Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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10
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12
13
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STATUSES
SOCIAL ROLES
GROUPS
ORGANIZATIONS
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
CULTURE AND THE UNSPOKEN RULES
APPLICATION
KEY CONCEPTS
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18
18
19
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CHAPTER 5 : CULTURE
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REQUIRED READING
SOCIETIES AND CULTURE
GLOBAL CULTURES
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM AND HEGEMONY
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURE AND SOCIOLOGICAL AWARENESS
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29
30
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SUBCULTURES
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS
CULTURE APPLIED:
VIDEOS
APPLICATION:
KEY CONCEPTS
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36
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CHAPTER 6 : SOCIALIZATION
38
GENETICS
FERAL CHILDREN
REQUIRED ONLINE VIDEOS:
SOCIALIZATION AND THE SELF
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST
SELF AND SOCIETIES
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
FAMILY
SCHOOLS
MASS MEDIA
FRIENDS
GENDER SOCIALIZATION
RESOCALIZATION
APPLICATION
KEY CONCEPTS
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40
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BUREAUCRACY
CHARACTERISTICS OF A BUREAUCRACY:
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
APPLICATION:
KEY CONCEPTS
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48
49
49
CHAPTER 8 : DEVIANCE
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DEVIANTS TO HEROES
PERSPECTIVES AND DEVIANCE
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
THE PERSPECTIVES AND DEVIANCE
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
POLITICS AND CRIME
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
APPLICATION:
KEY CONCEPTS:
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SLAVERY
CASTE
ESTATE
SOCIAL CLASS
WEBER ON SOCIAL CLASS
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66
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68
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ETHNICITY
RACISM
THE CASE FOR AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
REQUIRED READING:
INTERRACIAL RELATIONS AND CHANGING ATTITUDES?
RACE AND GENDER
RACE RELATIONS
GENDER
GENDER ROLES
GENDER STRATIFICATION
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
GENDER AND CULTURE
APPLICATION:
KEY CONCEPTS:
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ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
COMMODITY CHAINS
POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION
GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE
GLOBAL INEQUALITY
BHUTAN AND A NEW APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT
WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
REQUIRED ONLINE READINGS:
SOCIAL CHANGE
THE ENVIRONMENT AND GLOBALIZATION
REQUIRED ONLINE READING:
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GLOBAL WARMING
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Principles of Sociology
Navada, Marianne Ryan4Go. 2009. Principles of Sociology.
especially for lowHincome and the poor are inflated in price, then the number or
people taking advantage of shelters increases. Given these associations,
sociologists believe that homelessness, as a condition, cannot just be explained
by a person's history (person is homeless because he is lazy and he is not
motivated)rather, larger social phenomenon are at play and need to be
analyzed. Certain groups are more likely to be homeless, and factors such as the
economy and government policies, which are for the most part beyond the
control of an individual, are influencing a person's life.
accountable for their actions. This is neither the goal nor the intention of
sociology. Keep in mind that unlike psychology, sociology looks at social issues
and groups as points of explanations and reference. We want to understand why
homelessness exists by looking at which social categories and groups are more
likely to become homeless and in what social conditions, so we can better
understand WHY people become homeless. Imagine you were a policy maker and
your job is to address the level of homelessness in your community. If you knew
more about the demographics of homelessness, the reasons why people become
homeless, and the government and social policies that negatively or positively
affect levels of homelessness, then you can design programs that specifically
target the groups that are most vulnerable to losing their homes and create a
society can best handle these problems.
Another example of understanding social behavior through sociology is how
th
we view education in contemporary times. It is only in the latter half of the 20
century where going to a 4H year college has become the norm. In hunting and
gathering societies, schoolsas formal institutions did not exist. In agricultural
societies, people learned their basic skills at home or would do apprenticeships to
learn their trade. If you wanted to learn how to be a cobbler, a watchmaker, or a
dressmaker, you learned by having a mentor. Moreover, what we now consider as
formal education through institutions was reserved for the rich, the privileged,
and males. This type of arrangement continued on until the industrial revolution,
but has slowly changed since then. As jobs become more
specified and more complex, professional careers such as those in the medical
field, law, academics, and science and engineering require formal training.
Currently, our job market requires most employees to have at least a high school
diploma, but the most coveted and higher paying jobs require a 4Hyear college
education if not more. This example on education shows how a collective
behavior (attaining an education) is highly influenced by changes in technology,
social patterns, and economic structures (social environment). Sociology allows us
to understand behavior that we consider normal and makes us realize that what
is normal changes through time and across culture. Imagine, the reason you are
now reading this book, taking an introduction to sociology course with the hopes
of getting a college degree is more than a personal decision!
Sociology challenges the concept of innateness when it comes to social
behavior and social change. We do things not because it is natural for humans,
but that actions and what we believe is right or wrong are learnedeither taught
to us explicitly or implicitly. Social rules develop for a number of reasons. These
rules are not finite and are mutable and vary across culture and history.
Take slavery for example. Slavery was considered normal in our country and in
some parts of the world throughout history, and those who fought against it
were considered wrong. Even after the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation
in 1863 by Abraham Lincoln, the concept of human beings as being unequal
st
persisted in the US. In fact, it still persists in other parts of the world in the 21
century.
Of course, in contemporary times in the US, slavery is considered
inhumane and illegal, but this was not the case before. Murder is another
example. Societies sanction and even glorify the killing of another human being
(i.e. war), in certain circumstances, but frowned upon in another context. For
sociologists, this is a sign that these beliefs are cultural and socially
constructed. People are not programmed, through their nature, to think that
the act of killing and slavery is wrong in principle; rather, we have to be taught
to comprehend that these acts are immoral. Sociology is not saying that either
murder or slavery is right, but what it does is to challenge what we believe is
common sense. In essence, sociology gives an alternative way of looking at
ourselves and the world around us. It allows us to understand our basic values
and actions from a sociological perspective.
Required Reading:
Sociological Perspectives
Another aspect of the sociological thinking is being able to assess
situations from various perspectives. Being able to think outside of your own
belief system is a critical skill sociology develops. As sociologists, we attempt to
strip ourselves of our identities and try to think outside of our selves. Let's take
Iran's nuclear program and apply the sociological imagination. With the help of
United States in the 1950s under the Atoms for Peace program, Iran started to
develop a nuclear program for energy purposes. The Atoms for Peace program
was proposed by President Eisenhower in the 1950s with the aim of curtailing
the spread of nuclear weapons. Guided by an optimistic worldview, Eisenhower
believed that the spread of peaceful nuclear technology would control the
arms race (Reiss, 2003).
With the end of the Cold War and the soured relationship between the US
and Iran, the US has accused Iran of violating the Nuclear NonHProliferation Treaty
and using nuclear technology for military purposes. On the other hand, Iran has
insisted that their development is strictly a means of alternative energy given
their booming population and industrialization. The recent findings of The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that Iran was developing nuclear
technology for civilian and not military purposes has been dismissed by the some
European countries and the US (BBC 10/30/2007).
The thought of having a nuclear capable Iran can be viewed from various
perspectives.
Americans are disapproving of a nuclear Iran because of US ties to Israel and how
a nuclear Iran might encourage other countries in the Middle East to acquire
nuclear technology. Iranians, on the other hand, might see a benefit in having
nuclear weapons. Given its foreign policy under George W. Bush, the US has been
less likely to use military force against nuclear countries such as North Korea,
Pakistan, and Russia. Thus, from an Iranian standpoint, having witnessed a
neighboring country without nuclear weapons, Iraq, invaded by the US, a nuclear
weapon for some might seem to be a rational choice to deter military threat from
the US. While Iran thinks it is acting defensively by acquiring nuclear weapons, the
US is interpreting Iran's alleged nuclear development as an offensive act against
national security. In this case, the lines between what is offensive and defensive
have been blurred. In using the sociological way of thinking, situations are not as
clearHcut as they seem. In understanding the other perspective, we are able to
gain a more thorough assessment of other people's action. To claim that Iran
wants nuclear weapons because they are simply violent is a misconception if one
uses the sociological imagination and acknowledges the rational behind their
actions. On the other hand, the US' position cannot be dismissed as simply
paranoid given their fear of nuclear proliferation.
challenge our own convictions, we either decide to change or maintain the status
quo. Sociology does not judge nor does it promote the need to change. Rather, it
encourages us to think and decide for ourselves what we deem is right or wrong.
The basic premise of sociology is that we are all a product of our social
environment. By questioning what society tells us, we take control of ourselves
and our lives.
So far, the reasons mentioned as to the importance of sociology relate to
the abstract and the personal. There are practical uses to sociology. For policy
purposes, studies on social change and groups behavior are the central tenets of
policy making. The research methods used in the discipline, such as surveys,
statistical analysis, economic data, and fieldwork gives policy makers the data
and the analytical tools to better address social problems and formulate laws and
policies. In marketing and advertising, the art of deciphering social behavior and
convincing the public to buy products relies a great deal on the principles of
sociology. The argument is: if people are a product of their environment, then
manipulating the environment can change people's behavior. People interested in
social work also make use of sociological studies in assessing poverty, education,
and employment.
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What I have enumerated are specific career niches where sociology is used
overtly. However, the tolerance and holistic perspective that sociology offers in
the study of society touches all fields of interest. A nurse or a doctor would better
serve their patients if aware of cultural differences and its implications in
medicine. A family lawyer can better handle clients if knowledgeable of the social
aspects of why divorce happens and its personal and social consequences. An
engineer can design better cars if possessed of the knowledge of who will buy
which types of cars and why.
Required Reading
Chambliss, Daniel F. 1989. The Mundanity of Excellence: An Ethnographic Report
on Stratification and
Olympic Swimmers. http://www.scribd.com/doc/2926754/TheHMundanityHofH
Excellence#document_metadata
Here is a reading that points to how environment shapes individuals. Use the
questions to better understand the reading.
1. What is Chambilss' main argument in this essay? What is his point in writing
the essay?
2. Why is excellence mundane according to the author?
3. What does it take to train Olympic level swimmers according to the article?
12
We will not go into detail on each theorist, but will refer to them when
necessary throughout the text. To explain more the role of theory and how it is
applied in sociology, we will be using Durkheim's work on suicide.
Application
Studying sociology requires being aware of what is going on in your society.
Society can have different levels. It can refer to your neighborhood, your city,
state, country, even the world! Find a legitimate newspaper and look for current
events. Try to explain the event using your sociological imagination. What is the
issue? Which social categories are involved in the issue? How would various groups
interpret the event?
Key Concepts
Altruistic suicide
Anomic suicide
Collective
behavior
Common sense
Egotistic suicide
Emile Durkheim
Fatalistic suicide
Interdependenc
e Nature vs.
Nurture Patterns
in behavior
Public sphere
Social category
Social cohesion
Social
construction
social
environment
Sociological
imagination
Sociological
perspective
subjectivity
Theory
Statuses
Status refers to any socially defined position in society. Such as a mother, lawyer,
professor, president of a country, inmate, rapist, Cuban, beggar etc. A person can
occupy many statuses at once. There are 2 different types of status: ascribed and
achieved. Ascribed status refers to a social position that is acquired at birth or
later in life beyond our control: sex, age, the status as a daughter for example.
These ascribed statuses can change through time: In the US, when a person
reaches 65 and becomes a senior citizen. In contrast, achieved status are
positions we acquire through our own efforts. Being a college graduate, mother,
and a dentist all require work. The level of prestige society places on these
statuses can mean differently across cultures. In India, Sadhus or ascetics are
people who give up worldly pleasures and the everyday routines of society and
devote their lives to prayers. Their lifestyle may vary, either living in mountains in
isolation, in ashrams or temples, or others become nomads. In India, sadhus are
commonly referred to as baba which means means father or uncle as a sign of
respect. The reverence granted to sadhus in Indian culture may not be mimicked in
another culture.
