Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013) 23, 111119

& 2013 Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved 1559-0631/13

www.nature.com/jes

REVIEW

Factors affecting the quality of bottled water

Malwina Diduch1, Zaneta Polkowska1 and Jacek Namiesnik1
The ever-increasing popularity of bottled water means that it is important to analyze not only its mineral content but also, above all,
its content of possible contaminants, especially the organic ones. In this respect, bottled waters are a special case, because apart
from organic chemical contaminants derived from the well from which they were acquired, their secondary contamination is always
possible, during treatment or storage or transport in unsuitable conditions (sunlight and elevated temperature). This paper
describes how various factors, from the area around the well, and the method of drawing and treating water, to the manner in
which the nished product is stored and transported may affect the quality of bottled waters. It also summarizes literature
information on the levels of organic contaminants in various kinds of bottled water samples.
Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013) 23, 111119; doi:10.1038/jes.2012.101; published online 24 October 2012
Keywords: disinfection by-products; endocrine disruptors; dietary exposure

INTRODUCTION
Bottled water is a beverage that is rapidly gaining in popularity.
World consumption in 2007 was in excess of 200 million liters.
According to the latest report in Worlds Water,1 the average
annual consumption is over 100 liters per person in 15 countries
from the world ranking, and over 200 liters per person in the
countries at the top of this ranking, namely Mexico, Italy, and the
United Arab Emirates.
The constantly rising popularity of bottled waters is the result of
a number of factors, the most important of which are:






uncertainty of the quality and safety of tap water,

availability,
marketing strategies,
the fashion for a healthy lifestyle, and
increasing consumer awareness of the benets of regularly
drinking such water.2

The analysis of water quality intended for human consumption

has always been a formidable challenge.3 In this respect, bottled
waters are a special case, because three potential categories of
contaminant can affect their quality: compounds present in the
aquifer, external contamination at the bottling plant, and
contaminants migrating from the packaging material.48
Volatile products of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) thermal
degradation are volatile organic compounds, aldehydes, aromatic
hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters, and methanol.9 In
recent years, research has focused on the possible migration of
polymer degradation products initiated by external factors. The
results of such studies are of major importance because apart
from the ever-increasing popularity of bottled waters in
developing countries, the so-called solar disinfection is a
universal practice there. This is a simple, inexpensive, and
effective method to get rid of pathogenic microorganisms in
water. The idea is to cap the water-lled bottles and then to
expose them to solar radiation and the high temperature resulting
therefrom for B15 h.10,11

LEGISLATION RELATING TO BOTTLED WATER

Requirements for water intended for human consumption can be
divided into three categories:




organoleptic,
microbiological, and
chemical.

National regulations relating to the requirements for bottled

waters are usually based on international rules or on guideline
values dened by the World Health Organization (WHO).12 Table 1
lists the requirements regarding organic contaminant binding
in European Economic Community (EEC)13 member states and
specied by the most important international and national
organizations: WHO, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and International Bottled
Water Association (IWBA).12,1416
Although among the inorganic compounds dissolved in water
intended for drinking there are many with a benecial inuence
on human health (essential elements),17 there is a complete lack in
the literature of any reports of the positive effects of organic
compounds.18,19 Figure 1 shows information on the groups of
organic compounds determined in various kinds of bottled
water.18,2024 None of these groups of compounds are covered
in the relevant EU directives.
Another aspect for a product like bottled water is the methods
used to market it. These have to be tailored to the preferences of
potential customers, and therefore to the ckle demands of the
market. It has thus become common practice at bottling plants to
add mineral salts, avorings, or sweeteners to modify the
organoleptic properties of the nished product.25
SOURCES OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS PRESENT IN BOTTLED
WATER
The presence of organic contaminants in water is becoming a
more common problem, mainly because of the impact that

1
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology (GUT), Narutowicza Street 11/12, Gdansk 80-233, Poland. Correspondence: Malwina
Diduch, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology (GUT), Narutowicza Street 11/12, Gdansk 80-233, Poland.
Tel.: 48 58 347 10 10. Fax: 48 58 347 26 94.
E-mail: malwina.jakubik@gmail.com
Received 2 March 2012; accepted 15 August 2012; published online 24 October 2012

Factors affecting bottled water quality

Diduch et al

112
Table 1.

Regulations and standards for water intended for human consumption and bottled water.

