Running head: COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES

Examination of Western Countries Terrorism Intervention Plans: An Insight

Psychology of Law Enforcement
City University of Hong Kong

Group Members
Luk Tzu Wei, Bryan 53256234
Sam Clement-Coulson 40085009
Zoya Khurana 40089739
Sofie Selle Opdal 40084117

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
1
Table of Contents
1. Introduction..2
1.1 Nature and Characteristics.2
1.2 Research Background....3
2. The United States.....4
2.1 Current Counter-Terrorism Strategy..4
2.2 Discussion..6
3. The United Kingdom...7
3.1 Current Counter-Terrorism Strategy..7
3.2 Discussion..9
4. France.....10
4.1 Current Counter-Terrorism Strategy10
5. Conclusion & Discussion...13
6. References......15

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
2
1. Introduction
The phenomenon of extremism, radicalism and terrorism is usually deemed as a critical
issue due to its unpredictable impacts against societys security and even humanity. According to
the Global Terrorism Index (GTI), the globe is facing increasing number of terrorist attacks, and
the number of terrorists attacks casualties is increasing correspondingly. Because of its destructive
nature, countries (particularly in western world) have conducted studies on it so as to have a better
understanding on the natures, causations, controls and preventions of it. Although countries have
united together to combat against the phenomenon for decades, the de facto effects are doubtful
and questionable. Therefore, this paper is going to examine the anti-terrorism Strategies adopted
by the law enforcement agencies of three cited countries by studying the nature, causes,
characteristics and threats of terrorism; these countries are respectively the United States (U.S.),
the United Kingdom (U.K.) and France.
1.1 Nature & Characteristics
Terrorism is a very problematic terminology as it has no universal accepted definition
(Human Right Voice, 2015; Walter, 2003; Williamson, 2013). In spite of the fact that sociologists,
criminologists, legal experts, civil or public organisations etc. have conducted a large number of
studies on E.R.T., the exact meaning of those terminologies are still ambiguous because there is
yet to have an internationally acceptable definition (Sotlar, 2004). Hence for the purpose to avoid
any confusion, this paper would cite the definition from the National Consortium for the Study of
Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (2015). It define terrorism as The use of violence or threat
of violence in order to purport a political, religious, or ideological change. It has to be committed
by non-local state actors (Not Government employees) or undercover personnel serving on the

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
3
behalf of their respective governments, reached more than the immediate target victims and has to
be both mala prohibita (crime that is made illegal by legislation) and mala in se (crime that is
inherently immoral or wrong). Hence the GTI further categorizes the type of terrorism as: (1)
racial and religious supremacists (anti-Islamic; anti-semitism; white supremacist), (2) individual
issues, (3) Islamic fundamentalism (Ai-Qaida inspired; ISIL inspired; Jihadism) and (4) political
(anti-American; anti-government; nationalists; political extremism).
1.2 Research Background
Research efforts to uncover a typical terrorist personality have proven to be largely
unsuccessful for two main reasons. First, it is extremely difficult for researchers to obtain access
to terrorists, with most efforts relying on cooperation between government agencies and academics
to use imprisoned terrorists as participants. This type of sampling effectively jeopardizes the
validity of the research efforts, as participants in those studies are often reluctant to share much of
their knowledge with the scientists. Furthermore, these projects do not allow for large sample sizes
due to the limited number of convicted terrorists. Secondly, the constantly changing nature of
terrorism complicates research efforts as any personality profile would only be valid for a limited
duration before the sociopolitical landscape pushes terrorist organizations to reshape or modernize
their recruiting strategies.
Considering the challenges in developing a personality profile, researchers instead focus
on identifying behavioral cues and patterns found in terrorists. A report to the House of
Representatives (REF) describes the process in which an at-risk individual becomes an active
member of a terrorist organization. Interestingly, ones involvement in terrorism often begins with
legitimate involvement in an organization supporting political ideals. From there, terrorist

