21 Electric Charge & Electric Field

21.1 Electric Charge

Electric Charge Is Conserved
Principle of conservation of charge:
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
If we rub together a plastic rod and a piece of fur, both initially uncharged, the
rod acquires a negative charge of the same magnitude, and the charges is not
created or destroyed, it is merely transferred from one body to another.
The second important principle is:
The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge
That is charge is quantized.

21.2 Conductors, Insulators, and Induced Charges

Charging by Induction
We can charge a metal ball using a copper wire and an electrically charged
plastic rod. In this process, some of the excess electrons on the rod are
transferred from it to the ball, leaving the rod with a smaller negative charge. But
there is a different technique in which the plastic rod can give another body a
charge of opposite sign without losing any of its own charge. This process is
called charging by induction.
An uncharged metal ball is supported on an insulating stand. When you bring a
negatively charged rod near it, without actually touching it, the free electrons in
the metal ball are repelled by the excess electrons on the rod, and they shift
toward the right, away from the rod. They cannot escape from the ball because
the supporting stand and the surrounding air are insulators. So we get excess
negative charge at the right surface of the ball and a deciency of negative
charge that is, a net positive charge) at the left surface. These excess charges
are called induced charges.
Not all of the free electrons move to the right surface of the ball because
electrons will be repelled by the negative induced charge and be attracted to the
positive induced charge. The system will thus reach an equilibrium state in which
the force toward the right on an electron is just balanced by the force toward the
left due to the induced charge.

Electric Forces on Uncharged Objects

We note that a charged body can exert forces even on objects that are not
changed themselves. This interaction is an induced-charge effect. Even in an
insulator, electric charges can shift back and forth a little when there is a charge
nearby. In a plastic comb, the negatively charged plastic comb causes a slight
shifting of charge within the molecules of the neutral insulator, an effect called
polarization. The positive and negative charges in the material are present in
equal amounts, but the positive charges are closer to the plastic comb and so
feel an attraction that is stronger than the repulsion felt by the negative charges,
giving a net attractive force.

21.3 Coulombs Law

Coulombs Law:
The magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them
In mathematical terms,

F=k

|q1 q2|
r

The absolute value bars are used because the charges can be either positive or
negative, while the force is always positive.

Fundamental Electric Constants

In principle we can measure the electric force between two equal charges at a
measured distance and use Coulombs law to determine the charge. Thus we
could regard the value of as an operational denition of the coulomb.
In SI units we usually write the constant as

1/ 4 pi 0 . From now on, we will

usually write Coulombs law as:

F=

1
|q1 q2|
4 0
r

Superposition of Forces
Coulombs law as we have stated it describes only the interaction of two point
charges. Experiments show that when two charges exert forces simultaneously
on a third charge, the total force acting on that charge is the vector sum of the
forces that the two charges would exert individually. This important property,
called the principle of superposition of forces, holds for any number of charges.
By using this principle, we can apply Coulombs law to any collection of charges.
Two of the examples at the end of this section use the superposition principle.

Strictly speaking, Coulombs law as we have stated it should be used only for
point charges in vacuum. If matter is present in the space between the charges,
the net force acting on each charge is altered because charges are induced in
the molecules of the intervening material.

21.4 Electric Field and Electric Forces

Electric Field
The electric force on a charged body is exerted by the electric eld created by
other charged bodies.
To nd out whether there is an electric eld at a particular point, we place a
small charged body at the point. If the test charge experiences an electric force,
then there is an electric eld at that point.

E=

F0
q0

Note that this equation is for point test charges only. The electric force
experienced by a test charge

q 0 can vary from point to point, so the electric

eld can also be different at different points. For this reason, it can only be used
only to nd the electric point on a point charge.

Electric Field of a Point Charge

If the source distribution is a point charge, it is easy to nd the electric eld that
it produces. We call the location of the charge the source point, and we call the
point where we are determining the eld the eld point. If we place a small test
charge at the eld point, at a distance from the source point, the magnitude of
the force is given by Coulombs law:

F0 =

1
|q q0|
4 0
r

The magnitude E at P is then

E=

1
|q|
4 0
r2

Using the unit vector, we can write a vector equation that gives both the
magnitude and direction

1
|q|
4 0

E=
r^
2
r

Since

can vary from point to point, it is not a single vector quantity, but an

innite set of vector quantities. An example of a vector eld.

