Asst.Prof.

Yasa Ekiolu zok

Course TEXT Books:

Main Book: Microelectronics Circuit Analysis
and Design
Donald A. Neamen McGrawHill, 4e,2009

Microelectronic Circuits
Sedra Smith and Kenneth C. Smith Oxford University Press,
6/e, 2010.

COURSE CONTENT:
Semiconductors Materials and Diodes
Diode Circuits

The Field-Effect Transistor

Basic FET Amplifiers
The Bipolar junction Transistor

Basic BJT Amplifiers

3

What is instrinsic semiconductor?

An atom consists of nucleus (protons (+), neutrons) and electrons (-) orbit the
nucleus.
The electrons are distributed in various shells at different distances from the
nucleus.

Electrons in the outer shell are called valence electrons which the elements in the
periodic table can be grouped according to the number of valence electrons
5

 Semiconductor is a material that conducts current partly. The conductivity of a

semiconductor is somewhere between an insulator and a conductor.
Semiconductors are most commonly silicon.
14 electrons occupying the 1st
3 energy levels:
1s, 2s, 2p orbitals filled by
10 electrons
3s, 3p orbitals filled by 4
electrons

Each of the four

valence electrons in
each silicon atom is
shared
with
one
neighboring
silicon
atom
and
form
covalent bonds
6

 At T = 0 K, each electron is in its lowest

possible energy state, so each covalent
bonding position is filled. If a small electric field
is applied to this material, the electrons will not
move, because they will still be bound to their
individual atoms. So, at T = 0 K, silicon is an
insulator; that is, no charge flows through it.

If the temperature increases, the valence

electrons may gain thermal energy. If electron
gain enough thermal energy it can break the
covalent bond so the valence electron gain a
minimum energy, Eg, called the bandgap
energy. The electrons that gain this minimum
energy now are in the conduction band (free
electrons), this generates a current.

T > 0 K covalent bond breaks and electron is created in the conduction band
Whereas the positively charged hole is created in the valence band
Energy band diagram

B
h

hole

E Maximum energy of a valence electron or hole

E Minimum energy of a free electron
E Energy required to break the covalent bond

VB

(b)
8

 Materials that have large bandgap energies, in the range of 3 to 6

electronvolts1 (eV), are insulators because, at room temperature,
essentially no free electrons exist (all electrons are in valence band).
In contrast, materials that contain very large numbers of free electrons at
room temperature are conductors.
In a semiconductor, the bandgap energy is on the order of 1 eV.
The net charge in a semiconductor is zero; it is neutral.
1 eV = 1.6 1019 joules.
In semiconductors, two types of charged particles; free electron, and the
positively charged hole.
An intrinsic semiconductor : no other types of atoms within the crystal.
intrinsic carrier concentration is used for the free electrons and holes
as well
=

(
3/2
2 )

( 2 )
3/2

: coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material

: band gap energy ()
: temperature ()
: Boltzmanns constant 86106

Ex 1 : Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at = 300 .

10

Movement of Holes
In semiconductors, two types of charged
particles contribute to the current:

i.
ii.

the negatively charged free electron

the positively charged hole.

The concentrations of electrons and holes

are
important
parameters
in
the
characteristics
of
a
semiconductor
material, because they directly influence
the magnitude of the current.

A valence electron in a
nearby bond can move to fill
the broken bond, making it
appear as if the hole shifted
locations.

For an intrinsic semiconductor the

densities of electrons and holes are equal.
The notation ni as the intrinsic carrier
concentration for the concentration of the
free electrons, as well as that of the holes.

11

Extrinsic Semiconductors (n-type, p-type)

the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are
relatively small so that only very small currents are possible.
but we can increase these concentrations by adding controlled amounts
of certain impurities.
for this purpose phosphorus and arsenic are commonly used.
phosphorus atoms join right in the crystal structure of the silicon, each
one bonding with four adjacent silicon atoms just like a silicon atom
would. Because the phosphorus atom has five valence electrons, but
only four of them are bonded to adjacent atoms, the fifth electron of
phosphorus is free to become a conduction band electron, adding to the
number of electrons available to conduct current.

