Behaviour and Strengthening of RC T-Girders in Torsion and Shear (Deifalla PHD Thesis)

BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC T-GIRDERS IN TORSION AND
SHEAR
By
AHMED FAROUK MOHAMED HASSAN DEIFALLA, M.Sc., B.Sc.
A Thesis
Submitted to the School o f Graduate Studies
in Partial Fulfilment o f the Requirements
for the Degree
Doctorate o f Philosophy
McMaster University
Copyright by Ahmed Deifalla, September 2007
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BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC T-GIRDERS IN TORSION AND

SHEAR
BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC

T-GIRDERS IN TORSION AND SHEAR
By
AHMED FAROUK MOHAMED HASSAN DEIFALLA
B. Sc., M. Sc. (Cairo University)
Doctorate o f Philosophy (2007)
McMaster University
(Civil Engineering)
Hamilton, Ontario
TITLE: Behaviour and Strengthening o f RC T-girders in Torsion and Shear
AUTHOR: Ahmed Deifalla, M.Sc., B.Sc. (Cairo University)
SUPERVISOR: Professor Ahmed Ghobarah
NUMBER OF PAGES: xxiv, 194
ABSTRACT
Failure of a structural element under shear and torsion is brittle in nature and should be
avoided as it compromises the ductile behaviour o f the structure. Under various cases o f
loading and geometric configuration, concrete structural members are subjected to
significant torsion accompanied by either bending, or shear and bending. A limited
number of studies were conducted to study torsion and shear behaviour o f reinforced
concrete (RC) girders. Most o f these studies were focused on rectangular girders. None
were conducted to investigate the strengthening o f RC T-girders under combined torsion
and shear.
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the shear and torsion
behaviour of RC T-girders. Three T-girders were tested while subjected to three different
torque to shear ratios selected to cover a wide range o f the torsion and shear interactions.
In addition, the Shear and Torsion provisions o f the North American Design Codes were
assessed using the experimental data. It was found that code predictions are more
accurate at low torque to shear ratios.
In most damage problems, strengthening using fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) is
an effective and convenient solution. An experimental investigation to explore the
strengthening o f RC T-girders was conducted. Four strengthening schemes were
proposed and implemented. The effectiveness o f the proposed techniques was evaluated.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the full behaviour (i.e. up to failure) o f
torsionally strengthened rectangular RC girders was proposed and validated using
available experimentally observed behaviour and were found to be in good agreement
with the experimental results.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the behaviour up to ultimate strength
for strengthened and un-strengthened RC T-girders subjected to shear and torsion was
proposed and validated using the available experimental results.
A simplified strength model that can be used as basis for design code provisions
was proposed for both strengthened rectangular and T-girders under torsion and /or shear.
iii
The model predicting the strength was verified using experimental results and was found
to be in good agreement.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to my supervisor Professor Ahmed Ghobarah
for his guidance and technical support. I would like to thank Professor K.S. (Siva)
Sivakumaran and Dr. Spencer Smith, members o f my supervisory committee, for their
contribution to my work. I wish to convey my gratitude to Mr. David Perrett for his
assistance during the experimental testing. I also would to thank Mr. Peter Koudys and
Mr. Maurice Forget.
My sincere appreciation and gratitude goes to my Mother for her endless devotion
and compassion over my entire life. My thanks go to my family for their moral support.
The author gratefully acknowledges the financial support received from the
Department o f Civil Engineering at McMaster University.
Table of Contents
Item
Page
ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Torsion behaviour o f RC beams
1.3 Torsion strengthening o f RC beams
1.4 Shear and torsion behaviour o f RC beams
13
1.5 Motivation
17
1.6 Objectives
18
1.7 Thesis organization
19
CHAPTER 2 TESTING OF RC T-GIRDERS UNDER TORSION AND

SHEAR
2.1 Introduction
27
2.2 Test T-beams
28
2.2.1 Test beam scale
28
vi
2.2.2 Test beam design
29
2.2.3 Concrete dimensions and reinforcement
30
2.3 Test setup
31
2.3.1 Loading actuators
32
2.3.2 Supports
32
2.3.3 Instrumentation
33
2.3.3.1 Load cells
33
2.3.3.2 Linear variable differential transformers
33
2.3.3.3 Strain gauges
34
2.4 Test procedure
34
2.4.1 Torque to shear ratio
34
2.4.2 Loading sequence
35
2.4.3 Strengthening techniques
35
2.4.4 Performance o f the test setup
37
2.5 Concrete casting and curing
39
2.6 Materials
40
2.6.1 Concrete
40
2.6.2 Steel
41
2.6.3 Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)
41
CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF RC T-GIRDERS

3.1 Introduction
61
3.2 Concrete cracking strength
63
vii
3.3 Total load-deformation behaviour
65
3.4 Total load-strain behaviour
65
3.5 Torsional behaviour
66
3.6 Shear behaviour
66
3.7 Flexure behaviour
67
3.8 Concrete diagonal strain
68
3.9 Longitudinal steel strain
68
3.10 Transverse steel strain
69
3.11D esignof RC T-girders
70
3.11.1 ACI (2005)
70
3.11.2 CSA (2005)
71
3.11.3 CSA bridges (2000)
74
3.11.4 AASHTO (2003)
76
3.11.5 PCI (2005)
77
3.12 Ultimate strength
80
3.13 Shear-torsion interaction
82
3.14 Failure mode
82
3.15 Inclination of diagonal cracks
83
3.16 Cracking torque and cracking shear
83
3.17 Conclusions
84
CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOUR

OF STRENGTHENED RC T-GIRDERS
viii
4.1 Introduction
100
4.2 Strengthening techniques
100
4.3 Applied loading
101
4.4 Load behaviour
102
4.5 Torsion behaviour
102
4.6 Shear behaviour
103
4.7 FRP strain
104
4.8 Failure mode
105
4.9 FRP load contribution
105
4.11 Conclusions
106
CHAPTER 5 MODELING TORSIONALLY STRENGTHENED

RECTANGULAR RC GIRDERS
5.1 Introduction
117
5.2 Testing rectangular beams
118
5.3 Model development
119
5.3.1 Model description
119
5.3.2 Mohr circle for the average concrete strain
120
5.3.3 Equilibrium conditions for average stress
122
5.3.4 Segment assemblage
125
5.4 Equilibrium of the whole cross section
127
5.5 Material models
128
5.5.1 Concrete models
128
ix
5.5.1.1 Compression behaviour o f concrete
129
5.5.1.2 Tension behaviour o f concrete
130
5.5.2 Steel reinforcement
131
5.5.3 Fibre reinforced polymers
131
5.6 Solution technique
132
5.7 Model validation
132
5.8 Conclusions
133
CHAPTER 6 MODELING THE BEHAVIOUR OF STRENGTHENED RC

GIRDERS
6.1 Introduction
146
6.2 Model description
147
147
6.3.1 Mohr circle for the average concrete strain
151
6.3.2 Mohr circle for average concrete stress
151
152
6.3.4 Equilibrium o f the whole cross section
152
6.3.5 Material modeling
153
153
6.4.1 RC girders under torsional and bending moments
153
6.4.2 RC T-girder under combined torsion and shear
154
6.4.3 FRP strengthened RC T-girders under combined shear and torsion
154
6.5 Conclusions
155
CHAPTER 7 SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF RC GIRDERS