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
4
organisations identify potential recruits, often through the help of their friends that are members
of the organization, and the individuals radical opinions intensify. At that point, they begin
membership in the terrorist organization through the rigorous, but progressive, integration into the
organization. This process of intensifying behaviours is the basis of many terrorism-prevention
programs around the world.
2. United States
In U.S., since the 9-11 attacks, U.S. government and public have been actively combating
against terrorist activities (particularly the religious (Islamic) terrorists) through different
methods.. However, the effectiveness of those measures are doubtful. As stated by GTI, the U.S.
still suffered from the most lone wolf attacks with 42 and the second highest number of deaths at
52.
2.1 Current Counter-Terrorism Strategy
While reviewing the current CVE measures adopted by the U.S. government, this essay
considers four sectors, which are respectively (1) executive sector (2) legislative sector (3) law
enforcement agencies.
Executive (The White House). The leading administration would have a direct influence
on the national policy of counter terrorism. If looking at its major reports in 2011, both mainly
focus on the religious terrorism (Islamic terrorists, particularly the Al-Qaeda); in 2016, their focus
are still on the religious terrorism type, but the administration is more emphasizing the issues
caused by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) - that can be reflected by an event called
The White House Summit on Countering Violent Extremism where the President Obama strongly
emphasizes that Coalition [government and civic] efforts to begin countering ISILs messaging,

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
5
disrupting its finances and countering the FTF [Foreign Terrorist Fighters] threat continue to be
equally important. (The White House, 2015).
Legislative (Congress). When focusing on the legislative sector, the Congress enacts laws
against terrorism (including domestic), and in summary are mostly related to international
terrorism. Those noticeable laws are (1) Anti-Terrorism Patriot Act (2011) - empower law
enforcement officials to get court approval to obtain "roving wiretaps" on suspected foreign agents,
to track noncitizen "lone wolves" suspected of terrorism, and obtain certain business and even
library records; (2) Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (2016) - it focuses on international
Terrorism, hence the bill has raised tensions with Saudi Arabia; and (3) Homeland Security Act of
2002 - funding the law enforcement units and terrorism prevention program against domestic and
international terrorism.
Law enforcement agencies. The law enforcement agencies (police and Federal Bureau of
Investigation) has become the first bulwark against any terrorist activities in their homeland by
investigating and preventing future terrorist attacks (Runge, 2003; U.S. Department of Justice,
2008). After the 9-11 attacks, the Department of Homeland Security has recognized the value of
local police forces, and has supported these agencies through increased training and monetary
funding (Friedmann & Cannon, 2007). According to Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the
current counter terrorism strategy adopted by the law enforcement agencies are the proactive
policy cum community policing methods, which is the practice of deterring criminal activity by
showing police presence and engaging the public to learn their concerns, thereby preventing crime
from taking place in the first place.
2.2 Discussion

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
6
My finding suggest that there are two major problems in U.S. counter terrorism strategies,
which are the mismatch between the policy direction and the fact of terrorist situation and the
fundamental role of police department in combating against terrorists.
When the general public and authority are focusing on those Islamic terrorists, however a
report published in 2012 gives a very different statistical story; in fact, while looking at the terrorist
from 1995 to 2011 by perpetrator ideology, the report shows that 56% terrorist attack is perpetrated
by right-wing extremists (groups of anti-immigrant, militia extremists etc.), as compared to 30%
by Eco-terrorists (the noteworthy case is the Animal Liberation Front), 12% by Islamic extremists
(Homegrown Jihadists, ISIL) and 2% by anarchist (Mooney, 2015; Sofar and Bernstein, 2012).
Furthermore, from the law enforcement agencys (police) perspective, a report published by
Kurzman & Schanzer (2015) reflects that 74% of the total interviewed law enforcement groups
(382 groups) reporting right-wing extremists movement as one of the top three terrorist threats in
their jurisdiction. Kurzman & Schanzer (2015) again highlights the point that law enforcement
agencies consider anti-government violent extremists (far right extremist), not radicalized
Muslims, to be the most severe threat of political violence that they face. In other words, religious
terrorism is not the major issue, but the U.S. government are placing a more resources on a
relatively minor threats (the religious terrorism) in lieu of focusing on a more. realistic threats (the
domestic terrorism). Lacking a clear instruction from the leading government, the effectiveness of
overall counter terrorism strategy is really questionable.
With regards to to the second question, the government gives a very weird position to the
police in combating against terrorism. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) states the similarity
between terrorism and crime is the logical sequence of steps that both the terrorist and the criminal