Parameter

Organic chemicals
Acrylamide
Benzene
Total pesticides
PAHs
Phenolics

Unit

mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l

EEC (1998)

EEC (2003)

WHO (2008)

EPA (2009)

IBWA (2009)

FDA (2010)

Drinking water
(MAC)

Bottled water
(MAC)

Drinking water
(GV)

Drinking water
(MCL)

Bottled water
(SOQ)

Bottled water
(SOQ)

0.0001
0.001
0.5
0.1

0.0005
0.01

0.005

0.001

0.001

0.005

0.001

0.003

0.01
5
0.7

0.01
0.1
1
0.06

0.01
0.1
1
0.06

0.01
4.0
1
0.06

0.01

0.08

0.01

0.08

Disinfectants and disinfection by-products

Bromate
mg/l
0.01
Chlorine
mg/l

Chlorite
mg/l

Haloacetic
mg/l

acids
Total
mg/l
0.1
trihalometanes

Abbreviations: EEC, European Economic Community; EPA, US Environmental Protection Agency; FDA, US Food and Drug Administration; GV, guideline value;
IWBA, International Bottled Water Association; MAC, maximum admissible concentration; MCL, maximum contaminant level; SOQ, standard of quality; WHO,
World Health Organization.
For sources (EEC, EPA, FDA, IWBA, and WHO), see references.

human activities are having on the natural environment.18,24,26

This has a direct inuence on the quality of bottled waters. But, as
research has shown, this is not the only factor affecting water
quality. The treatment processes to which the water is subjected
and the conditions under which the nished product is stored and
transported can all affect its composition and, hence, impair its
quality.5,6,8,27,28
Samples of bottled water are monitored for organic contaminants in many different centers. The determination of these
compounds is problematic mainly because of:

Surfactants

Phthalates

the low levels of target analytes in the samples,

the complex composition of the samples (high degree of
mineralization), and
 interactions between the constituents present in the samples.



Hence, nowadays it is becoming common practice to use

analytical methodologies with low method quantitation limits
(MQLs). The leading analytical technique for isolating, detecting,
identifying, and quantitatively determining the analytes is gas
chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry.
Aquifer and Well
The currently binding European directive (EEC 2009/54/EC)
stipulates that the only permitted source of bottled water in EU
member states is pristine groundwater. But there are very many
potential sources of bottled water: subterranean water, groundwater, glacier meltwater, or sea water.28,29
Organic contaminants of natural origin in aquifers arise mainly
as a result of metabolic processes or the degradation of phytoand zooplankton. These compounds give the water an unpleasant
odor/taste and are a serious problem for water treatment
plants.24,30 Taste and odor are perceived by the public as the
primary indicators of the safety and acceptability of drinking
water. The main problem is an extremely strong smell even at very
low concentrations, and the difculty of their removal in a water
treatment process such as coagulation, sedimentation, ltration,
and chlorination.31
On the other hand, anthropogenic contaminants are primarily
because of technological (pipelines, transport, construction,

Polychlorinated
biphenyls

Volatile organic
compounds

Alkylphenols

Carbonyl
compounds

Perfluorinated
chemicals

Figure 1. Organic compounds from various groups present in

bottled water samples.

municipal sewage treatment plants), industrial (resource extraction, process efuents, landlls), and agricultural (pesticide and
fertilizer applications) activities.24,3234 The transport and
deposition of such substances are intimately connected with the
hydrological cycle and the geology of the terrain in question. It
depends on the natural geological conditions of how quickly the
layer of groundwater moves and how fast the water pollution
spreads.32 In addition, the various hydrogeochemical processes
(sorption, oxidation and reduction, leaching, weathering,
hydrolysis) and physical parameters (temperature, pressure)
affect the diversity of mineral waters.35 Table 2 presents
information (collected from the literature) on organic contaminants present in bottled water samples and on their likely sources.
Exploitation of Wells
The means used to acquire subterranean waters depends mainly
on whether they are from a water table (where the pressure head

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

& 2013 Nature America, Inc.

