Running head: MAXWELL READING REFLECTIONS

Maxwell Reading Reflections

Karin Fonseca
Valdosta State University

MAXWELL READING REFLECTIONS

Maxwell Reading Reflections

1. Chapter One Review: A Model for Qualitative Research Design
This chapter describes the Qualitative Research Design as an interactive approach
according to Maxwell. It is the base in understanding the characteristics of qualitative research
as well as the process of research suggested by Maxwell, its significance and procedures.
Maxwell starts this chapter explaining the importance of the characteristics that must be
considered while building a ship, and how important is to pay attention on the interaction of such
characteristics in order to provide a final product that will be reflect the goals and ideas the
design had in the first place. Furthermore later one Maxwell explains that there is an interactive
approach in organizing the design that can lead to successful development and presentation of
the project, and that there are environment factors that shall also be considered.
Some of the important factors mentioned by Maxwell regarding the characteristics of
qualitative research and the interactive approach are:
Interaction of characteristics consider all the details of each structure part of the model,
the functioning, the development, what unfolds and how it restructures the model. How
the different areas of the model relate and interact with one another
The design must be efficient and function properly.
Qualitative designs are not typological or sequential by nature
Cannot pre-establish the important steps or factors of the study is an ongoing
development that interact with all areas of the model and allows for adaptation and
change.
Any sector of the qualitative design must be always reconsidering and modified in
accordance to the findings.
There is a broad organization of factors, ideas, goals, questions, methods etc. that are
developed as part of the design, however all sectors are interconnected and they are
formed as the research develops, allowing changes to happen in all areas of the design.
It is consider for the qualitative design to be a reflexive process, spontaneous in every
step of the research project.
In the qualitative research there is not by nature a liner relationship between the
components of the design,
This book describes a model of and for research, with the idea to help researcher to
understand the actual design of their study and how to execute it.
The model
The model presented in this book constitute of five interconnected components being:
Goals, Conceptual Framework, Research Questions, Methods, and Validity.
This model helps to plan the study and be able to execute it
Looks at the research as something real, which will provide real consequences.
Design in-use is the actual relationship among the components of the research, as
well as the intended design (p.3)
Helps to analyze the strengths and limitations of the study so that the consequence can be
clear.

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There is always a construction of the research design/ project and a reconstruction of

such.
It is a constant do it yourself project that takes analyzing the implications of the different
components
It must be sufficient not only to its use but also to the environment and the environment
factors must be considered while and during the development of the research.
This is an interactive model and its parts are interconnected and it is explained as a
flexible structure.
The conceptualization of the relationship of the different components allow for a
integrated and interactive relationship as a whole.
Components of the Model each has its specifics and concerns
Goal should be informed by current theory and relevant knowledge - shows the
importance of the study, who do you want to influence, what practices you want to
clarify, why are results important.
Conceptual Framework analysis if the issues, people, and setting you plan to study,
theories, beliefs and prior findings, literature, preliminary studies, personal experiences.
Research questions the center of the design not fixed in the beginning of the study
may be modified and expanded as goals, conceptual framework methods and validity
changes. What is the niche? What do you want to learn about this study?
Methods how to do proceed in conducting the study, approaches, and techniques used,
collection and data analysis, relationships, sample, data sources, etc.
Validity what can affect your results and conclusions? How could it be wrong? How
could this study be done better? Validity threats to the results and conclusions, how to
deal with them?
The model my Maxwell can be analyzed as the upper triangle (goals, conceptual framework
and research questions) as a more conceptual first step, and the bottom triangles (research
questions, methods and validity) of the model that is the operational half. These triangles are
closely integrated yet the entire model is interactive and operate as a whole. This is a very
flexible model yet there are constrains in each component that interconnect with one another
and influence each component differently. Ethical issues should be considered in the entire
process.
Important notes
The design model by Maxwell is interactive each component represents an implication on
the other.
The design should be able to change in accordance to context where the study is being
conducted
The learning process of this book is interactive with the many exercises presented and
that follows a patter in order to develop the idea of the study.
A design Map should help in organizing the process of the research study.
The map should also include a Memo on the developing design map to explain how each
component interconnects with one another.
A matrix, or matrices can also add into the study as it allows the researcher to identify
each specific part in relation to each component. It serve as a multipurpose tool and
helps in defining which strategy to use with each particular data type. It also helps in

MAXWELL READING REFLECTIONS

connecting the questions and methods to be used. Helps in focusing on each individual
type of data to be used.
Finally using Memos during the entire research process can profoundly help with the
organization, and understanding of the research. Maxwell provides many tools on how to
use memo to organize data and use as reflections, analysis, self critique and obtain
feedback as well.

2. Chapter Two Review: Goals: Why Are You Doing This Study?
In this chapter Maxwell talks about the reasons for anyone to develop a particular
research project. It is really easy to get taken away by the captivation of the subject of study,
however it is important to keep the real reasons for the study always in mind.
Important points:
Having a clear reason, will help the researcher to keep focus of the research and dont
waste resources and time.
Goals are motives, desires, and purposes what leads the researcher to do the study and
what the hope to be accomplished.
Two main functions of goal - Number one is to help the researchers decisions on the
other areas of the design to assure the research study is worth doing it and for those
receiving it worth value. Number two goals are fundamental in the justification of your
study and why your results and conclusion matter.
Goals will also be important in defining the theories, descriptions and interpretations of
the research study. They also provide the ideas of the validity threats that will exist.
Maxwell divides the idea of Goal in three parts- Personal, practical and intellectual goals.
Personal Goals what motivates the researcher important to consider and important
while developing the research. Personal goals provide motivation for success in
developing and completing the research. Personal experience plays a major role in
defining the research goal one that motivates the researcher.
Researchers should ask themselves Why do I want to do a qualitative study? (p.26).
Be able to answer that question is fundamental.
Example 2.1 how a personal crisis affected the change of focus on a dissertation topic
personal experience can motivate a researcher in a different level.
How is your personal motivation for the research compatible with the other goals,
research question and the activities of a qualitative study?
Choosing qualitative involves a lot more than simply liking qualitative research, the
whole process must be considered, as the goals will also affect the strategies used during
research and so on.
Personal view and motives are directly linked to the validity of conclusions.
It is fundamental to examine biases.
It is important to take the account of the personal goals and how they influence the study.
Being aware of the personal goals and how they might affect the research is important
and help in preventing a negative outcome.
Personal goals also can help in the development of the theories to be used.