12

The phosphorus atom is called a donor impurity. When a donor impurity

is added to a semiconductor, free electrons are created without generating
holes. This process is called doping, and it allows us to control the
concentration of free electrons in a semiconductor.
A semiconductor that contains donor impurity atoms is called an n-type
semiconductor.

13

Another element is used for doping is boron. When a boron atom replaces a
silicon atom, its three valence electrons are used to satisfy the covalent bond
requirements for three of the four nearest silicon atoms,this leaves one bond
position open and a hole is created that can contribute to a hole current.
Since the boron atom has accepted a valence electron, the boron is called an
acceptor impurity.
A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor.

14

Electron and Hole Concentrations

The doping process determines the conductivity via concentration of free
electrons and holes
A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole
concentrations in a
2
semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by ni

n0 p o

0 :the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons

0 : the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes
At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the
semiconductor. If the donor concentration is much larger than

0 ;

ni2
po
Nd

If the donor concentration is much larger than

ni2
0 ;
n
Na

15

Ex:2 Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations,

0 , 0
(a) Consider Si at = 300 doped with P at a concentration of
= 1016 3 , = 1.5 1010 3
(b) Consider Si at = 300 doped with B at a concentration of
= 51016 3 , = 1.5 1010 3

16

Drift and Diffusion Currents

carriers: charged electrons and holes
Drift and diffusion cause electrons and holes to move in a semiconductor
Drift : movement is caused by electric field, the field produces a force that
acts on free electrons and holes, which then experience a net drift velocity
and net movement
Diffusion : the flow caused by variations in the concentration that can be
caused by a nonhomogeneous doping distribution, or by the injection of a
quantity of electrons or holes into a region
An electric field E applied in one direction produces a force
on the electrons in the opposite direction, because of the
electrons negative charge.

17

Drift velocity of a n-type semiconductor:

=
: electron mobility; how well an electron can move in a semiconductor
The electron drift produces a drift current density

= = ( )
Drift velocity of a p-type semiconductor:
= +
: hole mobility

The hole drift produces a drift current density

= =
Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and holes, the total drift current density
is the sum of the electron and hole components.

= + ,

= + ( conductivity )1 )
18

Ex:3 Calculate the drift current density for a given semiconductor.

Consider silicon at = 300 doped with arsenic atoms at a concentration
of = 8 1015 3 . Assume mobility values of = 1350 2 /
and = 480 2 / . Assume the applied electric field is 100 /.

19

Diffusion Current Density

Particles flow from higher to a lower concentration. This is a statistical
phenomenon related to kinetic theory. This is the basic diffusion process.
The diffusion of electrons from a high-concentration to a low-concentration
produces a flow of electrons in the negative direction
Since electrons are negatively charged, the conventional current direction is
in the positive direction.
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons

The diffusion of holes from a high-concentration to a low-concentration

produces a flow of holes in the negative direction. (Conventional current is
in the direction of the flow of positive charge.)
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes

and :diffusion coefficient

20

p-n Junctions
When the two types of semiconductor materials are joined together, the
electrons from the n-type material diffuse into p-type material and combines
with holes.
This creates a layer of negative ions near the junction in p-type material.
Similarly the holes from the p-type material diffuse into n-type material
resulting in a layer of positive ions in the n-type material.
These two layers of positive and negative ions form the depletion region.
These negative ions will create an electric field in the direction from n-type to
p-type.

no mobile electrons or
holes
in depletion region

21

The electric field in the depletion region induces a potential difference (Figure
1.12(b)). This potential difference is called the built-in potential barrier or
built-in voltage
/, thermal voltage = 0.026 at = 300
= Boltzmanns constant,
= absolute temperature,
=the magnitude of the electronic charge,
= acceptor concentrations in p-region
=donor concentrations in n-regions

22

Ex:4 Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a p-n junction.

Consider a silicon p-n junction at T = 300 K, doped at = 1016 3

p-region and = 1017 3 in the n-region.