Factors affecting bottled water quality

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113
Table 2.

equipment needs to be approved for food use by local regulations

and compatible with cleaning methods and chemicals used. It is
worth choosing materials that react with water less and are
capable of being maintained to a high standard of hygiene.
Stainless steel is the most widely used material as it meets these
requirements. Contact surfaces should be smooth to facilitate
product ow and also to enable them to be cleaned easily and
effectively.42 These are important aspects because studies show
that pipes supplying the water during the bottling process could
be a source of genotoxic carcinogenic compounds.43

Organic contaminants most commonly present in aquifers.

Category of
contaminant

Source

Contaminant

Reference

Natural

Degradation
of phyto- and
zooplankton

Suffet
et al.,36
Salemi
et al.37

Anthropogenic
primary

Forming
activities

Gesomin
Methylisoborneol
Isopropyl
methoxypyrazine
Isobutyl
methoxypyrazine
Pesticides:
ethyl dibromide
atrazine
chlordane
DDT and
metabolites
hexachlorobenzene
lindane
MCPA
DBCP
1,3-dichloropropene
aldicarb
aldrin
dieldrin
methoxychlor
permethrin
simazine
1,2-dichloropropane
Chlorine derivatives
of aromatic
hydrocarbons:
chloroform
1,1-dichloroethane
1,2-dichloroethane
1,1,1-trichloroethane
vinyl chloride
1,1-dichloroethene
1,2-dichloroethene
trichloroethene
Aromatic hydrocarbons:
benzene
toluene
ethyl benzene
xylene
1,4-dichlorobenzene
Plasticizers:
phthalate
adipate
Acrylamide
Formaldehyde
Amino acids:
glycine
isoleucine
leucine

Industrial and
technological
activities

Cemeteries
and
graveyards

Wilson
and
Tisdell39

Bottling Process
As bottled water comes from many different sources that are
exploited using a range of technologies, it is processed in a
number of ways in order to maintain its quality, for example, to
remove solid particles, undissociated or undesirable chemical
compounds, and biological material.44
The sum total of processes for obtaining water satisfying a
particular set of criteria is known as water treatment. The choice of
treatment methods depends not only on the initial composition of
the water, but also, above all, on the target quality criteria. These
processes are costly in terms of both investment and operation,
they may generate solid and/or liquid wastes, and they may be
the source of undesirable disinfection by-products; their implementation is a complex, multistage process42 involving:

WHO38






The by-products of disinfection arise as a result of the reaction

between the disinfectant and the organic matter or halides
naturally present in the water.26,27,45 In the case of bottled waters
the usual disinfectant is ozone. It is one of the strongest and most
effective oxidizing agents of all chemical substances, capable of
oxidizing many organic and inorganic compounds, and it can
even deactivate pathogenic microorganisms.4648 However,
disinfection by ozonation can lead to the formation of byproducts such as aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and ketones.49 Some
of these migrants, for example, acetaldehyde or formaldehyde, are
known as mutagenic or carcinogenic agents.43,50

Zychowski
et al.,40
Zychowski41

of the water is equal to atmospheric pressure) or a saturated zone

(where the pressure head of the water is greater than atmospheric
pressure), namely artesian waters. If the saturation level in an
artesian basin lies above ground level, the artesian well is a
owing one. If the water does not ow spontaneously, then we
talk about subartesian waters. Most wells draw from a free water
table or subartesian waters.42
The most common types of well are vertically bored or shaft
wells, the former being very much deeper. In some cases wells
may be horizontal, or water may be acquired directly from a
spring. A serious threat to the quality of subterranean waters is
their excessive exploitation, which can cause large volumes of
adjacent water of poorer quality to ow in. It is of major
importance that the well is properly designed and constructed,
not just with regard to its operation, but also because technical
faults in the well can cause the water to be contaminated with
pathogenic bacteria and viruses.42
The physicochemical properties of water render it very
susceptible to changes in its organoleptic, chemical, and
bacteriological properties, and hence the need to select appropriate materials for the whole infrastructure with which the water
is going to be in direct contact: from the linings of boreholes,
pipelines and reservoirs, lters, and packaging materials, to
support gases and process air. The material used in bottled water
& 2013 Nature America, Inc.