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Example 2.2 - Provides examples on how a personal goal and view can affect the
outcomes of research if not profoundly reviewed.
Practical Goals (administrative or policy goals) they have the focus on
accomplishment of something. Could be an objective, or changing a particular situation.
Intellectual goals are focused on understanding something - why is happening, and being
able to fill gaps in research as well.
The questions of your study must be accomplishable as well as questions that ask on how
to accomplish practical goals. (Use of words Can, How, should).
It is important to write your research questions thinking of ways that will help you
achieve your practical goal. The idea here is that the researcher should not eliminate the
practical goal from the design, as they are important for justifying the study.
Qualitative study how goals can help this method of research
Difference in Quantitative and Qualitative are important as they have different strengths
and logics
Variance theory versus Process theory
Quantitative people see the world in terms of variances
Qualitative people see the world in terms of people, situations, events, and process that
connect these, and how some events influence others.
Qualitative researchers tend to ask How x plays a role in causing y and what is the
process that connects x and y.
Maxwell describes five kinds of intellectual goals for quantitative studies (p.30 31).
1. Understanding the meaning, for participants in the study, of the events, situations,
experiences, and actions they are involved with or engage in.
2. Understanding the particular context within which the participants act, and the
influence that this context has on their actions.
3. Understanding the process by which events and actions take place.
4. Identifying unanticipated phenomena and influences, and generating new
grounded theories about the latter.
5. Developing causal explanations.
Maxwell describes three practical kinds of goals that are possible at the qualitative
research (p.31 -32).
1. Generating results and theories that are understandable and experientially
credible, both to the people you are studying and to others.
2. Conducting research that is intended to improve existing practices, programs, or
policies, what is often called formative evaluation, rather than to simply assess
the impact or value of these.
3. Engaging in action, participatory, collaborative, or community-based research
with participants in the study
Separating and understanding the personal, practical, and intellectual goals a researcher
has is not a simple task.
Your goals may not be clear at the beginning of research and develop with the study.
Some goals may actually change as research is done.

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Example 2.3 and 2.4 provide some of the benefits of taking the time to reflect on the goal
and understanding them. It is an important stage of developing the conceptual framework
and mapping out the research process.

3. Chapter Three Review: Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think Is Going On?
The conceptual framework of your study is one of the most important parts of the
research process. This is the base for the development and guidance of your study.
Understanding the different components and how they relate to one another will help in the
research process, what methods to use as well as on analysis of validity.
The concept framework, most times developed as a visual product or in narrative
basically involves the key factors or the study and take into accountability the assumptions,
believes, variables, theories and so on that connect to the subject to be study and how they relate
to one another. In a summary the conceptual framework is a model of the information and
knowledge that already exists regarding your study and what they represent, are functioning and
why they are the way they are. It helps the researcher to develop a theory for your study and
helps in explaining how your study will develop. This concept is like a blue print I would say,
where you analyze every single part of the project and create a model that presents all the parts
together in a visual form.
The concept framework will establish the topics connected to the subject of study and
therefore help in develop the theory, the research questions, the goals to be achieved, what
methods best to use, validity threats and so on. This is the base of the house to be built yet is a
design that projects what the house will look like. Furthermore this structure will help the
researcher in justifying the study and the reasoning for the theory used. The research problem is
a part of the conceptual map and is a fundamental part of it as together with your goals will
provide the base of your study. The problem and goals will lead the researcher to justify the
importance of the study.
Maxwell also discusses in this chapter the importance of not referring at the conceptual
map as the literature review. The reasons as he stated are:
It can lead to a narrow focus on the literature, ignoring other conceptual
resources that may be equal or greater importance for your study (p.40).
It tends to generate a strategy of covering the field rather than focusing
specifically on those studies and theories that are particularly relevant to your
research (p.40).
It can lead you to think that your task is simply descriptive to report what
previous researchers have found or what theories have been proposed (p.41).
Conceptual framework is a part of the process that you will build, it will be constructed,
even when incorporating ideas that are taken from other places, and still it must mold your
research problem. Take into consideration the theories that already exist, as they provide a good
way to start and good ideas about the subject. Each idea must be studies to see if it is worth and
has a connection to the focus of study.
Maxwell also mentions the importance of paradigms, such as positivism, constructivism,
critical theory, feminism, critical realism, and others in adding to the position of the study. An
interesting approach of qualitative is the bricolage as mentioned by Maxwell. This
terminology taken from the anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss indicates the idea of naturally
adapting to the situation embracing the tools and materials available to creatively find the