In some situations the magnitude and direction of the eld (and hence its vector
components) have the same values everywhere throughout a certain region; we
then say that the eld is uniform in this region.
An important example of this is the electric eld inside a conductor. If there is an
electric eld within a conductor, the eld exerts a force on every charge in the
conductor, giving the free charges a net motion. By denition an electrostatic
situation is one in which the charges have no net motion. We conclude that in
electrostatics the electric eld at every point within the material of conductor
must be zero.

21.5 Electric-Field Calculations

The Superposition of Electric Fields
Principle of superposition of electric elds:
The total electric eld at is the vector sum of the elds at due to each point
charge in the charge distribution.
When charge is distributed along a line, over a surface, or through a volume, a
few additional terms are useful. For a line charge distribution we use

to

represent the linear charge density. When charge is distributed over a surface,
we use

to represent the surface charge density. And when charge is

distributed through a volume we use

(rho) to represent the volume charge

density.

21.6 Electric Field Lines

An electric eld line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of
space so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric-eld
vector at that point.
Electric eld lines show the direction of E at each point, and their spacing gives a
general idea of the magnitude of E at each point. Where E is strong, we draw
lines bunched closely together; where E is weaker, they are farther apart. At any
particular point, the electric eld has a unique direction, so only one eld line can
pass through each point of the eld. In other words, eld lines never intersect.
Electric eld lines are not the same as trajectories. Its a common misconception
that if a charged particle of charge q is in motion where there is an electric eld,
the particle must move along an electric eld line.
Because E at any point is tangent to the eld line that passes through that point,
it is indeed true that the force (F = qE) on the particle, and hence the particles
acceleration, are tangent to the eld line. But when a particle moves on a curved
path, its acceleration cannot be tangent to the path. So in general, the trajectory
of a charged particle is not the same as a eld line

22 Gausss Law
22.1 Charge and Electric Flux
Electric Flux and Enclose Charge
For the special cases of a closed surface in the shape of a rectangular box and
charge distributions made up of point charges or innite charged sheets, we
have found:
1. Whether there is a net outward or inward electric flux through a closed
surface depends on the sign of the enclosed surface
2. Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric flux through the
surface
3. The net electric flux is directly proportional to the net amount of charge
enclosed within the surface but is otherwise independent of the size of the
closed surface
The observations are qualitative statement of Gausss Law.

22.2 Calculating Electric Flux

Flux of a Uniform Electric Field
Consider a flat area A perpendicular to a uniform electric eld. We dene the
electric flux through this area to be the product of the eld magnitude E and the
area A:

E=EA
Roughly speaking, we can picture

in terms of the eld lines passing

through A.
We generalise our denition of electric flux for a uniform electric eld to

E=EAcos ()
Flux of a Non-uniform Electric Field
We calculate the electric flux through each element and integrate the results to
obtain the total flux:

E= EcosdA =
Ed
A

22.3 Gausss Law

Point Charge Inside a Spherical Surface
Gausss law states that the total electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the total (net) electric charge inside the surface.
Well start with the eld of a single positive point charge q. The magnitude E of
the electric eld is given by

E=

1
q
4 0
R

At each point of the surface, E is perpendicular to the surface, and its magnitude
is the same at every point. The total electric flux is the product of the eld
magnitude E and the total area

E=EA =

1
q
4 0
R

A=4 R

of the sphere:

( 4 R 2 )= q

The flux is independent of the radius R of the sphere. It only depends on the
charge q enclosed by the sphere.

Point Charge Inside a Non-spherical Surface

The general statement of Gausss Law:

E=
Ed
A=

Qencl
0

Remember that the closed surface in Gausss law is imaginary; there need not be
any material object at the position of the surface. We often refer to a closed
surface used in Gausss law as a Gaussian surface.
Gausss law can thus solve the question If the electric eld pattern is known in a
given region, what can we determine about the charge distribution in that
region? It provides a relationship between the electric eld on a closed surface
and the charge distribution within that surface. But in some cases we can use
Gausss law to answer the reverse question: If the charge distribution is known,
what can we determine about the electric eld that the charge distribution
produces?