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
7
must take to see their missions through to successful conclusions. However, the limitation of this
interpretation is the DOJ has ignored different intentions and goals between the ordinary criminals
and the terrorists. The criminal often commits crimes for personal gains (like attention, monetary
gain) which police department has been a long history dealing with it, however terrorist commits
crimes with the intent of killing citizens. That makes the situation particularly dangerous and
stressful to police since the ordinary police firstly is not trained and not experienced for handling
those situation (Bonger et al., 2007).
3. United Kingdom
3.1 Current Counter-Terrorism Strategy
The Home Office recently stated that We face a significant and changing threat from
Daesh () The threat to the UK and our interests continues to be driven largely by the situation
in Syria and Iraq and, in particular, by Daesh. Throughout 2015, the UK threat level remained at
severe, meaning an attack is highly likely (Home Office, 2016a, p. 5). Daesh (primarily
groupings in Iraq and Syria commonly known as ISIS) and affiliated branches (in Middle East and
North Africa) carried out approximately 260 attacks in 2015, resulting in the loss of 34 British
lives. Northern Ireland Related Terrorism is also considered an ongoing threat but will not be
discussed here, as Islamist terrorism has remained the principal threat (Home Office 2016a). A
Counter-Terrorism-Strategy (CONTEST) was implemented for the first time in 2006 and revised
in 2011 (Home Office, 2011), and been in use since (Home Office, 2016a). It includes plans to
prevent, pursue, prepare, and protect, where prevent is aimed at stopping people from becoming
and/or supporting terrorists (Home Office, 2011). Prevent is important to evaluate given that
approximately 850 individuals of national security concern have likely left the UK since the

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
8
conflict began (and approximately half have returned), assumingly encouraged by propaganda by
Daesh (Home Office, 2016a). Moreover, the past decade has witnessed increases in number of
convictions and arrests related to terrorism, economic costs, as well as legislative changes
(Europol, 2016; Home Office, 2015; Home Office, 2016b).
The strategy assumes that the growth of terrorist groups is founded primarily on conflict
and instability, a pervasive ideology and radicalisation (Home Office, 2011). Radicalisation is
conceptualized as a social process where radicalizers seek out vulnerable people, and win them
over by offering a convincing ideology, meaning a coherent set of ideas that binds the social group
together and organises actions aimed at overcoming an existing power (Home Office, 2011, p. 3435). The social media allows extremist content to reach those who would otherwise not seek it.
Vulnerable individuals are easily susceptible to such content, and prevent aims at detecting and
supporting these individuals. Support means to give individuals access to services such as health
and education, specialist mentoring and diversionary activities. The terrorist narrative (i.e.
endorsing murder) must be challenged through open debate, and/or excluded from the public
sphere (e.g. in schools). Prevent also depends on a successful integration strategy, meaning a
society where members share a common ground of values and communities are mobilised and
empowered (Home Office, 2011) Altogether, this has resulted in interventions in sectors such as
education (institutions (e.g. dismissing intolerant views in school), criminal justice, health,
charities and faith, and creating economic opportunities (Home Office, 2016a).
3.2 Discussion
Prevent is in accordance with the threat assessment model when it focuses specifically on
the exposure of one, particular ideology, namely an extreme, Islamist ideology (Harris & Lurigio,