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solutions to the problem. I consider this is extremely important with qualitative research. One of
Maxwells reach approaches is the idea of combining the ontological realism with
epistemological constructivism, which can be used in a array of qualitative research studies.
As there are many paradigms that can be used for qualitative research, they can also be
combining to show different perspectives or simply to add to each other. The researcher needs to
be able to explain how each paradigm will contribute to the study. Be aware of the basic
assumptions that the researcher has made also guides to the paradigm that will best fit the study.
Maxwell uses for modules that can help the researcher to build the conceptual framework
of study, those including your experiential knowledge, existing theory and research, your pilot
and exploratory research, and thought experiments.
Experiential Knowledge although many researchers are extremely careful about brining their
own perspective to the research due to creating bias, it is important for their own experience and
insights to be understood and used in the research process. Researchers subjectivity can add to
the research in terms of insights, hypotheses and validity.
Prior Theory and Research a set of concepts and ideas developed as a theory that has a
relationship in between them. Is developing categories and how they relate to each other. The
idea of the theory is to provide why the subject of study is the way it is and be able to explain
how it works. Is a way to model what is going on with the phenomena that the researcher wants
to understand. A theory can provide sense of what is studied, however it can lead to focus on one
particular area and forget others. It is very important that the researcher identifies the insight and
limitations a theory can bring to the study. Theories provided by the participants of the study
could also be considered, as they take into account the participants interpretation of their actions,
values, and theories, and because of the experience in the subject. It is fundamental that
researchers use enough existing theory as well as its own theories being critical and serious. A
researcher should develop on the existing theories looking for the discrepancies or missing
pieces of data.
Concept Maps Concept map also known as conceptual framework, is a visual display
that helps the researcher in developing the theory. It present what is going on with the subject
being studied. It presents the concepts within the study and the relationship between them. This
process is not done in one simple step; it is necessary that research rework it until it provides the
complete base for the study, the implicit theory. The map is only a part of the complex problem
being studied. It is impossible to add all the parts of the big problem in one conceptual
framework. There are many important factors to consider while constructing the map, one point
made by Maxwell is the difference between variance maps and process maps. The variance map
will provide an abstract general idea, and the process map will tell a story.
Other Uses of Existing Research examining previous research can help the researcher
not only in developing the theory to be used but also to understand how to read research
publications and discover many tools as well as resources to be used. From terminologies,
keywords, references, validity issues, formulation of questions, are many of the tools that can be
discovered while using existing research. According to Maxwell, it can help in the justification
of the researcher study; it can also assist in the decision regarding methods and approaches to be
used in the study; it can be used as data to test or modify the theories used; and furthermore it
can simply generate theory.
Pilot Studies focus on the researchers study and the concerns of the theory. This are
developed to test the researchers ideas and methods to be used, to investigate some of the
implications or to develop grounded theory. One benefit of pilot studies is to focus on the people

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that you are studying in order to develop the theory itself. This provides the meaning of the
actual understanding of the study as you are taking the real participants actions events, ideas and
perspectives into consideration when developing the theory.
Thought Experiments this process challenges the researcher to explain with credibility
his/her observations and of others. It allows researchers to support or not the theory. Tend to
answer what if type of questions and explore the logical implications of the models,
assumptions, and what the study entails. This process can be used to develop new theoretical
models or test existing ones. It allows for creativity and discovery.
The integration of the previous discussed concepts is fundamental in developing the
conceptual framework. Each study is unique, and how these components relate and work with
each other is key in developing the ground of good research.
4. Review Maxwell Chapter 4 Research Questions: What Do You Want to Understand?
5.
This chapter focuses on the importance of the research question in a study and how are
the best ways to accomplish such task in a qualitative research design. The research question is
focused on what the researcher wants to learn and understand from the study. It is the core of the
research design and should be connected to the goals and methods to be used. The qualitative
research design acquires for the questions to be developed as the studies occur, changing over
time if necessary. It is interactive and inductive in nature.
Maxwell states that in the qualitative research the questions cannot be drawn without
taking into consideration the other aspects of the study such as theory and methodology used. In
fact, most qualitative questions do not arise until the researcher has done a significant amount of
data collection and analysis. For this reason is important that the researcher understands the
nature of a qualitative study and seek the information with open mind in order to find what is
exactly being study and investigated.
It is important however to develop some provisional questions that help the framing of
the study and work together with the goals, conceptual framework, account for the methods to be
use and validity issues. In qualitative study the questions are not a set up point for the study to
be developed upon, however they are the core bases that will guide the constructive process of
the research and change overtime, as data is being gathered and analyzed. It is fundamental
however to understand how to best approach the development of questions on a qualitative study
so that the researcher has focus and have the correct questions in order to find and understand
what is being studied.
The main focus of a qualitative research question is to explain what the researcher is
trying to understand and learn from the phenomena being study. If the researcher design quality
questions he will be able to focus his/her study bounding the relationship of the goals and
conceptual framework as well as have guidance on how achieving it with the relationship of
methods and validity to be considered.
The questions should not be too general not to focus. In one hand, qualitative normally
studies a particular phenomena and that helps the researcher to understand what he is trying to
learn. On the other hand, trying to keep the questions to focused could blind the researcher from
examining and investigating areas that influence the study that are not so obvious at first.
Consider the goals, the research paradigms, the conceptual framework and always keep in mind
what is that you are trying to study is fundamental at the time you develop your research
questions for a qualitative study.