Imagine if in the US, a person gives up their job and family, may have to rely on
the good graces of strangers for food, and lives on the streetswould that person
be respected or ostracized as lazy and irresponsible? Also, our achieved status is
in some level dependent on our ascribed status. For example, in the US, a female
is more likely to become a nurse than a male.
Since an individual can hold multiple statuses, The master status is the
status that is the most salient of all the statuses and as a result is the status that
people will mostly associate with. For example, OJ Simpson was an accomplished
running back in American football, but he will probably will be most remembered
for his status as one acquitted of double murder. In US society, race plays a very
important part in determining a person's status. During the 2008 presidential
race, President Barak Hussein Obama's African heritage was highlighted. Notice
however that Republican Presidential candidate Senator John McCain's race was
not the focal point; rather, it was his age. Thus, in the US, more than race, it is the
statuses that are the least expected in a given situation that dominate attention.
In short, circumstances matter in terms of which status will become the master
status.
Generally, when a person occupies a status that is unexpected in a given
situation, that status becomes the master status. Given that most presidents have
been white, Obama's race stood out. Another example is the rapper Eminem. In a
niche in the music industry dominated by blacks, his race became his mater
status.
Social Roles
Social roles are what is expected of people given a certain status. Doctors
are expected to have the knowledge to diagnose symptoms; students are
expected to respect their teachers; parents are expected to care for their children
and provide basic needs. Roles can be fulfilled in various ways, but the general
expectations are constant. Failure to fulfill a role is seen as a form of deviance in
most cases. Expectations differ across cultures. For example, in Asian cultures,
children are expected to take care of their parents when their elders reach a
certain age. Role conflict happens when a person, occupying two ore more
statuses is faced with competing expectations from society. On May 6, 2008, a
former Navy SEAL refused to testify against his boss, computer chip billionaire
Henry T. Nicholas, coH founder of Broadcom, who was accused of improperly
backdating stock options in his own company. Stephen Otter Otten refused to
testify against Nicholas claiming emotional ties to the Nicholas family, which he
considered family members (LA Times 5/6/2008). The judge in the case claimed
that there were no legal grounds to excuse family members from grand jury
testimony and sent Otten to jail. Otten's social role as a faithful employee and
family member conflicts with his role as a law abiding citizen. Role conflict also
happens when a person's ascribed status conflicts with a person's achieved
status. For example, a female becoming a fire fighter.
Groups
Sociologists use the concept of a group to refer to two or more people who
interact with one another on a regular basis, are aware of themselves as
belonging to a group, and share similar goals and values. Examples are a book
club, a sports team, a church, and a choir. With the internet and the proliferation
of online networks, the need for faceHtoHface interaction has redefined the
meaning of a group in sociology. Being a member of an online community is
being a part of a group.
A number of people in an elevator is NOT a group, since people in an
elevator rarely interact with one anothernotice how people in an elevator face
the door and not each other? Even if the people in the elevator are going in a
similar direction (similar goal), the lack of constant interaction disqualifies these
people as a group in sociological terms. Most individual dayHtoHday interaction
happens within groups, so groups are crucial units of analysis in sociology and
are important components of social structure.
How a group is structured dictates the types of interactions and relationships
among members. For example, a group can be egalitarian or hierarchical.
Egalitarian groups foster equality among members, while hierarchical groups
have a more rigid power structure. The size of a group also matters in
determining interactions among members, with a dyad being the smallest unit
with two members. Marriage is an example. Georg Simmel (1858H1918), a
prominent German sociologist, claims that dyads generate the most intense and
emotional groups. Since there are only two members, dyads tend to be the most
fragile. If one member leaves, the group will most likely disintegrate. A triad
consists of three members and are more stable. If one person leaves, you are still
left with a dyad. In a triad, situations are dealt with differently compared to a
dyad. Coalitions and alliances are common. For example, two individuals might
form a coalition against the other member.
The type of interaction in a group is also influenced by the level of contact
we have with members. A primary group is made of members that have direct
and frequent contact and longevity. A secondary group is characterized by
impersonal relationships among its members with less emotional ties and
investment. An example would be coHworkers or classmates. Finally, our statuses,
both ascribed and achieved, influence which groups we will belong to. This is an
important point,
since our social networksthe people we know and the connections we will
established our heavily influenced by our groups. This means that there are
certain people that you might never meet or bump into as a result of your status
and group affiliation.
Organizations
Organizations are characterized by groups formed for specific purposes,
wherein membership is most likely to be voluntary. Sierra Club is an organization
whose members are concerned about a specific cause: protecting the
environment. Sierra Club has been around since 1892 and currently has
1.3 million members. Founded by John Muir (1838H1914), with prominent members
such as Theodore Roosevelt (1858H1919), Sierra Club is responsible for the
creation of the great parks in the US such as Yosemite, Sequoia, and the Grand
Canyon. Another example of an organization is a corporation, with the employees
as members. Most corporations have a distinct goal: profit, and every member is
working towards this goal. While the Sierra Club and corporations in general are
an examples of stable and permanent organizations, there are organizations that
do not have longevity. For example, during elections, organizations for a specific
candidate are formed and will most likely disband after elections.
Social Institutions
Social Institutions are the foundations of societies. The family, economy,
government, media, healthcare system are examples of institutions. These
institutions continue to evolve and have changed their functions throughout
history. Also, keep in mind that different societies may allocate different functions
and goals for the same institutions. The book will touch upon each institution in
more detail in the following chapters. What is important to understand at this
point is that institutions are organizational units in a society. Analyzing a particular
institution's role in society reveals a great deal about how a society functions.
not mean refinement or a taste for classical music or art. Meaning, people who
listen to classical music and go to art shows are not more cultured than people
who listen to contemporary music and incognizant of famous artists. This is NOT
the way culture is used in sociology. Culture has very little to do with taste; rather,
culture in sociological terms refer to all aspects of a society that deal with ideas,
norms, values, and objects.
This chapter has introduced you to the central components of society. These
social structures are the units of analysis in sociology. Meaning, these are the
aspects of society that sociologists analyze and study. How individuals interact
with society (statuses and roles), how groups function, and
the role of groups and culture in society at large are the dynamics of social life.
Application
Familiarize yourself with social structures mentioned in this chapter and identify
the different statuses
you belong to and your master status. What are the social roles expected of you
and your statuses? Which groups do you belong to? What is the relationship
between your statuses and groups? Do you belong to any organizations? What are
the institutions in your neighborhood or country? What role to they have in
maintaining stability?
Key Concepts
Achieved
status
Ascribed
status
Culture
Dyad
Egalitarian
Group
Hierarchical
Homogeneit
y Master
status
Organization
s Primary
group Role
conflict
Secondary group
Social institutions
Social role
Social structures
Society
Stat
us
Triad
People in the society shared similar beliefs and norms. These societies are
relatively small and social ties are based on custom, family, and emotions. Social
relationships are long lasting. In contrast, Organic Solidarity happens in larger
societies and complex division of labor forms the basis of solidarity and
independence. Rather than kinship or familial ties, individual status in society is
determined by occupation and individual achievement. In essence, mechanical
solidarity is associated with traditional societies and organic with contemporary
societies. For example, in most tribal societies, community members will most
likely share the same religion and have the same belief systems. Their
relationships are based on emotions and historical bonds, which are rarely broken.
On the other hand, in modern day societies, relationships are fleeting. For
example, we change our jobs often and have very little emotional attachments to
our coHworkers and bosses. Our societies are diverse and social cohesion is
achieved because of our diversity and division of labor. Division of labor refers
to how each group in society has a specific role to play in order for society to
function. These specialized
roles are an integral quality of division of labor. Teachers teach, nurses assist
doctors, parents take care of children etc. Division of labor can best be visualized
in a car manufacturing plant. In making a car, workers have a specialized task.
There are groups of people in charge of putting the doors, people in charge of
installing the steering wheel and so on. Just as the car must go through each level
of manufacturing to be complete, for the functionalist perspective, each group in
society has a role to play in order for society to exist in stability.
Robert K. Merton distinguishes between two types of functions: manifest
and latent. Manifest functions are the functions that are intended by society.
Latent functions are indirect consequences. Merton used the Hopi Tribe of
Arizona and New Mexico rain dance to distinguish between these two functions.
The Hopi believe that performing the rain dance will bring rain for harvest
(manifest), but Merton claims that the rain dance also also has the effect of
promoting the cohesion of the Hopi society (latent function) (Giddens 19).
Another example is school. The manifest function of school is for students to
learn. The latent function is it provides a place for young people to congregate
and make friends with adult supervision. Schools also provides jobs for teachers
and staff.
Merton also distinguished between functions and dysfunctions.
Dysfunctions are what disrupts order in society. In Merton's words a social
dysfunction is any process that undermines the stability or survival of a social
system (96, 1996). War and terrorism are examples. However, dysfunctions are
not always be disadvantageous for all of society. In some cases, social actions that
seem dysfunctional may actually be functional for other groups in society. The
melting of the icecaps as a result of global warming may threaten the earth, but
for oil producers, the oil deposits discovered in the arctic are beneficial to their
business. Slavery may have been dysfunctional for slaves and Blacks, but
functional and quite beneficial for slave owners, wealthy plantation owners, and
the American economy (Rivoli 2005). For the functionalists, the social institutions
mentioned in the previous chapter, if properly implemented, help perpetuate the
status quo. As discussed, ones' status in society help determine which groups
that person will belong to. And since group membership influence ones' social
networks, a status prevents people from venturing out of their position in society.
You might be shaking your head and thinking, slavery and global warming
may be functional for certain groups of society, but these are wrong! This is true,
but inherent in the concept of division of labor is difference and at a certain level,
inequality. Another analogy of division of labor are sports teams. In basketball,
there is the center, forwards, the guards, and the head coach as the central
characters. Imagine if the coach decides to start playing himself. The center
decides to play the part of the guard, and the forwards decide they want to be the
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coach. The team would most surely lose. Or how about in the middle of the battle
field the private start issuing orders and starts ignoring the hierarchy in the
military. For the functionalist perspective, this is when disorder happenswhen
people or groups do not play their part. A unified system, which is society, needs
every part of the whole to do its part.
For the functionalist perspective, these roles can change and alter through
time, but what is important is for groups to adapt to these changes in order to
maintain cohesion. Failure to adapt means a breakdown of social order and chaos.
In general, change from the functionalist perspective is viewed with caution. Since
the parts of the system are interconnected, a change in one aspect can greatly
alter the whole. Thus, fear often stymies change. One can point to slavery and
argue against the functionalist perspective. Sure the abolition of slavery led to
war and social disorderbut isn't it worth it?
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Conflict Perspective
Unlike the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective believes that
societies can best be understood by looking at power and the various power
struggles among groups in society. For the conflict perspective, society is made of
various interests and groups competing for power. Power is seen as a zero;sum
game, meaning, one's gain is another's loss. Conflict also arises because of
groups competing for scarce resources. The end results is not stability, but
inequality and constant tension.
The theorist most associated with the conflict perspective is Karl Marx. Writing in
th
19 century
Western Europe, where industrialization and capitalism has disrupted the
existing organization of society under a feudal system, Marx saw the existing
social class system as divided by the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The
bourgeoisie make up the capitalist class. This group owns capital and exploits the
proletariat or the working class. A thorough investigation of Marx's ideas will be
analyzed in our chapter on class systems. For now, what is important to note is
that Marx analyzed how capitalism in its very core is a system of exploitation, not
just in economic terms, but in all aspects of social life.