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
9
2012). However, the efficiency of the interventions related to radicalisation and de-radicalisation
has yet to be empirically validated (Home Office, 2016a). Furthermore, theorists such as Herriot
(2007) suggest that it could be beneficial to have a more delicate approach towards vulnerable
individuals. The extreme, Islamist ideology has relation to what Herriot (2007) conceptualizes
as religious fundamentalism, meaning the rigidness which is manifested in the attempt to protect
a religious identity and the accompanying community, institutions and lifestyles, all of which are
based on values that are not found in the secular world. Herriot (2007) assumes people are
fundamentally motivated to achieve confidence as well as reduce their insecurity about the world.
An individual is prone to internalize a social identity presented by a fundamentalist ideology as it
fulfils these needs by offering clear rules (i.e. a Holy book) regarding behaviour, values and norms
in addition to having God on their side. If he perceives his group to be a minority and the
differences with others are maximized, the potential for conflict (and potential justification of
violence) with the secular world will increase (Herriot, 2007). Herriot (2007) contributes with a
comprehensive understanding of the issue by elaborating on the concept of vulnerability (i.e.
having a strongly internalized social identity and negative emotions about the secular world). From
this perspective, the cause of the extreme, Islamist threat is rooted in particular group dynamics.
France and the USA are also part of the secular West, which makes it plausible to argue that it is
the same cause that is fuelling the polarization between Islam and secularism in these countries
(and globally). The questions then becomes whether the support offered by prevent (and similar
strategies), as well as Western values, satisfy the needs of confidence and meaning for particular
religious individuals in a better way than religious fundamentalism does. Furthermore, the
sceptical attitude towards Islam which is implicit in the prevent interventions has the potential of

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
10
being a self-fulfilling prophecy. After all, having extreme beliefs and ideas, per se, is not
uncommon, nor is it a crime, nor are they always known to the threat investigator ((Borum et al.,
2004, p. 425). The postulations put forward by Herriot (2007) remain to be empirically validated.
Given the dark spiral described above, such conclusions are warranted.
4. France
Following the end of the second World War, France has seen a long and complicated
history of battling terrorism. This battle seemed to intensify following the terrorist attacks of 9/11
on the Twin Towers in New York City. After these attacks, France took the initiative to heighten
its counter-terrorism strategies. In particular, the government of France placed a particular effort
on the prevention of terrorist attacks. In the following, the current system that France has
implemented in order to prevent terrorism will be analyzed. The current system consists of 4
factors: soldiers patrolling the streets, implementation of reservists, state of emergency, and the
right to carry arms for police officers.
4.1 Current Terrorism Prevention Strategies
Military Street Patrols. In order to maintain a military presence within the country and to
serve as a protection mechanism for its citizens, the government of France has deployed
approximately 10,000 soldiers to the streets. This heighten military presence came immediately
after the infamous Charlie Head attacks that took the lives of many civilians in France. The soldiers
will allow for a more secure and well protected setting for those who wish to visit sensitive sites
such as places of worship, tourist attractions, and shopping centres. The goal of this measure is to
reassure that the public is free of terrorist threats and to issue a message to terrorists that France

10

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
11
will continue to protect its citizens. The second prevention method that will be discussed is the
implementation of Reservists in France.
Implementation of Reservists. In order to prevent further terrorist attacks and to create
an awareness of precautions being taken by France, the President Francois Hollande has asked for
those in the operational reserve to step up and protect their country. Variol (2016) states that, as
of date, there are 28,000 reservists today, with Hollande wanting this number to increase to 40,000
by 2018. These reservist include ex military officers as well as the common citizens of France.
The implementation of these reservists would allow for France to deploy them to areas where
heightened security is needed, particularly at the borders of France. Once a citizen has declared
their wish to become a reservist, they are required to participate in a basic military training
programme in order to be familiarized with equipment and policies. A reservist must be deployed
for a period of one to five years and may be required to perform and commit to the same duties as
the military. Many of these reservists will go on a mission with professional soldiers, however they
can chose to provide logistical support to armies. (Variol, 2016) This prevention mechanism will
allow for heightened backup forces in any cases of terrorist or security risks in France. Next, the
current situation surrounding a state of emergency in France will be addressed.
State of Emergency. A current, controversial measure among politicians in France is the
declaration of a state of emergency following the Paris attacks in November 2015. A state of
emergency essentially gives authorities the power to carry out unauthorized raids on homes and
place suspects on house arrest without obtaining a permit or permission first. (Hughes, 2016)
Following the horrific Paris attacks in November 2015, approximately 3,200 raids have been
performed by the government. Out of the 3,200 raids carried out, Paris counter-terrorism unit has

