Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 12191227

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Business Research

Why male and female shoppers do not see mall loyalty through the same
lens? The mediating role of self-congruity
Narjes Haj-Salem a,, Jean Charles Chebat b, Richard Michon b, Sandra Oliveira c
a
b
c

College of Business Administration, University of Sharjah, P. O. Box 27272 Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
HEC Montral, 3000, Chemin de la Cte-Sainte-Catherine, Montral, QC, H3T 2A7, Canada
Ted Rogers School of Management, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 9 April 2013
Received in revised form 22 September 2015
Accepted 23 September 2015
Available online 6 November 2015
Keywords:
Mall loyalty
Gender
Self-congruity
Identication with the mall
Atmosphere

a b s t r a c t
What factors drive mall loyalty of male and female shoppers? A literature-based model was tested in two North
American shopping malls (regular and upscale) with 905 shoppers (476 women and 429 men). The ndings reveal that atmosphere affects mall loyalty and shoppers' identication with the mall. In the case of male shoppers,
the drivers of mall loyalty are mall atmosphere, prices, and identication with the mall. With female shoppers,
the drivers are mall's atmosphere, its physical design, and the perceived quality of products and services. The
ndings should guide managers in the allocation of resources to enhance mall image and attract more male
shoppers.
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Gender, environment and mall loyalty

Shopping malls embrace retail establishments as diverse as neighborhood and community centers (e.g., Cornelius, Oregon) catering to
limited trade areas for convenience purposes; theme and festival
centers (e.g., Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota) providing
entertainment; and manufacturers outlet centers (e.g., Reading,
Pennsylvania).
A common problem of malls of all types and sizes is their relative decline over the years (BloombergBusiness, 2015). Since 2009, the general
press has been replete with stories about dead malls. The popular
website deadmalls.com reported nearly 300 dead or dying shopping
malls in the United States. How to avoid the death spiral becomes a
key issue for mall managers.
Identication with the mall is one of the strategic levers that contribute to attracting shoppers and keeping them loyal. Shoppers enjoy
shopping at malls they identify with, and that reects their personal
identity (El Hedhli, Chebat, & Sirgy, 2013). This study focuses on the
factors that affect identication with the mall, which in turn affects
mall loyalty.
Scholars have recognized that gender is an important individual difference variable especially in shopping contexts (Otnes & McGrath,

2001; Noble, Grifth, & Adjei, 2006; McCrory & Mitsis, 2013). This
study contributes to the literature by an investigation of factors that
inuence male (vs. female) shoppers' identication with a mall.
Since malls traditionally have been designed for women (Underhill,
2004), it is no wonder that male shoppers account for only 33% of the
shopping mall clientele (ICSC, 2012). To attract more men, mall managers need to understand which factors contribute to enhancing malls'
loyalty for men in comparison with women. This question is especially
relevant since malls represent 53.6% of the retail sector (ICSC, 2014),
and research on retail venues has rarely examined shopping malls
specically (Evans, Christiansen, & Gill, 1996).
Based on the literature review, this study proposes that gender moderates the relations between mall environmental cues and the three
major perceptual constructs (i.e., service quality, merchandise quality
and price). In turn, these perceptual constructs affect mall loyalty. The
proposed model also includes the mediating role identication with
the mall captured by self-congruity.
The following sections provide the conceptual foundations for the
research hypotheses and present the research data.
2. Conceptual framework: the drivers of mall loyalty
2.1. Model overview

Corresponding author. Tel.: +971 6 505 0575.

E-mail addresses: nhajsalem@sharjah.ac.ae (N. Haj-Salem),
jean-charles.chebat@hec.ca (J.C. Chebat), sandra.oliveira@hec.ca (R. Michon),
rmichon@ryerson.ca (S. Oliveira).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.09.011
0148-2963/ 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The two basic tenets of the proposed model are the following.
(1) The environmental cues of the shopping mall affect the three
mall-related perceptual constructs (i.e., price, product, and service

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N. Haj-Salem et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 12191227

quality) through self-congruity, which in turn affects mall loyalty.

