
67-8, 155, 174,347;bulbous:305;
curved:23,29,31,35,41,48,55-7,59,
61,64,68, 70,97, 103, 116, 129, 132,
152, 159, 172, 180, 198, 216, 221,
223-4,226,260-1,262-3,265,271,
287,307,310,342,347-8,351;
decorated: 38, 42, 70, 75, 186; down
turned:34,48,50,64-5, 74, 79, 113,
116, 119, 127, 129-30, 132, 150, 153,
184,210,230,244,260-2;flared:260,
267; inlaid: 68; long: 28,62, 72, 177,
243,271,282,286,298,322,350-l~
221,229,235,307~,313,316,322,
R
Ragusa: 29,l
Rcconqu~ta:
INDEX
Reims: 33
relic, in sword hilt: 333
rerebrace: 80, 82-3, 86-7, 138, 191, 193-4,
196,201,229,232,237,242-4,269-71
Rhine: 19
Rhineland: 34, 168-9, 310, 355
Rhone: 19, 111, 207
riding, bare feet: 133
riding position, bent knee: 105, 158, 165,
205,285
riding position, straight leg: 20, 148
rifer: 167
rock, thrown by hand: 130, 256, 284
Romania, Romanians: 293, 301, 321
Romania, Crusader Empire of: I 73, 274
Romans: 20, 114, 128, 221, 227, 240-1, 247,
253,259,281,288,297
, .
Rome: 213
roundel, on elbow: 80, 82, 87-8, 138, 193,
196,200,237,270-1
roundel, on shoulder: 83, 85-6, 88, 138, 229,
270
Russia, Russians: 151, 222, 280, 325-8, 332,
335-6,353-5,357
Ruthenia: 301, 325, 333
s
sabaton: 31, 82, 87, 89, 123, 138-40, 165,
191-2, 194-5, 198, 225-6, 232-3, .
235-7,240,242-3,322,351
sabre (see sword, curved)
saddle: 80
saddle, strap around rider: 219, 236-7
saddle, tall; 20, 54, 148, 255, 261, 289
saddlecloth: 286
Salado, battle (l340A.D.): 166
Salerno: 247, 252, 265
Saljuk Turks: 267-8
Sandomierz: 333
Saone: 19,207
Saragossa: 146
sash: 252-3
sash, around body: I 77
sash: waist: 33
Sassanians: 302
Save river: 302
Savoy:215,237,239
Saxony: 183
sayfal-hind: 253
scabbard:33,42,50,52, 71, 79,82, 196,
205,209,230,251,268,279,290
scabbard, by straps to belt: 76, 261
scabbard, surviving: 169, 189, 33 l
scabbard, Islamic style attachment system:
138
633
634
INDEX
259, 277
Spanish March: 125
.
spea~broad: 108, 113, 118, 131, 133,228,
263, 277; hooked: 24; large bladed: 159;
short: 251-2; with streamers: 286; )
winged: 37, 129, 145, 147, 170, 171,
205,218,250-1,254,263,266
'
spear, bamboo haft: 228
spear, bound grip: 118
spear, two handed use: 223
spear, decorated haft: 15 7
spear, infantry: 266
spear, plug near grip: 267
spearhead:330
spearhead, armour penetrating: 46
spearhead, bulges on socket: 159
spearhead, broad surviving: 305
spearhead, diamond section: 59
.
spearhead, split socket: 154
:
spearhead, surviving: 48-50, 58, I 0 I, I qs-6,
280, 2%-7, 304, 309, 316, 320, '.~29l
349, 355-7
.
INDEX
T
~abarzin:
129
tactics: 20
tactics, Anglo-Norman: 46
tactics, Anglo-Saxon: 46
tactics, cooperation of cavalry and infantry:
214
'
tactics, Crusader: 283
tactics, Eurasian steppe: 302
tactics, guerrilla: 99, 126
tactics, infantry: 207
tactics, Italian: 214
tactics, karr wafarr: 143
tactics, light cavalry: 3S4
tactics, raiding: 163, 3S4
tactics, shock: 20
tactics, shield wall: 242
tactics, turnafuoya: 143
Tar~u~i, al-: 113
Temesvar: 301
Templars: 273, 277
Teutonic Knights: 167, 303, 332, 336, 353-5
thegn: 45
theme: 248
Thessaloniki: 267
Thessaly: 295
thumb draw: 216, 284
Th uringia: 16 7, 18:~
635
u
Ukraine:312,318,325,333,337
Umbria: 213
Union of Kalmar: 339
Upper Lotharingia: 170
urban forces, Italy: 214
v
vambrace:82-3,87-8, 138, 140, 161, 191-5,
201,229,233,235,237,242-4,270
Venice:213,217,221,223,273,293,295
ventail: 23, 25, 35, 54, 60, 64-5, 70-3, 80,
114-5, 117, 119, 128-9, 150, 176, 183,
253,328
Verden, treaty (843 A.D.): 167, 207
Verona: 219, 236
vervelles: 83-4, 87, 190
Vikings: 99, 307, 339, 343, 346
Vilna (Vilnius): 354
Visegrad: 306
Visigoths: 163
Vlachs: 293, 301
Volga Bulgars: 340
Volhynia: 332
w
Wallachia: 30 l -2
636
INDEX
Wiltzes: 325
Wishy, battle ( 1361 A.D.): 348-9
y
Yorkshire: 96
z
Zips: 30 l