STRENGTHENED FOR TORSION AND SHEAR
7.1 Introduction
166
7.2 Torsion
167
7.2.1 FIB (2001) model
167
7.2.2 Proposed strength model
168
7.3 Model verification
173
7.4 Torsion and shear
173
7.4.1 Assumptions
174
7.4.2 FRP contribution to the strength
175
7.4.3 Solution technique
176
177
7.6 Conclusions
177
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

8.1 Summary
184
8.2 Conclusions
185
8.3 Recommendations for future research
189
BIBLIOGRAPHY
190
APPENDIX A DETAILS OF CODE USED FOR CHAPTER 5
xi
A .l Input
A -l
A.2 List o f input definitions
A -l
A.3 Sample o f input file
A-4
A.4 Flow chart
A-5
A.5 Algorithm
A -l
APPENDIX B CODE USED FOR THE MODEL PRESENTED IN

CHAPTER 6
B .l Input
B-l
B.2 List o f input definitions
B-l
B.3 Sample o f input file
B-4
APPENDIX C TEST DATA

TB1 Test data
C-l
TB1 SI Test data
C-3
TB1S2 Test data
C-9
TB1S3 Test data
C -l7
TB2 Test data
C-23
TB3 Test data
C-26
TB3S4 Test data
C-29
xii
LIST of TABLES
Table
Title
Page
2.1
Test beam scale factors
43
2.2
Selected torque to shear ratios
43
2.3
Concrete strength at different dates
44
2.4
Properties o f CFRP provided by the supplied (average
o f two
44
tested coupons)
3.1
Summary o f experimental results
86
3.2
Summary o f factor o f safety for the tested T-girders
87
3.3
Comparison between the observed and predicted failure mode for
87
the tested T-girders

3.4
Comparison between the observed
and predicted angle
of
88
inclination o f the diagonal cracks for the tested T-girders

3.5
Comparison between the observed and predicted cracking torque
88
and cracking shear

4.1
FRP load contribution
108
7.1
Configuration o f strengthened beams
179
7.2
Comparison between the model and experimental data base
180
7.3
Comparison between measured and calculated strength
181
LIST of FIGURES
Figure
1.1
Title
Page
The American hospital association buildings, Chicago. The
21
continuous transfer girder with 1.5 m by 2.7 m cross section

subjected to significant torsion (Hsu 1984)
1.2
The Habitat residential complex, Montreal, Canada
21
1.3
Elevated roadway under construction, Toronto (Hsu 1984)
22
1.4
Prestressed concrete beam used for aerial guideway at Disney
22
world, Orland, Florida (Hsu 1984)

1.5
Prestressed concrete double-tee girders in the Dade county Mass
23
Rapid Transit aerial guideway, Florida (Hsu 1984)

1.6
Beams under combined loading a) Rectangular beam with off-
23
center load, b) Balcony beams, c) Inversted T-beam supporting

beam reactions, d) curved girder, and e) Main beam supporting
secondary cantilever beam.
1.7
Beam under combined straining action (CSA 2005)
24
1.8
The new observation pathway over the Grand Canyon
24
1.9
Different strengthening schemes that can be used for torsion
25
1.10
Reinforced concrete wall beams supporting cantilever flower bins.
25
Severe torsion cracking was observed in the beams and slabs (Hsu
1984)
xiv
1.11
Collapse o f a six story RC building due to shear and torsion failure
26
o f RC ribbed raft foundation (Hsu 1984)

1.12
Torsional cracking near the support o f a spandrel beam in a
26
reinforced concrete parking garage in south Florida (Hsu 1984)

2.1
Schematic structural system o f previous torsion test setups
45
2.2
Schematic structural system o f the test setup
46
2.3
South view o f the test setup with a specimen in place
47
2.4
Typical cross sections at a) Roller arm, b) Test region, and c)
48
Loading arm
2.5
Typical longitudinal section o f the specimen and reinforcement
48
2.6
Plan view for the test rig
49
2.7
Side view for the test setup
49
2.8
Elevation at the loaded tip o f the beam
50
2.9
Cross section at the active frame
50
2.10
Cross section at the reactive frame
51
2.11
Elevation at the supported tip of the beam
51
2.12
Longitudinal section for the specimen showing the layout o f the
52
LVDTs
2.13
Strain gauges layout for the longitudinal reinforcement
XV
53
2.14
Cross sections showing the strain gauges used for the shear
53
reinforcement
2.15
Location of the strain gauges used to measure the FRP strain
54
2.16
FRP strengthening schemes a) Scheme #1; b) Scheme #2; c)
55
Scheme #3; and d) Scheme #4

2.17
Expected displacements and rotations o f the test beams
56
2.18
Recorded and calculated reaction at point F for all girders
57
2.19
Forms and assembled steel cages
57
2.20
Stress-strain relationship for concrete Batch I and II after 28 days
58
2.21
Stress-strain relationship for the steel reinforcements
58
2.22
Stress-strain relationship for FRP coupons
59
2.23
The test setup used for the tensile testing o f the FRP coupons
59
2.24
One o f the tested FRP coupons before and after failure
60
3.1
Bach 1911 approximate solution for RC T-beams
89
3.2
Hollow tube analogy
89
3.3
Crack pattern for girder TB1 (T/V = 0.5 m) a) south side, b) North
90
side, c) bottom view, d) top view

3.4
xvi
91
3.5
92

3.6
Load versus vertical displacement for TB1, TB2, and TB3
93
3.7
Load versus longitudinal steel strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
93
3.8
Torsion behaviour for TB1, TB2, and TB3
94
3.9
Shear behaviour for TB 1, TB2, and TB3
94
3.10
Moment behaviour at the east side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
3.11
Moment behaviour at the west side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
3.12
Concrete tensile strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
96
3.13
Concrete compressive strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
96
3.14
Longitudinal steel strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
97
3.15
Strain in the web and flange stirrups for TB1, TB2, and TB3
97
3.16
Variation o f the strain in the web stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
98
3.17
Variation of the strain in the flange stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
98
3.18
Shear-torsion interaction diagrams for the T-girders
99
4.1
Implemented strengthening schemes
109
4.2
Applied torque versus shear for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
110
4.3
Applied torque versus shear for girder under T/V = 0.1m
110
xvii
4.4
Load behaviour for girders with T/V = 0.5 m
111
4.5
Load behaviour for girders with T/V = 0.1 m
111
4.6
Torsional behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
112
4.7
Torsional behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
112
4.8
Shear behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
113
4.9
Shear behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
113
4.10
FRP strain for the south side o f girder TB1S2
114
4.11
FRP strain for the north side o f girder TB1S2
114
4.12
Failure mode for Girder TB1S1
115
4.13
115
4.14
Failure mode for Girder TB1 S3
116
4.15
116
5.1
Schematic diagram o f the test setup
135
5.2
Shear, bending and torsion distribution
135
5.3
Dimensions and reinforcement details o f the tested beams
136
5.4
Strengthening schemes for the beams
136
5.5
Model idealization a) Solid rectangular section, b) Equivalent
137
hollow tube and c) Four segments
xviii
5.6
Mohr circle for average concrete strain
138
5.7
Mohr circle for average concrete stress
138
5.8
Segment equilibrium in the transverse direction
139
5.9
Mesh used to check equilibrium
139
5.10
Concrete compressive models
140
5.11
Concrete compressive model
140
5.12
Concrete tensile models
141
5.13
Torsional behaviour for beam C l
141
5.14
Torsional behaviour for beam G 1
142
5.15
Torsional behaviour for beam C4
142
5.16
143
5.17
143
5.18
144
5.19
144
5.20
Torsional behaviour for beam G2
145
6.1
Rectangular divisions a)Solution I, b) Solution IIand Solution III
156
6.2
Compression stress distribution within the concrete strut a)actual
156
stress distribution, b) equivalent stress distribution and Uniform