With control of the economy, the bourgeoisie also has taken control of politics
and socioHcultural beliefs. Thus, social structures and social institutions exists to
serve the needs of the ones in power. Marx does not think that human nature or
individuals are inherently greedy and evil; rather, the established economic
system makes inequality beneficial for others, which causes groups to act in
such a combative manner.
Beyond Marx, the conflict perspective does not limit itself to the economy
and social class in assessing power struggles between groups. Conflict exists
between gender, age groups, developed and underdeveloped countries, and cities
vs. rural areas, just to name a few. Thus, conflict is present in all aspect of social
life. When one assess a situation using this perspective, one is interested in how
the relationship leads to an advantage for one group and a disadvantage for
another. A branch of conflict perspective which focuses on a specific group
struggle is the feminist perspective. Some influential feminist scholars are
Abigail Adams (1744H1818), Ida WellsHBarnett (1862H1931), and Gloria Steinem
(1934). This branch of conflict perspective concentrates on inequality based on
gender.
Unlike functionalism, conflict perspective sees change as inevitable and a
basic feature of society. As a result of inequality and the battle for power, each
group is always trying to be on top of the hierarchy. Stability and cooperation are
not a basic feature of societies. Social order is maintained, not through the unified
functioning of the whole, but through coercion and power. While functionalism is
21
criticized for highlighting social cohesion, the conflict perspective is criticized for
overlooking events and elements of society wherein competing groups have come
together for a common cause.
22
words, actions, gestures, and facial expressions that have a shared meaning for a
group of people. A ring band is a symbol of marriage for most western societies
while in parts of India, a necklace is worn instead. Nonverbal communications
are also symbolsthese are actions which are culturally understood. For example,
asking a waiter for the bill is communicated differently across societies. In the
Philippines, the customer can outline a rectangle with the index fingers, while in
Japan, the index fingers are crossed to form an X. Facial expressions are also forms
of symbols and are cultural. In a research done by the University of Alberta,
Canada on facial emotions between Japanese and Americans, researchers found
that Americans focus more on the mouth when it comes to interpreting emotions
whereas the Japanese focus more on the eyes. The study compared how
Americans and Japanese interpreted images, which showed different emotions.
Their findings are also supported by the way Americans and Japanese use
emoticons or the symbols used to convey emotions in an email or through text
messaging. Americans use these emoticons as a symbol of happy face :) or :H)
and :( or
:H( for sad face. The mouth changes in these emoticons. Contrastingly, in Japan,
(^_^) represents a
happy face and (;_;) a sad face (Science Daily, 4/5/2007).
Symbolic interactionists consider interaction, symbols, and the tacit and
overt rules and meaning we attach to them as the basis of social order and society
itself. Through these everyday interactions and exchanges we construct society.
Erving Goffman (1922H1982) and his dramaturgical approach captures some of
the essence of the interactionist perspective. For Goffman, people are similar to
actors on a stage. People put on a different face depending on the situation. We
present a different self in front of our family, another face if with friends and so on.
Like the other two perspectives, symbolic interactionist has its share of criticisms.
The focus on everyday interactions lends itself to subjective interpretation of
social relations and does not capture the overall structure of society. Although it
explains how social order is maintained, it does not address the larger social
institutions that make up societies.
Application:
Choose an article from the following news agencies and interpret the event
using the three perspectives. How would each perspective interpret the
situation? What is the unit of analysis for each perspective? What are the
social structures involved in the article?
In choosing an article, refrain from sensational journalism and crime reporting.
For example, do not choose an article that talks about a shooting or if a storm is
approaching. Choose articles that will allow you to use the concepts we have
been studying. You can choose articles with a political and economic slant, or
pop culture. You do not have to limit yourself to the US. Choose global issues or
events from other countries if you wish.
News Agencies: Choose from the following news agencies If possible
The New York Times, Washington Post, The Economist, AlGJezeera, The New Yorker,
Los Angeles Times.
Key Concepts
Bourgeoisie
Capitalism
Collective
consciousness
Conflict perspective
Consensus
Division of labor
Dramaturgical
approach
dysfunctions
Feminist perspective
Feudal system
Functionalist
perspective
Industrialization
Inequality
Latent function
Macro?level
Manifest
function
Mechanical solidarity
Micro?level
Nonverbal communications
Organic solidarity
Power
Proletariat
Social
dynamics
Social statics
Specialized
roles Status
quo
Symbolic interactionist
perspectiv Zero?sum game
tighter gun control decrease violence? you are dealing with two variables, gun
control and violence. To operationalize violence we can look at crime rates in the
country per state. An example of a hypothesis is: having tighter gun controls
decrease the amount of violence. You are hypothesizing on a relationship between
the two variables. Formulating a hypothesis also involves defining your
dependent variable or response variable and independent variable or
explanatory variable. In this case, you are testing if the level of violence is
dependent on gun control. So, violence is the dependent variable and gun control
the independent variable. You are hypothesizing that level of gun control explains
violence.
Fourth step in the research process is to design of the research and
collect the data. In designing the research, you have to decide whether you are
going to conduct a qualitative or a quantitative research. Quantitative research
deals with more statistical methods and focus is on data and variables that can be
reduced to numbers. For example, variables such as income, GDP, number of
children, and crime rates can be used for a quantitative analysis. On the other
hand, qualitative research focuses on interpretive descriptions (Kendall 23,
2006) and data that cannot be easily converted to numbers. In our sample
research comparing the health care systems of Canada and the US. Looking at
laws and the constitution in deciphering the type of health care system a country
has involves a quantitative analysis. Contrastingly, looking at average mortality
rates and life expectancy to operationalized the population's health is
quantitative. Thus, when choosing a research design, one does not have to be
restricted to either a quantitative or qualitative analysis. A combination of the two
is possible. The type of design you choose is dictated by the variables you choose
and the best way to operationalize them.
Also, the method of collecting data is also influenced by your variables and
your research question. This is the art of research design. There are no set ways
to designing a research; rather, the sociologist needs to use the tools available
that best fit their questions and hypothesis. In collecting data, one needs to be
aware of the validity and reliability of the data. Validity refers to the degree to
which the indicator is accurately measuring a concept. In our research question,
Does having tighter gun control decrease violence? gun control can be
operationalized or measured by looking at gun laws. But what if even though laws
are in place, they are not enforced? Are gun laws then still a good measure of gun
control? In our health care example, what if we measured the quality of health
care based on people's opinion on their doctors only? Is having a good or bad
opinion indicative of the quality of health of the population? What if people have
high opinions of their doctors, but there are only a few people in the country that
have access to health care? Is this a valid measurement in this case? Reliability
refers to the extent to which the measurement methods yield consistent results
when applied over time and to different subjects. For example, a ruler is a reliable
tool for measurement since if you measure the length of the same object over and
over again, granted that the object being measure was not manipulated in any
way, you will yield consistent results. For example, in our research question on
gun control and violence, we operationalized violence by looking at crime rates.
However, what if some states only included violent crimes in their data, while
others included all types of crimes. Thus, your method of data collection on crime
rate is not reliable, since each state has a different way of measuring crime.
Another aspect of data collection is the method of selecting the sample. A
sample is a subset of the whole population that is statistically representative of
the whole population. If conducting research on gun ownership in the US, it would
be expensive and inefficient to ask each person in the US if they had a gun, thus a
sample is used. However, you want your sample to mirror your population. For
example, in 2006, the US has a population of 300 million and 50.7% are females.
If you want a
sample that is representative of the US, you would want to make sure that at
least half of your sample is female. Gender is just one component to take into
account, but a representative sample is crucial to have valid results.
With the internet, downloading datasets has become easier. The US Census
Bureau, the General Social Survey (GSS), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS),
and the United Nations (UN) are just a few institutions that have a wealth of data
that is free to the public. Data is usually compatible with the following statistical
packages: R, Stata, SAS, and SPSS. Numbers are data are an integral part of
statistical research. Sociology and statistics have become inseparable and is a
requirement for most undergraduate programs in sociology.
Ehrenreich investigates the impact of the 1996 welfare reform on the working
poor in the US. She worked with the people she was analyzing and lived their
lives to better understand them.
Another example is the 2004 documentary by Morgan Spurlock, Supersize
Me. Wanting to understand the psychological and physical effects of eating fast
food, he embarks on a 30Hday journey eating only McDonald's food. There are
risks to being a participant researcher. Spurlock, who started off the study as a
fairly healthy 32Hyear old gained 24 lbs, suffered from mood swings, sexual
dysfunction, and liver damage. An example of observation is the 2006
documentary by Eric Steel, The Bridge. The film captures people committing
suicide by jumping off the Golden Gate Bridge. Although
he combines his findings with interviews of the family members who committed
suicide, Steel did not
try to prevent the people from taking their lives.
Observations can either by reactive or unobtrusive. An example of
unobtrusive observation is the one conducted by Humphreys on impersonal sex
discussed in Chapter 3, where the subject were not aware of the study being
conducted. In contrast, reactive studies occur when the subjects are aware of the
presence of the researcher. As the term suggests, these studies may generate a
reaction from the subjects that is motivated by the presence of the researcher.
Referred to as the Hawthrone effect, there is a temporary change in behavior
when people are aware of being observed. The term refers to Hawthrone Works, a
factory where researchers were conducting a study on how to improve
productivity from 1924 to 1932. As the researchers tried different strategies to
increase productivity such as manipulating the lighting, salaries, when to provide
breaks, and changing work timings, they realized that productivity increased
regardless of what they did. Generally, the subject will react in a way that they
think will be agreeable to society and to the researcher when they know they are
being observed.
Experiments
In an experiment, sociologists place subjects in a controlled environment.
The setting is manipulated and reactions and behavior are recorded and analyzed.
Researchers assign subjects to either the experimental group or control group. For
example, if one is testing the effect of a new drug, the experimental group would
receive the treatment or the drug, and the control group would receive a
placebo.
An example of a sociological experiment is one conducted by Rosenthal and
Jacobson involving student achievement and teacher expectation. The purpose of
the experiment was to test the hypothesis on whether ones' achievement is
influenced by the society's expectations. In the experiment, the researchers gave
the teachers a list of students who did well on an administered test they gave the
students the beginning of the school year. The teachers were told that the The
Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition test given to their students is a measure of IQ,
and a student's ability to learn. What the teachers did not know is that Rosenthal
and Jacobson randomly picked the names on the list, thus, the list did not exactly
reflect the test results. At the end of the year, a test was again administered to the
students and on average, the students in the list saw an increase of 12 points in
their scores, while the rest of the class had a lower average of increase. Other
tests that were graded by the teachers and considered subjective tests such as
writing and reading showed similar results.
Rosenthal and Jacobson theorized that the Pygmalion effect was responsible for
the unequal increase in scores. With higher expectation, teachers give more
attention to students they believe are smarter (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968).
Another famous sociological experiment is the Stanford Prison Experiment
headed by Philip
Zimbardo at Stanford University in 1961.
In all these types of data collection, there are ethical issues to take into account.
Whether or not you are invading someone's privacy or endangering their safety,
social scientists have a responsibility to their subjects. The American Sociological
Association has a code of ethics that sociologists follow when conducing research.
What matters is that the research question guides the type of research and data
collection to use and that sociologists understand the pros and cons of their
methods of choice.
Application:
Now that you have read the various modes of research in sociology, develop a
sociological study:
Explain the situation you want to research on. Is there an event or issue
in society that you have a question about, which can be answered
sociologically?