(2) Shoppers gender moderates these relations.
Baker (Baker, Grewal, & Parasuraman, 1994; Baker, Parasuraman,
Grewal, & Voss, 2002) considers three factors as environmental antecedents of shoppers' behavior: physical design, ambient factors or
atmosphere, and social factors. Design represents the functional (layout,
comfort) and esthetic dimensions (architecture, color, materials). The
ambient factors are a combination of cues that affect the senses
(e.g., scents, music, lighting, temperature). The social factors include
all human interactions between shoppers and service personnel.
Ambience and design have an impact on (1) the store image, (2) the
emotional link with the store and (3) the amount of money spent
(e.g., Turley & Milliman, 2000).
Baker et al. (2002) consider that these three environmental factors
affect the three perceptual constructs (i.e., service quality, merchandise
quality and price perception). In other words, environmental cues
convey a meaning about prices and product or service quality, which
affect mall loyalty. However, the extant research does not specify
which environmental cues affect which perceptual constructs.
The model suggests that these perceptual constructs affect mall loyalty (Fig. 1). It hypothesizes that identication with the mall captured
by self-congruity plays a key mediating role between the environmental
factors and the three perceptual constructs (Fig. 2), as proposed by the
retailing literature reviewed below. This research focuses on the moderating role of gender since males and females are likely to react in different ways to malls' environmental cues.
The next sections examine the mediating and moderating hypotheses on the relationship between the dependent construct (i.e., mall
loyalty), the additional mediating construct (self-congruity with the
mall) and the moderating effects of gender.
2.2. Mall image
While the retailing literature includes many studies related to store
image (e.g., Chebat, Sirgy, & St-James, 2006; Darden & Babin, 1994;
Kunkel & Berry, 1968), few researchers have dealt with the specic
issue of mall image (e.g., Chebat et al., 2006; Downs & Haynes, 1984;
El Hedhli & Chebat, 2009).
The extant literature shows that shoppers infer mall image from
(1) the reputation and selection of retail tenants (Babin, Chebat, &
Michon, 2004); (2) the quality of the offer (services, prices, opening

Environment
Constructs

Physical
Design

hours, products); (3) physical layout, including design, ease of circulating, visual appearance, and perceived crowding (Downs, 1970); and
(4) ambient atmosphere (Howell & Rogers, 1980). Though mall image
is a critical determinant of consumer patronage decisions (Finn &
Louviere, 1996; Sit, Merrilees, & Birch, 2003), mall loyalty is a more relevant concept in the present research, as shown in the following paragraphs. However, the effects of mall image on mall loyalty are not
direct; they are mediated by shoppers' identication with the mall.
3. The role of shoppers' identication with the mall
The current research posits that self-identication affects shoppers'
attraction to a particular mall. Shoppers' identication with the mall is
the degree to which shoppers see themselves as the kind of person for
whom the mall is designed.
Self-identication with the store is a major element in the shopping
literature. It affects brand preference, choice, satisfaction (e.g., El Hedhli
et al., 2013; Sirgy et al., 1997; Sirgy & Johar, 1999); buying processes
(Onkvisit & Shaw, 1987); store preference (Stern, Bush, & Hair, 1977);
attitude toward preferred stores (Sirgy et al., 1997; Sirgy & Johar,
1999); and the perceived quality of the stores located within the mall
(Chebat et al., 2006).
Shoppers infer characteristics of the mall's typical shoppers
(e.g., social class, gender, generation, and lifestyle) from retail environment cues and compare store image with their own self-image. Shoppers' identication with stores depends on certain environmental
characteristics, such as promotions, location, service, price and atmosphere (Sirgy, Grewal, & Mangleburg, 2000). The mediating role of selfcongruity has been shown empirically in the stores' context (Chebat
et al., 2006): the higher the self-congruity the more likely the stores
would be perceived as being high quality. The extant literature does
not indicate which of the three mall environment components (design,
employees, and atmosphere) affect shopper identication with the mall.
4. Gender as a moderating factor
Gender is a major element in the shopping literature: Gender is the
only successful demographic variable explaining why women are more
frequent shoppers than men (Pan & Zinkhan, 2006: 238). From the female lens, shopping is a social and pleasurable activity. Males are
more achievement oriented and mostly see shopping as a task or

Perceptual
Constructs

H1a1

Perceived
Mall Loyalty

Product
Quality

H1a2
H1a3

H2a

H1b1
H1b2

Atmosphere

H2b

H1c1

H2c

H1c2

Employees

H1c3

Mall Loyalty

Prices

H1b3

Service
Quality

Fig. 1. Research hypotheses (basic model).