ltration,
oxidation,
deionization, and
bioelimination.29

Packaging Material and Conditions of Distribution

PET was rst used as a packaging material for beverages by the
Coca-Cola company in 1973.51 Nowadays, 499% of all beverage
bottles are made from PET.52 Being highly crystalline, light in
weight, and resistant to the action of water and numerous organic
solvents, this polymer quickly became very popular.53
In accordance with the EU directive 89/109/EEC54 (replacing the
earlier version of 1976, 76/893/EEC), all materials and products
that will or may come into direct or indirect contact with food
products must be sufciently stable to preclude the migration into
food of substances in quantities that could impair human health
and cause unacceptable changes in the composition of food or a
deterioration in its organoleptic properties.
The results of analyses of bottled mineral waters for their content
of various substances show that their composition at the well-head
differs from that of water stored in bottles.55 This suggests that the
packaging material and the conditions under which the nal
product is stored and transported may affect its quality.56
In fact, many intentionally used substances in food packaging
have been identied as endocrine disruptors in biological
systems.5759 Packaging material can interact with the packaged
foodstuff by diffusion-controlled processes. This interaction
(often referred as migration) can cause leaching of various
compounds from the packaging material. Presence of endocrine

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

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Table 3.

Levels of organic contaminants in bottled water samples including effect of packing type and storage conditions (literature information).

Parameter

Initial range

Range after storage

Storage time and conditions

Type of water

Origin

Reference

PET bottle
Volatile organic compounds
Ethylbenzene
0.15.17 mg/l
Styrene
0.546.4 mg/l
Toluene
0.11.18 mg/l
Xylene
0.20.77 mg/l

Little or no
difference (o2%)
in the contaminant
levels was
detected as a
function of storage
conditions

Bottled waters were stored

at 4 1C in an airconditioned room (25
27 1C) and in a room that
was not air-conditioned
(1240 1C) during July 2004
to March 2005

Bottled 71
brands, 113
samples

Saudi Arabia,
United Arab
Emirates, Kuwait,
Egypt, Lebanon,
Italy, Turkey,
Spain, Scotland,
Iceland,

Al-Mudhaf
et al.23

Results indicate
that all carbonyl
compounds
migrated to
bottled water

During 4 days in the dark at

4 1C, and exposed to 30 1C
and sunlight for 4 days

Bottled
(carbonated,
noncarbonated)

Poland

Nawrocki
et al.20

Bottled
(carbonated,
noncarbonated)
20 brands

Japan, Europe,
North America

Mutsuga
et al.80

Bottled 
21 brands

China

Li et al.81

During 10 weeks stored

outdoors exposed to
temperatures up to 30 1C

Bottled 5
brands

Spain

Casajuana
and
Lacorte4

Stored outdoors and

directly exposed to
sunlight for15 and 30 days

Bottled 5
brands

Greece

Amiridou
and
Dimitra82

Carbonyl compounds
Acetaldehyde
Acetone
Formaldehyde

0.6317.8 mg/l
5.1125.6 mg/l
0.896.1 mg/l

Acetaldehyde
Formaldehyde

7.827.9 mg/l
37.2107.8 mg/l

Alkylphenols and phthalates

BPA
17.6324 ng/l
4-NP
108298 ng/l
Triclosan
0.69.7 ng/l
BADGE
BBP
BPA
DBP
DEP
DEHP
DMP
4-NP

b.d.l.
b.d.l.
b.d.l.  0.007 mg/
l
b.d.l.  0.059 mg/
l
b.d.l.