22.4 Application of Gausss Law

Gausss law is valid for any distribution of charges and for any closed surface.
Gausss law can be used in two ways. If we know the charge distribution, and if it
has enough symmetry to let us evaluate the integral in Gausss law, we can nd
the eld. Or if we know the eld, we can use Gausss law to nd the charge
distribution, such as charges on conducting surfaces.

22.5 Charges on Conductors

Field at the Surface of a Conductor
In general, at any such point on the surface of a conductor, the direction of E is
always perpendicular to the surface.

23 Electric Potential
23.1 Electric Potential Energy
When a particle moves from a point where the potential energy is
point where it is
work

W ab

U b , the change in potential energy is

done by the force is:

Ua

U =U bU a

to a
and the

W a b=U aU b = U
This is the work done by a conservative force.

Electric potential Energy in a Uniform Field

The work done by the electric eld is:

W a b=Fd=q 0 Ed
Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges
Well rst consider a displacement along the radial line. The force on

q 0 is

given by Coulombs law, and its radial component is:

Fr =

1
q q 0
4 0
r2

Note that the force is not constant during the displacement, and we have to
integrate to calculate the work done on

q 0 by this force as

q 0 moves from a

to b:
rb

W a b=

1
q q 0
4 0
r

ra

dr=

q q0 1 1
( )
4 0 ra r b

We can see that this is equivalent if we dened the potential energy to be

U a=q q 0 /4 0 and
test charge

U b=q q 0 /4 0 . Thus the potential energy

when the

q 0 is at any distance r from charge q is:

1
q q 0
4 0
U=
r
We emphasise that the potential energy is a shared property of the two charges.
If the distance is changed, the change in potential is the same whether q is held
xed and the other moves, or if q is moved while the other is xed. For this
reason, we never use the phrase the electric potential energy of a point
charge. Likewise, if a mass m is at a height h above the earths surface, the
gravitational potential energy is a shared property of the mass m and the earth,

Elastic Potential Energy with Several Point Charges

q 0 q1 q2
q0
qi
U=
+ + =

4 0 r1 r2
4 0 i ri

This is the potential energy associated with the test charge

q 0 at a point a.

However, note that this gives us the potential energy associated with the
presence of the test charge

q 0 in the electric eld produced by

q1 , q2 , . But

there is also the potential energy involved in assembling these charges. We can
write this as:

U=

qi qj
1

4 0 i < j r ij

23.2 Electric Potential

Potential is potential energy per unit charge. We dene the potential to be:

V=

U
q0

It can also be noted that:

W a b U
=
=V a V b
q0
q0
The difference above is called the potential of a with respect to be, and is
abbreviated as:

V ab=V a V b

The equation above the states:

V ab is equal to

the work done by the electric force when a unit charge moves from a to b.

Calculating Electric Potential

Potential due to a single point charge:

1
q
U 4 0
V= =
q0
r
Potential due to a collection of point charges:

V=

qi
U
1
=

q 0 4 0 i r i

When we have a continuous distribution of charges along a line, over a surface

or through a volume, the sum becomes:

V=

1
dq

4 0
r

Finding Electric Potential from Electric Field

Sometimes it is easier to determine V from the electric eld. The force on a test
charge can be written as

F=q0 E , so then the electric force as the test charge

moves from a to b is given by

q0
W a b=
Fd l=
Ed l
a

Dividing by the charge yields

b

E cos dl
V aV b=
Ed l=
a

The value of

V aV b is independent of the path taken from a to b. If the

integral is positive then the electric eld does positive work on a positive test
charge as it moves from a to b. In this case the electric potential energy
decreases as the test charge moves, so the potential energy per unit charge
decreases as well, so the potential energy per unit charge decreases as well.

Electron Volts
When a particle with charge e moves through a potential difference of 1 volt the
change in potential energy is 1 eV.

23.3 Calculating Electric Potential

Whenever possible, solve problems using an energy approach, that is using
electric potential and electric potential energy rather than a dynamics approach,
using electric elds and electric forces.