N. Haj-Salem et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 12191227

Environment
Constructs

Identification
w. Mall

Physical
Design

1221

Perceptual
Constructs

Perceived
Mall Loyalty

Product
Quality

H3a

H2a

Atmosphere

H3b

SelfCongruity

Mall Loyalty

Prices
H2b

H3c

H2c

Employees

Service
Quality

Moderation: H4: Two Groups

Female and Male Shoppers

Fig. 2. Research hypotheses (mediated and moderated model).

work that they have to get take care of quickly (Noble et al., 2006). The
current model proposes that gender plays a signicant moderating role
in the relation between the environmental components and the perceptual dimensions.
The existing literature shows mostly the direct effects of gender on
(1) shopping behavior and attitudes (e.g., Kuruvilla, Joshi, & Shah,
2009; Lim & Sharon, 2011); (2) shopping (Noble et al., 2006); (3) the
way shoppers evaluate products (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman,
1988); (4) process shopping information within the store (Cleveland
et al., 2003) and on-line (Hasan, 2010); (5) information related to
waynding in malls (Chebat, Glinas-Chebat, & Therrien, 2005 and
Chebat, Gelinas-Chebat, & Therrien, 2008); (6) prices (Schneider,
Rodgers, & Bristow, 1999); and (7) to salespersons' inuence (Goff,
Bellenger, & Stojak, 1994).
The literature review does not show the moderating effects of gender
on the relations between retail environment and shoppers' attitudes
and behavior. Thus, it is difcult to elaborate hypotheses related to the
moderating effects of gender directly from the existing literature. The
following reasoning supports the moderating assumption.
Many studies show that shopping in a mall generates more excitement for female shoppers than for male shoppers (e.g., Hu & Jasper,
2004; McCrory & Mitsis, 2013). Female shoppers show more positive attitudes toward entertainment elements of the mall in comparison to
males (e.g., Jackson, Stoel, & Brantley, 2011). They have more hedonic
motivations to shop ofine (Davis, Lang, & San Diego, 2014) and are
more likely to enjoy the social atmosphere of the mall (Breazeale &
Lueg, 2011). The very activity of shopping generates a higher enjoyment
and willingness to stay and return among female shoppers (Teller &
Thomson, 2012).
The literature-based model proposed by Chebat (2002) offers some
guidelines for the hypotheses. Stimulation triggers information processing (Chebat, 2002:32), and pleasure enhances attention to quality cues
(Chebat, 2002:35). A recent study by Wang, Lu-Hsin, and Wysong
(2012) conrms the relation. Shoppers showing a higher optimal stimulation level (OSL) also exhibit signicantly more positive evaluations
of a store's ambiance, design and layout and signicantly less negative
perceptions of retail density. They experience increased hedonic value,
spend more money and stay longer in retail stores than those with a
low OSL (Wang et al., 2012). Since female shoppers display a higher
level of excitement in malls (e.g., Hu & Jasper, 2004; Jackson et al.,
2011), this study assumes that female shoppers process a wider variety

of cues from which they infer the perception of quality and the degree to
which the mall ts their needs.
In addition, since male shoppers buy impulsively (Dittmar, Beattie, &
Friese, 1995), especially in malls, where they spend less time than female shoppers do (Hu & Jasper, 2004), they are likely to process fewer
cues in stores and malls than female shoppers do. Men also process
fewer cues emanating from persuasive messages and in a shallower
manner (Meyers-Levy & Sternthal, 1991). This study argues that male
shoppers are more likely to make inferences from peripheral cues, in
the sense of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (e.g., Petty, Cacioppo,
Strathman, & Priester, 1994), such as the physical design and the atmosphere. It is also assumed that men will make inferences from price as a
peripheral cue, as already shown by Rao and Monroe (1989). Price as an
indicator of value is more common among low-involved buyers, which
is the case of male shoppers (Fischer & Arnold, 1990). The use of such
heuristics makes male shoppers able to make faster choices and spend
less time in shopping venues, especially malls (Hu & Jasper, 2004).
On the other hand, female shoppers are likely to be more sensitive to
central cues such as product and service quality.
In the same vein, no studies have yet explored specically which
mall's environmental components make male (vs. female) shoppers
identify more with the mall. The study by Hu and Jasper (2004) is the
exception: men identify with malls where stores sell sports goods,
gadgets, electronics, and technology products. Fashion shows and arts/
crafts fairs in malls attract women but not men. Probably males do not
shop in malls as much as females do, mostly because malls are perceived
as a feminine environment with which male shoppers nd it difcult to
identify. This question of identication with malls by male-vs.-female
shoppers is of utmost importance to both the retailing literature and
retailing management since some environmental cues may affect the
identication of female shoppers positively with a given mall but negatively the identication of male shoppers, which may reduce their retail
patronage.
5. Research hypotheses
5.1. Direct effects of the mall environment cues on the three
perceptual constructs
Store design and physical environment impact shoppers' perception
of product and service quality, and employees' attitudes (Bitner, 1992;