Identify the methods you are going to use for this study and explain why you
chose them.
What is your dependent and independent variable? What type of data
collection are you going to use.
Do you think you will encounter ethnical problems such as the conducted by
Humphreys in the Tearoom Sex Study or the US government in the Tuskegee
Report? Why? Why not?
Key Terms:
Scientific
process
Research
question
Variables
Measurement
Operationalizati
on Indicators
Literature
review
Hypothesis
Dependent or response
variable Independent or
explanatory variab
Research design
Data collection
Quantitative research
Qualitative research
Reliability
Sample
CloseEend
ed
OpenEend
ed
Observati
on
Reactive or Unobtrusive
observati Hawthrone effect
Experiment
Placebo
Pygmalion
Effect
Stanford Prison Experiment
Chapter 5 : Culture
In Chapter 2 we referred to culture as one of the social components of
society. Culture acts as the social glue that binds members of society together.
Culture can come in the form of tangible objects (material culture) or actions
and ideas (non;material culture). A society's values, norms, language,
symbols, and the objects they use and revere are all part of culture. In essence,
instead of following our instincts in our interaction with the world, our culture
programs us on how to behave. For example, you are about to have a
Thanksgiving dinner with friends and family. You are extremely hungry and want
to eat, but the host decides to say a prayer of thanks before eating. Would you
wait until the prayer is over or eat as soon as you sat down on the table during
the prayer? Most people would wait. Thus, even though your brain is telling you
that you are hungry and your natural reaction is to eat, your culture would tell
you to wait. Culture tells you that to not wait is rude. Another example of how
culture plays a part in placing value on objects is the connection between love
and diamonds. Read this article and learn about how and when diamonds started
to represent love in society.
Required Reading
Meghan O'Rourke: Diamonds Are a Girl's Worse Friend: The trouble with
engagement rings.
http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/weddings/2007/06/diamonds_are_a
_girls_worst_fr
iend.html
norms are the ones that need to be formally enforced or communicated. In the
US, an example of implicit norm would be waiting in line. Explicit norm is
recycling. Americans need to be given incentives or told repeatedly to recycle and
conserve. It is not enough to just realize that having a clean planet is good for
everyone.
There are two different types of norms: mores (MOREHayz) and folkways.
Mores are explicit norms that are taken very seriously be society. For example, in
a park, not following the sign please curb your dog can lead to a fine. On the
other hand, folkways are rules that society frowns upon but does not lead to
serious punishment. Not flushing the toilet in a public restroom might result to a
dirty look to the person using it next, but you are not going to be banned from
using public restrooms.
One of the major characteristics of culture is its malleability and dynamism.
Culture is transmitted and there is no such thing as a pure cultureone
unaffected by other cultures. For example, yoga has become a popular American
form of exercise and relaxation. Yoga is originally from India with roots from the
Vedic traditions, but has been adopted by US society and has sine been
Americanized in the US. As culture is transmitted, its meaning can change. Yoga
in India is part of a the Hindu religious lifestyle. On the other hand, the fact that
yoga can be practiced in gyms in the US, shows that yoga is more a physical
activity rather than a spiritual one in the East In Hawaii, you can order a spam
musubi, which consists of fried egg and spam on rice, held together by a
seaweed wrap. Spam, an American canned meat is popular in Hawaii and the
Philippines. During World War II, soldiers ate Spam, since fresh meat was rare and
difficult to transport. Eventually, the locals started eating Spam and adding their
own variety. The spam musubi of Hawaii is an example of how American and
Japanese culture have influenced Hawaiian cuisine.
Global Cultures
Globalization, the rapid integration of the world as a result of technological
advance is increasing the pace and level of cultural fusion. As companies go
global and with the force of the internet, people all over the world are eating,
buying, listening, and viewing the same content. As a result, a global culture
emerges. Because of the internet, English has become even more widely
understood. In countries that were originally tea drinkers such as Japan and
China, will Starbucks turn the tea culture to a coffee culture? Sociologists are
divided as to whether the world is becoming one culture or if other cultures
maintain their own identity even with the infiltration of a global culture dominated
by the west.
3
0
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0
32
can be difficult to judge certain actions and events as simply culture. The Jewish
Holocaust, the near extermination of the American Indians, African slavery, the
current genocide in Darfur, are but a few examples where cultural relativism
seems inadequate and inappropriate.
Subcultures
Within larger societies, multiculturalism or cultural diversity
exists, much as in the US. There are also subcultures within a larger
culture. These are small groups of people who refuse to assimilate or
attempt to change mainstream. In the US, examples of subcultures are
the hippies, vegetarians, the Amish, and skinheads. These subcultures
are part of countercultures since they reject the traditional norms and
beliefs of society. Countercultures however, can eventually become
mainstream culture. An example were the civil rights activists in the
1960s. Leaders such as Martin Luther King and the men and women
who defied the existing laws and protested against segregation and
staged sitHins were considered part of the subculture in the 60s. The
believed in equality and antiHdiscrimination. In contemporary US
society, at least when it comes to race and gender, their ideas have
become the mainstream values. By questioning tradition and the
norms, these people changed culture.
Cultural Universals
In all human societies, there are commonalities in cultures.
These cultural universals are certain cultural aspects that are found
in all human societies. All societies possess a complex language
pattern and marriage and family are common institutions. Of course,
what characterize marriage and family is different among cultures.
Marriages can be monogamous, polygamous and who we consider as
family is different across societies.
Culture Applied:
My goal in choosing the examples in this chapter on culture is to
take the common sense and try to analyze these ingrained beliefs from
a sociological perspective. Our idea of love, table manners and food,
and our conception of equality have evolved through time. These are
aspects of our lives that we probably pay little attention to, and the fact
that we don't pay attention to them is a sign of the power of culture. De
Beers does not threaten our lives if we do not buy or demand an
engagement ringtheir message is powerful enough that we have
embraced their belief without the threat of sanctions.
33
34
children.
In Japanese, they have a term for death from overwork or
Karoshi. Karoshi is caused by workHrelated stress such as heart attack
and stroke. People who die of Karoshi are relatively young and did not
display and signs of previous illnesses. Karoshi was first reported in
1969 and the number of deaths from Karoshi has increased especially
during Japan's economic troubles in the 1980s.
Simpson GA, Cohen RA, Pastor PN, Reuben CA. U. S. children 4-17 years of age who
received treatment for emotional or behavioral difficulties: Preliminary data from the
2005 National Health Interview Survey. Health E-Stats. National Center for
overweight, and men who want a more active sex life. US medical
treatment tends to be more aggressive when it comes to drugs and
Videos
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tBY6_GdJLI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DkHsjiU6WE&feature=related
Application:
Read the following article and interpret its significance. What is Miner's
goal in writing
this essay? What type of society is Miner referring to? Does the society
sound familiar?
Require Reading:
Miner, Horace. 1956. Body Ritual of the Nacirema.
http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~thompsoc/Body.html
Key Concepts
Material Culture
Non.Material
Culture Instincts
Primitive
Values
Norms
Implicit
norms
Explicit
norms
Mores
Folkways
Global
culture
Cultural
imperialism
Cultura
hegemony
Common sense
Assimilation
Formal sanctions
Informal
sanctions
Negative
sanctions
Positive
sanctions
Interdependence
Multiculturalism
Cultural diversity
Cultural
universal
Chapter 6 : Socialization
In the previous chapter, we discussed that culture is transmitted
within and between societies through interaction. Another way of
learning culture is through the process of socialization. Human
beings are born without culture. Through socialization we learn how to
behave according to the norms of the society we live in. Central to the
study of socialization is the nature vs. nurture debate. Nature refers
the innate qualities of individuals and nurture what is learned. Are
people born with certain qualities predetermined at birth? Is there such
a thing as a common human nature? Are people inherently good or
evil? Is nature different for each individual? Can nurture override
nature? These are all philosophical questions that philosophers from
Mencius (372H289 BC) and Socrates (469H399 BC), social scientists, and
biologists have tried to answer. With the advance of genetics, and the
work of the Human Genome Project, genes have become the window to
our innate traits. Genetic technology can pinpoint genes that cause
baldness, anxiety, obesity and other traits.
Genetics
The idea of human beings born with certain characteristics that
are either superior on inferior has been the motivation for eugenic
movements. Eugenics is derived from the Greek word eu meaning
good or well. Sir Francis Galton (1822H1911) defined it as 'the study of
all agencies under human control that may improve or impair...future
generations either physically or mentally (Coltrane 328, 2001).' The
goal of eugenics was to improve the human race by studying genetic
th
traits and to eliminate the undesirable traits. In the 20 century, the
most brutal result of eugenics was Adolf Hitler and his goal to breed a
Master Race through sterilization, breeding, and extermination of
people who were not considered a part of the Aryan race. In the US,
forced sterilization of the developmentally disabled were mostly
foreignHborn and unskilled laborers (Ibid.,328). After World War II,
Hitler's policies turned the Western world away from the concept of a
superior human nature, and during the next two decades after the
war, the nurture argument gained popularity (Newman 134, 2006).
This trend, however, is changing. Currently, the Human Genome
Projects and the increasing ability to determine a person's traits have
renewed our interest in genetics; some fear that this may lead to a new
form of eugenics. Expectant parents can choose to see if their unborn
child has any anomalies and manipulate their genes.
Feral Children
Sociologists also point to feral children in highlighting the
importance of socialization in learning culture. Feral children are
children who were deprived of human interaction from a very young
age. Without parents or family to teach them social behavior or provide
emotional security, these children suffer from underdeveloped
language acquisition, social, and mental skills. Unfortunately, there are
far too many stories of feral children. In the US, the most infamous and
heartbreaking story of a feral child is Genie, who is now an adult from
California. When Genie was twenty months old, her father, thinking
that she had developmental problems locked her in a room without
light and with the door shut. The only human interaction she had was
with her brother and mother when they fed her. Day and night, Genie
was either tied to her potty chair or wither her arms immobile in a
sleeping bag. She never developed language or social skills expected
even after rehabilitation. Genie frequently masturbated in public.
Although Genie's story and behavior is not completely representative of
feral children,
her case is an example of what happens when humans are not taught
culture.
Another feral child, Oxana Malaya of Ukraine, provides another
case where a child is isolated from human interaction, but found
company with dogs. Unlike Genie, Oxana's socialization is with
animals, and she adapted behavioral habits similar to dogs. As of
2008, Oxana is 25 and can speak, but lives in an institution for the
mentally disabled. Children have a window of acquiring language and
other human skills required to live in current society. These feral
children are a testament to the importance of interaction, and to those
who are reading this book, the role families play in the initial stage of
the socialization process. Without the attention given to us by our
families from birth, we probably would not acquire the skills to read!
id=4804490&page=1http://abcnews.go.com/Heal th/Story?
id=4804490&page=1
4
0
4
0
court. Mai is now a social activist and is the voice for equal rights for
women in Pakistan. Even though uneducated herself, she built her own
school with the money she has received from the lawsuit and with the
help of international donors. Honor rapes, and in some cases honor
killings, are examples of how a family member's crime or shame,
becomes a familial affair. In collectivists societies, our selfHidentities are
tied to our larger social networks.
Agents of Socialization
For the functionalist perspective, socialization is an important
aspect of stabilization. Through socialization we learn our place in
society. Different social categories, whether it is social class, race,
ethnicity, or religion, are socialized distinctively. Social institutions are
the purveyors of social norms and it is in these setting where people
learn their place in society. On the other hand, for the conflict
perspective, social institutions only help foster the existing inequality
present in society. Institutions exists to preserve the status quo.
Family
The family is considered to be the main agent of socialization.