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There is a main difference that researchers must pay attention while developing the
research questions for qualitative research, and that is understanding the difference in what the
researcher want to understand by doing this study and what is that he wants to accomplish.
When developing the questions researchers should ask themselves what data could I collect, and
what conclusions might I draw from these, that would help me to accomplish this goal?(p.7677). The intellectual goals should connect the practical goals of the study and the research
questions: what do you need to understand in order to improve these services? (p.77).
Another important factor of developing the research questions is not confusing with the
interview questions purpose. The research question is always trying to identify what the
researcher is trying to understand about those phenomena. On the other hand, the interview
questions should be used as tool to gather the information that is necessary in order to understand
what you are studying.
Maxwell also points out the difference in research questions and research hypothesis. As
we have learned the research questions are focused on what the researcher is trying to learn.
Research Hypothesis also called propositions in a qualitative study, however, is tentative answers
to the research questions. This is very tricky to do in qualitative studies as normally the
researcher can only developed those after the study has begun. The main point here is that by
trying to develop hypothesis researcher can actually limit their study from seeing the whole
picture or opening themselves to seeing things that can influence the study because the
assumptions had previously been made.
Considering a case study, the researcher would first select the case to be studied and then
state the questions that are related to that particular case, it is not focused on a broad population
rather the particular case study. The case selected is what will guide the sample (purposeful
selection), the goals to be attained, methodology and so on. As one of the nature of qualitative
research, normally the studies often employ small samples of uncertain representativeness. The
sample to be used is selected purposefully in accordance to what the researcher is trying to find.
The advantages of framing the research questions in specific terms for a qualitative study
are many. It helps the researcher in avoiding inappropriate generalization, as others settings may
not be the same as the one being studied. Also allows for the researcher to recognize diversity
within the setting or participants being studied. Furthermore it helps the researcher to focus on
the specific beliefs and actions that are observed in the particular study.
It is suggested that in qualitative study questions can also be framed in response to that
the participants report by observations instead of inferred perceptions or beliefs. Instrumentalist
questions can lead the researcher to lose focus of what he/she is really interested in, and allowing
the study to loose focus excluding the actual phenomena that the researcher is trying to
understand. On the other hand, realist questions also have a risk as it can lead to unjustified
conclusions by ignoring validity issues and bias issues. Maxwell proposes that realistic
questions are the best in a qualitative study, however they must be well though and developed
carefully as possible considering all the validity threats and what is that the researcher wants to
understand. Process questions, a better way to develop qualitative research questions, help the
researcher in explaining how things happened, and therefore there is not a need for a relationship
between variables.
Maxwell provides the three kinds of questions that are frequent in a process theory for
qualitative study:
-questions about the meaning of events and activities to the people involved in
these,(p.83).

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- questions about the influence of the physical and social context on these events and
activities,(p.83).
- questions about the processes by which these events and activities and their outcomes
occurred(p.83).
Based on the process theory orientation, in general, while developing the research
questions for a qualitative study, process that will require a initial thinking development and
change as well as evolve over time as the study is being developed and analyzed with
observation and data gathering; qualitative research questions are generally open-ended,
inductive in nature, so that researcher can discover that the influences and meaning of the
phenomena are and how they are involved in the events/activities.
5 Review Maxwell Chapter 5 Methods: What Will You Think
Actually Do?
This chapter focused on explaining how to actually conduct the research and what
methods to use, it focuses on the design of the approaches and methods to use. It allows
for researchers to plan how to collect the data as to who, where, when and how as well as
how to analyze the data. Some of the items explored were establishing relationships with
the participants of the research study, interviewing, observation, selecting of site and
sample, and analysis of data collected.
The phenomena that the researcher is studying will guide which methods and
approaches to use. There is no formula that generalizes qualitative research. Each
particular study requires the adaptation for the methods and approaches that will best
benefit the researcher in understanding the phenomena allowing for the best findings for
the research in question.
Maxwell provides some ideas to be consider when deciding what methods a
researcher will use. The first thing the researcher must consider is the data, which
includes everything that is observed, heard, seen and gathered. Researcher must
consider ethical issues however in citing data so that no violation of privacy and
confidentiality are made. It is fundamental that researchers understand that he/she is the
research instrument in a qualitative study, as all data are gathered, heard, seen by the
researcher. Informal data such as casual conversations, incidental observations must be
relevant while planning the methods to be used. Those data must be recorded and
organized in journals or memo form. It is extremely important that the entire data are
treated critically, not simply taken at face value. Data can be interpreted in many ways,
for these reason researchers must be critical to evaluate the validity threats as to the
interpretation of them.
For qualitative research some believe that pre-structuring can lead to lack of
flexibility to respond to emergent insights and affect the data analysis. As qualitative
research is inductive by nature a less structure approach allows for the researcher to focus
on the phenomena that is studied and design the methodology that will work for that
particular case. Both ideas have its pros and cons. However for a direct qualitative
study, considering time invested, some pre-structure methods can help in amount of data
collect and simplify the analysis process. Maxwell states the decision you face is not
primarily whether or to what extent you prestructure your study, but in what ways you do
this, and why (p.89).