23

Reverse-Biased p-n Junction

24

 When the electric field in the space-charge region increases, the number
of positive and negative charges must increase.
If the doping concentrations are not changed, the increase in the fixed
charge can only occur if the width of the space charge region
increases. Therefore, with an increasing reverse-bias voltage , spacecharge width also increases.

25

Forward-Biased p-n Junction

26

Ideal CurrentVoltage Relationship

The theoretical relationship between the voltage and the current in the p-n
junction

1)

emission coefficient or ideality factor,in the range 1 n 2.

reverse-bias saturation current for silicon p-n junctions, typical values are in the
range of 1018 to 1012 A

pn Junction Diode

forward-bias voltage- the current

is an exponential function of
voltage.
in the reverse-bias direction, the
current is almost zero.

27

The diode can be used as a voltage

controlled switch that is off for a reversebias voltage and on for a forward-bias
voltage.
In the forward-bias a relatively large current
is produced by a small applied voltage
In the reverse-bias only a very small current
is created.

Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a p-n junction, the electric field in the space
charge region increases and covalent bonds are broken so electronhole pairs are

created.
Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into the p-region by the
electric field, generating a large reverse bias current. This phenomenon is called

breakdown.
28

 Avalanche breakdown: This common breakdown mechanism occurs

when carriers crossing the space charge region gain enough kinetic
energy from the high electric field and break covalent bonds during a
collision process.
The breakdown voltage is a function of the doping concentrations in the
n- and p-regions of the junction. Larger doping concentrations result
in smaller breakdown voltages.

collisions of electrons creating additional electronhole pairs. Holes can also be

involved in collisions creating additional electronhole pairs.

Zener breakdown: is a result of tunneling of carriers across the

junction. This effect is prominent at very high doping concentrations
29

Switching Transient
pn junction diode can be used as an electrical switch (interrupt the flow of
electrons in a circuit), an important parameter is its transient response,
that is, its speed and characteristics, as it is switched from one state to
the other.
forward-bias current at < 0 :

= =

the diode is switched from the forward-bias on state to the reverse-bias

off state at 0
30

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS

I-V characteristics of ideal diode

under reverse bias (open circuit)
current through the diode is zero

in conducting state (short circuit)

current through the diode is
greater than zero, the voltage across
the diode is zero

An external circuit connected to the diode must be designed to control the

forward current through the diode

31

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS

The diode rectifier : consider an ideal diode
(b) sinusoidal input signal
(a) circuit

(c) equivalent circuit (d) equivalent circuit

for > 0
for < 0

(e) rectified output signal

This circuit rectifies the input signal, which is the first step in generating
a dc voltage from a sinusoidal (ac) voltage.
32

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS

. During the positive half-cycle of the
sinusoidal input, a forward-bias current
exists in the diode and the voltage
across the diode is zero.

The output voltage equal to the input

voltage
During the negative half-cycle of the
sinusoidal input, the diode is reverse
biased. The diode acts as an open
circuit, the current is zero, and the
output voltage is zero.
33

Iteration and Graphical Analysis Techniques

Iteration: a method for finding a solution to a problem by giving an
initial value for an unknown.
Graphical analysis technique: involves plotting two complicated
equation and find their intersection point to obtain their solution
easily
Ex:
Note: the dc variables are
denoted by uppercase letters
and uppercase subscripts

DC voltage

Apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to the example

= +

34

 = + (*)
=

Diode voltage and current are related with the following equation
=

1) (**)

By combining (*) and (**), we will obtain the following Equation

=

1 + contains only one unknown

This equation cannot be solved directly. In order to solve it, we

should use iteration method

35

Ex:

DC voltage

1 +

If = 1013 A, find with an iteration method.