Families are not homogeneous and different families offer different
types of socialization. For example, a child growing up in a
singleHparent home will have a different socialization experience if
living in family with both parents. Lower, middle, and upper class
families also have competing beliefs when it comes to family values,
which affects socialization. For the functionalist perspective, families
are influential in shaping our career and future decisions. Imagine, if
your mother was an astronomer, you would probably get an elaborate
and scientific answer if you asked her about the stars. This in turn
would pique your curiosity and will most likely lead you to a career in a
similar field. The principle holds for kids whose fathers are musicians,
athletes, and other professions. Parents who have college degrees or
professional degrees are also more likely to encourage their kids to
attend college. Some children are afraid to end up like their parents,
but the socialization process makes this a legitimate fear.
Schools
Unlike families, rules and guidelines in schools are codified and
children are socialized introduced to formal disciplining. Children learn
to ask permission to talk and go to the bathroom. Children learn the
concept of time and obedience. For the functionalist perspective, not
41
Mass Media
With working parents and busy schedules, the TV and the
internet have become an important source of information and values
in building our selfHidentity. In Born to Buy (2004), Juliet B. Schor
discusses the commercialization of childhood and the
42
Gender Socialization
One aspect of our identity that requires socialization is gender.
For sociologists, what we associate with being a female (pink, dolls,
skirts) and male (blue, trucks, neckties) have to be learned as part of
culture. The sociological conception of gender has been researched by
neurological, psychological, and biological researchers alike. An
example is the study conducted by neuroscientists Anya Hulber and
Yazhu Ling of Newcastle University in Great Britain. Published in 2007,
Biological Components of Sex Differences in Color Preference is a
study conducted to test whether there are certain colors preferred by
females and males. Researchers had 203 subjects ages 20 to 26.
While most were British, 37 of the subjects were of Chinese origin
and raised in China. They included these in their sample in order to
do a cross cultural comparison and see whether it was being female
or culture that cause color preferences.
Resocalization
Socialization is a dynamic process and members of societies are
continuously socialized into different groups. For example, a man who
goes to prison needs to learn how to live in prison. Similarly, an
inmate released from prison has to relearn the implicit social rules in
society. Even changing jobs or acquiring a new career requires some
level of socialization. For example, doctors have to be socialize to deal
with death and sickness in a different way compared to the rest of
society.
Application
Think about how you were socialized and assess how your type of
socialization has affected your life now? How do different do you think
your life would be if you belonged to a different gender, race, or social
class, or born in a different country? If you had children, how would you
socialize them?
Key Concepts
Agents of
socialization
Collectivist
culture Eugenics
Feral Children
Game stage
Gender
socialization
Generalized other
Genetics
Individualistic
societies Master
race
Nature vs.
nurture Play
Play stage
Resocialzat
ion
Role@playin
g Social
self
Socializatio
n
The card on the left is the reference line and the subjects were asked
to choose which one of the comparison lines on the card with the
letters. Subjects were asked which one of the lines (A, B, or C) was the
most similar to the line on the left.
Bureaucracy
The concept of bureaucracy in sociology was developed by Max
Weber (1864H 1920), pronounced (VAYHber). Bureaucracy refers to
the structures and regulations of large groups in societies. As
societies grown, there is a need for a more systematic and rational
way of regulation, and the bureaucratic structure, according to
Weber, is the most rational and efficient way to address the
complexities and size of industrial and modern societies. Previous
societies organized their societies based on traditional or charismatic
domination. An example are monarchies. Power is passed down
based on lineage. On the other hand, authority in bureaucracy is less
familial and personal, and more institutional. Our discussion of
Weber's bureaucracy is an ideal type. Specific cases may not fit the
description in detail, but the basic principle remains.
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy:
Division of Labor: We have encountered this concept in Chapter 3 in our
discussion of functionalist perspective. Bureaucracies are organized in a
way that workers are specialized to do a particular task.
These questions are meant to help you understand the article and relate
it to our
subjects:
Why is the My Lai Massacre considered a bureaucratic failure?
What are some of the concepts of bureaucracies you have learned
that you can
apply to event?
What are the lessons learned from the massacre?
How could the massacre have been prevented?
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840403H1,00.h
tml
Application:
Think of a group you belong to and circumstances in which you had
to conform to the majority. Why do people feel the need to conform?
Has learning about the various experiments on conformity, changed
your attitude about obedience? Why? Why not?
If you were to design an experiment on conformity, how would you do
it?
Key Concepts
Bureaucracy
Confederate
Conformity
Divisio of
labor Division
of labor
Formal
leadership
Groupthink
Hierarchy of
authority ideal
type
In;groups
Informal
leadership
monarchies
Out;groups
ritualism
routinization
Social
aggregates
Social
catagories
Social groups
Chapter 8 : Deviance
In the previous chapter, we focused on conformity as a
consequence of belonging to a group. In Chapter 8, we will explore
what it means to not conform and defy society. By definition, deviance
is the rejection of the existing norms and status quo. Since norms and
social beliefs can change, what is considered deviant is relative to the
social and historical context of when the action was undertaken or a
belief advocated. On December 1, 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, a
black woman arrested and fined for refusing to give a White man her
seat in front of the bus. When the bus driver asked her to move back
to make room for the White passenger, she defied the city ordinance
that gave bus drivers the authority to assign seats and segregation
laws.
In 1634, the Catholic Church arrested and put on house arrest
until his death a man found suspect of heresy. The man believed in
heliocentrism, the belief that that the sun was the center of the solar
system, and challenged the existing geocentric view of the worldthe
belief that the earth was the center of the universe. A carpenter who
now lives in what we refer to as the Middle East started telling people
that he was the son of God and King of the Jews; he was considered
deviant and was murdered for his claims and beliefs. A man believed in
equality for all regardless of race and religion and he as sentenced to
prison for 27 years and was considered by the US a terrorist. Do you
know who these deviants are?
Deviants to Heroes
Rosa Parks (1913H2005), Galileo Galilei (1564H1642), Jesus
Christ, and Nelson Mandela (1918)HHthe examples mentioned point to
the relativity of what is considered deviant in society. Social and
historical context and power distribution dictate how deviance
is defined in society. Culture dictates beliefs and norms, and as
culture is redefined and these beliefs change, so too the acts,
thoughts, and people, which are considered deviant.
How power is distributed in society is crucial to understanding
how deviance is defined. In essence, those in power dictate what
deviance means. What is interesting about our examples is how
people who were once considered deviants eventually become heroes
in their own right. Currently, Parks is a celebrated figure for equality,
Galileo a respected pioneer of the scientific revolution, Mandela
5
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5
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52
Accept
Accept
Reject
Conformity
Innovation
Ritualism
Retreatism
Reject
New Means
New Goals
Rebellion
Conflict Perspective
The conflict perspective on the other hands looks at deviance as
a manifestation of the power struggles in society. The values and
norms of those in power are upheld and are legitimized since the same
people control the laws in society. An analysis of how the justice
system treats corporate vs. street criminals is an example. Martha
Stewart was convicted of obstruction of justice, conspiracy, and
making false statements in 2004 during an insider trading
investigation. Insider trading, the sale or trading of stocks or securities
based on private information is illegal in the financial world. She was
found found guilty of lying to authorities about her sale of ImClone
Systems stock in late 2001. Martha Stewart's broker at Merrill Lynch,
Peter Bacanovic, was accused of ordering his assistant to notify
Stewart that the CEO of ImClone System was selling his company
http://www.sangam.org/ANALYSIS/Ahmad.htm
Application:
What are some of the actions that are deemed deviant in your
society that you believe are not. Why do you think society has labeled
them as deviant? Who is deciding what or who is deviant in your
society? What does this say about power relations?
Read a newspaper article from a different country (this is easily
done online), and compare and contrast what that society view as
deviant. How is different from your society's construction of deviance?
Key Concepts:
Conformity
Corporeal punishment
Formal punishment/sanctions
Informal punishment/sanctions
Innovation
Labeling
theory
Miscegenati
on
Panopticon
Power
distribution
Publicity
Regicide
Retreatis
m
Ritualism
Strain
theory
Slavery
The most extreme for of inequality, slavery, is a type of
stratification where a person is the property of another. In ancient
Greece, defeat in war could mean slavery for those conquered.
Although a person is born free, a person's status might change
depending on outcomes of war (Schaefer 183, 2007). In the US and
parts of Latin America, slavery was associated with race more than
victory in war.
Even though the Universal Declaration of Human Rights bans
slavery, slavery still exists clandestinely and in different forms. Unlike
the transatlantic slave trade, the modern slaves are not shipped from
one country to another in a ship and sold in the market. Rather,
modern slaves are those that involve bonded servitude, human
trafficking, child labor or children used for warfare, inherited slavery,
or female children forced in marriage. Because of its clandestine
operation, it is difficult to get an accurate count of the number of
slaves in contemporary times, however, the International Labor
Organization (ILO) estimates that around 200 million children are used
as child labor (www.ilo.org).
Caste
In a caste system, one's status is ascribed and unchangeable,
thus it is a closed
system. An example of a caste system is in India. Hinduism is the
predominant religion in India, and in the Hindu caste system, groups
are formed based on occupation. Notice how unlike the US, race is not
a major part of their stratification system. There are four castes that
Estate
Estate system or feudalism were prevalent during the
European Middle Ages and
for agricultural economies. The peasants or serfs lived and worked on
land that was owned by a lord. They were also the lowest rank in
society. Being a peasant or a lord was for the most part an ascribed
status and mobility was uncommon. Peasants did not own land and it
was uncommon for peasants to change their allegiance to another lord.
The lords belonged to the aristocracy or elites and occupied the highest
strata in the system. They not only owned property but had monopoly
of political and economic power.
Below the aristocracy is the clergy. They commanded respect because
of their religious
authority and the Catholic Church's ownership of significant amount of
land.
Social Class
The shift from agricultural to industrial production also marked the shift
from estate to social class system in Europe. Social class systems
are based on one's economic position in society, measured by wealth,
income, and prestige. Wealth refers to a person's assets (savings,
investments, properties) while income accounts for wages and
salaries. Unlike the two previous systems, social class offer more
chances for social mobility, which qualifies it as an open system.
According to studies, it takes five to six generations to erase the
advantages or disadvantages of a person's economic origins
(Newman 330, 2006). Thus, although changing one's social class is
possible, it is not always easy. One's social class can be determined by
both ascribed (gender, race, ethnicity) and achieved (occupation,
education) status.
Although economics is an important factor of one's social class,
social networks are also an important component (Domhoff 4, 2006).
It is not just our wealth and income that determine our class, but the
people we associate with help determine our social class. These
networks are normally influenced by our education and type of
occupation. Educational attainment is measured by the years of
education completed and types of degree garnered, while income and
level of occupational prestige is used to measure occupation. The
Occupational Prestige Scale measures how much respected and
Figure 9H1: Life Expectancy, Social Class, and Gender from NYT
were tied to their land for sentimental reasons, either their families
have worked on the particular land for generations and have an
allegiance to their masters. Land was also not seen as a commodity
or a material good that could be sold. Currently, we have very little
attachment to land and view real estate as a way to make money. In
feudal times, this was not the case. Land properties did not have the
same economic and cultural values that we have now. There were
familial attachments to land and not to mention that the value of land
depended on its use. In contemporary US society, land values can
increase or decrease independent of what can be produced in the land.
Real estate prices are not exactly dependent on how much agriculture
can be produced by a certain plot of land.