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The researcher can always have some pre-structure in place in particular areas,
considering an open mind to change and flexibility as he/she advances with the study.
For this reason Maxwell states four main components to be considered
The research relationship that you establish with those you study (p.90).
Selection: what settings or individuals you decide to observe or
interview, and what others sources of information you decide to use
(p.90).
Data collection: how you gather the information you will use (p.90).
Data analysis: what you do with this information to make sense of it
(p.90).
According to Maxwell the importance of this are not only related to the methodology to be used
and how you will gather the data for the study, but how they influence the value and validity of
the study itself. This process must be though trough by the researcher and adjusted as needed as
the research develops.
Negotiating Research Relationships negotiating the relationships with the participants
to your research is no easy task, it involves a lot of planning and understanding of how the
researcher wants to lead the study and achieve the goals. The gatekeepers as they are called can
help or interfere with the study; they can also lead to other participants. The important aspect is
how you develop those relationships as they evolve over time. This process is a complex and
changing as the researcher gets involved with the participant. There are many factors the
researcher must consider, not only how to ethically gain access to the information he/she is
seeking, but the nature of the relationship and the kind of rapport is critical for the amount of
quality and realistic feedback and information one can gather.
The researcher is the instrument of the research but the participants are the source of
information. For this reason, researchers must consider and reflect on the particular decisions
about the relationships and how they will affect the research. The idea is to develop relationships
that will work as a partnership in the development of the information and material to be used.
Researchers should also consider the philosophical, ethical and political aspects of the
relationship and work together with the participants in a collective manner to generate the
necessary knowledge that is important not only to the researcher but to the participant as well.
Relationships do not work in one-way street, they are reciprocal, symmetric and a connection is
important for both ends.
The types of relationships built will also depend on the connection of the phenomena
being studied. It is extremely important to the researcher to understand the environment and
culture of the study and understand the effects of the research on the participant, how will he/she
perceive you, and to make sure that no one will perceive the process the same way.
Communication and clear explanations of your desire for the study are important so that the
participants feel at ease and provide the data you need to gather. By learning what the
participants ideas and perceptions are of your and the study, will help to ethically build those
relationships with them. This is also important to the researchers in particular cases such as
entering a culture that is different than your own or dealing with groups of people whos values
and standards are different then your own. The researcher has to try to fully understand their
perspective in order to built trust and develop the relationships.
Researchers need to be ready to explain to the participants the purpose of the study, what
they will do with the data gathered, how they will handle the confidentiality, the settings for the
interviews and so on. Even with familiar participants problems can arise and researcher must try

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to analyze possible emerged situations and ways of dealing with them. Furthermore is essential
that researcher can find ways to thank the participants accordingly and there are many ways of
doing that from thank you notes, gifts, services and others.
Site and participant selection an important part of the study is for researchers to make
the correct decisions regarding sampling, the location and who will participate in the study. This
includes not only the participants but also the setting, events, processes and other people that can
be part of the sampling and site decisions. Maxwell expresses the importance of the many
strategies and the purpose of it, when making the decisions and considerations for the selection
in accordance to the phenomena being study. Qualitative research calls for a purposeful
selection, as particular participants and settings are selected purposefully in relevant to the study
and the information that is relevant. We are looking for people that are unique and can provide
quality information in relation to the phenomena of study. Also the selection of setting, events,
and times along with the participants can provide the information that is necessary in order to
answer the questions of the study. Convenience sampling should be at all avoided if possible,
as it will not provide quality research, unless the case study is extremely unique. Random
sampling can be used however it is needed a reasonable large sample that provides variation.
Maxwell states five goals for purposeful selection:
Achieving representativeness or typicality of the settings, individuals, or
activities selected (p.98). Allows for a more confident conclusion and adequate
representation.
Adequately capture the heterogeneity in the population (p.98). It assures that
the conclusions adequately represent the whole, the entire range of variation.
Selecting the settings and participants that are most important possible variation
in the dimension.
Deliberately select individuals or cases that are critical for testing the theories
that you began the study with, or that you have subsequently developed (p.98)
Purposeful selection can be to establish particular comparisons to illuminate the
reasons for differences between settings or individuals (p.98). Most used in
multicase qualitative studies as well as in mixed methods. Not useful for small
qualitative study, as the small number of participants would limit ability to drawn
firm conclusions (p.98).
Select groups or participants with whom you can establish the most productive
relationships, ones that will best enable you to answer your research questions
(p.99). This can be seen as convenience sampling but is actually purposeful and
will not be discussed explicitly.
Maxwell expresses that knowledge of the setting is extremely important during the
selection decisions, furthermore selection decisions should account for the feasibility of data
collection, relationships with participants, validity issues, and ethics. Another concern
mentioned by Maxwell is when the researcher bases most of data collection from a small
numbers of informants, which can provide bias, because there is no way to assure the
information and their view is typical. It is suggested that systematic sampling should be used to
assure that the key informants information are a true representation for he whole.
Decisions about data collection - Maxwell states the importance of data collection as
The relationship between research questions and data collection methods and the triangulation
of different methods (p.100).