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Turley & Milliman, 2000). Store design affects shoppers' perception of

merchandise quality (e.g., Baker et al., 2002) and price (Baker et al.,
2002). Quality malls' atmosphere is a signal of higher prices (Baker
et al., 1994 and Baker et al., 2002; Chebat et al., 2006).
Atmosphere affects the perception of service and product quality
(e.g., Baker et al., 2002). This relation is called metapackaging by
Michon, Chebat, and Turley (2005) since these factors play the same
role as ordinary packaging. Similarly, atmosphere affects monetary
price perceptions (Baker et al., 2002). The way employees interact
with shoppers affects perceived service quality (Zeithaml et al., 1988)
and shoppers' perception of merchandise quality (Akhter, Andrews, &
Durvasula, 1994).
The literature on environmental cues leads to the rst hypothesis
related to the direct link between the three environmental components
and the three perceptual constructs:
H1: The mall environment (i.e., design, ambiance, and personnel)
affects the three perceptual constructs of the mall (i.e., product quality,
prices, and service quality).
5.2. Mediating effects of the perceptual constructs
Perceptual constructs (product quality, prices, and production quality) are expected to mediate the effects of environmental cues on mall
loyalty, as proposed and shown by Baker et al. (2002). In other words,
shoppers make inferences from the mall's environment to the three perceptual constructs, which in turn have an effect on mall loyalty. Environmental cues convey meanings in terms of quality and price, and these
meanings are translated into mall loyalty.
H2: The three perceptual constructs (i.e., merchandise quality,
prices, and service quality) mediate the effects of mall environment on
loyalty to the mall.
Fig. 1 illustrates these rst research hypotheses.

will infer the value of the mall from central cues, that is, product and
service quality.
H4: Gender moderates the effects of the environmental cues and the
perceptual cues on self-congruity and mall loyalty.
The mediated and moderated models hypothesized in H3 and H4 are
outlined in Fig. 2.

6. Research method
6.1. Context, procedure, and sample
Unlike lab studies focusing on similar constructs (e.g., Baker et al.,
1994, 2002), the research data was collected in shopping malls with actual shoppers, which enhances the ecological validity of the present
ndings. In order to create variance in the environmental factors, two
shopping centers were included in the study, one regular, and one upscale mall. Their size was 560,000 and 830,000 square feet, respectively.
Both are located in a large urban metropolitan area in North America.
The mall intercept technique was used because it allows some control over the studied environment (Gates & Solomon, 1982). Participants were intercepted by trained graduate marketing students and
were invited to sit down at a kiosk where they were served coffee,
juice, and mufns. The questionnaires were self-administered by respondents, and data were collected at different days of the week and
different times of the day to improve randomness and account for
mall trafc. During the data collection, mall administrators agreed to
limit promotions in the malls, to help avoid any interference of exogenous variables.
A total of 905 usable questionnaires were collected. 53.9% of the respondents were between 18 and 34 years old. Females accounted for
52.7% of the cohort. Questionnaire administration took about 15 min.

5.3. Mediating effects of self-congruity

6.2. Measures
This study proposes that self-congruity mediates the effects of the
environmental constructs on the perceptual constructs. The better the
service offered by the mall's employees, the more shoppers feel at
home and identify with the mall. Similarly, self-congruity mediates
the effects of employees on product and service quality.
Employees' appearance and behavior signal the quality of products
and services offered in the mall. If these employees' cues do not t
shoppers' own self-perceptions, the prices may be perceived as inappropriate. For instance, if employees are dressed excessively well, some
shoppers may feel that the mall is not designed for them and that prices
are likely to be too high, and vice versa.
The ndings by Massicotte, Michon, Chebat, Sirgy, and Borges
(2011) show the mediating effects between mall atmosphere and mall
loyalty. Similarly, self-congruity mediates the effects of atmosphere on
the three perceptual constructs. In the same way, design may affect
price perceptions through self-congruity. Upscale mall design signals
high prices, but shoppers may perceive prices as fair as long as they
can identify with the mall. This leads to H3.
H3: Self-congruity mediates the effects of the three mall environmental components (mall design, mall atmosphere, and mall employees) on the three perceptual constructs (i.e., product quality, price
value, and service quality).
5.4. Moderating effects of gender
The reviewed retail literature is not very helpful for identifying the
moderating effects of gender. Following the reasoning exposed above
and based on the model developed by Chebat (2002) and the Elaboration Likelihood Model, this study hypothesizes that men will infer the
perception of mall loyalty from peripheral cues such as the ambient
atmosphere, the mall's design, and prices. On the other hand, women