5=

1013 2103

0.026

1 +

Let us start with = 0.6, 5 2.7 so we should try another value

for = 0.65, 5 15.1 again we need to try another value
= 0.619, 5 4.99
For = 0.619 the corresponding current

5
2

0.619
2

= 2.19
36

Now, let us consider a graphical approach to analyze the same circuit

= +

=

this equation gives a linear relation

between the diode current and diode
voltage for a given power supply and
resistance : circuit LOAD LINE.
Let us plot =

For = 0, = 5 and = 0, = 2.5

The load line can be drawn between these two points

37

(linear)

= (

1)(non-linear)

= 0, = 5 ; = 0, = 2.5
Draw load line (linear) and ideal diode I-V (non-linear)
on the same graph to find the solution to a non-linear
current. Their intersection point will give us the solution.
Once we find = 0.619 0.62 by iteration
method, we can insert this value into a load line

equation = ; 2.2

Q (quiescent) point:The intersection

of the load line and the device
characteristics curve provides the dc
current and dc voltage 2.2 and
0.62

38

DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Aim: To develop an equivalent circuit for a diode in the presence of a small
time-varying signal is applied to a diode circuit.
We apply a sinusodial voltage source (time-varying signal) . The total input
voltage composed of ac component and dc component.
(a) circuit with combined
dc and sinusoidal
input voltages

(d) forward-biased diode

characteristics with a
sinusoidal current and
voltage superimposed on
the quiescent values

(b) sinusoidal diode current

superimposed on the quiescent
current

(c) sinusoidal diode voltage

superimposed on the
quiescent value
39

DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

To investigate the circuit; a dc analysis involving only the dc voltages and
currents, and an ac analysis involving only the ac voltages and currents will
be considered.

since the input voltage contains a

dc component with an ac signal
superimposed, the diode current
will also contain a dc component
with an ac signal superimposed
: dc quiescent diode current
the diode voltage contain a dc
value
with
an
ac
signal
superimposed

40

In order to analyse the circuit, we assume that the ac signal is small

compared to the dc component so that a linear ac model can be developed
from the nonlinear diode.

( )

: dc quiescent voltage
: ac component

( )

( )

For a small ac signal so we can expand exponential function

into a linear series;

( )

1+

with
=

( )

41

= (1+ ) = +
. = +

ac component of the current

. = .

or
=

= .

: small-signal incremental conductance

: resistance
=

42

Piecewise Linear Model

This is an another method to analyze diode circuits. We consider the
diodes currentvoltage characteristics.
For , we assume a straight-line
approximation with a slope 1 .
Here is the turn-on, or cut-in,
voltage of the diode, and is the
forward diode resistance.
The equivalent circuit;

43

For < , we assume a straight-line

approximation parallel with the axis at
the zero current level.
The equivalent circuit is an open circuit;

44

Ex 5 : Analyze the circuit shown in below.

= 5, = 5, = 0.6, = 0.1

45

46

Once we learned physics of a diode (pn junction), we can study both

its behavior as a circuit element and its applications.
CONTENTS:

Diode types
How diodes are used to perform these various signal processing
functions
signal processing: circuit accepts an input signal at a set of input terminals
and produces an output signal at a set of output terminals. The circuit
processes the input signal and produces an output signal that is a different
shape or a different function compared to the input signal.

Determine the operation and characteristics of diode rectifier circuits

The characteristics of the Zener diode
The nonlinear characteristics of diodes to create wave-shaping
circuits known as clippers and clampers.

47

 a basic electronic device, diode, is a two-terminal device,

relationship is nonlinear; = (

1)

48

Remainder :p-n Junctions

When the two types of semiconductor materials are joined together, the
electrons from the n-type material diffuse into p-type material and combines
with holes.
This creates a layer of negative ions near the junction in p-type material.
Similarly the holes from the p-type material diffuse into n-type material
resulting in a layer of positive ions in the n-type material.
These two layers of positive and negative ions form the depletion region.
These negative ions will create an electric field in the direction from n-type to
p-type.

no mobile electrons or
holes
in depletion region

49

DIODE TYPES
1. SOLAR CELL : Mainly silicon is used to fabricate solar cells but also GaAs or
other IIIV compound semiconductors can be used.

It is a pn junction device, which converts solar energy into electrical energy with
no voltage directly applied across the junction.

When the energy of the photons is greater than Eg, the photons energy can be
used to break covalent bonds and generate an equal number of electrons and
holes

to the number of photons absorbed electron and holes quickly separated and
swept out of the space charge region by the electric field, thus creating a
photocurrent.