stress distribution
xix
6.3
Dimension and reinforcements o f beam N 1, N2, and N3
157
6.4
Torsional behaviour for beam N I
157
6.5
Torsional behaviour for beam N2
158
6.6
Torsional behaviour for beam N3
158
6.7
Torsional behaviour o f TB1 using Solution I, II, and III
159
6.8
Shear behaviour o f TB1 using Solution I, II, and III
159
6.9
Torsional behaviour o f TB2 using solution I, II, and III
160
6.10
Shear behaviour o f TB2 using solution I, II, and III
160
6.11
Torsional behaviour o f TB3 using solution I, II, and III
161
6.12
Shear behaviour o f TB3 using solution I, II, and III
161
6.13
Torsional behaviour o f TB1 SI
162
6.14
Shear behaviour o f TB 1S 1
162
6.15
Torsional behaviour of TB 1S2
163
6.16
Shear behaviour o f TB 1S2
163
6.17
Torsional behaviour of TB 1S3
164
6.18
Shear behaviour o f TB 1S3
164
6.19
Torsional behaviour o f TB3 S4
165
6.20
Shear behaviour o f TB3S4
165
xx
7.1
Flow chart for the procedure used in the analysis
182
7.2
Calculation o f the area enclosed inside the expected shear flow
183
path (A0)
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A0
= Area enclosed inside the centerline o f the shear flow.
A0h
= Area enclosed inside the stirrup
At
= The cross sectional area o f stirrups resisting torsion
Av
= The cross sectional area o f stirrups resisting shear
bw
= Width o f the web
= Depth o f the cross section
Ec
= Concrete initial stiffness
Esec
= Concrete secant stiffness at the ultimate concrete strength
f2
= Compressive strength o f diagonally cracked concrete
fc
= 28 day concrete cylinder Compressive strength (assume 25 MPa if not given)
fcr
= Concrete cracking stress
ffmax
= FRP maximum tensile strength
fy
= Yield stress o f the steel
Kc
= Factor that quantifies the effect o f the transverse stresses
Kf
= Factor that quantifies the effect o f the concrete compressive strength
= Length of segment
LI
= Measured applied load at point A
L2
= Measured applied load at point D
L3
= Measured applied load at point E
L4
= Measured reaction at point F
= Applied bending moments
Ml
= Applied bending moment at the reactive frame section
M2
= Applied bending moment at the active frame section
X X ll
= Nominal bending moments strength
Nvk
= The unbalanced axial force acting on segment (k) due to the shear stresses
Ph
= The perimeter o f the stirrups
= Uniform shear flow
Qi
= Calculated shear between points A and B
Q2
= Calculated shear between points B and C
Q3
= Calculated shear between points C and F
R1
= Calculated reaction at point F
R2
= Calculated reaction at point H
R3
= Calculated reaction at point G
= Spacing between stirrups
= Applied torsional moments
= The effective thickness o f the hollow tube
ti
= The effective thickness o f each segment
- Nominal torsional moment strength
Tr
= Torsion resistance
= Applied shear force
Vc
= Concrete contribution to shear resistance
vn
= Nominal shear force strength
Vr
= Shear resistance
V s
= Steel reinforcement contribution to shear resistance
X1
= The small dimension o f the stirrup
X c,
X sk
= The distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete
mesh element
= The distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each segment
xxiii
y,
= The large dimension o f the stirrup
y ci
_ Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each concrete element
(i)
= Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each bar (j)
y sk
= Distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each segment (k)
= Angle o f twist per unit length
sx
= Concrete longitudinalstrain (tension is positive)
s2
= Concrete principal compressive strain (Compression is positive)
sx
= Concrete principal tension strain (tension is positive)
s'
= Concrete strain at the peak compressive strength
= Concrete vertical strain (tension is positive)
s 2s
= The concrete diagonal strain at the surface o f thebeam
sn
= FRP tensile strain
cr,
= Concrete principal tension stress (tension is positive)
a2
Concrete principal compressive stress (compression is positive)
o'ci
= The concrete stress at the centroid o f the mesh element (i)

= The steel stress for each bar (j)
af
= FRP stress
a ft
= FRP transverse stress
crsl
= Transverse steel reinforcement stress
o'x
= Concrete longitudinal stress (compression is positive)
oy
= Concrete vertical stress (compression is positive)
<P
= Curvature o f the concrete strut
cpd
= Diagonal curvature
cpt
= Longitudinal curvature
XXIV
(p
= Transverse curvature
Shear stresses
= Shear stresses due to
= Softening coefficient
P2
Softening coefficient for the concrete strain
applied torsion
= Softening coefficient for the concrete stress

pf
Ps
= The angle o f inclination o f the fibre direction with respect to the beam
longitudinal axis
The angle o f inclination o f the stirrup with respect to the beam longitudinal
axis
Pf
= The ratio o f transverse FRP reinforcement to the concrete volume.
ph
= The ratio o f transverse steel reinforcement to the concrete volume.
= Shear strain
= The angle of inclination o f the concrete principal stress or strain with respect
to the longitudinal axis o f the beam
xxv
PhD Thesis - A.Deifalla
McMaster - Civil Engineering
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In the design o f many structures and under service conditions, torsion plays a significant
role. Examples o f structural elements subjected to significant torsion combined with
shear and bending moments are shown in Figures 1.1 to 1.8. Significant torsion occurs in
structural members o f buildings such as girders supporting eccentric columns or
asymmetric slabs, as well as spandrel beams, and edge beams supporting a cantilever
floor slab. In addition, beams supporting circular slabs, members in space frames, and
box girders in bridges are subjected to torsion. Moreover, cases where torsion may be
significant include structural elements which are twisted by transverse beams or slabs,
curved girders, spiral stairways, balcony girders, and whenever large off-center loads are
applied to a beam. In elevated expressways torsion results from eccentric lane loading.
Structures curved in plan and torsionally restrained supports are examples o f cases where
consideration o f torsion in design is important.
It is common that the demands on the structure would change during the
buildings service life. In such a case, strengthening would be necessary. Such cases may
result from increase in service loads, decrease in serviceability limits, change in usage o f
the structure, secondary deformations and degradation problems. In extreme cases, a
structure may need repair due to an accident, or due to errors made during the design or
construction phases. Moreover, in current design codes the overall safety factors are less
than what they used to be; hence, torsion is becoming a common problem. Reinforced
concrete members subjected to increasing torsion may fail quite suddenly. Complete
replacement o f an existing structure may be a possible solution but most likely not the
most cost-effective one. In many cases strengthening and upgrading will be the cost
effective and most convenient solution.
During the last decade, the advantages o f strengthening concrete elements using
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) has been demonstrated and are being accepted by many
designers due to its superior properties including high strength to weight ratio, being noncorrosive, and ease o f installation. FRP is applied to concrete surface using epoxy. Epoxy
has many advantages as it adheres well to the concrete surface and to the FRP material, it
has low shrinkage properties and it is easy to apply. Flowever, the epoxy is sensitive to
moisture and temperature.
Most o f the available research focused on the strengthening o f reinforced concrete