All measurement scales were seven-item Likert-type disagreement/

agreement scales or semantic differential scales. Table 1 shows the measurement scale items, factor loadings, and cross-loadings. The loading of
each indicator is expected to be greater than all of its cross-loading
(Chin, 2001).
Atmosphere was measured with Fisher's scale (Fisher, 1974),
adapted later by Bellizzi, Crowley, and Hasty (1983) and Spangenberg,
Crowley, and Henderson (1996). Eight adjectives out of twelve were
retained, as Ruiz, Chebat, and Hansen (2004) did. Employees' perceptions
and the Design scales were adapted from Downs (1970).
Merchandise quality and loyalty were borrowed from Dodds, Monroe,
and Grewal (1991). Service quality was measured with a scale developed
by Dabholkar, Thorpe, and Rentz (1996) and used by Arnett, Laverie,
and Meiers (2003). Price perception was appraised with a three-item,
seven-point differential scale from low to high, compared with competing shopping malls. The scale for clientele identication with malls
was designed by Sirgy et al. (1997).
Gender effects on mall loyalty were tested in a multi-group model, as
described in the next section.
Convergent validity (average variance extracted) and composite reliability (Rho) are shown in Table 2. Composite reliability (e.g., Raykov,
1997) is preferred to Cronbach's (1951), which is believed to underestimate scale reliability. Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggest convergent validity if the average variance extracted (AVE) is at least 0.50, showing
that the explained variance is greater than the measurement error. Discriminant validity is also outlined in Table 2 using Fornell and Larcker's
(1981) methodology. Discriminant validity is established when each
construct AVE is greater than its shared variance. The square root of
the average variance extracted should be greater than the absolute
value of the standardized correlations with other constructs.

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1223

Table 1
Measurement scales and cross-loadings.
Physical
design

Mall
atmosphere

Mall
employees

Self-congruity

Prices

Product
quality

Service
quality

Mall
loyalty

Physical design
Dirty/Clean
Well-designed
Without/With customers in mind

0.81
0.62
0.86

0.41
0.33
0.50

0.27
0.20
0.31

0.19
0.13
0.20

0.20
0.18
0.26

0.28
0.22
0.32

0.24
0.27
0.33

0.26
0.19
0.36

Mall employees
Unhelpful/Helpful
Impolite/Polite

0.18
0.37

0.28
0.42

0.77
0.85

0.15
0.20

0.22
0.28

0.19
0.29

0.31
0.36

0.21
0.20

Mall atmosphere
Tensed/Relaxed
Comfortable/Comfortable
Depressing/Joyous
Monotonous/Colored
Unanimated/Animated
Dull/Bright
Uninteresting/Interesting

0.35
0.46
0.48
0.40
0.35
0.45
0.44

0.58
0.75
0.84
0.74
0.77
0.85
0.85

0.31
0.38
0.40
0.32
0.28
0.33
0.36

0.19
0.28
0.34
0.33
0.36
0.37
0.38

0.30
0.37
0.38
0.35
0.32
0.35
0.37

0.29
0.40
0.43
0.38
0.36
0.43
0.45

0.30
0.42
0.47
0.41
0.45
0.50
0.50

0.27
0.38
0.41
0.38
0.31
0.37
0.43

Self-congruity
Typical customers of reect the type of person who I am.
The typical customers of are very much like me.

0.27
0.13

0.42
0.32

0.26
0.13

0.91
0.85

0.38
0.32

0.38
0.28

0.37
0.33

0.43
0.30

Service quality
Offers excellent service
Well known for service excellence
Very good services, always and every time

0.33
0.30
0.31

0.52
0.53
0.20

0.39
0.37
0.21

0.33
0.40
0.25

0.52
0.50
0.30

0.46
0.49
0.29

0.92
0.92
0.67

0.50
0.48
0.32

0.26
0.33
0.19

0.38
0.45
0.22

0.26
0.26
0.12

0.28
0.32
0.11

0.50
0.55
0.19

0.79
0.87
0.47

0.41
0.46
0.15

0.44
0.51
0.26

Prices
I expect to nd high-quality products in the shopping center
Considering prices, product quality is good
Prices at are fair
I obtain value for my money at...