In terms of labor, feudal society relied heavily on ascribed status
rather than acquired status such as education or skill. Concepts such
as ancestry were important in determining one's place in life. This type
of labor is contingent on the fact that peasants were tied to land. In
essence, descent rather than market forces determined who should
do what: work has been allocated in advance to the social group into
which one was born (Ibid., 29). Labor was also tied to the household.
Household and villages were generally selfHsufficient, so there was
very little economic integration and interdependence. The peasants
learned their trade at home and skills were passed down from parents
to children.
Industrialization and capitalism disrupted the ordered society
during under feudalism. Industrialization is the process by which
societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and
handmade products to emphasis on manufacturing and related
industries. This process occurred first during the Industrial Revolution
in Britain between 1760 and 1850 (Kendall 8 2005). Industrialization
changed people's relationship to the market, land, and labor. It also
changed the role of the government
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62
wages. There is now the risk of getting fired from the job and not
having enough money to buy food. In theory, people in the feudal
system had more security because they produced their own food and
were not forced to migrate to find jobs. Tradition dictated social
relations, not the unpredictability of market forces. The shift turned
peasants to laborers and from producers of their own subsistence to
consumers.
Capitalism
Capitalism relies on the market forces of supply and demand and
competition as the basis for innovation and wealth. In The Wealth of
Nations, Adam Smith talked about the invisible hand of the economy.
Smith states that in order for capitalism to reach its potential, the
market should be left alone by the government or any exogenous
interference. The invisible hand refers to Smiths analysis that the
market is self; regulating. This is sometimes referred to as the
survival of the fittest economic mentality. For example, in a
capitalist system, if a corporation is not making profit, governments
should not try to give the company incentives for it to stay afloat;
rather, if the company is not profitable, it simply means that it has to
dissolve. The same can be applied to people. If a person does not have
the foresight to acquire skills that are needed for the future and finds
their job outsourced, then society is not responsible for the worker's
situation. In theory, this weeding out process is believed to result in
efficiency and competition among producers and workers. In the end,
competition will benefit the consumers and all of societyHHproducts will
improve and prices competitive. The current economic crisis is
challenging the notion of leaving our economic future to the
uncertainties of the market. The bailout of the auto industries and
banks in the US is in essence, protecting society from the forces of
markets. Can you relate the current economic crisis to our discussion
of capitalism?
interference. The invisible hand needs a little nudge from time to time.
The 2008 $700 billion bail out is an example. The Wall Street bail out
was a highly publicized one, but there are various and less conspicuous
ways a government can interfere in the economy:
Subsidies: these are grants given by the government to companies in
order to reduce the cost of production and/or reduce the prices. This is
sometimes referred to as Corporate Welfare. One industry in the
United States that receives a significant amount of subsidies are the
agricultural producers. In order to compete with cheap food prices from
other countries, the US subsidizes US farmers. In US society, there is a
stigma against people who receive money from the government if
unemployed or unable to provide for their needs. Corporations,
however, do not seem to share the
same disdain. The federal government gives out $125 billion a year in
corporate welfare (Barlett and Steele 104, 1998). Generally, corporate
welfare is seen as a public good by giving money to corporations,
since they can provide jobs and essential for development. On the
other hand, giving money to private individuals in need, even though
they end up spending the money (whether to buy necessity items or
luxury goods), which in turn stimulates the economy is considered a
hand out.
The notion that corporate welfare creates jobs and is now
being challenged. In Barlett and Steele's expose on corporate
welfare, they provide examples of huge tax breaks and incentives
initiated by cities and states, which did not result to the profit
anticipated. Here is one example:
In 1993, the state of Kentucky granted $19 million in income tax breaks
over 10 years for General Electric Co. when GE threatened to close
their plants unless certain concession by the state and the workers
were made. Even with these tax breaks and incentives however, GE
announced job cuts of 1,500 and that they were planning to move their
production to Georgia and Mexico. Authors noted that a year before, GE
had a revenue of $91 billion (110H111). For Smith, government
incentives are inefficient and inimical to the free market, but the idea
of companies going to different places to find efficient and cheap labor
is an integral part of the market system.
Tariff Barriers: Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods. This is a
strategy used to protect domestic industries. For example, Vietnam
makes cheap shoes that sell for $10 a pair wholesale. The US
government will impose high tariffs on these shoes so that prices will
increase, thereby protecting the domestic shoe industry. It would be
impossible for a US company that gets its materials and makes the
shoes in the US to charge $10 for shoes wholesale because of the
higher standard of living in the country. As a consequence, consumers
pay more. Some see this however, as a way to protect US jobs. For
Smith, tariff barriers are disincentives for US companies. In the end,
the the decrease in level of competition will compromise quality and
increase prices.
Communism
Fordism
Socialism
Compared to communism, socialism's goal is not the elimination
of private ownership; rather equal access to basic needs such as food,
shelter, and health care are the end goal. Socialism, like communism
however, rejects an outright acceptance of the free market system and
believes in the role of government in cushioning individuals and
companies against the vicissitudes of capitalism. Examples of socialist
Upper Class
In Domhoff's Who Rules America? Power, Politics, and Social
Change, he chronicles that the upper class not just as an economic
group, but an interlocking network, which controls politics, military,
and culture in the US. Among other industrialized countries, the US has
one of the most unequal distribution of wealth. The Table (Tables 1 and
2) below shows compares the amount of wealth the top 1% of society
owns from 1983 to 2001. The graph (Graph 2) provides a more visual
representation of the distribution of wealth in the US in 2001. The top
1% of the
population own 39.7% of the total wealth in the country, while the
bottom 80% of the population own a mere 8.8% of the total wealth. This
means that 20% of the population own 91% of the wealth in the US.
Table 9H1: Total Net Worth in the US from 1983 to 2007 from Domhof
198
3
198
9
199
2
199
5
199
8
200
1
200
4
200
7
Top 1
percent
33.8%
Next 19
percent
47.5%
Bottom 80
percent
18.7%
37.4%
46.2%
16.5%
37.2%
46.6%
16.2%
38.5%
45.4%
16.1%
38.1%
45.3%
16.6%
33.4%
51.0%
15.6%
34.3%
50.3%
15.3%
34.6%
50.5%
15.0%
Financial Wealth
198
3
198
9
199
2
199
5
199
8
200
1
200
4
200
7
Top 1
percent
42.9%
Next 19
percent
48.4%
Bottom 80
percent
8.7%
46.9%
46.5%
6.6%
45.6%
46.7%
7.7%
47.2%
45.9%
7.0%
47.3%
43.6%
9.1%
39.7%
51.5%
8.7%
42.2%
50.3%
7.5%
42.7%
50.3%
7.0%
Total assets are defined as the sum of: (1) the gross value of
ownerH occupied housing; (2) other real estate owned by
the household; (3) cash and demand deposits; (4) time
and savings deposits, certificates of deposit, and money
market accounts; (5) government bonds, corporate bonds,
foreign bonds, and other financial securities; (6) the cash
surrender value of life insurance plans; (7) the cash
surrender value of pension plans, including IRAs, Keogh,
and 401(k) plans; (8) corporate stock and mutual funds;
(9) net equity in unincorporated businesses; and
(10) equity in trust funds.
Total liabilities are the sum of: (1) mortgage debt; (2)
consumer debt, including auto loans; and (3) other
debt. From Wolff (2004, 2007, & 2010).
Required Reading
Domhoff, William, Wealth, Income, and Power. (July 2011).
http://sociology.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html
Middle Class
In Media Magic: Making Class Invisible (1995), Mantsios observes
how the media has made the middle class the universal class.
According to Mantsios, the media rarely acknowledges the existence of
the poor, and in their rare coverage, the poor are usually blamed for
their plight. In ignoring the lower class and lumping the working class,
the middle class, and the upper class as one category, Mantsios claims
that the middle class has come to represent a majority of Americans,
which is a myth. People who claim to belong to the middle class do not
seem to reflect reality in terms of income and wealth. What Mantsios is
pointing to is that what it means to be a middle class is a state of
mind. In a Pew Research Center study released on April 9, 2008 on the
middle class, more than half (53%) of Americans are selfHproclaimed as
middle class, a number that has been consistent for the past decades.
However, what the research has found is that for those who claimed to
belong to the middle class, what it means to be middle class varies by
age, race, gender, education, location, and work status.
According to the Pew Research, median family income for
whites who say the are middle class is just over $56,000nearly
$10,000 more than for selfHidentified middle class blacks. Even bigger
income disparities occur along generational lines. Adults between the
ages of 30 and 49 who say they are in the middle class earn slightly
more than $65,000, nearly double the median family income for those
older than 65 and about $27,000 more than the median for those
under the age of 30 (31). Americans
seem to have a distorted view of the middle class. In the study, people
who consider themselves as a part of the middle class have diverse
incomes and incompatible definition of what constitute a middle class.
Not having a more consistent
definition of the middle class as a
group has social repercussions such
as voting patterns. In What's the
Matter with Kansas: How
Conservatives Won the Heart of
America (2005), Thomas Frank
explores why middle class and poor
Americans are for politicians that are
contrary to their interests as middle
and working class. The traditional
Republican economics consistent
with reaganomic (tax cuts,
deregulation) benefit the rich, and
Frank questions why the middle and
working class are voting for policies
and for a party that is inimical to
their class interests. He realized that
these voters are not voting on their
economic or class interest, but on
their religious affiliation.
Comparing debtHto
asset ration, from 1983,
1992, and 2004, the
middle has also seen an
increase in their debt from
0.25 in 1983, 0.30 in 1992,
and 0.40 in
2004. This means that the
middle class owes more
money relative to how
much they own. Reports
show that this increase in
debtH toHasset ratio is
correlated to the increase
is size and value of
houses. For 78% of debt of
the middle income
families between 1983 to
2004 was due to debt
secured by their primary
residence (24).
Statistically, the middle class does not seem to enjoy the same
benefits it used to compared to previous decades. The shrinking
middle class is the fear that US class system will be polarized
between the upper and the lower class as the rich becomes richer and
the poor poorer. As the gap widens, the middle class will disappear.
The
following articles from Time
Magazine and The New York Times
presents contrasting views on the
phenomenon. The Time article was
written in 1986 and a bit outdated,
but it provides a good assessment
of what it means to be middle class
and the struggles faced by the
group. The NYT article looks at how
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0
Working
Class
The main difference between the
middle and the working class in
their educational attainment and
the types of jobs they occupy as a
result. The middle class is mostly
collegeHeducated while the working
class perform manual labor.
7
0
Poverty
Threshold
$10,590
$10,787
$9,944
Two people
$13,540
Householder under 65
years
Householder 65 years and
over
Three people
$13,954
Four people
$21,203
$12,550
$16,530
Five people
$25,080
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Weighted Average Poverty Thresholds 2007.
Six people
$28,323
Seven people
$32,233
Eight people
$35,816
71
$42,739
72
The US Health and Human Services (HHS) comes up with its own
version of measuring poverty referred to as the poverty guideline.
This HHS guidelines are the ones used in measuring financial eligibility
of federal programs while the UC Census Bureau threshold is used for
calculating official country statistics on poverty.
Table 9H2: US Health and Human Services (HHS) and Poverty Measurement
Class Consciousness
Among the various social classes, the upper class seem to have
the most salient class consciousness. Class consciousness refers to
one's sense of belonging to a particular social group. The upper class
are aware of their power as a group and have formed social network
ties that represent their interests (Domhoff 2006). According to
Domoff, through private schools, exclusive social clubs such as the
Bohemian Club, and charities, the rich have formed networks in politics
and business that are beyond the reach of those outside of their
circles. Domhoff takes on a conflict perspective on power and views
these exclusive channels as undemocratic. The upper class understand
what it means to have networks within their group and through these
ties they solidify their power.
when he questioned Obama about his plan to increase taxes for people
making more than $250,000. Apparently, Joe the Plumber was trying to
buy his own plumbing business and was concerned about his tax
increase under Obama's plan IF he ends up making more than
$250,000 annually. Investigative reports soon revealed that
Wurzelbacher owed $1,200 in unpaid taxes and a second lien was filed
for $1,261 that he owes St. Charles Mercy Hospital (ABC 10/16/08). In
his interviews, Wurzelbacher expressed his opposition to Social
Security (US News 10/16/08). In his own words, Social Security is a
joke...You know, let me take my money and invest it how I please.