(RC) beams subjected to bending moment and shear. Limited research has been
conducted in the area o f torsion strengthening and has focused on the RC rectangular
beams (Ghobarah et al. 2002, Zhang et. al 2001, and Panchacharam and Belarbi 2002).
For torsion strengthening, FRP is applied by bonding the material to the tension surface
o f the RC beam, which is similar to flexure and shear strengthening. The difference is
that for torsion, all sides o f the RC beam are subjected to diagonal tension and therefore
FRP sheets are to be bonded on all sides o f the beam cross section. This may not always
be possible because some sides o f the beam may not be accessible. Examples of
strengthening techniques that can be used for various practical applications are shown in
Figure 1.9. In cases o f inaccessible sides o f the cross section, anchors may be used to
provide the required torsion resisting mechanism needed to resist the torsion and delay
de-bonding. In addition, the vertical and longitudinal reinforcement (i.e., internal and
external) have to interact to provide adequate forces to resist the diagonal forces
developed due to torsion. The applicability o f these schemes for cross sections other than
rectangular beams including T-beam has not been investigated.
Although diagonal tension cracks occur in RC beams due to torsion or shear, the
beam behaves differently due to different load cases. In the case o f shear, the cracks
propagate in the same direction on both sides o f the beam parallel to the applied shear
plane. In case o f torsion, the cracks take a spiral pattern where they propagate in opposite
directions at the opposite sides o f the beam. In the case o f shear force, stresses are
developed only in the applied shear plane and are uniform across the plane perpendicular
to the shear. In the case o f torsion, the diagonal concrete compression strain varies
linearly across the effective thickness o f the walls o f the cross section due to lateral
curvature which eventually causes the variation o f the stress across the section both
vertically and horizontally (Collins and Mitchell 1997). In addition, according to the
theory of hollow tube space truss analogy, the effective thickness o f the tube varies based
on the applied torque similar to the effective depth o f the beam that varies according to
the bending moment (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
1.2 Torsion behaviour of RC beams

Research on torsion is divided into three distinct categories, pure torsion, combined
torsion and bending and combined torsion and shear. Studies involving the behaviour of
reinforced concrete beams in pure torsion started in 1929 when Rausch, derived torsional
strength equations based on 45 space truss model (mentioned in Hsu 1984). Lash and
Kirk (l 970) investigated the behaviour o f plain concrete and reinforced concrete T-beams
subjected to pure torsion and combined bending and torsion. The experimental work
consists o f testing 36 T-beams as follows:
Two plain concrete beams subjected to pure torsion.
Three longitudinally reinforced beams subjected to pure torsion.
Seven longitudinally and transversely reinforced beams subjected to pure torsion.
Six plain concrete beams each subjected to different torsion to moment (T/M)
loading ratio.
Eighteen longitudinally and transversely reinforced beams in each series, each

subjected to a different T/M loading ratio.
All the test beams had the same nominal dimensions. The results o f the experimental
investigation showed that the ultimate strength o f the beams in torsion can be
approximated as the cracking strength which can be calculated from elastic theory. The
stress in the reinforcement is minimal and almost constant until the cracking torque was
reached. When the concrete cracked there was a redistribution o f internal stresses which
results in a large increase in the steel stress.
Bhatti and Almughrabi (1996) studied the behaviour o f rectangular reinforced

concrete beams when subjected to pure torsion. In this study nonlinear finite element
techniques were used. The model included the following features:
The continuous change o f geometry o f concrete due to cracking.
The orthotropic behaviour o f concrete in the post cracking stage due to different
responses under tension and compression.
Softening o f reinforced concrete due to diagonal cracking.
Dowel action o f the steel bars.
Yielding o f steel bars reinforcement.
The bond between concrete and steel.
Aggregate interlock, i.e., mechanism o f transferring shear stress across cracked

sections.
The nonlinear stress-strain relationship for concrete.
An 8-node brick element was used to model the concrete before cracking. Each node had
three degrees o f freedom. The behaviour before cracking was assumed linear elastic and
isotropic. The behaviour after cracking was nonlinear taking into consideration the
concrete softening. A Drucker-Prager failure criterion was used for concrete elements.
Axial deformation truss elements were used to represent both the longitudinal and
transverse steel reinforcement. Each node has three translation degrees o f freedom. An
elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship is assumed for steel. The finite element
model was verified using test results. The results o f the parametric investigation showed
that the cracking torque is not sensitive to the steel ratio; the aggregate interlock is an
important factor contributing to torsion carried by concrete, and that the concrete
contribution is not constant. It was proposed that some factors be added to the ACI
equation to account for the effect o f transverse shear reinforcement ratio on the concrete
contribution, stirrup contribution to the ultimate torsional strength and the effect o f aspect
ratio o f section on the concrete contribution to ultimate torsional strength.
Rahal (2000) proposed a simplified model for predicting the ultimate strength and mode
o f failure o f reinforced concrete beams subjected to pure torsion. To check the adequacy
o f the model, the calculated strength and mode o f failure were checked against the results
o f 66 beam tests available in the literature, and good agreement was found. The
simplified model was used to calculate the ultimate shear stress. The ultimate torsional
moment can be calculated if the shear stress is known. Four modes o f failure were
identified under reinforced, partially longitudinal over-reinforced, partially transversal
over-reinforced, and completely over-reinforced. Using the modified compression field
theory (MCFT) (Collins and Mitchell 1997), normalized shear strength curves for
reinforced concrete were developed. The curves give the ratio o f the shear stress to the
compression stress depending on the longitudinal and transversal steel to concrete ratio.
In addition, the mode o f failure can be predicted from the figure. The method is simple
and shows good agreement with the experimental results.
The available methods for computing the ultimate torsional strength can be
categorized into two main categories. Methods in the first category use semi-empirical
equations selected to fit available experimental data. The main advantage o f these
methods is their simplicity. Methods in the second category use procedures based on
more rational models such as the space truss analogy. These models are generally more
time demanding, and suitable for microcomputers or programmable calculators. These
rational methods give the engineer a feel for the behaviour o f the structural member being
designed. The current ACI-318-05 (2005) code offered a simplified method based on the
traditional concrete contribution model and plane truss model for shear as well as the
hollow tube analogy space truss model for torsion. On the other hand, the recent revision
o f the AASHTO (2003), the current CSA-A23.3-04 (2004) offered two alternative design
methods for shear and torsion. The first approach, referred to as the simplified method,
is based on the traditional semi-empirical models which is similar to design provisions
provided by the ACI-318-05 (2005). The second approach, referred to as the General
Method, is a simplification o f a more rational model based on the MCFT. The
development o f the MCFT was a milestone in the history o f the design o f beams because
it evaluates the behaviour o f beams where subjected to shear, axial load, bending
moments and torque in a rational manner. The general method is not as popular as the
traditional methods because it could often be more time consuming. In effect, there is a
lack of a unified approach, which combines the simplicity o f the traditional semiempirical approach and the rationality o f the alternative approach.
1.3 Torsion strengthening of RC beams