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Methods are the means to answer the research questions. It depends on the research
questions as well as the actual research situation and what will be most effective in order to
gather the data that is required. Again, the research question is what the researcher tries to
understand, and the interview questions are what researcher asks participants in order to gather
the information needed.
Developing interview questions is a creative process that requires insight on the context
of the study. Asking real questions will help in developing the collaborative relationship you
need in order to obtain the information you are seeking, as participants will share their
knowledge further than what can be expected.
It is fundamental to anticipate how participants will understand the interview questions
and how they are prone to respond. The researcher should put himself/herself in the participants
place and imagine how they would answer to the questions. Another idea is to pilot test the
interview with people that are similar to the participants you plan to interview to find out if the
questions provide the results that were intended to. The culture of study can also play a role on
how the interview or data gathering should be conducted. In summary, participant selection and
setting takes careful examination and flexibility in the strategies to be used with each so that you
can gather quality data accessing validity and ethical issues.
Using Multiple Data collection Methods Maxwell states three purposes:
Triangulation different methods to check on one another to find out if different
methods support each other to the same conclusion. Allows for a better
understanding of the phenomena being studied.
Using multiple methods can help in discovering different aspects of the
phenomena of study. It broadens the range of the aspects of the phenomena to be
addressed. Maxwell states, Observation is often used to describe settings,
behavior, and events, while interviewing is sued to understand the perspectives
and goals of actors (p.102). Nonetheless an interpretation of the participants
perspective can also provide illumination to the study.
Interview can also provide a description of actions and events, as it allows for
observations of others and settings. Furthermore it allows for check of accuracy
of the observations made. Asking about specific events and actions are
fundamental known as episodic interviewing. Asking past tense and presenttense questions will provide a greater in depth and divergent perspectives of the
phenomena studied.
Decisions about data analysis data analysis should be treated as part of the design, it
should happen simultaneously, as this decisions will need to be informed in the proposal. The
analysis should start and continue in each step of data gathering, creating a map that flows.
Researchers should never wait until the end of data collection to start the analysis rather the
contrary. Start the analyses as soon as you start the data gathering.
Strategies for qualitative data analysis Maxwell provides different strategies and
conceptual tools that can be used and issues in making the decisions about the analytical
methods. Reading, and listening to the interviews transcripts, observations, memos and notes
should be the first step. That will guide the researcher in developing relationships and
categories. Maxwell states that by doing that you will develop a number of analytic options
including memos, categorizing strategies and connecting strategies.
Part of the data
analysis may include and are not limited to reading and thinking about the observations and
interviews, notes, writing memos, creating categories and applying to the data, analyzing

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narrative structures, the contextual relationships, matrices, and other displays. All methods of
analyses will depend on the phenomena being study and what is that the researcher is trying to
understand. The use of the methods analysis must be strategic in order to fit the data gathered,
answer the research questions and address any validity and ethical issue.
Memos in particular not only serve as a reflection of the researchers goals, methods,
theory and experiences but also in data analysis as it facilitate and stimulate analytical thinking.
Maxwell also states the difference in similarity and contiguity. Similarity relations are
related to the resemblances; is the identification of categories based on comparisons of
similarities and differences. On the other hand contiguity relations relates to the influences of
one thing on another, and the connection between them. The latter develop a connecting strategy
and it can be identified among abstract concepts and categories as stated by Maxwell (p.106).
Coding is the main categorizing strategy of qualitative study. This process allows the
researcher to fracture and rearrange data to allow comparison between them and facilitate the
development of theoretical concepts. Themes and issues can also be forms of categorizing.
These are selected as important units of the data gathered, also called open coding. Once the
categories are developed they are compared within and between themselves. Maxwell makes a
distinction of planning the category analysis in organizational, substantive, and theoretical
categories.
Organizational categories are broad issues that the researcher wants to investigate
and help in ordering the data. Normally they are previously established based on
the thinking of your study and related topics. They have the functionality of bins
that helps the researcher in sorting the data for analysis, they do not specify what
was said or done by the participants only the broad issue.
Substantive categories are mainly descriptive and include descriptions of concepts
and beliefs expressed by participants. Emic categories for example are
expressions of the participants own words, meanings and understanding. This
categories help in developing a generalized theory of what is going on but they do
not depend on this theory.
Theoretical categories place the coded data in a general framework. They can
arise from a prior theory or an inductively developed theory. This is the category
that normally represents the researchers concepts other than the participants
concepts.
Developing those types of categories are important for the researcher not only to analyze
the data but also to later develop their conclusions. A common tool used to develop these
categories is a matrix structure that allows for organization according to the main research
questions, categories, themes and the data that support these. Matrix is based on coding the
categories and using those to sort the data, is a visual way to display the analysis and guide
researchers to the conclusions. It is essential though that researchers see the limitations of matrix
use as they can create blinders as to the original format of observations and interviews leading
the researcher to miss out on relationships in a particular context. For this reason researchers
should seek to connect strategies, trying to understand the data in context without the categories
or codes in order to look for the relationships existent.
Maxwell states, using the connecting strategy approach allows the researcher to look for
relationships that connect statements and events within a context into a coherent whole (p.113).
Both strategies, categorizing and connecting, should be used in order to provide a complete

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conclusion, as both provide important consequences for the overall design of the study. In
summary the analysis strategies must have compatibility with the questions of the research.
Computers and qualitative data analysis Computer-assisted qualitative data
analysis software (CAQDAS) is widely used as it helps researcher in storing, coding and
retrieving data. Some software can link codes or segments of text to memos, help in creating of
concept maps with the categories created which consequently help in the development of the
theory. The most helpful insight of these programs are on categorizing data, however not with
narratives or connecting approaches.
Linking Methods and Questions Maxwell states to design a workable and productive
study, and to communicate this design to others, you need to create a coherent design, one in
which the different methods fit together compatibly, and in which they are integrated with the
other components of your design (p.116). The most important connection to be made, which is
an empirical one, is with the research questions. The methods to be use must provide the data to
the questions asked, otherwise one of the two must be address and changed. A matrix design
linking the design is very helpful as it connects the questions, to the methods and its components
that will help the researcher in gathering the data in order to answer the questions.
6

Review Maxwell Chapter 6 Validity: How Might You Be Wrong?