Social Security I've never believed in, don't like it. I hate that it's forced
on me. Wurzelbacher also believes that taxation is a punishment for
hard work. When asked by Diane Sawyer about progressive tax
policies, a tax policy that is based on income (the higher the income
the higher the taxes), Wurzelbacher claims that the rich should not be
penalized for being successful (ABC 10/16/08).
Government run resources such as public schools, parks, police
force, fire departments are public services that everyone, but especially
the middle and lower class take advantage of. Tax cuts and lower
government spending affects these public sources. From the conflict
perspective, Joe the Plumber's opposition to these services is seen as
form of false consciousness. Marx did not explicitly use the term, but
it refers to the concept when members of the subordinate class are
unaware of the repression and exploitation that they are suffering from.
For Marxist, Joe the Plumber has been successfully convinced by society
that his interests are in line with the ruling class.
Whether or not this is the case depends on the economic philosophy
you adhere to. If you believe in trickle down economics, such as
economists Thomas Sowell (1930), Joe the Plumber will eventually
benefit from concentration of wealth, but liberal economists, such as
Paul Krugman (1953) would disagree. For the functionalist perspective,
Joe the Plumber is an example of a person knowing their place in
society, which helps maintain the status quo.
Application:
How would you assess your class consciousness? Does your lifestyles
mask the social class you belong to? Meaning, do you go out of your
way to show people that you belong to a different social class? Why do
you think you do or do not? What does that say about the connection
between individuals and society?
Why is there such a large inequality gap in the US? Do you think that
the current economic depression is making US society rethink its policy
of trickle down economics? Why? Why not?
Online Sources:
2000. MP Calls for Long Haul Flight Warnings. BBC News, October 23
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/984727.stm
2008. Inside the Middle Class: Bad Times Hit the Good Life. Pew
Research Center
http://pewsocialtrends.org /pubs/706/middleHclassHpoll.
Erbe, Bonnie. n.d. Joe the Plumber: Social Security Is a 'Joke' and
Liberal Conspiracy Theories. US News and World Report.
http://www.usnews.com/blogs/erbe/2008/10/16/joeHtheHplumberHs
ocialH securityHisHaHjokeHandHliberalHconspiracyHtheories.html
Ibanga, Imaeyen, and Russell Goldman. 2008. America's Overnight
Sensation Joe the Plumber Owes $1,200 in Taxes. ABC News
http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Vote2008/Story?
id=6047360&page=1.
Marx, Karl. 1999. Expropriation of the Agricultural Population from the
Land. in Capital
, vol. 1.
http://www.marxists.org /archive/marx/works/1867Hc1/ch27.htm
Tapper, Jake. 2008. Political Punch. Joe the Plumber Eligible for Obama
Tax Cut?.
http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2008/10/joeHtheHplumber.
html
Key Concepts
Stratificati
on
Slavery
Caste
Closed system
Open system
Reservation
Affirmative
action Estate
system Social
class system
Wealth
Income
Social
mobility
Social
networks
Education
Occupation
Occupational Prestige
Scale Socioeocnomic
Status (SES) Life
chances
Economic
determinist
Communism
Capitalism Feudal
societies Markets
Subsistence
economy
Commodity
Labor
Household
Industrializati
on
Displacemen
t Common
lands
Enclosure
acts Wage
laborers
Proletariats
Bourgeoisie
Means of production (Mop)
Capitalist class
Consumers
SelfJregulating
Subsidies
Corporate
welfare Tariff
barriers
Open Source Sofrware
Management Middle class
Fordism
NeoJMarxist class
division Petty
bourgeoisie
Reserve army of
labor
Lumpenproletariat
Socialism
Status
Prestige
Political
power
American
dream
Reaganomic
s Poverty
line
Class consciousness
Mexico, former colonies under the French in the Caribbean, and Brazil
all have distinctive racial categories. Unlike the US, the child' s race
may not be like the father or mother in Latin America.
Racial categories have changed throughout history. In the 1790
US Census, there were six categories: Free White Males, Free White
Females, and All Other Free Persons, and Slaves (Lee 1993). Our
categorizations reflect society's concerns during that time.
Since one's status as being free or not was an central organizing factor
in society, race was tied in with status as a free person. These
categories have gone through a number of revisions with the latest
one in 2000. In the current census, there are 5 racial categories:
American Indian or Alaskan native; Black of African American; Native
Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander; and White. There are also two
minimum categories of ethnicity added: Hispanic/Latino or
NotHHispanic/Latino. Note that Hispanics and Latinos maybe of any
race. An important change is that people can actually identify with one
or more racial category. The concept of race as used by the Census
Bureau reflects selfHidentification by people according to the race or
races with which they most closely identify. These categories are
socioHpolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being
scientific or anthropological in nature. Furthermore, the race categories
include both racial and nationalHorigin groups. The racial classifications
used by the Census Bureau adhere to the October 30,1997, Federal
Register Notice entitled, "Revisions to the Standards for the
Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity" issued by the
Office of Management and Budget (OMB). This is the official US Census
racial classification.
Table 10H1: US Census Racial Classification
White: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who i
Black or African American: A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate
American Indian and Alaska Native: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (inclu
Asian: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including
Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes "Asian Indian," "Chinese," "Filipino," "Korean," "Japanese
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Haw
Some other race: Includes all other responses not included in the "White", "Black or African American", "Am
Two or more races: People may have chosen to provide two or more races either by checking two or more
Comparability: The data on race in Census 2000 are not directly comparable to those collected in previous
Ethnicity
While race refers to phenotypes, ethnicity refers to
nonHphenotypical traits that relate to culture, shared ancestry,
language, and beliefs. Kurdish, Cuban, Italian, Hmong are all examples
of ethnicity. Notice how in most cases, ethnicities are tied to
nationalities or citizenship, but not all ethnic groups belong to a
specific country or have a country. The Kurds are an example. The
Kurdish people inhabit a region that is internationally recognized as
belonging to Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey. The Kurds have long
been fighting to establish their own country, Kurdistan, and for these
ethnic enclaves to be a part of Kurdistan. Currently, only Iraqi
Kurdistan is internationally recognized as an autonomous entity.
People belonging to the same ethnic group do not have to share
the same race. NipoHbrasileiro or Brazilian citizen of Japanese origin are
an interesting group of people especially when they migrate to other
countries, for example the US. Although they are technically Asian in
US categories, they are most likely ethnically Brazilians. There are an
estimated 1.5 million NipoHbrasileiro. The Japanese migrated to Brazil
during the early 20th century to work in the coffee plantations.
Racism
Racism is the basis of stratification based on race. Racism is the
idea that there are superior and inferior races. Racism exists in two
levels: personal and institutional. Personal racism occurs when an
individual acting on prejudice and stereotypes discriminates against
another human being based on race. For example, a person hiring a
construction worker would give the job to a Hispanic than the White
counterpart, since he/she believes that Hispanics are more
hardworking than Whites. That person is racist against Whites.
Prejudices are the beliefs held by one group towards another.
Prejudices can either be negative or positive. Blacks are great dancers,
and Asians can't drive.
Prejudices are generally guided by stereotypes. One stereotypes when
the person has generalized belief about a certain group. Statements
such as all Irish go to the pub and drink excessively. All Asian parents
are strict. Discrimination occurs when certain benefits are denied a
certain group. Denying someone their vote is an example. During the
2005 Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, a comparison of these two
news reports shows how the manifestation of stereotypes, prejudices,
and discrimination may not be so blatant. Read the two captions and
pay careful attention to how the two sets of Katrina victims were
described. Institutional racism, on the other hand, is the belief that
racism is built in to social structures. It is not the individuals, per se,
that are racist, but the institutions that organize societies (Giddens
318, 2005). Examples of institutional racism are the apartheid in South
Africa, Jim Crow laws, and the Japanese internment camp in the US
during World War II. These are situations wherein discrimination is
codified into laws. In some cases, however, institutional racism is not
overtly practiced, but exists nonetheless. The example about the
media and Katrina is an example.
Discrimination in the real estate industry, motivated by housing
prices is also another example. Housing prices are still very much
influenced by the racial makeHup of a neighborhood. To keep housing
values at a certain price entails keeping certain groups of people out of
resurrecting discrimination.
Required Reading:
2001. Real World Affirmative Action: The Workplace. in Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmativeHaction/#4
8
0
1970s
8
0
1980
s
1990
s
81
2000
Race Relations
Because of its history and diversity, race has always played a
major role in US politics, culture, and society. Compared to other
industrialized countries, race plays a larger role in US identity than
social class. Our history of slavery and lack of a aristocratic class has
made race and ethnicity salient factors in framing our social issues. As
the US becomes more racially diverse, it is interesting how our racial
categories and race relations will evolve.
The concept of a melting pot refers to how the amalgamation
of diverse cultures will lead to another culture that is a mixture of
different elements. Assimilation, on the other hand, refers to how the
minority groups will abandon their own cultures, and will adapt to the
dominant culture. For example, first generation children of immigrants
speaking English, or having family values that are more American than
their parents. Lastly, multiculturalism is based on various cultures
coexisting, where minority groups are able to have its distinct culture.
However, in a multicultural society, a type of segregation can exists.
Thus, even though minority groups practice their own culture, they may
not necessarily interact with the the majority group.
Gender
In our Chapter on socialization, students learned the social
construction of gender. Much like race, society's expectations of how a
female and male should behave are dictated by social norms.
Sociologists make a distinction between sex, which refers to the
biological differences such as chromosomes, hormones, and genitals,
and gender, which are the culturally defined characteristics of what is
feminine and masculine.
Through socialization, we learn gender roles and what is expected of
females and males in society. Society's fear or hatred of homosexuals
or homophobia is what makes members of society adhere to gender
roles.
Gender Roles
Family, school, friends, and the media all contribute to one's
development of selfHidentity based on gender. It is obvious that these
gender roles have changed throughout history. In the late 20th century,
the stigma against women in sports, single mothers, stayHatHhome dads,
men wearing makeHup are not as pronounced as they used to be. In a
2002 nationwide survey, 69% of respondents said that if one parent
stays home with the children, it makes not difference whether that
parent is the mother or father (Schaefer 259, 2007). However, even as
attitudes have changed, the majority of stayHatHhome parents are still
women.
For the functionalist perspective, having different gender roles is
necessary for the stability of societies and institutions. For example,
the rising divorce rates in the US might be explained by women
relinquishing their traditional roles. As women become more
individualistic and have the ability to be financially independent,
women are less likely to stay in unhappy marriages. For the
functionalist perspective, the changing roles of women has
compromised the family structure. There seems to be a correlation
between the rise of female liberty in the 1920s and individualism in
the 1980s and divorce rates (Coltrane 507H511, 2001).