One o f the earlier attempts for rehabilitation o f concrete beams in torsion involved the
use o f steel plates. Hollman and Cook (1984) tested 9 reinforced concrete beams; 3
control beams, 3 strengthened beams using steel plates, and 3 repaired beams using steel
plates. All the reinforced concrete specimens had the same size, reinforcement, cover,
and concrete strength. The beams were tested under combined flexure, shear, and torsion.
The steel plates were attached to the sides o f the concrete beams. The repaired and
strengthened beams failed in flexure rather than in torsion. The strengthened beams
showed 43% increase in the failure load. The repaired beam showed 33% increase in the
failure load. The cracking failure o f all the strengthened and repaired beams was a flexure
pattern rather than torsional cracking. Recently, FRP are becoming more popular in the
area o f strengthening concrete beams. Figure 1.9 shows different techniques that can be
used for the strengthening o f RC beams. Ghobarah et al. (2002) studied the torsional
behaviour o f strengthened concrete beams using externally bonded FRP sheets. In this
study, the effect of different wrapping patterns o f FRP and the type o f fibre used on the
capacity o f the beams were investigated. The investigation included testing o f eleven
reinforced concrete beams. The tested beams were subjected to combined flexure and
torsion. All the beams were o f the same size, concrete strength, and reinforcement. Three
beams were tested without FRP as control beams, two beams were rehabilitated using
glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP), and the rest o f the beams were rehabilitated using
carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP). The different schemes considered were vertical
strips at different spacing, 45 spiral strips and continuous wrapping. The results showed
that:
Failure was governed by the concrete strength, as significant concrete cracking

occurred which caused premature debonding o f the fibre sheets and thus allowed
concrete failure.
Continuous wrapping gave 70% increase in the failure load, while the vertical
strips increased the failure load by 25%. The material used in the continuous
wrapping was 2 times the material used in the vertical strip wrapping but the
failure load increased three times. This lead to the conclusion that the continuous
wrapping was much more effective than using strips.
Spiral wrapping resulted in 54% increase in the failure load and the vertical
wrapping gave a maximum o f 25 % increase in failure load. The material used in
the spiral wrapping was less than that used in the vertical strips, and the load was
doubled, which lead to the conclusion that spiral wrapping was more effective
than vertical wrapping.
The measured strain in the FRP was small compared to the ultimate strain, which
indicates that the effect o f the type o f fibre used on the failure load was not
significant.
Zhang et al. (2001) investigated the behaviour o f torsionally strengthened RC members

throughout the loading history. In this study, ten torsion tests were conducted on RC
beams strengthened by bonded CFRP sheets. All the specimens have the same size,
concrete strength, and steel reinforcement. Different parameters such as the original
loading state before strengthening, the number o f plies and spacing o f CFRP strips were
studied. The ultimate strength o f the tested specimens was predicted using variable angle
truss model. The test beams were cast in a Z shape with right angles at both joints. The
middle part is the strengthened test section. The load was applied using three hydraulic
jacks, one was a control jack and the other two were set under the end o f the loading
lever. Observation from the tests indicated that there were three failure modes:
Fracture o f CFRP strips for specimens with only one ply o f transverse strips.
Crushing o f reinforced concrete for specimens having 3 plies o f transverse strips,

or having longitudinal strips.
Both fracture o f CFRP and concrete compressive crushing in case o f 3 plies o f

transverse strips, longitudinal strips together.
Conclusions from the test program suggest that:
The ultimate torque is not affected by the pre-loading o f the beam.

*
The ultimate torque increases with the increase in the number o f plies, not in a
linear form. It was observed that increasing the material thickness 3 times by
using 3 plies, the ultimate strength increases 1.8 times.
The ultimate torque decreases with the increase o f the strips spacing. It was
observed that decreasing the material by 80%, decreases the ultimate strength
by 80%.
10
Using the longitudinal strips does not affect the ultimate torque o f the beam
(12%-16%), but using transverse strips causes considerable increase in the
ultimate torque (41%-80%).
The stiffness o f the beams with different strengthening patterns is not
significantly affected, but the ductility o f the beams is increased due to the
strengthening using FRP. The cracking pattern changes due to strengthening
o f the beams. The cracks o f the strengthened beams are uniformly distributed
having the same width, spacing and inclination angle.
Panchacharam and Belarbi (2002) performed an experimental investigation to study the

behaviour o f concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded GFRP sheets subjected
to pure torsion. The parameters considered in the study were fibre orientation (parallel
and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis o f the beam), access to 3 or 4 faces o f the
beam, number of FRP layers, influence o f anchor in U-wrapped test beams, and
continuous wrap or strips. In this experimental investigation 8 beams were tested; one
control beam and seven strengthened beams. The cross section o f all beams was chosen
to be square 279.5 mm x 279.5 mm designed to be deficient in terms o f reinforcement.
The total length o f the specimens was 3960 m but the length o f the test region was only
2134 mm. This length was chosen to insure having two complete spirals cracks within the
test length. The concrete cover was taken to be 25.4 mm. The spacing between the
stirrups was taken 152.4 mm in the test region and 38.1 mm in the end zones to insure
that failure will occur in the test zone. The test setup was designed to ensure that the
specimen was subjected to pure and uniform torsion. The specimen was subjected to
11
torsional moment at one end and torsionally restrained at the other. The two ends o f the
specimens were vertically restrained to ensure no shear and bending as there is no load
applied in the middle. The specimen was free to elongate in the longitudinal direction.
The results o f the experimental investigation were:
At the cracking stage, the 0-degree complete wrap strengthening increased

strength more than the 90-degree complete wrap strengthening. At the ultimate
stage the 90 degree strip strengthening caused an increase in the strength more
than the 0-degree.
The 90-degree strip strengthening was found to increase the post-cracking twist
angle. Complete FRP wrap increased the ultimate strength by as much as 1.66
times the strength o f a beam rehabilitated using strips. However, complete wrap
doubles the material used as in the case o f strip strengthening.
The effect o f using longitudinal strips on four and three sides on the ultimate
capacity o f the beam was almost the same. However, the mode o f failure in the
case o f the 3 sides strengthening was governed by concrete crushing in the un
strengthened face and in the case o f four sides the failure was the tearing off along
the fibre direction due to the tensile stress created in the beam.
The ultimate strength o f the beam strengthened by complete wrap scheme was
about 5 times that o f the beam strengthened by U-wrap (anchored and
unanchored), while the material used in the continuous wrap is 1.33 that in the Uwrap. This was because the torsion rigidity o f the closed shapes was much higher
than the open shapes. The failure mode o f the U-wrap without anchorage was
12
governed by the splitting o f the concrete cover at the comer o f the beam after the
GFRP peeled prematurely. On the other hand, the beam with anchored U-wrap
failed by crushing o f the concrete and lateral separation o f the anchors along the
FRP sheets.
Complete wrap strengthening scheme in the transverse direction provided

effective confinement for the beam, and increased the ultimate strength o f the
beam significantly.
The U-wrap scheme resulted in a very small increase in the ultimate strength than
the other schemes o f strengthening even after using the anchorage.
Longitudinal strengthening for 3 or 4 faces gave almost the same ultimate

strength, although the mode o f failure was different.
1.4 Shear and torsion behaviour of RC beams