Validity is the final component of the research design. It fundamentally relates to the
relationship of the conclusions of your study and the reality, no method that can be use can
assure that. It is a separate component than methods according to Maxwell. It focuses on the
key issues in the research design. It is related to the common sense, straightforward way to
address the credibility of the phenomena being studied, considering the conclusions,
interpretations, explanations of such. Validity does not assert for the truth of the phenomena and
is not focus on comparison, rather testing the possibility of your conclusions to the phenomena
trying to understand it and the chances of proving it wrong or in a different perspective.
Validity threat is a way of analyzing what might be wrong with the conclusions,
searching for different interpretations to analyze the data. It acquires the researcher to
conceptualize this threats and strategies used to discover if they are credible and how to deal with
them. Maxwell states, Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, rarely have the benefit of
previously planned comparisons, sampling strategies, or statistical manipulations that control
for plausible threats, and must try to address most validity threats after the research has begun,
using evidence collected during the research itself to make these alternative hypotheses
implausible (p.123). This will help the researcher in identifying the possible treats and searching
ways to address and deal with them.
Addressing validity is a key issue of the design and should not be taking as a superficial
method in the design, the researcher needs to make sure to not only address validity use such as
bracketing, member check and triangulation for example, but rather show that he/she has thought
through this strategies and how they apply to the study. Maxwell states, The main emphasis of
a qualitative proposal should be on how you will rule out specific plausible alternatives and
threats to your interpretations and explanations (p.124). Therefore the clear arguments
developed by the researcher are key and fundamental.
Bias - the subjectivity of the researcher it can be influential during the selection of data
that is relevant to the theory, goals, preconceptions, and for what stands out about the phenomena
being studied. In qualitative studies the researcher must address how a particular value and

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expectations may influence the conclusions of the study in order to avoid a negative consequence
for such. Explaining possible biases and how the researcher will deal with them is extremely
important in the study. How the integrate your bias accordingly in the study will help with
validity threats.
Reactivity the influence of the researcher in regards to the setting and participants being
studied. In qualitative studies researcher are not trying to control for the differences, however
the researcher must try to understand them and use them accordingly. During observations,
reactivity may not play a deep role, however in interviews this can be a serious issue, called
reflexivity, which is the when the research becomes a part of the world being studied, because
anything the participant say or do can and will be influenced by the researcher and the
relationship built. The most important thing is not to avoid the researcher influences and biases,
rather than understanding how they influence what the participant say and how they affect eh
validity of the gathered information fro the interviews.
Validity tests: A checklist Maxwell presents a list of strategies to rule our validity
threats and assures the credibility of the study. They do not verify the conclusions of the study;
rather test for validity of such and the potential threats. Researchers need to make use of them
explicitly and prove how they have thought through them, as not all of them can be used in every
study. Defining what specific validity threats are most serious and plausible is key in possibly
deciding how to use the best strategies.
Intensive, Long-Term Involvement with long-term observations of participants
researchers can obtain more complete data about the phenomena being studied
than any other form. It allows for more data and for possibilities to check and
confirm the interferences and observations. Allows it provides the possibility to
analyze alternative hypothesis and use of theory.
Rich Data rich data gathered with many observations and interviews provide a
variety and detail information that helps in understanding what is going on, within
the phenomena of study. Descriptive and detail notes, as well as observation of
the concrete events provide rich data that are grounds for testing of collusions.
Respondent Validation Member checks allows for the feedback about the data
and conclusions from the same participants of the study. This process helps the
researcher in making sure that the interpretations made are in fact what
participants perspectives were and their way of seeing what is going on. It also
helps researchers in identifying biases and misunderstanding of the observation
and data.
Intervention Informal interventions can be used in qualitative studies that lack a
formal treatment. In all studies the researchers presence by itself always allows
for a intervention sin some way and the effects of this presence can be used to test
ideas about the phenomena of study.
Searching for Discrepant Evidence and Negative Cases - A key part of testing
validity is to analyze and identify the discrepancy in data. The main focus should
be examining rigorously the supporting and discrepant data to either assure the
conclusions or modify such. A suggested idea is to ask others to review your data
and provide feedback on your conclusions in order to identify biases and flaws
regarding the assumptions in your logic or methods.
Triangulation colleting information from a diverse range of individuals and
settings, using a variety of methods (p.128). Triangulation helps the researcher

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in reducing the risk of association and biases due to use of a particular method as
well as allows for better understanding of what is going on with the phenomena.
Any type of data can provide flaws as to the phenomena being studied, the key
here is to triangulate in terms of validity threats. Evidence is the key and not the
methods used.
Numbers Statistics can help the study in making results more precise and
explicit. It helps the researcher in testing and supporting claims and assesses the
amount of evidence of your data that can provide a particular conclusion or threat.
Numbers also provide identification and communication of the diversity of
actions and perspectives in a setting and population of the phenomena studied.
Comparison multi-case studies can benefit of explicit comparisons Such
comparisonscan address one of the main objections to using qualitative
methods for understanding causality their inability to explicitly address the
counterfactual of what would have happened without the presence of the
presumed cause (p.129). In same cases, such as interview studies can
incorporate less formal comparisons however it still can happen in when
analyzing the participants experience with other settings in an earlier time.
Matrix use can help researchers in making focus and use of validity concerns and writing
a memo to explain it as well.
Generalization in Qualitative Research it refers to extending research results,
conclusions, or other accounts that are based on a study of particular individuals, settings,
times, or institutions to other individuals, settings, times, or institutions than those
directly studied: (p.136). Internal generalizability refers to the generalizability of the
conclusions within the phenomena studied. This is a key issue to qualitative case studies,
as the validity and conclusion depends on the generalization of the whole of the
phenomena in the study. A key issue for internal generalizability is to adequately
understand the variation in the phenomena of interest in the setting or group o people
studied (p.137).
The importance is that for qualitative studies the generalizability is not based on
explicit sampling usually, moreover on the development of the theory of the processes of
the case study, one that can still operate in other cases
7