Ionisation and Corona Discharge

Air molecules can become ionised and air becomes a conductor at an electric
eld magnitude of about 3,000,000 V/m.
Given the potential of the Earths surface
we note that

V surface =E surface R . If

Em

V surface

and eld magnitude

Esurface ,

represents the electric-eld magnitude

at which air becomes conductive (known as the dielectric strength of air), then
the maximum potential

Vm

to which spherical conductor can be raised is

V m=R E m
For a sphere 1cm in radius in air,

V m=(10 m)(310 V / m)=30,000 V . No amount

of charging could raise the potential of a conducting sphere of this size in air
higher than about 30,000V; attempting to raise the potential further by adding
charge would cause the surrounding air to become ionised and conductive, and
the extra charge would leak into the air.
To obtain even higher potentials, you use Van de Graff generators which uses
spherical terminals with very large radii. But with small radius of curvature, such
as a sharp point or thin wire, the maximum potential is proportional to radius,
and so small potentials applied to sharp points can produce sufficiently high
elds to ionise the surrounding air. The resulting current are called corona.

A large-radius conductor is used in situations where its important to prevent

corona. If there is an excess charge in the atmosphere, a substantial charge of
the opposite sign can build up on the blunt end of a metal lightning rod. When
the atmospheric charge is discharged through a lightning bolt, it tends to be
attracted to the charged lightning rod rather than to other nearby structures that
could be damaged.

23.4 Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the electric
potential V is the same at every point. If a test charge is moved from point to
point on such a surface, the electric potential energy

qV

remains constant.

When there is an electric eld present, we can construct an equipotential surface

through any point. No point can be at two different potentials, so equipotential
surfaces for different potentials can never tough or intersect.

Equipotential Surfaces and Field Lines

Because potential energy does not changes as a test charge moves over an
equipotential surface, the electric eld can do no work on such a charge. It
follows that the electric eld must be perpendicular to the equipotential surface
so that the electric force is always perpendicular to the displacement of a charge
moving on the equipotential surface.
Regions where the magnitude of the electric eld is large, the equipotential
surfaces are close together because the eld does a relatively large amount of
work on a test charge in a relatively small displacement.

In general, electric eld magnitude is not the same at all points on an

equipotential surface. For example, in the above diagram, for b, the equipotential
surface passes through many different electric eld magnitudes.

Equipotential and Conductors

When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is
always an equipotential surface. It also follows that when all
charges are at rest, the entire sold volume of a conductor is
at the same potential. This is because, the electric eld is 0
everywhere inside the conductor, and so the potential
difference between any two points is zero. Hence the
potential is the same for any two points within the solid
volume of the conductor.
This leads to the idea of a cavity in a conductor. If the cavity
contains no charge then every point in the cavity is at the
same potential, the electric eld is zero everywhere in the
cavity, and there is no charge anywhere on the surface of
the cavity.
Consider the two equipotential surfaces A and B which has a Gaussian surface
between them. We know that there is flux through
this Gaussian surface. Then Gaussian law would
say that the charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface cannot be zero. But this contradicts our
assumption that there is no charge in the cavity. So
the potential P cannot be different from that at the
cavity well.
The entire region of the cavity must therefore be at
the same potential. But for this to be true, the
electric eld inside the cavity must be zero
everywhere.

24 Capacitance and Dielectrics

24.1 Capacitors and Capacitance
Any two conductors separated by an insulator or a vacuum form a capacitor. In
most practical applications, each conductor initially has zero net charge and
electrons are transferred from one conductor to the other; this is called charging
the capacitor.
When we say that a capacitor has charge
higher potential has charge
charge

+Q

Q , we mean tht the conductor at

and the conductor at lower potential has

Q .

One way to charge a capacitor is to connect it to a battery. Once the charges are
established, this will give a xed potential difference
conductors that is equal to the voltage of the battery.

V ab

between the

The ratio of charge to potential difference is called the capacitance of the

capacitor:

C=

Q
V ab

The greater the capacitance of a capacitor, the greater the magnitude Q of the
charge on either conductor for a given potential difference and hence the greater
the amount of stored energy. Thus capacitance is a measure of the ability of a
capacitor to store energy.

Calculating Capacitance
The simplest form of a capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates, both
with area A, separated by a distance d that is small in comparison with their
dimensions, and inside a vacuum.
The electric eld can be expressed as:

E=

Q
=
0 0 A

The eld is uniform, so the potential difference between the two plates is:

1
Qd
0
V ab=Ed=
A
So the capacitance of a parallel=plate capacitor in a vacuum is:

C=

Q 0 A
=
V ab
d

Therefore, the capacitance depends only on the geometry of the capacitor; it is

directly proportional to the area A of each plate and inversely proportional to
their separation d. Thus in vacuum the capacitance is a constant independent of
the charge on the capacitor or the potential difference between the plates. Note
that C is measured in farads (F).