b.d.l.
b.d.l.

b.d.l.
b.d.l.  0.01 mg/l
0.0030.011 mg/l
0.0200.070 mg/l
0.0820.355 mg/l
0.0390.188 mg/l
0.0020.003 mg/l
0.0300.031 mg/l

BPA
DBP
DEP
DEHP
4-NP

0.0046 mg/la
0.0044 mg/la
0.0033 mg/la
0.35 mg/la
0.0079 mg/la

BEP
DBP
DMP

0.429.87 mg/l
0.453.48 mg/l
0.010.05 mg/l

Bottled 5
samples

Italy

Signorile
et al.83

BBP
DBP
DEP
DEHP
DMP
DOP

0.002 mg/l
0.2 mg/l
0.04 mg/l
2.88 mg/l
0.10 mg/l
b.d.l.

Bottled 1
brand

Czech Republic

Prokupkova
et al.84

DEHA
DEHP

0.0120.046 mg/l
0.0240.071 mg/l

Exposed to temperatures
34 1C and 60 1C, during 17
and 48 h, respectively

Pure
(distilled)
water was
filled into
PET bottles
of different
origin

Honduras, Nepal,
Switzerland

Schmid
et al.11

BPA

0.200.30 mg/l

China

Wu et al.85

NP
OP

b.d.l.
b.d.l.

b.d.l.
b.d.l.

Bottled 6
samples
Bottled 6
samples

Mexico

LoyoRosales
et al.86

21.538.0 mg/l

Bottled 15
brand, 19
samples

Argentina

Tombesi
and Freije87

Antioxidant
BHT

Difference not
statistically
significant
(Po0.05)

40 1C and analyzed after

120 and 240 h

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

& 2013 Nature America, Inc.

Factors affecting bottled water quality

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Table 3. (Continued ).
Parameter

Initial range

Range after storage

Storage time and conditions

Type of water

Origin

Reference

Bottled 1
brand

Spain

Casajuana
and
Lacorte4

Bottled 1
brand

Czech Republic

Prokupkova
et al.84

Bottled 3
brands

Spain

Casajuana
and
Lacorte4

Bottled 12
brands

Mexico

LoyoRosales
et al.86

Bottled 6
brands

Mexico

LoyoRosales
et al.86

Glass bottle
Alkylphenols and phthalates
BADGE
b.d.l.
BBP
b.d.l.
BPA
b.d.l.
DBP
b.d.l.
DEP
b.d.l.
DEHP

DMP
b.d.l.
4-NP
0.078 mg/l
BBP
DBP
DEP
DEHP
DMP
DOP

b.d.l.
0.18 mg/l
b.d.l.
9.78 mg/l
b.d.l.
b.d.l.

b.d.l.
b.d.l.
b.d.l.
b.d.l.
0.089 mg/l

0.001 mg/l
1.73 mg/l

During 10 weeks stored

outdoors exposed to
temperatures up to 30 1C

PE bottle
Alkylphenols and phthalates
BADGE
b.d.l.
BBP
b.d.l.
BPA
b.d.l. 0.002 mg/
DBP
l
DEP
b.d.l.
DEHP
0.0810.139 mg/l
DMP

4-NP
b.d.l.
b.d.l.

b.d.l.
b.d.l.
0.0030.006 mg/l
0.0250.072 mg/l
0.1320.990 mg/l
0.1030.332 mg/l
0.0010.005 [mg/l
b.d.l.

During 10 weeks stored

outdoors exposed to
temperatures up to 30 1C

PVC bottle
Alkylphenols and
phthalates
NP
OP

300 ng/l
b.d.l.

