SOCTEC 2

Lecture Notes 1

The Development Process

o Most people define development as a process of change, progress and
modernization.
o However, development could also be seen beyond the material dimension and
needs of human beings and in the context of their political and even spiritual
development.
o The dominant model of development sees it as synonymous with economic
growth. As such, it is associated with increasing productive capacities of
economies to generate wealth. Its main indicators include modernization,
westernization and industrialization of what used to be traditional societies.
o However, a growth-oriented model of development, which produced positive
changes in the lives of some people, also produced negative impacts. There are
many examples where the gap between the rich and the poor within countries
further widened, even as the same is also true between rich and poor countries.
Furthermore, growth models for development created more dependency of poor
countries on rich countries, and further impoverished many sectors even as they
benefited only the elite sectors of society, and the interests of richer countries.
o The problem which growth-models of development produced led to the
development of alternative models for development.
There are those who look at development in terms of the human
dimension. This perspective recognizes the need for economic and
material development, but goes beyond this by also focusing on political
empowerment, political development, and even moral and spiritual
development.
There are also those who see development as a product of a Western,
capitalist and male-dominated perspectives. This particular view
advances as alternative models of development those processes that
puts value on indigenous practices, or more sustainable development and
less capitalist and profit-oriented practices, or practices that are more
feminine.
Theories of social and technical change
o Development entails a process of social change, and science and technology
play a big role in the process.
o The relationships between social change and technical change can be seen in
three perspectives: techno-determinism, structural functionalism, and
historical materialism.
Techno-determinism, whose main exponent is J.K. Galbraith, considers
technology as the main driver for social change. Such view is supported
by the argument that the universal application of technology has led to
industrialization. Technological developments in North America and
Europe became the main engines that that drove the industrial revolution,
and caused significant changes in the economy, politics and culture of
human societies not only in these places but worldwide.
Structural functionalism, which is mainly espoused by W.W. Rostow,
looks at social changes as an evolutionary process. As such, change is
viewed as gradual and incremental, wherein the ideal state is
characterized by balance and harmony, and wherein conflict is seen as

dysfunctional and abnormal. This view argues that societies start as

traditional characterized mainly by limited production. This is caused by
the prevalence of primitive technologies and of spiritual worldviews, which
were the dominant characteristics of the pre-industrial stage. The
emergence of modern science and the development of modern
technologies gradually drove traditional societies to become more
modern, and prepared them for economic take-off. These societies
eventually took-off with the further modernization of scientific and
technological activities. This was seen during the period of the industrial
revolution. The continued development of scientific knowledge and
technological innovation eventually drive society to achieve full maturity,
where the main economic activity is the production of consumer goods,
and where consumption now exceeds needs, a society that can be
considered as experiencing a state of high mass consumption. Such
final state is now referred to as the post-industrial stage.
The third theoretical perspective, which draws its theoretical roots from
Marxism, is referred to as historical materialism. While structural
functionalism believes in evolutionary change, historical materialism
posits a dynamic view of society, and considers conflict and contradiction
as the key processes that drive social change. This is in contrast to
structural functionalism which considers conflict as dysfunctional.
Historical materialists argue that the historical development of society is
driven by the contradiction between social forces at a given time. The
resolution, or synthesis, of such conflict paves the way for the emergence
of a new period. Marx and other historical-materialists define society
according to the manner by which social institutions are organized in
relation to the conversion of nature into products and commodities,
referred to as modes of production. Transformations in the modes of
production were seen in the succession from primitive socialism, to
kinship modes, to feudalism, then to capitalism, and finally to
communism. The process of transformation in the modes of production
emanates from the inherent conflict between social classes within such
mode of production. Technology, in this context, is now seen as
comprising the forces of production, which in the context of a given mode
of production is under the control of the ruling class and is used by it to
maintain the status quo. However, the ruling class may eventually lose
control when it is unable to control the emerging technologies. This
situation may eventually lead to a crisis, and the social class that has the
capacity to control the emerging technologies is the one who will become
the revolutionary class and challenge the current ruling class. This view
could be clearly illustrated in the transition from feudalism to capitalism in
Europe. In feudalism, the mode of production is land-based, and the
dominant technologies are agricultural in nature of which the ruling
landlords have control. However, during the industrial revolution, the
production process shifted from agriculture to industry. This was
facilitated by the development of industrial technologies used by the
nascent or early industrial classes. Eventually, the bourgeoisie or the
capitalist class that acquired control over these emerging technologies
became the revolutionary class which challenged the landlords and
eventually took control of society in the context of a capitalist mode of
production. However, this framework becomes problematic when we