24.2 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Capacitors in Series
Two capacitors are connected in series by
conducting wires between points a and b. Both
capacitors are initially uncharged. When a
constant positive potential difference is applied
between points a and b, the capacitors become
charged; the gure shows that the charge on all
conducing plates has the same magnitude. To
see why, note that the top plate of

C1

acquires a positive charge Q. The electric eld

of this positive charge pulls negative charge up
to the bottom plate of

C1 . This requires that

the bottom plate have charge Q. These

negative charges had to come from the top
plate of

C2 , which becomes positively

charged with charge +Q. This then pulls

negative charge from the connection at point b
onto the bottom plate of
on the lower plate of
of

C2

C1

C2 . The total charge

and the upper plate

together must always be zero because these plates arent connected to

anything except each other. Thus in a series connection the magnitude of charge
on all plates is the same.
We can write the potential difference between points a and c, c and b, and a and
b as:

V ac =V 1=

Q
Q
V cb=V 2=
C1
C2

V ab=V =V 1+V 2=Q

1 1
+
C1 C 2

And so

V 1 1
= +
Q C 1 C2
The equivalent capacitance

C eq of the series combination is dened as the

capacitance of a single capacitor for which the charge Q is the same as for the
combination, when the potential difference is the same.

1
1 1 1
= + + +
C eq C 1 C2 C 3
In a series connection the equivalent capacitance is always less than any
individual capacitance.

Note that the magnitude of charge is the same on all plates of all the capacitors
in a series combination; however, the potential differences of the individual
capacitors are not the same unless their individual capacitances are the same.
The potential differences of the individual capacitors add to give the total
potential difference across the series combination:

V total=V 1 +V 2 + .

Capacitors in Parallel
In this case the upper plates of the two capacitors are
connected by conducting wires to form an
equipotential surface, and the lower plates from
another. Hence in a parallel connection the potential
difference for all individual capacitors is the same and
is equal to

V ab=V . The charges are not necessarily

equal. The charges are:

Q1=C 1 V Q 2=C2 V
The total charge Q of the combination, and thus the
total charge on then equivalent capacitor, is

Q=Q 1 +Q 2=( C 1 +C2 ) V

So

Q
=C 1 +C2
V
The parallel combination is equivalent to a single capacitor with the same total
charge

Q=Q1 +Q2

and potential difference V as the combination. Then

equivalent capacitance is the same as the capacitance

Q/V

of this single

equivalent capacitor. So:

C eq=C 1+ C2 +C 3+
Note that the potential differences are the same for all the capacitors in a
parallel combination; however, the charges on individual capacitors are not the
same unless their individual capacitances are the same.

24.3 Energy Storage in Capacitors and Electric-Field Energy

Applications of capacitors depend on their ability to store energy. The electric
potential stored is equal to the amount of work required to change it that is to
separate opposite charges and place them on different conductors. When the
capacitor is discharged, this stored energy is recovered as work done by
electrical forces.

We can calculate the potential energy of a charged capacitor by calculating the

work required to charge it. Let q and v be the charge and potential difference, at
an intermediate stage during the charging process; then v =q /C . At this stage,
the work required to transfer additional element of charge is

dW =v dq=

q dq
C

The total work needed to increase the capacitor charge from zero to a nal value
of Q is
W

W = dW=
0

1
Q
q dq=

C 0
2C

This is also equal to the work done by the electric eld on the charge when the
capacitor discharges.
Note that the nal stored charge is

Q=CV , so we can express U (which is

equal to W) as:

U=

Q2 1
1
= C V 2= QV
2C 2
2

Electric-Field Energy
We can charge a capacitor by moving electros from one plate to another. This
requires doing work against the electric eld between the plates. Thus we can
think of the energy as being stored in the eld in the region between the plates.
The energy density is the energy per unit volume:

1
C V2
2
u=Energy density=
Ad
1
2
u= 0 E
2
It turns out that this relationship is valid for any capacitor in vacuum and indeed
for any electric eld conguration in vacuum.
Note that its a common misconception that electric-eld energy is a new kind of
energy, different from the electric potential energy described before. This is not
the case; it is simply a different way of interpreting electric potential energy. We
can regard the energy of a given system of charges as being a shared property
of all the charges, or we can think of the energy as being a property of the
electric eld that the charges create.