There are a limited number o f investigations that were conducted to study the behaviour
o f beams subjected to combined torsion, shear and bending. The research can be divided
into experimental work and theoretical work. The theoretical work applied two main
procedures: the skew bending theory, and the truss analogy. Nylander (l 945) tested 60
rectangular and T-shaped specimens subjected to pure torsion, combined bending and
torsion, combined shear and torsion, and combined compression and torsion. In addition,
two rigid frames consisting of three parallel beams connected by two cross girders at the
ends were tested by applying two concentrated loads to the central beam. The results
13
showed an interaction between shear and torsion. A straight line interaction diagram
represents a good approximation o f these results.
Birklend (1965) tested longitudinally reinforced beams in combined bending and

shear. An important result from these tests was the location o f the failure zone, which
happened to occur in the quarter o f the tested span away from the point o f zero moment.
These series o f beams were tested, each with different moment to shear ratio. It was
found that the moment has little effect on the behaviour o f the beams. He concluded that
the problem is principally the interaction between shear and torsion. He proposed a
circular interaction diagram for ultimate torsion and shear capacities. Erosy (1967) was
mainly concerned with L-beams in his investigation o f torsion/shear interaction.
However, he conducted one series o f rectangular, longitudinally reinforced beams in
combined torsion and shear. The results showed that a circular interaction diagram
provides a fair estimation o f the ultimate strength in combined torsion and shear o f beams
with longitudinal reinforcement only.
Farmer (1967) tested 26 reinforced concrete T-beams without web reinforcement

under combined bending, shear, and torsion. The effect o f different parameters such as
moment to shear ratio, torsion span length were investigated. All beams were over
reinforced to permit the primary study o f shear and torsion interaction except four beams.
The torsion span length did not affect the behaviour significantly. Torsion lowered the
beam shear strength much less than the plastic theory prediction. Klus (1968) was the
first to test beams with web transverse reinforcement in combined shear and torsion. His
14
tests covered a complete range o f torsion/shear ratios. The results o f the tests showed that
a broken straight line would fit the interaction o f the shear and torsion.
Hsu (1968) presented the skew bending model for rectangular beams subjected to torsion
and shear. He simplified the equilibrium equations that he derived to obtain the wellknown ACI code equations. He assumed the interaction between shear and torsion carried
by concrete to be circular. Hsu assumed a linear interaction between shear and torsion
carried by steel. Pritchard (1970) tested ten reinforced concrete beams under different
ratios o f shear and torsion, five beams without web reinforcement and five with web
reinforcement. An interaction diagram, which agrees closely with the experimental
results, was suggested. Irrespective o f the ratio o f torsion to shear, beams with
longitudinal and transverse steel develop increased post-cracking torsional strength with
much reduced torsional stiffness.
Elfgren (1972) presented a rational simple model for the analysis o f torsion-shearbending interaction at failure for reinforced concrete beams. Equilibrium equations are
studied for observed failure mechanisms. Three mechanisms can occur depending on
where the concrete compression zone is formed; at the top (mode t), at the bottom (mode
b), or at one o f the vertical sides (mode s). In modes t and b the torsion, bending and the
shear -bending is governed by second degree parabolas, whereas the torsion-shear
interaction is governed by an ellipse. In mode s, the interaction surface is a cylinder with
an elliptical base in the torsion-shear plane. The interaction in this mode is not influenced
by the value o f the bending moment. Some test results were presented to demonstrate the
15
accuracy o f the method. Badawy (1977) tested seven beams under different shear to
torsion ratios. All beams had a cross-sectional dimension o f 152x305 mm. The
applicability o f methods o f plastic analysis was investigated which leads to a semi
circular interaction curve. Comparison o f the test results with the results predicted by the
plastic analysis shows good agreement. He noted that a linear interaction is a
conservative assumption.
Ewida and McMullen (1981) tested twelve specimens. An interaction curve for under
reinforced beams, partially over-reinforced beams, and completely over-reinforced beams
were proposed. The proposed interaction curve shows good agreement with the
experimental results from the literature. Rahal and Collins (1995a) conducted an
experimental study to investigate the effect o f increasing the thickness o f the concrete
cover on the behaviour o f reinforced concrete section subjected to combined shear and
torsion. In this study seven beams were tested under combined shear and torsion with
selected ratios. The specimen was loaded in stages up to failure. The load control
procedure and influence o f dead load and friction, the torque and shear ratio changed
somewhat as the load was increased. Since the test took 2 to 3 days to complete, it was
necessary to unload specimens at the end o f each day, then reloading the next day
beginning from where loading had halted the night before.
Rahal and Collins (1995b) developed a three-dimensional truss model capable o f

analyzing rectangular reinforced and prestressed concrete sections subjected to combined
loading. The model uses the principles o f the MCFT and is capable o f analyzing sections
16
subjected to combined biaxial bending, biaxial shear, torsion and axial load.
Compatibility o f curvatures is introduced to enable the model to handle combined shear
and torsion and explain the non-linearity in the shear-torsion interaction curve. The
model provides a check on the spalling o f the concrete cover o f the sections subjected to
combined shear and torsion.
1.5 Motivation
I.
Torsion failure is brittle and should be avoided in order not to compromise the
ductile behaviour o f the structure. Cases o f failure are shown in Figures 1.10 to
1. 12 .
II. Strengthening may provide a viable option to reduce or eliminate failure potential
due to torsion in existing structures.
III. Recent design codes as the CSA-S806-02 (2002) and ACI-440-2R-02 (2002),
addressed the design and construction o f building components with FRP. The
code provisions covered most o f the cases o f strengthening structures subjected
to flexure and shear but did not address cases o f strengthening concrete beams
subjected to pure torsion or combined shear and torsion.
IV. Torsion rarely occurs without other actions. Usually flexure, shear and axial
forces are also present.
V. The unavailability o f experimental data is one o f the major reasons for the lack o f
adequate understanding o f the behaviour and the strengthening o f reinforced
concrete beams subjected to combined shear and torsion.
17
VI. The reason behind this gap in the knowledge is the specialized nature o f the
problem and the complexity involved in conducting a test that is realistic and
capable o f simulating the interaction between torsion and shear.
VII. Structural members subjected to torsion may be o f different shapes such as Tshape, L-shape, or box girder. The torsional behaviour o f each o f these shapes
might be significantly different. However, there is an obvious lack o f adequate
analytical and experimental investigations to improve our understanding o f the
behaviour.
1.6 Objectives
The objective o f this research is to analytically and experimentally investigate the
combined torsion and shear behaviour and strengthening o f RC girders with rectangular
and T cross sections. Advanced composites are used for strengthening the beams. The
scope o f the research will include the following items:
I.
The behaviour and design o f RC T-beams under combined shear and torsion.
II. The behaviour and analysis o f strengthened RC T-girders under combined shear
and torsion.
III. The behaviour and analysis o f strengthened RC rectangular girders subjected to
pure torsion.
PhD Thesis - A D eifalla
1.7 Thesis Organization

CHAPTER l is an introduction to the topic as well as a literature review for the torsion
behaviour and strengthening o f RC beams as well as shear and torsion strengthening o f
RC beams.
CHAPTER 2 includes details o f an experimental program specially designed for testing

T-beams while subjected to combined shear, torsion and very little bending moment. The
details o f the experimental program will include the test setup, the beams, and the
measuring instruments.
CHAPTER 3 presents an experimental investigation for the effect o f the torque to shear
ratio on the behaviour o f the RC T-girders in terms o f the strength and deformation. The
discussion is based on three T-girders tested under different torque to shear ratios o f O.l,
0.5, and l.O m. In addition, it examines the design o f RC T-girders under combined
torsion and shear using the current North American design codes.
CHAPTER 4 includes an experimental evaluation for the effect o f the strengthening

using CFRP on the shear and torsion behaviour o f RC T-girders. The discussion is based
on experiments with 2 control specimens and four strengthened girders.
CHAPTER 5 presents a rational analytical model that can be used to predict the full
behaviour o f torsionally strengthened rectangular RC beams up to failure. The model will
be verified using experimental data by other researchers.
19
CHAPTER 6 presents an analytical model based on the modified compression field

theory. The model is capable o f predicting the behaviour up to ultimate capacity o f un
strengthened and strengthened girders under shear and torsion. The model analyzes cross
sections with different shapes including flanged sections. The model is validated using
the available experimental data.
CHAPTER 7 includes a simplified model capable o f predicting the strength o f RC girders