apply it in the analysis of the transition from capitalism to socialism. In

Marxist theory, the revolutionary class in advanced capitalism is supposed
to be the working class, who provides the fundamental technology for
human labor. However, the emergence of mechanization and the
development of information technology, artificial intelligence, and
knowledge in robotics have effectively displaced the working class.
These technologies are not controlled by the revolutionary working class,
but are instead controlled by the technocratic class composed of sciencebased technical experts.
The relationship between science and technology on one hand and the development
process on the other can be understood in the context of four basic processes. These
are modernization, the development of the modern state and its attendant bureaucratic
organizations, the development of a capitalist economy, and globalization.
o Science, Technology and Modernization
Modernization is a process of social change, wherein a given society
moves from a primitive state towards an advanced and modern state.
This movement is unidirectional, and is considered to be good since it
implies progress, humanity and civilization.
This change is not revolutionary but evolutionary in nature, characterized
by a slow, gradual and piecemeal process.
The modernization process is characterized by the following:
Phasedthe process comes in stages
Homogenizingthe process tends to unify different political,
cultural, economic and social systems into a single system
Europeanization (or Westernization)the process follows the
European or Western models and patterns of social change
Irreversiblea system cannot go back to its original state once
modernization ensues
Progressivethe change is from backward to advanced states
Lengthythe process takes a long time
Systematicthe process follows a distinct pattern
Transformativethe process transforms societies from one state
of existence to another
Immanentthe process is inevitable
The following characteristics are associated with relatively nonmodernized societies
Low degree of specialization
High level of self-sufficiency
Cultural norms of tradition, particularism and functional
diffuseness
Relatively low emphasis on money circulation and market
Family norms such as nepotism are prevalent
One-way flow of goods and services from rural to urban areas
On the other hand, the following characteristics are associated with
relatively modernized societies:
High degree of specialization and interdependency of
organizations
Cultural norms of rationality, universalism and functional specificity

High degree of centralization

Relatively more emphasis on money circulation and market
Emphasis on bureaucratic organizations
Two-way flow of goods and services between towns and villages
The role of science and technology in the process of modernization
It is inaccurate to argue that non-modern societies do not have
their own technologies, nor it is correct to argue that they do not
have science. Science and technology, albeit in nascent forms,
are present even in non-modern societies. For example,
technologies such as the wheel, or knowledge about fire and
gunpowder, were discovered in relatively non-modernized
contexts.
The relationships between modernization on one hand and
science and technology on the other, is not unilinear, in that it is
hard to say that one causes the other.
Modernization is enabled by developments in scientific knowledge
and technologies. However, the increasing complexity of society
which attends the modernization process also enables the growth
of science and technology by providing the context for the
development of higher levels of thinking, seen in the emergence of
new problems and the development of new mechanisms for
discovery. Modern societies demand newer knowledge systems
and technological innovations. The need for new technologies
emerges as a result of new lifestyles which, in turn, are influenced
by new technologies.
For example, electricity is a product of modern technologies that
emanate from modern societies, even as electricity enables the
further modernization of societies. Another example is the
development of automobiles which created changes in society,
and these changes eventually required better technologies in
transportation to satisfy the demand for cleaner, faster, safer and
more efficient modes of transport
Science, technology and state-building
Political modernization, seen in the development and emergence of the
state and the bureaucracy, emerged hand in hand with the process of
social and cultural modernization.
Political modernization involved the differentiation of political structures. It
also saw the secularization of political culture and the entrenchment of
the ethos of equality as a political ideal. Consequently, it led to the
enhancement of the capacity of a societys political system.
The modern state is an outcome of the increasing scale or coverage of a
political system, and its ability to implement its decisions. It is now able to
perform its tasks through bureaucratic organizations that are able to
penetrate, govern and regulate the conduct of its citizens. It also
acquired the capacity to aggregate the interests of various political
groups. This is achieved through the institutionalization of political
structures and processes that strengthen the capacity of the state for
problem-solving even as it is able to sustain the emergence of new
political demands and organizations.

However, together with increasing complexity of the state, the continuous

demands by society for equality eventually creates tensions and
divisiveness that may lead to the following crises:
The crisis of national identity engendered by the shifting loyalties
of citizens from primordial groups to the nation
The crisis of political legitimacy of the state
The crisis of penetration, seen in the difficulty in applying policies
throughout society through the central government
The crisis of citizen participation
The crisis of integrating the interests of various political groups
The crisis of distribution emanating from the inability of the state is
to bring about economic growth, and its failure to distribute the
benefits of such growth.
The role of science and technology in the development of the state
Science and technology are resources which the state uses to
enhance its capacity to deal with the various crises cited above.
States consider science and technology as vital in establishing
and maintaining the foundations of political and economic stability
of society. A country that is in control of its scientific and
technological resources, and which possess the capacity to
expand and modernize such resources, would be in a better
position to address the various economic and political problems
the come its way.
The modernization process manifests itself in the various
bureaucratic organizations. Max Weber has defined bureaucracy
as a modern organization, contrasting it to traditional institutions. It
is through bureaucratic organizations that the operations of the
modern state are facilitated. What makes bureaucratic
organizations modern is their dependency on modern machines,
tools, and techniques that allow them to deal with the various
complex problems that arise from modern societies.
Principles of scientific management are used in the operations of
modern organizations, including those that are under the state in
addition to private corporations. These principles, which originated
from the writings of Frederick Taylor, entail the management and
governance of organizations using scientific approaches, such as
work fragmentation, seen in the division of work into its composite
parts and the assignment of each to different individuals
specializing in such specific tasks. It is also in the context of
scientific management that principles were laid out for the
development of planning and monitoring systems. These were all
aimed at promoting efficiency in aid of the advancement of the
modern state and its economic system, which is mainly capitalist
in nature.
Science, technology and capitalism
The dominant economic system associated with the development process
is a capitalist economy which replaced the traditional agricultural
economy. This type of economy, which is an outcome of the
industrialization process, accomplished such through the rise of new