24.4 Dielectrics
Most capacitors have a non-conducting material, or dielectric, between their
conducting plates. A common type of capacitor uses long strips of metal foil for
the plates, separated by strips of plastic sheet such as Mylar.
A solid dielectric between the plates serves three functions
1. It helps maintains two large metal sheets at a very small separation
without actual contact
2. It increases the maximum possible potential difference between the
capacitor plates. This is due to the fact that any insulating material, when
subjected to a sufficiently large electric eld, experiences a partial
ionization that permits conduction through it. This is called dielectric
breakdown. Thus using a dielectric allows a capacitor to sustain a higher
potential difference V
3. The capacitance of a capacitor of given dimensions is greater when there
is a dielectric material between the plates than when there is vacuum.
The dielectric constant of a material is dened as:

K=

C
C0

When the charge is constant, the equation can be written as

V=

V0
K

With the dielectric present the potential difference for a given charge is reduced
by a factor K.
Note that no real dielectric is a perfect insulator, and there is always some
leakage current between the charged plates of a capacitor with a dielectric. But
we typically ignore this effect.

Induced Charge and Polarization

When a dielectric material is inserted between
the plates, the potential difference changes to:

E=

E0
K

Since the electric-eld magnitude is smaller

when the dielectric is present the surface
charge density must be smaller as well. The
surface charge on the conducting plates does
not change, but an induced charge of the
opposite sign appears on each surface of the
dielectric because of polarisation. We will
assume that the induced surface charge is
directly proportional to the electric eld in the
material.
Denoting the magnitude of the charge per unit
area induced on the surface of the dielectric
by

i . The magnitude of the surface charge

density by . Then the net surface charge

on each side of the capacitor has magnitude

( i ) . The eld between the plates is

E= net / 0 . Without and with the

related to the net surface charge density by

dielectric, we have:

E 0=
Using

E=
0
0
E=E 0 / K :

i= 1

1
K

When K is large the induced surface charge is nearly as large as the surface
charge. In this case, the two electric eld cancels, and the eld and potential
difference are much smaller than their values in vacuum.
The capacitance when the dielectric is present is given by:

C=K C0=

K 0 A A
=
d
d

The electric eld density:

1
1
u= K 0 E2= E2
2
2

25 Current, Resistance, and Electromotive Force

25.1 Current
The direction of Current Flow
Note that current is not a vector. Although we refer to the direction of a current,
current is not a vector quantity. The current is always along the length of the
wire, regardless of whether the wire is straight or curved.

I=

dQ
dt

Current, Drift Velocity and Current Density

Suppose there are n moving charged particles per unit volume.
We call n the concentration of particles; its SI unit is

Assume that all particles move with the same drift velocity
with magnitude v d . In a time interval dt , each particle
moves a distance v d dt . The particles that flow out of the
right end of the cylinder with length

v d dt

during

dt

are

the particles that were within this cylinder at the beginning of

the interval dt . The volume of the cylinder is
the number of particles within it is
has a charge q, the charge
the cylinder during time

dt

dQ

A v d dt , and

nA v d dt . If each particle

that flows out of the end of

is:

dQ=q ( nA v d dt )=nq v d Adt

And the current is

I=

dQ
=nq v d A
dt

The current per unit cross-sectional area is called the current density:

J=

I
=nq v d
A

If the moving charges are negative rather than positive, the drift velocity is
opposite to E. But the current is still in the same direction as E at each point in
the conductor. Hence the current and current density dont depend on the sign of
the charge, and so we should actually get the formula:

I=

dQ
=n|q| v d A
dt

J=

I
=n|q|v d
A

We can also dene a vector current density:

J =nq vd
Note that current density is a vector, but current is not. The difference is that
current density describes how charges flow at a certain point, and the vectors
direction tells you about the direction of the flow at that point. But contrast, the
current describes how charges flow through an extended object such as a wire.
For example, current has the same value at al points in the circuit, but current
density does not: the current density is directed downward in the left-hand side
of the loop and upward in the right-hand side. The magnitude of current density
can also vary around a circuit.