strengthened for torsion and shear. The model will be validated using available
experimental results as well as compared with available design equations.
CHAPTER 8 presents a summary o f the thesis and the main conclusions as well as
suggestions for future research.
Appendix A includes the details o f the computer program used in Chapter 5.
Appendix B includes sample o f the input data for the computer program used in Chapter
6.
Appendix C includes Test Data.
i i i i i i i
Figure 1.1 - The American Flospital Association Buildings, Chicago. The continuous transfer
girder with 1.5 m by 2.7 m cross section was subjected to significant torsion (Hsu 1984).
Figure 1.2 The Habitat residential complex, Montreal, Canada.
21
Figure 1.3 - Elevated Roadways under construction at Toronto (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
lieu's?2 Figure 1.4 - Prestressed concrete curved beam used for the aerial guideway at Disney world,
Orlando, Florida (Hsu 1984).
22
Figure 1.5 - Prestressed concrete double-tee girders in the Dade county Mass Rapid transit
aerial guideway, Florida (FIsu 1984).
C.G.
Figure 1.6 - Beams under combined loading a) Rectangular beam with off-center load,
b) Balcony beams, c) Inverted T-beam supporting beam reactions, d) curved girder, and
e) Main beam supporting secondary cantilever beam.
23
Girder subjected
to Torque to shear
ratio = 0.5 m
'1909 mm
700 mm
400
100 mm
Figure 1.7- Beams under combined straining actions (CSA 2004).
Figure 1.8 The new observation pathw ay over the G rand C anyon (2007).
24
V ertical Strips
Continuous sheets
Top and bottom
one side
Spiral Strips
U-jacket
a) longitudinal section
Top and bottom
Left and right
b) cross section
Figure 1.9 - Different strengthening schemes that can be used for torsion
Figure 1.10 - Reinforced concrete wall beams supporting cantilever flower bins.
Severe torsion cracking was observed in the beams and slabs (Hsu 1984).
25
Figure 1.11- Collapse of a six story RC building due to shear and torsion failure o f a RC
ribbed raft foundation (Hsu 1984).
llgBiMliMiMBiSli
Figure 1.12 - Torsional cracking near the support o f a spandrel beam in a reinforced
concrete parking garage in south Florida (Hsu 1984).
26
PhD Thesis - A Deifalla
CHAPTER 2 TESTING OF RC T-GIRDERS

UNDER COMBINED SHEAR AND
TORSION
2.1 introduction
In spite o f the fact that analytical modeling is less expensive and provides the capability
to effectively explore the influence o f more parameters than experimental programs,
experimental studies remain the most reliable and most efficient approach. Experiments
provide physical knowledge and information about the behaviour o f the system studied.
Moreover, test results are essential in calibrating and verifying analytical models. The
lack o f needed experimental data on the behaviour and strengthening o f reinforced
concrete (RC) T-beams subjected to combined shear and torsion is one o f the main
reasons for the delayed development o f robust analytical models. To develop the
knowledge and improve the understanding o f the behaviour o f strengthened RC beams
subjected to combined shear and torsion, an experimental program was conducted. Seven
beams were designed, constructed and tested while subjected to various torque to shear
ratios. The test setup allows the beams to fail in shear while subjected to shear, torsion,
and relatively low levels o f bending moments. It is also capable o f applying different
shear to torsion ratios by varying the ratio between the applied loads. The beams
represented a scaled RC T-beam model and were designed according to the current
Canadian concrete design code (CSA A22.3-94, 1994). The parameters investigated by
the test program were the effect o f the torque to shear ratio and the effect o f the
27
implemented strengthening techniques on the behaviour of the RC T-beams subjected to

shear, torsion, and unavoidably small bending moment. Three control beams and four
strengthened beams were designed, built, and tested. Details o f the beams, test setup, test
procedure, and materials are discussed in this chapter.
2.2 Test T~beams

Previous research focused on investigating the behaviour o f torsionaly strengthened RC
beams. Ghobarah et al. (2002) used a simple beam and Zhang et al. (2001) used a
cantilever beam system as shown in Figure 2.1. Since Torsion is normally accompanied
by shear and moment, it is essential to investigate the effect o f combined straining
actions. In order to simulate the behaviour o f strengthened beams subjected to combined
shear and torsion with different values o f torque to shear ratio, a simple beam with a
cantilever is used. Figure 2.2 shows a schematic o f the structural system for the test setup
used, where three different actuators are used to apply loads to the beam. The middle
region (test region) is subjected to combined shear and torsion where the torque to shear
ratio was controlled by controlling the three different applied loads. Figure 2.3 shows a
photograph o f the test setup.
2.2.1 Test beam scale

It is more desirable to use full-scale models since the test specimen scale has a significant
effect on the shear behaviour o f concrete beams (ASCE-ACI, 1998). However, because
o f equipment capacity limitations, scale models are a viable alternative. A representative
28
scale model should satisfy the similitude relationship. The Buckingham Tt-theorem is
used to develop the similitude relationship between the model and the prototype, which is
Sp = (So/Sg). Sp is the prototype to model density scaling factor, Sa is the prototype to
model stress scaling factor, and Sg is the prototype to model geometric scaling factor. SCT
may be taken equal to ratio between the modulus o f elasticity for the prototype and the
model, which was taken equal to unity. Sg can be chosen as the ratio between the area to
perimeter o f the prototype and the model. The beam cross-section dimensions were
selected to suit the equipment capacity limitations and represented a scaled model for a
concrete beam. Sg was taken equal to two to represent a prototype o f a concrete beam o f
approximately 700 mm depth and 300 mm width. To satisfy the similitude equation Sp
should be equal to half. Since the beams were tested under monotonic static loading, the
effect o f the material density can be neglected as adding more mass to the beam will not
affect the behaviour. Table 2.1 shows the scale factors for the different parameters that
affect the behaviour o f the prototype.
2.2.2 Test beam design

The design criteria used for the beam dimensions and reinforcement was to insure that:
The test setup is most efficient. The ratio between the total applied load (L I, L2,
and L3) and the induced shear force within the test region was chosen as a
measure o f the test setup efficiency. This value being maximized was one o f
criteria used to select the dimensions o f the beam.
The effect o f the bending moment is as small as possible. The ratio between the
shear force and the bending moment within the test region was maximized. This
parameter influenced the points o f load application and the points o f support.
Stress concentrations in the test region o f the beam were avoided by ensuring that
the loading points and supports are far from the test region.
The shear failure will occur within the test region. The ratio between the shear
induced inside and outside the test region is a maximum value using a range o f
practical values for the beam dimensions.
For effective section design, the longitudinal reinforcement was designed such
that the sections subjected to maximum moment will reach their maximum
capacity at the same loading stage.
The T-beams should fail within the identified test region.
The interaction between shear and torsion should govern the failure. For example,
the shear reinforcement in the form o f stirrups is expected to yield before the
longitudinal reinforcement.
All the beams are identical in detailing and dimensioning which is necessary for
the purpose o f consistency.
The design satisfied the provision o f the CSA A22.3-94 (1994).
2.2.3 Concrete dimensions and reinforcement