The levels of NP
increased during
the first hours, and
tended to stabilize
after 120 h at
B140 ng/l

40 1C and analyzed after 48,

120, 240, and 360 h

HDPE bottle
Alkylphenols and
phthalates
NP
OP

180 ng/la,
12a

The levels of NP
increased during
the first hours, and
tended to stabilize
after 120 h at
B230 ng/l

40 1C and analyzed after 48,

120, 240, and 360 h

Abbreviation: b.d.l., below detection limits.

a
Mean value.

disrupting compounds in bottled water samples was observed in

78% of all samples,60 in 60% of all samples,61,62 and in 10% of all
samples.63
The source of leached compounds may be an incomplete
process of polymerization, or degradation of the packaging
material as a result of storage.57 Even if the starting substances
and additives are known side products can occur from the
polymerization process or impurities from the starting material
batches. Because of the complex chemistry of polymers, several
unknown substances can be incorporated in the nal plastic
material and potentially migrate into the food. These substances
are the so-called NIASs (non-intentionally added substances).57
However, estrogenic activity in relation to the levels of organic
pollutants may suggest that the packing material is not the only
source of estrogenic contaminants. The major problem results
& 2013 Nature America, Inc.

from the fact that migrating compounds are usually assessed

using chemical analysis of known single substances.57 Water may
also be estrogenic itself, implying the untreated groundwater from
the spring.6062 The natural mammalian hormones oestrogens,
androgens, and progestagens are produced every day in large
quantities by humans and animals and excreted into the
environment.60 A second source of the estrogenic activity of
mineral water may be the production process, bottling, and
cleaning.6062,64
The plastic components or additives in water can modify the
organoleptic properties and, if present at high concentrations, may
trigger health problems because of the potential toxic properties of
some chemicals.65 Exposure to endocrine disruptors may lead to
detrimental health effects including interference with both male
and female reproductive systems. This can cause a spectrum of

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

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Table 4.

Levels of organic contaminants in bottled waters (literature information).

Parameter

Range

Water type

Origin

Reference

Primary anthropogenic organic contaminants

Volatile organic compounds
Dibromomethane
1, 3dichlorobenzene
1, 2dichloropropane
Naphthalene
iso-propylbenzene
Trichloroethene
1, 2, 4trimethylbenzene
1, 3, 5trimethylobenzene

0.1 00.74 mg/l

0.100.10 mg/l
0.120.40 mg/l
0.100.75 mg/l
0.110.11 mg/l
0.130.13 mg/l
0.110.13 mg/l
0.410.41 mg/l

Bottled 71 brands,
113 samples

Saudi Arabia,
United Arab
Emirates, Kuwait,
Egypt, Lebanon,
Italy, Turkey, Spain,
Scotland, Iceland,

Al-Mudhaf et al.23

Pesticides
a-HCH
b-HCH
b-HCH
d-HCH
Aldrin
DDD
DDE
DDT
Dieldrin
Endosulfan I
Endosulfan II
Endosulfan sulfate
Endrin
Endrin aldehyde

0.0450.098 mg/l
0.0480.152 mg/l
0.0190.033 mg/l
0.0120.046 mg/l
0.0120.027 mg/l
0.0030.009 mg/l
0.0290.060 mg/l
00030.009 mg/l
ND
ND0.005 mg/l
ND
ND0.033 mg/l
ND0.008 mg/l
0.0010.007 mg/l

Bottled 36 samples

Mexico

Diaz et al.25

Perfluorinated chemicals
PFBuS
PFDA
PFDoDA
PFDS
PFHpA
PFHxA
PFHxS
PFNA
PFOA
PFOS
PFOSA
PFTDA
PFUnDA
THPFOS

o0.27 ng/l
0.630.82 ng/l
o0.34 ng/l
o0.1 ng/l
0.40.61 ng/l
0.870.102 ng/l
o0.18 ng/l
0.130.42 [ng/l]
0.160.67 ng/l
o0.24 ng/l
0.19 ng/l
o0.90 ng/l
o0.43 ng/l
o0.1 ng/l