25.2 Resistivity
We dene the resistivity of a material as the ratio of the magnitudes of electric
eld and current density:

E
J

The greater the resistivity, the greater the eld needed to cause a given current
density, or the small the current density caused by a given eld.
The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity.

25.3 Resistance
We can write the equation:

E= J
When Ohms law is obeyed,

is constant and independent of the magnitude

of the electric eld, so the electric eld is proportional to the current density.
Using

E=V /L , and

I =JA , we get:

V I
L
= V = I
L A
A
So when

is constant, the total current is proportional to the potential

difference.
The resistance is dened as

If

R=

V
I

R=

L
A

is constant, then so is R.

It is important to understand that the real content of Ohms law is the direct
proportionality of V to I, or of J to E.

25.4 Electromotive Force and Circuits

For a current to have a steady current, it must be part of a path that forms a
closed loop or complete circuit.

Electromotive Force
The influence that makes current flow from lower to higher potential is called
electromotive force. Note that emf is not a force but an energy-per-unit-charge
quantity, like potential.
Every complete circuit with a steady current must include a device that provides
emf. Such a device is called a source of emf.
In an ideal source of emf, we have

V ab=E
By extension, we have:

E=V ab =IR
That is when a positive charge q flows around the circuit, the potential rise E as it
passes through the ideal source is numerically equal to the potential drop

V ab=IR

as it pass through the remainder of the circuit.

Its a common misconception that in a closed circuit, current is sometime that is

consumed by the time it reaches the negative terminal. In fact, the current is the
same at every point in a simple loop circuit, even if the thickness of the wires is
different at different points in the circuit. This happens because charge is
conserved and because charge cannot accumulate in the circuit devices we have
described. If charge did accumulate, the potential differences would change with
time.

Internal Resistance
The potential difference across a real source in a circuit is not equal to the emf.
The reason is that the charge moving through the material of any real source
encounters resistance, called internal resistance, denoted by r. As the current
moves through r, it experiences an associated drop in potential equal to Ir. Thus,
when a current is flowing through a source from the negative terminal b to the
positive terminal a, the potential difference between the terminal is:

V ab=EIr
The potential called the terminal voltage, is less than the emf because of the
term Ir representing the potential drop across the internal resistance r.
A 1.5V battery has an emf on 1.5V, but the terminal voltage of the battery is
equal to 1.5V only if no current is flowing through it, so that I = 0. If the battery is
party of a complete circuit, through which current is flowing, the terminal voltage
will be less than 1.5V.
The current in the external circuit connected to source terminals a and b is still

V ab=IR , thus we have:

determined by

EIr =IRI =

R +r

Potential Changes Around a Circuit

The net change in potential energy for a charge q making a round trip around a
complete circuit must be zero. Hence the net change in potential around the
circuit must also be zero; in other words, the algebraic sum of the potential
differences and emfs around the loop is zero. We see this by rewriting the above
equation:

EIr IR=0
A potential gain of E is associated with the emf, and potential drops of Ir and IR
are associated with the internal resistance of the source and the external circuit
respectively.

25.5 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

The time rate of energy transfer is power:

P=V ab I
Power Input to a Pure Resistance
The electrical power delivered to a resister by the circuit is:
2

P=V ab I =I R=

V 2ab
R

In this case, the potential at a (where the current enters the resistor) is always
higher than at b (where the current exits). Current enters the higher-potential
terminal of the device, and power represents the rate of transfer of electric
potential energy into the circuit element.
The energy lost is a result of moving charges colliding with atoms in the resistor,
increasing the internal energy of the material. Either the temperature of the
resistor increases or there is a flow of heat out of it, or both. In any of these
cases energy is dissipated in the resistor at a rate

I2 R .

26 Direct-Current Circuits
26.1 Resistors in Series and Parallel
Resistors in Series
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of
their individual resistance.

Req =R1 + R2 + R3 +
Resistors in Parallel
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance equals the sum of the reciprocals of
their individual resistance.