The generated photocurrent will produce a voltage across the load, which means
that the solar cell has supplied power.

50

2. PHOTODIODE
Photodetectors are devices that convert optical signals into electrical signals.
photodiode is an example for photodetectors
the pn junction is operated with a reverse-bias voltage.
incident photons create electrons and holes in the space-charge region.
these carriers are quickly separated and swept out of the space-charge
region by the electric field with a creating photocurrent.
3. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
LEDs mainly are fabricated from GaAs
It converts current to light.

the pn junction is operated with a forward-bias voltage

51

4. SCHOTKKY BARRIER DIODE

A Schottky diode is formed when a metal is brought into contact
with a doped n-type semiconductor to form a rectifying junction.

the current in a pn junction diode is controlled by the diffusion of minority

carriers whereas the current in a Schottky diode results from the
flow majority carriers over the potential barrier at the space charge region
(no minority carrier storage in the Schottky diode, so the switching time
from a forward bias to a reverse bias is very short compared to that of a
pn junction diode is essentially zero)
52

Comparison of I-V Curves for

pn junction versus schottky diode
The built-in voltage of the
Schottky barrier diode,
Vg(SB), is about as large
as the built-in voltage of the
p-n junction diode, Vg(pn).
Hence, SB didoe has a lower
turn-on voltage and shorter
switching time.

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
rectifier : converts an ac signal into a dc signal.

dc voltage is required to power electronic devices, i.e. computers,

televisions, stereo systems.
for example: an electrical cord that is plugged into a wall socket and

attached to a television, is connected to a rectifier circuit inside the TV.

Rectification is classified as half-wave or full-wave

Half-wave (simpler)

Full-wave (more efficient)

54

DC model of Ideal Diode

Assumes = 0
No current flows when reverse biased (b).
No internal resistance to limit current when forward biased
(c).

Ideal Diodes Action

Half-wave

Full-wave

The diode behaves as a short circuit during the positive half cycle
(Voltage= 0)
The diode behaves as an open circuit during the negative half cycle
(Voltage 0)

Half-Wave Diode Rectifier

A power transformer with a diode and resistor connected to the secondary of the transformer.

1
;
2

= 1 ; > so 0
2

or < so = 0

Diode only allows current to flow through the resistor when > 0
> conducting, forward bias, current0, 0
< non conducting, reverse bias, current=0, = 0

half-wave rectifier : the input signal is rectified and output voltage

appears only during the positive cycle of the input signal.

Input voltage

Output voltage

Diode voltage
58

Ex:1 Consider the circuit shown in below. Assume = 12, = 100,

= 0.6, = 24 sin .
Determine;
the peak diode current,
maximum reverse bias diode voltage

Half-wave rectifier used as a battery charger;

input voltage and diode current waveforms

59

Full-wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier inverts the negative portions of the sine wave hence
the output signal is generated during both halves of the input sinusoid.
Voltage transfer characteristics

During the positive half of the input voltage ( ) both output voltages are positive;
therefore, diode 1 is forward biased (conducting) whereas 2 is reverse biased (cut
off).
During the negative half of the input voltage ( ) , 1 is cut off 2 is forward biased
and the current through the output resistance again produces a positive
output voltage

60

Ex2: What are the voltage and the transformer turns ratio in a full-wave
rectifier circuit shown in below. The input voltage is from a 120 V (rms), 60
Hz ac source. The desired peak output voltage 0 is 9 and the diode cut-

in voltage is assumed to be = 0.7.

solution:

61

Zener Diode Circuits

At some point, breakdown occurs and the current in the reverse-bias direction
increases rapidly. The voltage at this point is called the breakdown voltage.
The diode breakdown voltage is essentially constant over a wide range of currents
and temperatures and can be used in the design of voltage regulators.
regulator is required to obtain a very stable output.
Speacial diodes are manufactured to operate specifically in the breakdown region
are called zener diodes.
The slope of the characteristics curve in breakdown is quite large, so the
incremental (dynamic) resistance is small, typically in the range of a few ohms or
tens of ohms (value specified device data sheet)
Zener diodes are fabricated with voltages in the range of a few volts to a few
hundered volts

62

Ideal Voltage Circuits

I

II

III

A Zener voltage regulator circuit.