Bottled 4 samples

Spain

Ericson et al.18

Polychlorinated biphenyls
SPCB

0.0350.067 mg/l

Bottled 6 brands, 96
samples

Mexico

Salinas et al.24

Bottled (purified,
mineral, natural spring,
distilled) 10 brands

China

Liu and Mou26,27

Bottled 13 brands

Greece

Leivadara et al.7

Bottled (mineral) 14
brands

Saudi Arabia

Ahmad and Bajahlan67

Bottled

Al-Mudhaf et al.23

Bottled 13 brands

Saudi Arabia,
United Arab
Emirates, Kuwait,
Egypt, Lebanon,
Italy, Turkey, Spain,
Scotland, Iceland
Greece

Leivadara et al.7

Bottled 5 brands

Egypt

Saleh et al.88

Secondary anthropogenic organic contaminants

Haloacetic acid
Acetic acid
Bromate
Dichloroacetic acid
Formic acid
Monochloroacetic acid
Oxalic acid
Trichloroacetic acid
Bromochloroacetic acid
Dibromoacetic acid
Dichloroacetic acid
Monochloroacetic acid
Monochloroacetonitrile
Trichloroacetic acid

b.d.l.
b.d.l.0.1 mg/l
b.d.l.0.6 mg/l
21.365.1 mg/l
b.d.l.
2171.8 mg/l
b.d.l.
b.d.l.2.2 mg/l
b.d.l.
2.75.2 mg/l
b.d.l.
b.d.l.
1.01.5 mg/l

Trihalogenomethanes
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane

b.d.l.1.07 mg/l
b.d.l.18.07 mg/l
b.d.l.0.29 mg/l
b.d.l.1.83 mg/l
0.100.58 mg/l
0.1137.55 mg/l
0.11.85 mg/l
0.11.76 mg/l

Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane

1.72.6 mg/l

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

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Factors affecting bottled water quality

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117
Table 4. (Continued ).
Parameter
Bromodichloromethane
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Chloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
Bromoform
Chloroform
Dibromochloromethane

Range
6973 mg/l
7986 mg/l
60 mg/l
0.011.0 mg/l
0.013.0 mg/l
0.01 0.9 mg/l
0.010.6 mg/l
0.0112.4 mg/l
0.013.3 mg/l
0.0221.3 mg/l
0.091.14 mg/l
0.0410.6 mg/l
b.d.l.
b.d.l.
b.d.l.
b.d.l.

Water type

Origin

Reference

Bottled 45 samples

Spain

Font-Ribera et al.19

Bottled (spring,
purified, distilled) 17
brands, 95 samples

USA

Ikem29

Bottled 13 brands

Greece

Leivadara et al.7

Abbreviation: ND, not detected.

disorders throughout life, including sexual precocity, hormonerelated cancers (e.g., testicular and breast cancer), reproductive
tract abnormalities, and infertility. Other impacts of EDs may
include effects on thyroid function, obesity, and metabolism.66
According to a report by experts from the International Life
Science Institute (ILSI),52 PET is a biologically neutral material with
regard to consumption and skin contact. Tests carried out to
measure its potential toxicity and gene toxicity also yielded
negative results.53 Only the results of studies into the possible
migration of antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is a cause of concern.52
Antimony trioxide is the usual catalyst in the polycondensation
reaction producing PET.66,67 Estimates show that it is used in
B90% of plants producing synthetic packaging materials.
Consequently, the most commercially available PET packaging
contains 190300 mg Sb/kg.68,69 In comparison, the average level
of antimony in the Earths crust is 0.5 mg/kg, and in pristine
subterranean waters it is 2 ng/l.70
Research examining the possibility of antimony being leached
from packaging material is being carried out independently in
many centers around the world: Greece,68 Germany, Canada,70,71
Turkey,72 Hungary,73 Cyprus,74 United States,75 and Japan.76 One
may infer from these results that the concentration of antimony in
water stored in PET bottles is up to 30 times greater than that in
water stored in glass or polypropylene bottles.71
The effectiveness of antimony leaching depends on many
factors, but the major one is temperature.77 This process takes
place faster even when the temperature has been raised to only
B5060 1C.73,75 The surface area to volume ratio of the bottle is
also important: waters in bottles of smaller volume (0.250.5 l)
have a higher level of antimony than those in 2.5 l and larger
containers.73,75 In the case of waters of the same brand, higher Sb
levels were found in carbonated than in still waters.73,74 The color
of the bottle is also important:75 in the case of hard PET, the
highest Sb levels were found in colorless, pale blue, and pale
green bottles.56
Even though the antimony concentrations in most types of
bottled water do not exceed permitted levels of this element
(drinking waters: WHO (20 mg/l), EPA (6 mg/l), ECC (5 mg/l); bottled
waters: IBWA and FDA (6 mg/l)), they can nonetheless have a
negative effect on human health, given the elements carcinogenicity and the fact that up to 40% of the adult daily requirement
for Sb may be supplied by drinking water.73
In the bottling industry, PET bottles are predominant, but there
are worldwide brands such as Perrier and S. Pellegrino that
continue to use glass bottles. Because such bottles can be
recycled and reused, they are regarded as environmentally
friendly. Moreover, todays glass bottles are 20% lighter than
& 2013 Nature America, Inc.