0.25
0.25
0.24
0.17

0.39
0.44
0.34
0.31

0.20
0.27
0.24
0.23

0.35
0.38
0.29
0.29

0.43
0.87
0.84
0.73

0.72
0.62
0.43
0.37

0.40
0.51
0.44
0.38

0.38
0.50
0.48
0.43

Mall loyalty
I will very likely be back in this shopping mall to buy products
I would gladly buy presents in this shopping center
I would certainly recommend this shopping mall

0.19
0.34
0.37

0.22
0.41
0.50

0.07
0.24
0.26

0.23
0.34
0.44

0.33
0.54
0.55

0.25
0.52
0.56

0.27
0.46
0.54

0.67
0.92
0.91

Product quality
Merchandise bought in the mall store are likely to be high quality
High-quality merchandise in the shopping center
Merchandise quality is low in the shopping center

Data in bold indicate factor loadings.

6.3. Model building

Three covariance-based models were built using EQS 6.2 (Bentler,
2014). The basic model tests the impact of the mall environment on
the perceptual constructs (H1), and the effects of the perceptual constructs on mall loyalty (H2). The second model examines the mediating
inuence of self-congruency on the perceptual constructs (H3). Finally,
a third model tests the moderating effect of gender through a multi-

group invariant structural equation model. The three models were run
under Maximum Likelihood and asymptotic robust methods (Satorra
& Bentler, 1990) to compare slight deviations from normality. The
large sample size (n = 905) is adequate for the asymptotic robustness
method. Unstandardized coefcients are reported for comparing results
with the multi-group invariant model for testing H4 (Kline, 2005,
p. 232). Research ndings are outlined in the resulting path models in
Figs. 3, 4 and 5.

Table 2
Construct correlation, average variance extracted, and composite reliability.
Mall
atmosphere

Physical
design

Mall
employees

Self-congruity

Prices

Product
quality

Service
quality

Mall
loyalty

AVE
(AVE)1/2*
Reliability**

0.60
0.77
0.91

0.70
0.84
0.82

0.66
0.81
0.79

0.78
0.88
0.88

0.66
0.81
0.85

0.53
0.73
0.66

0.68
0.81
0.86

0.70
0.84
0.87

Correlations
Atmosphere
Physical design
Mall employees
Self-congruity
Prices
Product quality
Service quality
Mall loyalty

1
0.55
0.44
0.42
0.45
0.51
0.56
0.48

1
0.35
0.23
0.29
0.36
0.35
0.39

1
0.22
0.31
0.30
0.41
0.25

1
0.40
0.38
0.40
0.42

1
0.60
0.54
0.58

1
0.51
0.56

1
0.53

Square root of average variance extracted.

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goodness of t (SatorraBentler chi-square = 713.23, df = 305,

X2/df = 2.33, RMSEA = 0.039), which is similar to the basic model.

7. Research ndings
7.1. Testing the basic model
Environmental constructs (physical design, mall atmosphere, and
mall employees) were hypothesized to inuence the perceptual constructs (product quality, service quality, and price perception). The effect of the physical design is fully mediated by the mall atmosphere
(5.75, Z = 9.14) and mall employees (0.808, Z = 12.01). The mall atmosphere affects the perception of product quality (0.500, Z = 5.93) and
prices (0.589, Z = 6.29). Mall atmosphere does not affect the perception
of service quality. Mall employees modify the perception of service
quality (0.256, Z = 4.33) and prices (2.80, Z = 4.45). Product quality
(6.54, Z = 12.93) and service quality (0.444, Z = 8.04) are both moderated by price perception.
H1b1, H1b2, H1c2, and H1c3 are supported, while H1a1, H1a2, H1a3, H1b3,
and H1c1 are rejected. All research propositions about the effect of product quality (0.270, Z = 4.97), prices (0.365, Z = 4.68), and service quality (0.251, Z = 4.71) on the perception of mall loyalty cannot be
rejected. The basic model (Fig. 3) has an adequate t (SatorraBentler
chi-square = 532.72, df = 235, X2/df = 2.26, RMSEA = 0.037).

7.3. Gender moderated model

The hypothesis of gender moderation was tested on the selfcongruency mediated model. Female and male shoppers were submitted to a multi-group invariant path analysis (Fig. 5). Some path constraints had to be released as indicated by the Lagrange multiplier
(LM). Mall employees inuence females' self-congruity (0.189, Z =
2.83) and have no signicant effect on male shoppers (1.03, Z = 1.55).
Females focus more on product quality (1.175, Z = 13.65) than male
shoppers (0.981, Z = 11.21). Females' perception of the mall loyalty is
mostly driven by the perception of product quality (0.399, Z = 6.67),
contrary to male shoppers (1.84, Z = 2.38). On the other hand, males'
perception of the mall loyalty is impacted by price perception (4.79,
Z = 5.84), as opposed to females (1.88, Z = 2.52). The gender moderated model offers the best t (SatorraBentler chi-square = 934.55, df =
622, X2/df = 1.49, RMSEA = 0.033). The constructs inuencing the
perception of mall loyalty vary signicantly across genders. Findings
are discussed in the next section.