Review Maxwell Chapter 7 Research Proposal: Presenting and Justifying a

Qualitative Study
Purpose, Purpose, Purpose! Maxwell states that the most important part of the research
proposal is for the researcher to have a clear idea of their design before even trying to develop a
proposal. In qualitative research the research design will develop and evolve over time as the
study is conducted and information is gathered. Nonetheless it is crucial for researchers to
develop and present with great significance and detail what you will do and be able to
communicate the research design. Researchers will need the required flexibility of the study and
how to approach and make future decisions. Researchers must demonstrate the ability to design
a coherent and feasible study, providing evidence that you are aware of the key issues in your
proposed research and ways of dealing with these, rather than requiring a completely worked-out
design (p.140).
The purpose of a proposal This proposal should be tied to the purpose of the proposal;
it is not a set format that is simply followed. Maxwell states, The purpose of a proposal is to

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explain and justify your proposed study to an audience of nonexperts on your topic (p.140). He
further adds four concepts to this statement:
Explain Clarity is the key concept You want your readers to clearly
understand what you plan to do (p.140).
Justify - Your proposal must be justified not only on how it will be developed but
the reasons for being done. You want the reader of your proposal to understand
not only what you plan to do, but why your rationale for how you plan to
conduct the study (p.140).
Your proposed study The proposal must directly represent the explanations and
justification of your study. Your proposal should be about your study, not the
literature, your research topic, or research methods in general (p.140).
Nonexperts Make sure that your proposal is clear to anyone that may read it and
is not a specialist in the subject of your study. You cant assume any particular
specialized knowledge on the part of your reader (p.141).
The proposal as an argument- this is simply another way of putting your proposal together. It
explains the logic behind your research. The important factor here is to be coherent, not only of
how the argument will have a logical flow, moving from one point to the other integrating the
components of your design as a whole, but also the researchers must be able to understand why
you are doing the research and what you are doing in order to convey it to the reader. Your
argument must be coherent and make sense to the readers, therefore it is suggested that the
researcher puts himself/herself in the readers shoes to analyze how they will perceive and
understand what you say. Researchers should always use straightforward language.
The relationship between your research design and your proposal argument Maxwell
explains the connection of his model of research design in one axis we have the conceptual
framework, research questions and methods. This focus on three important questions to be
answered by the researcher:
What do we already know or do?
How does this particular questions relate to what we already know or do?
Why select this particular method of investigation?
On the other side of the axis we have goals, research questions and validity, those propose
questions that the readers will scan for answers, as below:
What are we going to learn as the result of the proposed project that we do not already
know?
Why is it worth knowing?
How will we know that the conclusions are valid?
Maxwell emphasizes, the relationship among the components of your research design
constitute a crucial part of the argument of your proposal (p.142).
A model for proposal structure this model helps researcher to successfully communicate the
design for a qualitative study. Maxwell provides the relationship between research design and the
proposal structure infatuating the use of separate sections with names as an organizational tool.
This will allow for clear communication and justification of your research design.
The suggested format by Maxwell includes:
Abstract overview of your study and argument of your study.

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Introduction Presents the goals, and problems to be address, what you want to do and
why, overview of research questions and the kind of study you are proposing as well as
its structure.
Conceptual Framework This section must show how the study fits into what is already
known and its contribution to the understanding of the topic, as well as explain the
theoretical framework that informs your study. The main focus is to ground your study in
the relevant previous work and provide a clear view of your theoretical approach to the
phenomena of study. How is your study relevant? Identity the work that is most relevant
to your study and know all the literature that can be related to it. Literature review is
crucial at this point. Researchers personal view and experience are also relevant at this
point.
Research Questions stating the research questions is the core of your proposal. Here
researchers add a detail statement of the main research questions. Clarify the following:
1. How your questions relate to prior research and theory, to your experience and
exploratory research and to your goals.
2. How these questions form a coherent whole,, rather than being a random
collection of queries about your topic.
Research Methods researchers must explain and justify the decisions made in the
particular methods used. Why is this a reasonable choice? Use a description of the social
context of your study, and provide information of what resources you already have, what
you will need monetary funding, your qualifications and experiences, timetable and
budget among others. Some of the most common sections of the research methods
section at the proposal are:
1. Research design in the typological sense what type of study is this?
2. The research relationships you plan to establish with those you are studying.
Especially important if consider ethical or validity threats for the study.
3. Setting and participant selection. Why did you decide to study this particular
setting and participants?
4. Data collection. How will you gather the information you need in order to answer
the research questions?
5. Data analysis. What will you do to make sense of the data gathered?
Validity Researchers will have a section as to provide clarity in the explanation of
particular threats and strategically as to show the importance of validity.
Preliminary Results if the study has begun this section will help the researcher to
discuss the findings so far and the explanations of methodological decisions that will help
in answer the research questions.
Conclusion Summary of the previous information reminding readers of goals, how it
will contribute, potential relevance as well as implications for the field of study.
References references cited.
Appendices may include:
1. A timetable for the research
2. Letter of introduction or permission
3. Questionnaires, interview guide, or other instruments
4. A list of possible interviewees
5. A schedule of observations

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6. Descriptions of analysis techniques or software

7. A matrix of relationships among questions, methods, data and analysis strategies
8. Examples of observations notes or interview transcripts from pilot studies or
completed parts of the study
9. Detailed explanation of things such as particular data collection, analysis
techniques among others.
This chapter provides and detailed and direct overview of the entire book and the main
components of a qualitative research design. Most importantly it profoundly explains the
importance of communicating the design properly providing argument and justification with
logic of the proposal.

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Reference
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach.
Washington, DC: Sage Publications, Inc.