However, this women's liberation is not the only explanation
sociologists point to in their assessment of divorceeconomic
depression, wars, laws, religion, age of marriage, and social class seem
to contribute to divorce rates. The functionalist perspective may see
the change in women's traditional identity as destabilizing society, but
Gender Stratification
For the conflict perspective, it is the unequal value placed on
gender roles that is important for sociologists to consider. For example,
in society, it is acceptable for a girl to play with masculine toys such
as trucks and cars, but quite the opposite is true if boys start playing
with dolls. Society also places greater respect and monetary
compensation for male occupational roles compared to female's. In the
medical field, doctors are associated with men and nurses with women.
The graph below, shows how the percent of females living below
poverty level is higher compared to males in all four decades and in
2007. This also shows that the percent of people living below poverty
has increased from the 1970s to the 1990s, but dipped in 2000. But we
see a rising trend in 2007.
Figure 10H1: Percept of People Living Below Poverty Level by Gender (1970H 2007)
Application:
Use the two perspectives (functionalist and conflict) and explain the role
of race in
society.
What is the function of society?
Why does race lead to inequality?
With increasing diversity, how do you think race relations in the
US will look like
in 20 years? 50 years?
How do you having a Black president will change race relations?
Key Concepts:
Assimilatio
n
Discriminati
on Ethnicity
Gender
Gender
roles
Gender
stratification
Homophobia
Institutional
racism Melting
Pot
Multiculturalism
Nationality
One drop of blood
rule Personal
racism Phenotypes
Prejudice
Racism
Redlining
Segregati
on Sex
Social construction of
race Stereotypes
Stratification
Economic Globalization
The Bretton Woods system signed in 1944 was put in place
in order to stabilize the monetary system and the commercial and
financial relations in the world. In retrospect, the world leaders
believed that economic depression and lack of governing body were
some of the fundamental causes of World War II. With the US leading
the world, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
was created with the goal of postwar reconstruction of Europe.
Capitalism or neo;liberalism became the predominant
economic ideology during this time. The deregulation of financial and
operate. For example, Sony, an MNC associated with Japan, the home
country, moves
some of its production in Mexico, the host country.
What globalization has done to MNCs is to blur the lines
between countries and corporations. Ownership of companies has
become more global. Jaguar, a car brand associated with Great Britain
was sold to Ford in 1989, an American company, which was eventually
sold to Tata Motors, an Indian MNC. One of the major share holders of
Citigroup is Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud from Saudi Arabia.
The interconnectedness of finance and trade means that
economic boom and busts have become global. The 2008 real estate
collapse in the US has affected banks all over the world. At the same
time, the failure of Iceland's banks has affected 420,000 British and
Dutch customers, and has frozen assets from these countries, including
the London's police force (Bloomberg News 10/9/08). In general,
capitalism, as an economic system, is conducive to globalization. The
need to expand markets, the search for raw materials, and cheap labor
leads to the breakdown of economic and political barriers.
Commodity Chains
Commodity chains, refers to the process of producing goods. In
Travels of a TGshirt in the Global Economy: An Economist Examines the
Markets, Power, and Politics of World Trade (2006) by Rivoli traces the
life a tHshirt from the cotton to the sewing, the production, and the
shipment of the end product. Rivoli illustrates the connection between
textile producers and sweatshops and the benefits and rationality of
division of labor. Commodity Chains and Marketing Strategies: Nike
and the Global Athletic Footwear Industry by Miguel Korzeniewicz
traces the success of Nike in marketing and advertising and how it has
used globalization and the flexibility in shifting production to its
advantage.
These commodity chains and trade relations has changed the
way business is done. For example, a Dell assembles computers but
does not necessarily produce the parts of the computer. Open up a Dell
computer and the motherboard, the processor, and all the other
components are made by different manufacturers. What Dell does is
put these parts together! In essence, globalization has led to the
decentralization of production and manufacturing. From a sociological
Political Globalization
There are also a number of political changes that mark a
globalized world. The financial and political integration of the European
Union (EU) bas helped breakdown trade and migration barriers in the
region. With the fall of the Soviet Union, the former states of the Soviet
bloc such as Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania are adopting a capitalist
economy. The creation of the UN and other international organizations
(IGOs) and international nonHprofit organizations (INGOs) has fostered
a sense of a global society.
Africa
Population
( 2008 Est.)
Internet Users
Dec/31, 2000
Internet Usage,
Latest Data
% Population
( Penetration )
Usage
% of
World
Usage
Growth
2000-2008
955,206,348
4,514,400
51,065,630
5.3 %
3.5 %
1,031.2 %
3,776,181,949
114,304,000
578,538,257
15.3 %
39.5 %
406.1 %
Europe
800,401,065
105,096,093
384,633,765
48.1 %
26.3 %
266.0 %
Middle East
197,090,443
3,284,800
41,939,200
21.3 %
2.9 %
1,176.8 %
North America
337,167,248
108,096,800
248,241,969
73.6 %
17.0 %
129.6 %
Latin
America/Caribbe
an
576,091,673
18,068,919
139,009,209
24.1 %
9.5 %
669.3 %
33,981,562
7,620,480
20,204,331
59.5 %
1.4 %
165.1 %
6,676,120,288
360,985,492
1,463,632,361
21.9 %
100.0 %
305.5 %
Asia
Oceania /
Australia
WORLD TOTAL
NOTES: (1) Internet Usage and World Population Statistics are for June 30, 2008. (2) CLICK on each world region name for detailed regional usage information. (3) Demographic
US Census Bureau . (4) Internet usage information comes from data published by
Nielsen//NetRatings, by the International Telecommunications Union, by local NIC, and other reliable sources. (5) For
definitions, disclaimer, and navigation help, please refer to the Site Surfing Guide, now in ten languages. (6) Information in this site may be cited, giving the due
credit to www.internetworldstats.com. Copyright 2001 - 2008, Miniwatts Marketing Group. All rights reserved worldwide.
(Population) numbers are based on data from the
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
Global Inequality
The concept of stratification is not just within countries as
discussed in the previous chapters, but also between countries. In
talking about states, we distinguish between developed and
underdeveloped, industrial and industrializing. Development, of
course, is a relative concept. The predominant measurement deals
with a country's monetary wealth, typically measured by Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). The GDP is the total value of goods and
services produced in a state in a year. Using GDP as a measure of a
country's wealth has its limitations since it does not tell us how wealth
is distributed. For example, a country can have a high GDP, but if
only a limited number of people own the wealth, does that make that
country developed? To supplement GDP, social scientists use the
Human Development Index and the Gini coefficient to measure
distribution of wealth. The Gini coefficient is a ratio with values from 0
to 1, with 0 meaning perfect equality and 1 perfect inequality. HDI, on
the other hand, measures literacy rates, mortality rates, life
expectancy and GDP per capita. Below is a table of countries with their
Gini coefficient and HDI rank. There is a positive correlation between
HDI and Gini coefficient. Meaning, countries with low HDI ranking
(having a low HDI ranking in this sense is positive), also have a lower
Gini coefficient. Notice
however, that this is not a perfect correlation. For example, even though
th
the US is 12 in
HDI ranking, it has a relatively high Gini coefficient at 40.8 (high levels
of inequality). Most Western European countries and Japan have
91
relatively lower Gini coefficients (more equality) and high HDI ranking
(high rates of literacy and low rates or mortality). For example, Sweden
th
th
is 6 in HDI and has a Gini of 25. Japan is ranked 8 in HDI with a Gini
of 24.9.
The graph below compares Mexico and Saudi Arabia's GDP per
capita and HDI. This shows how even though Saudi Arabia and Mexico
have HDIs in very close range, Saudi Arabia's GDP per capita is quite
higher than Mexico's. This shows how important it is to combine
different types of measurements in determining what it means to be
3
developed and which countries are developed.
http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_MEX.html
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008
92
Table 1: Mexico and Saudi Arabia Human Development Index and GDP
per Capita (2007H
2008)
Figure 11H2: Mexico and Saudi Arabia Human Development Index and GDP per Capital (2007H
Efects of Globalization
The effects of globalization are complex and dynamic. It is easy
to fall prey to a dichotomous view of the social effects of globalization
as being good or bad, but in reality, the effects are quite complicated
and relative. A person's view of whether or not globalization is
advantageous or not for society depends on a person's occupational
status, place of residence, social class, and skills. A radiologist in the
US who sees his/her job outsourced to the Philippines and a clerk who
gets laid off because of automation might have a negative view of
globalization, but an Indian engineer who works as a programmer for
google in India and an American architect who designs buildings for the
rising middle class in China might not have such a negative view of
globalization.
Friedman's adroit assessment of the effects of globalization in The
World is Flat (2007), shows how understanding how globalization
works and how it will affect society and individuals is key to preparing
for a global world. Corporations are not governments and they do not
have allegiance to their citizens. Like proper capitalist entities, their
allegiance is to profit. It is important to keep in mind that companies
will seek out the most efficient and talented workers and citizenship is
not necessarily a criteria. This is one of the harsh realities of
globalization, capitalism, and technological change.
In the United States, there has been a backlash by labor against
outsourcing and offshoring. Offshoring is a process wherein a company
relocates its business to another country. On the other hand,
outsourcing refers to when a company subcontracts and division of
its production process to another company. For example, Gap hiring a
Vietnamese factory to sew its shirts is an example of outsourcing, while
Qualcomm opening a research design office in Ukraine is an example of
offshoring. Read the articles below to get a better understanding of the
follies of thinking of globalization and outsourcing in black and white.
Social Change
The Environment and Globalization
Capitalism and the production of goods means the increased
exploitation of natural resources and increased consumption. The
ability to produce goods at an accelerated pace means the need for a
larger market to sell goods. The growing middle class in China, India,
and Brazil means more people buying cars, computers, clothes, and
other goods. As China has taken on the role of the world's factory,
pollution has become a major problems. The dyes used for each piece
of clothing made, the coal, oil, and energy used to produce goods, the
energy used to transport the goods are all contributing to pollution and
global warming. As globalization is changing our world, we are also
drastically changing our environment. The Great Pacific Garbage
Patch or the Pacific Trash Vortex is a huge patch of the ocean as big
as Texas that is filled with tons of garbage and plastics. This is just one
of the environmental disasters that has led to the reusableHbag
movement, that has led to the banning of the use of plastic bags in
Ireland, China, and some cities in the US such as San Francisco.
Global Warming
Global warming is the increase in the earth's average temperature as a
result of the greenhouse effect. The more we consume the more
energy is needed to satisfy our needs. One aspect of climate change
Application:
Do this little experiment and answer the questions and get a
better
understanding of how you and the products you consume are related to
the world:
Choose something you bought the past month (it can be
clothing, a piece of fruit, flowers, electronics), and do a miniHresearch
online and figure out what the product is made of (the raw materials
used to make the product if it's an assembled product such as a
telephone) and where these products are from. Who made your
product? How much do you think the person got paid to do it? Where
did the product have to travel to get to you? Are there any toxic
chemicals in your product? What happens when you no longer need it?
Do you throw it away? Where does it go after you throw it? How long
will it take for the product to disintegrate? Will it disintegrate?
If you choose an agricultural product, find out from your local
grocery where they get that certain produce and do a research online
about the issues involved in harvesting that product. What kind of
carbon foot print did the product leave in order to get to you?
Key Concepts:
Bretton Woods
System Capitalism
Collective Problem
Commodity chains
Compression of time and
space Core
Cultural
imperialism Gini
coefficient
Global inequality
Glocalization
Great Pacific Garbage Patch or Pacific Trash
Vortex Gross Domestic Product
Gross National
Hapiness Home
country
Host country
Human Development
Index Hyperglobalizers
NeoEliberalism
New social
movement
Offshoring
Outsourcing
Periphery
Political
globalization
SemiEperiphery
Skeptics
Social Change
Social
movement
sovereignty
Subcontracts
Transformationa
list
World Systems theory
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