The output voltage should remain

constant (regulator)
The variation in may be the
ripple voltage from a rectifier circuit.
The proper resistance limits the
current through the Zener diode
and drops the excess voltage
between and

In order to determine a proper resistance write

KVL for loop I

For a proper operation of a Zener circuit, diode must remain in breakdown

voltage:
in the diode is minimum when is maximum and is minimum
in the diode is maximum when is minimum and is maximum

63

in the diode is minimum when is maximum and is minimum

in the diode is maximum when is minimum and is maximum

Apply these 2 cases into equation, respectively

(*)

(**)
Equate (*) and (**)

= 0.1
Once we calculate (max), we can find max power and proper input resistance

64

Ex 3. Design a voltage regulator using the circuit in below. The voltage regulator is
to power a car radio at = 9 from an automobile battery whose voltage may vary
between 11 and 13.6 V. The current in the radio will vary between 0 (off ) to 100 mA
(full volume).

Solution:
= 0, = 100
= 11, = 13.6
= 9

65

CLIPPER and CLAMPER CIRCUITS

Clipper: The motivation of having limiting circuits is to keep the signal below
a threshold so it will not saturate the entire circuitry.
For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated

for inputs in a certain range + , limiter acts as a

linear circuit, = , if 1 passive limiters

66

VARIETY of BASIC LIMITING CIRCUITS

67

CLAMPERS
Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level.
In steady state, the output waveform is an exact replica of the input
waveform, but the output signal is shifted by a dc value.
The sinusoidal input voltage
signal is shown in (b).
Assume that the capacitor is initially
uncharged.
During the first 90 degrees of the input
waveform, the voltage across the
capacitor follows the input, and
= ( V = 0).
Once and reach their peak values,
begins to decrease and the diode
becomes reverse biased.
The capacitor and output voltages are
shown in (c) and (d).
The output voltage is clamped at zero
volts, that is, 0 < 0, waveshapes of the
input and output signals are the same,
and the output signal is shifted by a
certain dc level compared to the input
signal.
68

69

CONTENTS
Introduce the structure MOSFETs.

Operation, and characteristics of MOSFETs.

NMOS (n-channel MOSFET) and PMOS (p-channel MOSFET)
Nonideal CurrentVoltage Characteristics of MOSFET
DC analysis of MOSFET circuits

70

METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR

Basic concept of FET is known since 1930s
The device was developed in 1960s.
Since 1970s, a particular FET named as Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) has become very popular.
MOSFETs is a three-terminal semiconductor devices.

They can be used as signal amplifier, digital logic and switch.

The basic principle is to use the voltage between two terminals to control
the current flowing in the third terminal.

In the MOSFET, the current is controlled by an electric field applied

perpendicular to both the semiconductor surface and to the direction of
current. This phenomenon called field effect.

71

DEVICE STRUCTURE: n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET

The transistor is fabricated on a p-type substrate (single-crystal silicon wafer)
Two heavily doped n-type regions;
n+ source and the n+ drain are created in the substrate.
A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2; excellent electrical insulator) of thickness
(typically 1 to 10 nm) is covering the area between the source and drain regions.
Metal is deposited on top of the oxide layer to form the gate electrode of the
device.
Metal contacts are also made to the source region, the drain region, and the
substrate, known as the body.
MOSFET is a three-terminal device,
the gate (G), the source (S), and the drain (D).
A voltage applied to the gate controls current
flow between source and drain in the
channel region.
This region has a length L and a width W
L is in the range of 0.03 m to 1 m, and W
is in the range of 0.1 m to 100 m.
The MOSFET is a symmetrical device;
source and drain can be interchanged
72