those produced two decades ago.78 Even so, they are still much
more expensive to transport than PET bottles.
Research into the possible migration of elements from glass
packaging has tended to focus on determining levels of lead
(Pb).79 However, it turns out that the list of elements leached from
glass bottles is much longer than from PET:56 there is 19 times
more Ce in water from glass bottles than from PET bottles, 14
times more Pb, 7 times more Al, and from 7 to 2.4 times more Zr,
Ti, Hf, Th, La, Pr, Fe, Zn, Nd, Sn, and Cr.
The results of all these tests revealed big differences in leaching
effectiveness between various types of bottle, regardless of the
material from which they were made. In many cases the intensity
of the process is a serious problem. The reasons for the variable
reactivity of bottles are neither fully understood nor unequivocal.
According to Pinto and Reali,63 not all PET materials are of the
same chemical quality. Quality may vary depending on the raw
material as well as the technology used in bottle production that
could drag technological contaminants. To a large extent, this may
be because of the age of the bottles (this applies mainly to
returnable bottles) and the extent to which they were made from
recycled materials.10,56
There is a need for more information on the identity/quantity of
chemicals leaching into food, human exposure, and long-term
impact on health, and especially the ED source, long-term
exposure, and mixture effects remain to be investigated. Table 3
lists information on the inuence of the type of bottle and the
storage conditions on the content of selected organic chemical
contaminants.
LEVELS OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS DETERMINED IN
SAMPLES OF BOTTLED WATER
The quality of water sold in bottles is the result of many factors,
from its pristine quality, through the methods of its acquisition
and treatment, to the conditions under which it is stored and
transported.
Indirectly, the composition of the nal product may be affected
by the legislation binding in its country of origin, because water
must meet requirements specied in them. Table 4 sets out
literature information on levels of organic contaminants determined
in samples of different kinds of bottled water. The differences in
levels, in the case of primary contaminants, are mainly due to the
location of wells, their type and distance from farming, and/or
industrial areas. As far as secondary contaminants are concerned,
the means of treating the water are of greatest importance.
Although in most cases the determined levels of organic
contaminants are below permitted levels and such water, if

Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology (2013), 111 119

Factors affecting bottled water quality

Diduch et al

118
consumed in moderate quantities, will not seriously affect human
health, these contaminants do signicantly impair its organoleptic
properties.4

SUMMARY
The inference to be drawn from the analyses of bottled water
samples is that their contamination by organic compounds is
increasing. The continually rising popularity of bottled waters and
the conventional wisdom that they are of the highest quality
merely serve to underscore the need to carry out further and more
detailed studies in this respect. This is a complex problem, because
the quality of bottled waters is the resultant of numerous factors,
starting with its initial composition, through a bottling process, to
the conditions in which the nal product is stored and transported.
The results of studies on bottled water quality enable a better
understanding of the phenomena impairing the quality of bottled
water and are a valuable source of information for consumers. They
will also provide a solid foundation upon which revisions of
regulations governing bottled water quality can be based.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conict of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by a scholarship for PhD students MISTRZ programme,
Warsaw, 2009.

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