1
1 1 1
= + + +
R eq R 1 R2 R3

26.2 Kirchhoffs Rules

A junction in a circuit is a point where three or more
conductors meet. A loop is any closed conducting path.
Kirchhoffs junction rule: The algebraic sum of the
currents into any junction is zero. That is,

I =0
Kirchhoffs loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential
differences in any look, including those associated with
emfs and those of resistive elements, must equal zero.
That is,

V =0
No charge can accumulate at a junction, so the total
charge entering the junction per unit time must equal
to the total charge leaving per unit time.

Sign Conventions for the Loop Rule

Positive emf is the direction where a proton would move in the loop, this is
because the battery is doing positive work on the proton. In a resistor, in the
same direction, it is negative because the resistor is doing negative work on the
proton.

26.4 R-C Circuits

Charging a Capacitor
A circuit with a resistor and a capacitor in series is called an R-C circuit. We
idealised the batter to have a constant emf and zero internal resistance, and
neglect the resistance of the connecting conductors.

We being with the capacitor initially uncharged. At this time,

v ab

the voltage

across the resistor is equal to the battery

emf. The current through the resistor is given by Ohms law:

I0 =

v ab
=/ R .
R

When we close the switch to complete the circuit and

charge the capacitor, its voltage increases and the potential
difference across the resistor decreases, corresponding to a
decrease in current. The sum of these two voltages is
constant and equal to the emf. When the capacitor is fully
charged, the current decreases to zero, and the potential
difference across the resistor becomes zero, and the entire
battery emf appears across the capacitor.
The instantaneous potential differences are

v ab =iR v bc =

q
C

Using Kirchhoffs loop rule, we nd

q
emf iR =0
C
Solving for I gives

i=

emf
q

R
RC

When the capacitor is fully charged, I = 0, and so

Q=Cemf
Time Constant
After a time equal to RC, the current in the R-C circuit has decreased to 1/e
(about 0.368) of its initial value. At this time, the capacitor charge has reached
(1-1/e) = 0.632 of its nal value

Qf =Cemf . We call RC the time constant or

the relaxation time of the circuit:

=RC
When RC is small, the capacitor charges quickly; when it is larger, the charging
takes more time. If the resistance is small, its easier for current to flow, and the
capacitor charges more quickly.

Strictly speaking current never becomes zero, but it

does approach zero.

Discharging a Capacitor
After the capacitor is charged, when this is
connected with a circuit it will discharge through the
resistor and its charge eventually decreases to zero.
The charges as a function of time:
t / RC

q=Q0 e

The instantaneous current is

i=I 0 et / RC
Note that the actual current in this circuit is from the
negative plate to the positive plate, and so current is
negative.
The total energy supplied by the battery during
charging of the capacitor equals the battery emf
multiplied by the total charge, or
is

Qf . The total energy stored in the capacitor

Qf /2 , and is exactly half of the energy supplied by the battery, while the

other half is dissipated in the resistor.

26.5 Power Distribution Systems

Circuit Overloads and Short Circuits
The maximum current available from an individual circuit is limited by the
resistance of the wires.
Protection against overloading and overheating is provided by fuses or circuit
breakers. A fuse contains a link of alloy with a very low melting temperature; the
link melts and breaks the circuit when its rated current is exceeded. A circuit
breaker is an electromechanical device that uses an electromagnet to trip the
breaker and interrupt the circuit when the current exceeds a specic value.
Circuit breakers can be rest after they are tripped, while a blown fuse must be
replaced.

Contact between the hot and neutral sides of the line causes a short circuit. Such
a situation provides a very low resistance current path, permitting a very large
current that would melt the wires if it were not interrupted by a fuse.
When a broken wire interrupts the current path, creating an open circuit, is
equally dangerous because sparking can occur at the point of intermittent
contact.
Fuse or breaker is placed only on the hot side of the line never in the neutral.
Otherwise, the hot side would still be live while the ground side is blown.
The ground wire normally carries no current, but it connects the metal case or
frame of the device to ground. If a conductor on the hot side of the line
accidentally contacts the frame or case, the grounding conductor provides a
current path, and the fuse blows. Without the ground wire, the frame could
become live.

Household and Automotive Wiring

A three-wire line has two lines both at 120 V with respect to the neutral but with
opposite polarity, giving a voltage of 240 V between them. The third line is
neutral.