11

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
12
filed an investigation into only five of them. The lack of sufficient evidence in terms of these raids
is the reason for the protests by human rights activists. Unfortunately for these activists, there is
no end in sight as the French Prime Minister proclaims the state of emergency would be extended
as long as it is necessary. (Hughes, 2016) Although, many citizens and activists feel that there
freedom is being violated due to the current state of emergency, this prevention method will allow
authorities to act promptly on any information or tips they have received regarding terrorists
activities. After the Nice attacks in 2016, President Hollande decided it was in the best interest of
the country to extend its state of emergency into 2017. This is a major extension from the regular
12 day state of emergency that usually goes into effect. The final prevention method that France
has implemented is the right to carry arms at all times (police officers).
Right to Carry Arms for Police Officers (At All Times). The French media and members
of the public have criticized and labelled the French Police as ineffective following the Charlie
Hebdo attack. This specific criticism is due to the fact that less than half of the officers in France
carry firearms. Unlike the firearms policy in the United States, the citizens and most officers in
France are prohibited from carrying firearms. Recently, the French government has decided to
alter a policy which now allows all police officers to carry their firearms at all times. This includes
when officers are both on and off duty. Prior to the implementation of this policy change, officers
were only permitted to carry non-lethal weapons, such as batons and tasers. This policy change
was supposed to remain in place only until the state of emergency had passed but has been
permanently changed in order to heighten prevention strategies in France. The Government
officials of France believe that by providing officers with more responsibility and intensive

12

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
13
training, they can raise public safety measures. Furthermore, this can enable police officers to be
prepared in a situation of a terrorist attack and help protect the citizens surrounding them.
5. Discussion & Conclusion
There are many differences in the prevention strategies of the U.S, the U.K, and France; however,
it is important to note they all have one goal in common. This goal is to help prevent terrorist
attacks from happening and harming the citizens. If you take a look at a comparison between the
United States and France, there is a considerable difference in prevention strategies. A senior
investigating magistrate for terrorism in France, Marc Trevidic (2012) says, In the United States,
it is the system that counts; in France, it is the men. As discussed in the previous pieces of work,
France has heightened prevention strategies through implementation of military patrolling,
accumulation of reservists, state of emergency, and right to carry arms for police officer. Within
all of these strategies, the use of manpower is prominent and can be attributed partly to the history
of France and partly due to more limited budgets. This can make the French well informed but
less systematic, less able to connect the dots than the Americans, who have tried to learn from
their own failure to uncover the 9/11 plot before it happened. In general, the French have one-tenth
of the resources of the Americans for any given case. says Judge Trevidic (2012) When blending
the successes and failures of the U.S, the U.K, and France in combating and preventing terrorism,
there is no right or wrong answer. The most effective strategies would be for these countries to
pool resources in order to refine a effective prevention strategy for preventing terrorism. As of
now, it is difficult to conclude on which terrorism prevention strategy is most effective for the
country of France due to the short trial period. France is taking the threat of terrorism very seriously
and is continuing to create and implement new strategies every day in order to protect its citizens.

13

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
14
6. References
Bakker, E., Ellis, C., Gomis, B., Palombi, S., Pantucci, R. and Zuijdewin, J. R. (2016) Countering
Lone-Actor Terrorism Series Lone-Actor Terrorism Analysis Paper. Published by Royal
United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies. Retrieved from
https://rusi.org/projects/lone-actor-terrorism
Baker (2016) Rise of Donald Trump Tracks Growing Debate Over Global Fascism Published
by

The

New

York

Times.

Retrieved

from

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/29/world/europe/rise-of-donald-trumptracks-growing-debate-over-global-fascism.html?_r=0
Beam, L. (1992) "Leaderless Resistance," The Seditionist, issues 12. Retrieved from
http://www.louisbeam.com/leaderless.htm
Borum, R., Fein, R., Vossekuil, B., Gelles, M., Shumate, S. (2004). The role of operational
research

in

counterterrorism.

International

Journal

of

Intelligence

and

Counterintelligence, 17, 420434. DOI: 10.1080/08850600490446754.