7.2. Self-congruency-mediated model

8. Discussion and conclusion

Fig. 4 introduces the mediating role of self-congruity (mediated

model). As found in the basic model, the impact of the physical design
is fully mediated by the mall atmosphere (0.517, Z = 9.03) and mall employees (0.804, Z = 11.96). Self-congruity mediates partially the effects
of the mall atmosphere (0.886, Z = 7.86) and mall employees (0.213,
Z = 4.22). Mall atmosphere has a direct negative impact on the perception of prices (0.462, Z = 3.13). Perception of mall employees also
has a direct impact on the perception of service quality (0.220, Z =
3.23). Self-congruity affects the perception of product quality (0.783,
Z = 7.01), service quality (0.876, Z = 9.30) and prices (1.212, Z =
9.07). In the basic model, prices affected the perception of service quality. In the mediated model, the effect of prices on service quality is neutralized by the impact of self-congruity on service quality. As previously
seen, H3a is rejected, while H3b and H3c are partly supported. Despite the
added complexity of the mediated model with the addition of the selfcongruity construct, the model maintains a more than acceptable

8.1. Summary of ndings

The multi-group invariant model explains more than 60% of the mall
loyalty variance. The drivers for the mall's perceived loyalty differ significantly for male and female shoppers. Male shoppers are more inuenced by perceived prices while females focus on products and service
quality.
Price and perceived quality of products and services are two discriminant components of the mall perceived loyalty. Females' mall loyalty is
weighted primarily by product quality (48.0%), service quality (29.4%)
and prices (22.6%). Male shoppers give signicantly more weight on
prices (52.8%), followed by service quality (26.9%), and perception of
product quality (20.3%) in third place.
The ndings also show that self-congruity partly mediates the
relation between a) atmosphere and b) mall employees, and the three
perceptual constructs.

Environment
Constructs

Perceptual
Constructs

Perceived
Mall Loyalty

Physical
Design
Product
Quality
.575 (9.14)

.500 (5.93)
.654 (12.93)

.270 (4.97)

.365 (4.68)

Atmosphere

Prices
.589 (6.29)

.808 (12.01)

.444 (8.04)
.251 (4.71)
.280 (4.45)
Employees

Service
Quality
.256 (4.33)

Model: Robust. Satorra-Bentler Chi-Square = 532.72, DF = 235, X2/DF = 2.26, CFI = .969, RMSEA = .037
Fig. 3. Basic model.

Mall Loyalty

N. Haj-Salem et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 12191227

Identification
w. Mall

Environment
Constructs

1225

Perceptual
Constructs

Perceived
Mall Loyalty

Physical
Design
Product
Quality

-.462 (-3.13)

.273 (4.94)

.571 (9.03)
.254 (3.13)

.783 (7.01)

Atmosphere
.886 (7.86)

SelfCongruity

.1.212 (9.07)

Mall Loyalty

Prices
.349 (5.26)

.876 (9.30)

.804 (11.96)

.213 (4.22)

.254 (4.67)
.220 (3.23)

Employees

Service
Quality

Model: Robust. Satorra-Bentler Chi-Square = 713.23, DF = 305, X2/DF = 2.33, CFI = .960, RMSEA = .039
Fig. 4. Mediated model.

8.2. Interpretation of ndings

For males, prices are easier to process cognitively than quality. Consumers who lack familiarity with a given product or service tend to rely
more on price as an indicator of quality (e.g., Rao & Monroe, 1989). The
reliance on a peripheral cue such as price to infer quality is proper to
low-involved shoppers (Turley & Chebat, 2002). Prices play a distinct

Environment
Constructs

Identification
w. Mall

role among the three perceptual constructs since it also affects product
quality. In other words, shoppers infer product quality from their prices.
The shopping to win theory (Otnes & McGrath, 2001) also explains
the effect of price on mall loyalty. This theory posits that males consider
shopping as a competition to win. The perceived fairness of the price
makes male shoppers feel like a winner, which could explain the
positive effect of price on mall loyalty.