entrepreneurs and the expansion of markets.

Underdeveloped and traditional economies are usually seen as closed
and backward, in which there is an oversupply of labor which are not fully
employed to their productive capacities. This type of economy is
dominated by a subsistence sector, which is mainly based on family labor
and with low labor productivity, and low levels of capital investments.
Capitalism took off as an economic system through the emergence of the
capitalist sector, which replaced the subsistence sector, as the dominant
sector in the economy. This was attended by the effective mobilization of
capital and productive resources which enabled productive investment in
the manufacturing sector to become a significant part of national income.
Soon after, these investments went to other sectors and led to a situation
in which population growth was overtaken by economic growth.
The increase in investments, which was supported by an increase in the
rate of savings, is what drove the capitalist sector to grow significantly.
The final stage of capitalism, as discussed by Rostow in his five-stage
theory of growth, is a society of high mass consumption. This society is
characterized by growth in employment opportunities, increase in national
income, a continuing rise in consumer demands, and the formation of a
strong domestic market.
One of the key challenges which any development process always
contends with is the incidence of poverty. This phenomenon has been
characterized as a vicious cycle. On the demand side, low incomes of the
general population lead to low demands for products. This then dampens
the incentives for private investments that further lead to low productivity.
Low productivity eventually leads to low income. On the supply side of the
poverty cycle, low income leads to low savings. Low savings in turn
reduce the levels of capital, which consequently leads to low productivity.
Low productivity eventually leads to low income.
In order for a system to break out of this cycle, a strong incentive system
for investments needs to be created. There is also a need to expand
markets by balancing capital investments in a number of key industrial
sectors.
It is in this context that science and technology can play an important role.
In addition to financial investments in labor and materials,
expansion in industry can also be achieved by investments in
science and technology. The industrial revolution in Europe was
enabled by developments in science and technology, and
capitalisms rise was influenced by advances in technological
expertise. The development of new machines and methods
enabled the development of new production processes. The
increasing capacity of the capitalist economy to expand was
enabled by the conversion of raw materials into commodities, and
the search for new materials and sources of energy.
Scientific and technological developments in agriculture, such as
biotechnology and agricultural engineering, enhanced the land
productivity and modernized agricultural production.
Advances in information technology and developments in
computers, artificial intelligence, and robotics have also enhanced
the productivity of work.

Science, technology and globalization

The decades prior to the early 1970s were characterized by a capitalist
world economy dominated by growing commodity trade among capitalist
economies, and the internationalization of commercial capital. This
increasing internationalization of productive capital, manifested in the
transfer of industrial production from the industrialized countries to the
developing countries resulted to a new international division of labor. The
transformation in the production process and the emergence of new
patterns in industrial growth in the developing countries, formerly referred
to as the Third World but has since become the South, were facilitated
by the following social and technological developments:
The emergence in the developing economies of an increasing
reserve army of comparatively cheap labor.
The emergence of subcontracting as a practice, wherein
advances in technology enabled the splitting up of the production
process into constituent parts, some of which can be executed
even by unskilled or quickly trained, semi-skilled workforce.
The emergence of the information superhighway, enabled by
technological advances in transportation and telecommunication.
Globalization is a process that is different from and goes beyond the
process of transnationalization or internationalization of capital.
Internationalization of capital involves merely the relocation of
certain production processes to other countries, including
developing countries. An example is a Japanese-based company
relocating its assembly plants to the Philippines.
On the other hand, globalization involves a deliberate restructuring
of manufacturing, trade, and services within a system that is
global in scale. In this context, the actors are no longer national
companies that relocate limited and specialized parts of their
production processes to developing countries, but instead are
globally oriented mega-corporations or transnational corporations
(TNCs) that organize their entire production and sales as a worldwide operation.
This latter type of globalization is enabled both by a rapid growth
of global financial markets resulting from the deregulation of
financial transactions, as well as technological developments in
information technology that allow corporations to run their
operations on a global scale through computer hook-ups,
teleconferencing, and the development of electronic banking and
financial transactions. This development is called
technocapitalism, and is associated with the enhanced
movement of money, ideas, products, design and services within
societies and across societies.