Runge, W. (2003). Traffic law enforcement and homeland security. In R.L. Kemp (Ed.),
Homeland security: Best practices for local government (pp. 45-48). Washington, DC:
International City/County Management Association.
Deflem, M. and Featherstone, R. (2003) Anomie and Strain: Context and Consequences of
Mertons Two Theories Sociological Inquiry, volume 73, no. 4, pp. 471-489.
Erlangermarch, S. (2012) Fighting Terrorism, French-Style, Sunday Review Analysis. The New
York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/sunday-review/thefrench-way-of-fighting-homegrown-terrorism.html

14

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
15
Europol (2016). European Union Terrorism and Trend Report. Retrieved from Europol (27 of
th

October,2016): https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/europeanunion-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2016
Friedmann, R. and Cannon, J. (2007) Homeland Security and Community Policing: Competing
or Complementing Public Safety Policies, Journal of Homeland Security and
Emergency Management, Volume 4, Issue 4(2).
Gorka, C. (2014) The Flawed Science Behind Americas Counter-Terrorism Strategy, The
Council

on

Global

Security

White

Paper.

Retrieved

from

http://councilonglobalsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Flawed-Science-BehindUS-CT-Strategy.pdf
Harris, A. J., & Lurigio, A. J. (2012). Threat assessment and law enforcement practice. Journal of
Police Crisis Negotiations, 12(1), 51-68. DOI: 10.1080/15332586.2012.645375.
Herriot, P. (2007). Religious Fundamentalism and Social Identity. New York: Routledge
Home Office (2015). Policy paper: 2010 to 2015 government policy: counter-terrorism. Retrieved
from

UK.GOV

(24th

of

October

2016):

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015-government-policy-counterterrorism/2010-to-2015-government-policy-counter-terrorism
Home Office (2016a). CONTEST, The United Kingdoms Strategy for Countering Terrorism:
Annual Report for 2015. Retrieved from GOV.UK (24th of October 2016):
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/contest-uk-strategy-for-counteringterrorism-annual-report-for-2015

15

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
16
Home Office (2016b). Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000 and subsequent
legislation: Arrests, outcomes, and stop and search, Great Britain, quarterly update to
December

2015.

Retrieved

from

GOV.UK

(24th

of

October

2016):

https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/operation-of-police-powers-under-theterrorism-act-2000-quarterly-update-to-december-2015
Human Right Voice (2015) There is no UN Definition of Terrorism Retrieved from
http://www.humanrightsvoices.org/eyeontheun/un_101/facts/?p=61
Institute of Economics and Peace (2015) Global Terrorism Index 2015 Retrieved from
Economics and Peace (27th of October 2016) http://economicsandpeace.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2015.pdf
Kurzman, C. and Schanzer, D. (2015) Law Enforcement Assessment of the Violent Extremism
Threat. Published by Triangle Center on Terrorism and Homeland Security. Retrieved from
https://sites.duke.edu/tcths/files/2013/06/Kurzman_Schanzer_Law_Enforcement_Assess
ment_ of_the_Violent_Extremist_Threat_final.pdf
Jenkins, M. (2007) Building an Army of Believers: Jihadist Radicalization and Recruitment,
Testimony, U.S. House of Representatives (Committee on Homeland Security). Retrieved
from
http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/testimonies/2007/RAND_CT2781.pdf
Office of Intelligence and Analysis Assessment (2009) Rightwing Extremism: Current Economic
and Political Climate Fueling Resurgence in Radicalization and Recruitment. U.S.
Department of Homeland Security.

16

COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGIES
17
Safdar, A. (2016) France State of Emergency, Extended on Slim Evidence, Al Jazeera English.
Retrieved

from

http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/02/france-state-emergency-

extended-slim-evidence-160217174759408.html.
The White House (2015) FACT SHEET: Leaders Summit to Counter ISIL and Violent
Extremism.

Retrieved

from

https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-

office/2015/09/29/fact-sheet-leaders-summit-counter-isil-and-violent-extremism
The White House (2011) Empowering Local Partner To Prevent Violent Extremism In the United
States.

Retrieved

from

https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/empowering_local_partners.pdf
The White House (2011) National Strategy for Counter Terrorism, Retrieved from
https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/counterterrorism_strategy.pdf
U.S.Cong. (1999). The sociology and psychology of terrorism: Who becomes a terrorist and why?:
A report (R. A. Hudson, Author) [Cong. Rept.]. Washington, D.C.: The Division.
U.S. Department of the Treasury. What you need to know about the U.S. sanction. Retrieved
from

https://www.treasury.gov/resource-

center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/terror.pdf

17