BASIC TRANSISTOR OPERATION

Before electron inversion
layer is formed

After electron inversion

layer is formed

cut-off region can be

modeled as back-to-back
diodes

(a) No bias applied to the gate, the source and drain terminals are separated by the
p-region, is equivalent to two (b) back-to-back diodes. The current in this case is
essentially zero.
(c) If a enough positive gate voltage is applied, an electron inversion layer is created
and this layer connects source to drain.
A current is generated between the source and drain terminals.
Since a voltage must be applied to the gate to create the inversion charge, this
transistor is called an enhancement-mode MOSFET, carriers in the inversion layer
are electrons, this device is also called an n-channel MOSFET (NMOS).
73

Ideal MOSFET CurrentVoltage Characteristics NMOS Device

The threshold voltage (gate voltage) required to turn on (create an
inversion charge) the transistor.
For NMOS, is positive because a positive gate voltage is required to
create the inversion charge.
If the gate voltage is greater than the threshold voltage, a drain-to-source
current is generated as the drain-to-source voltage is applied.

the drain-to-substrate pn junction is

reverse biased, and the drain current
is zero

an electron inversion layer is created and,

when a small drain voltage is applied,
electrons in the inversion layer flow from
the source to the positive drain terminal
through the channel region
74

75

 < , the drain current = 0 is zero.

> , the channel inversion charge is formed and increases with
2 > 1 a larger inversion charge density is created and the
drain current is greater for a given value of

76

 > , and a small applied

the thickness of the inversion
channel is constant along the entire
channel length.

increase the applied induces the

voltage drop across the oxide near the
drain terminal decreases, the induced
inversion charge density decreases. The
incremental conductance of the channel at
the drain decreases.

77

 is increased up to the point where

the potential difference
() =
the induced inversion charge density at
the drain terminal is zero.

When becomes larger than , electrons

enter the channel at the source, travel through the
channel toward the drain, at the point where the
charge goes to zero, electrons are injected into the
space-charge region, where they are swept by the Efield to the drain contact.

78

Family of Versus Curves:

Enhancement-Mode nMOSFET

79

The ideal currentvoltage characteristics in non-saturation (triode) region

Non-saturation region < (sat)
= 2 2
The ideal currentvoltage characteristics in the saturation region
Saturation region > , > (sat)
=

conduction parameter for the n-channel device

: electron mobility, W: channel width, L: channel length

Oxide capacitance per unit area

=

: process conduction parameter (comes from process)

80

3 modes of conduction
Linear resistance
is too small
Triode region
is smaller than (sat)
Saturation region
is larger than (sat)

ID

1
W
2
nCox
2(VGS VTH )VDS VDS
2
L

ID

1
W
nCox (VGS VTH ) 2

2
L

81

82

Basic Structure PMOS Device

The operation of the p-channel device is that
the hole is the charge carrier rather than the
electron.
A negative gate bias is required to induce an
inversion layer of holes in the channel region
The threshold voltage for the p-channel
device is denoted as
For the p-channel enhancement-mode
device < 0
Once the inversion layer has been created,
the p-type source region is the source of the
charge carrier so that holes flow from the
source to the drain.
A negative drain voltage is required to induce
an electric field in the channel forcing the
holes to move from the source to the drain.
The conventional current direction is into the
source and out of the drain.
83

Ideal MOSFET CurrentVoltage Characteristics PMOS Device

are changed into

84

Ideal MOSFET CurrentVoltage Characteristics PMOS Device

The saturation point is given by = +
In the nonsaturation region, the current is given by

2
I D K p 2(vSG VTP )vSD vSD

In the saturation region, the current is given by

I D K p (VSG VTP ) 2

conduction parameter for the p-channel device

=
length

: hole mobility, W: channel width, L: channel

85

86

Summary of I-V Relationships

Region

NMOS

PMOS

Nonsaturation vDS<vDS(sat)

vSD<vSD(sat)

Saturation

vDS>vDS(sat)

vSD>vSD(sat)

Transition Pt.

vDS(sat) = vGS - VTN

vSD(sat) = vSG + VTN

Enhancement
Mode (typical)

VTN > 0V

VTP < 0V

87