Perceptual
Constructs

Perceived
Mall Loyalty

Physical
Design
Product
Quality
.252 (3.24)

Atmosphere

SelfCongruity

Employees

Prices

Service
Quality

Model: Robust. Satorra-Bentler Chi-Square = 927.29, DF = 621, X2/DF = 1.49, CFI = .970, RMSEA = .033
Fig. 5. Mediated and moderated model.

Mall Loyalty

H4: Two Groups

Female and Male Shoppers

1226

N. Haj-Salem et al. / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 12191227

The ndings conrm the key mediating role of self-congruity. The

more shoppers identify with the mall, the stronger the effects of atmosphere on these perceptual constructs. The mediation process differs
signicantly with gender. The inuence of self-congruity on the perception of product quality is stronger among female shoppers. However,
self-congruity affects prices and service quality similarly for both
genders.
Female shoppers are more likely than males to be inuenced by mall
employees. Compared to men, females are more relationship-oriented
(Meyers-Levy, 1988). They emphasize harmonious relationships with
others, which explain the importance the role of mall employees.
Perceived service quality is directly impacted by mall employees.
Physical design has no direct effect on self-congruity or any of the
perceptual constructs. In accordance with the Servicescapes theory
(Bitner, 1992), the physical environment has an effect on the mall atmosphere and the mall employees. Self-congruity partly mediates mall atmosphere and also directly affects prices. A favorable mall atmosphere
reinforces shoppers' self-congruity with the mall. On the other hand, a
pleasing mall atmosphere has a negative impact on prices because
shoppers may infer higher prices (Baker et al., 2002).

renovating malls, managers should consider improving the atmosphere

as a quick and relatively inexpensive way to increase shoppers'
self-congruity and loyalty to the mall.
9. Limitations and future research
The present study expands a model developed in laboratory conditions by Baker et al. (1994, 2002). Research ndings have a higher
level of ecological validity. However, constructs were originally developed for stores, not for malls. Further studies should focus on the specific characteristics of malls.
Findings are likely to depend on the choice of the studied malls. The
study took place in two malls, a fashionable one, and a regular one in
order to increase the measures variance. Special attention was paid to
balance data across trafc hours and shopper proles and to remove
all special promotions.
This study focuses on gender as a key moderator. Several other moderators could be thought of. Culture is certainly one of them since it
inuences the preference for ambient colors in malls. Similarly, hedonic
and task orientations can moderate the effects of atmosphere
(Kaltcheva & Weitz, 2006).

8.3. Conclusions
Self-congruity emerges mostly from the mall atmosphere. The longterm relationship between shoppers and the mall depends on the atmospheric cues. Shoppers infer from peripheral cues (such as dcor, layout,
ambient music, and scents) whether the mall is meant to cater to their
needs. Similarly, shoppers infer perceived prices, products, and services
mainly from atmosphere, mediated by self-congruency with the mall.
Mall atmosphere has a signicant indirect impact on the perceived
mall loyalty for both genders (0.722, Z = 7.68 for females, and 0.665,
Z = 7.196 for males). Following the Elaboration Likelihood Model, this
process is typical of low-involved and/or inexperienced customers,
which may be the case for window-shoppers. Design (0.588, Z =
10.471 for females, and 0.525, Z = 9.304 for males) and mall employees
(0.285, Z = 5.45 for females, and 0.210, Z = 3.749 for males) affect mall
loyalty to a lesser degree.
Looking at the unmoderated basic model, design carries fewer
semantic effects than atmosphere, although it involves heavier and
more long-term investment than the other two elements. Employees
play an important semantic role. Shoppers infer both prices and service
quality from employees. Employees' appearance, dress, and level of
language may inuence perceived price and service quality.
Female shoppers draw conclusions about product quality from the
mall atmosphere while males infer prices from it. Mall managers should
pay more attention to males' self-identication with the mall since it enhances the mall loyalty. Shopping mall managers should appeal to both
genders in different ways. The present ndings show which antecedents generate mall's loyalty for both genders and which ones are specic
to male and female shoppers.
8.4. Managerial implications
Managerially, this study presents insights into three important
areas: (1) how gender inuences the link between mall environmental
cues and the three major perpetual constructs, (2) which mall's environmental components make male (vs. female) shoppers identify
more with the mall, and (3) which factors drive mall loyalty in the
case of male vs. female shoppers. These three areas can provide mall
managers a better understanding of how to design mall with greater
value for both types of shoppers.
The results suggest that mall atmosphere is the cornerstone of the
mall's loyalty. Mall managers allocate their resources inadequately
when allocating more resources to physical design than to atmosphere.
The elasticity factor of mall atmosphere on mall loyalty is signicantly
higher than any other environmental variable in the model. When

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