All the test beams had total depth o f 350 mm, flange thickness o f 100 mm, flange width
o f 450 mm, and web width o f 150 mm. Figure 2.4 shows a typical cross section o f the
30
beam within a) the roller arm; b) the test region; c) the loading arm. The cover was 25
mm for the web and 15 mm for the flange. Figure 2.5 shows a typical longitudinal section
o f the beams and the reinforcements. The longitudinal reinforcement is 4#20 at the
bottom o f the web and 2# 15+4# 10 in the flange. The transverse reinforcement was taken
to be 5# 10/m as the minimum specified by the current CSA A22.3-94 (1994). The clear
length o f the central region was 1400 mm to ensure that at least one complete spiral crack
will occur within the central region. At the two ends o f the test region, an end block was
created with rectangular section having total depth o f 350 mm, width o f 450 mm, and
length o f 250 mm. These two end blocks were used to apply torsion at one end (active
frame) and to restrain the torsion at the other end (reactive frame). In order to apply the
required load and the proper boundary condition far from the test region, the beam is
extended at both ends. The extensions are either for applying load (loading arm) or for
applying the end restraints (roller arm). The loading arm is 0.9 m long while the roller
arm is 0.75 m. To ensure that failure will occur within the test region both arms have
additional longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. The shear reinforcement was
14#10/m and the bottom reinforcement was 6#20, and the top longitudinal reinforcement
was 4#10+2#15. Figures 2.4.a and 2.4.c show the cross section for the loading arm and
the roller arm respectively. The longitudinal reinforcements were laid out in layers
spaced at 20 mm vertically. The effective depth was 310 mm for the loading arm and 264
mm for the roller arm and 284 mm for the typical cross section.
2.3 Test setup

A test setup was specially designed to be capable o f applying combined loading on tbeams with different torque to shear ratios. Figure 2.6 shows a plan view o f the test setup.
Figure 2.7 shows a side view o f a typical beam and the loading arrangement. Figures 2.8
to 2.11 show elevations and sections o f the test setup at different locations. Figure 2.8
shows an elevation from the left side o f the beam where actuator L3 is used to apply the
load. Figure 2.9 shows an elevation section at the active frame where the load is being
applied using the load actuators L I, and L2. Figure 2.10 shows an elevation section at the
reactive frame where the rotation and the vertical movement o f the beam were restrained.
Figure 2.11 shows an elevation from the right side o f the beam where the vertical
movement o f the beam was restrained.
2.3.1 Loading actuators

The load was applied to the beam using 3 hydraulic actuators L I, L2, and L3. The two
hydraulic actuators LI and L2 apply different load to the beam through 0.5 meter long
steel arms in order to apply the required torque as shown in Figure 2.9. The length o f the
steel arms was designed as the minimum practical value in order to use reasonable loads.
The control over high loads is more effective during the loading process. The end
conditions used for the actuator LI and L2 was pin-pin. The hydraulic actuator L3 acts at
the center o f the beam as shown in Figure 2.8. The top end condition for actuator L3 is
pin support. A steel plate o f width 300 mm was used to apply the load on the beam.
2.3.2 Supports
Figure 2.10 shows the connection at the intermediate support, which prevents the beam
from moving upward or rotating around its longitudinal axis at point (B). Figure 2.11
shows the details o f the roller support that is used at the beam end (F).
2.3.3 Instrumentation
2.3.3.1 Load cells
Four load cells (L I, L2, L3 and L4) were used in the test setup. Three o f the load cells
(L I, L2 and L3) were used to measure the actual applied loads at Points A, D and E on
the beam. The fourth load cell (L4) was used at Point F to measure the reaction at the
supports o f the beam. The load cells were calibrated under the expected range o f loads
before and after the test.
2.3.3.2 Linear variable differential transformers

Linear variable differential transformers, LVDTs, were used to measure displacements at
different locations o f the beam as shown in Figure 2.12. In order to eliminate the random
error in obtaining the LVDT factor, each LVDT was calibrated three times for its full
range. The average factor o f the three calibrations was used in the data analysis. Ten
LVDTs measured the vertical displacements at five sections o f the beam, two at each
section. The two LVDTs at each section were used to calculate the rotation and the
average vertical displacement. Ten LVDTs were used to measure the horizontal
displacements at the same five sections, two at each section. The two horizontal L VDTs
at each section were used to calculate the rotation and the average horizontal
33
displacement. The section rotations calculated using the two vertical and two horizontal
potentiometers were averaged to reduce random errors. Three o f the vertical LVDTs
were also used to measure the displacements at the locations o f the vertical actuators.
2.3.3.3 Strain gauges

Strain gauges were used to measure the strain in the longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement at different locations. Figure 2.13 shows the locations for strain gauges on
the longitudinal reinforcements. Strain in the longitudinal reinforcement was measured at
the maximum and at the zero moment sections. Figure 2.14 shows the different locations
for strain gauges on the transverse reinforcement. Strain in the transverse reinforcement
was measured at the beginning, middle, and the end o f the test region area. Strain gauges
were installed at the same location in all the tested beams. Figure 2.15 shows the location
o f the strain gauges used to measure the FRP strain in the fibre direction for the
strengthened girders.
2.4 Test procedure

The same procedure was followed during the testing o f the T-beams to insure that all the
tests were consistent. After installing the beam in the test setup and attaching the
instruments, the beam was loaded with a small load within the elastic range o f concrete to
avoid any cracks. The measurements from this initial testing were verified to ensure that
all the instruments are correctly installed and functioning properly.
34
2.4.1 Torque to shear ratio

To better understand the behaviour o f the beams under combined shear and torsion,
torque to shear ratios were selected to adequately cover a wide range o f the shear-torsion
interaction curve. The ratios were chosen to provide information on the effect o f torsionshear interaction on the behaviour and strengthening o f RC beams. The ratios o f torque to
shear were based on the ratio between the actual torque to ultimate torque ratio (T/Tu|,)
and the actual shear to ultimate shear ratio (V/Vit) as shown in Table 2.2. The ratio
between the applied and ultimate strength is used in order to normalize the chosen T/V
ratios in an attempt to generalize the results.
2.4.2 Loading sequence

Before the actual testing o f the beams, tables for the values o f the different loading steps
were prepared. These tables were used to determine the values o f the load in order to give
the desired torque to shear ratio. All the beams were tested to failure using the test setup.
The load was applied to the beams manually while preserving the torque to shear ratio.
Loads were applied using three control pumps. In order to control the ratios between
different loads, the loads were applied in small steps in the order o f 1 kN. In every
loading step the ratio between the loads was adjusted using an iteration process to apply
the pre-calculated loads.
2.4.3 Strengthening techniques

Ghobarah et al. (2002) experimental work showed that the continuous wrap o f the beam
is more effective than using strips o f various configurations and that 45 inclined CFRP is
35
more effective than vertical strips CFRP. Although the work done by Ghobarah et al.
(2002) has provided a better understanding for the behaviour o f wrapped concrete beams
subjected to pure torsion, the work did not address the practical application o f the CFRP.
The strengthening techniques used in this test program were chosen to suite various
practical limitations to the application o f the CFRP. Four different strengthening schemes
as shown in Figures 2.16 are proposed. The first scheme (Scheme#l) used is shown in
Figure 2.16a, for the case o f inaccessible flange. In the first technique, the U-shape FRP
jacket was attached to the web o f the beam and anchored near the intersection o f the web
and the flange. The second scheme (Scheme#2) shown in Figure 2.16b is for the case
where the top o f the flange is not accessible where the CFRP material was attached to the
web and anchored to the bottom side o f the flange. In addition, an angle is used to
prevent fibres from pulling out at the re-entrant comer of the web and the flange. The
third scheme (Scheme#3) technique assumes unrestricted access to the whole cross
section. In the third technique shown in Figure 2.16c, the fibres were wrapped around the
perimeter of the beam and anchored to the flange. The fourth scheme (Scheme #4),
shown in Figure 2.16d, is similar to Scheme #3 with an additional layer o f CFRP
wrapped around the web only and not the flange.
In the strengthening schemes, special attention was paid to the bond between the
reinforced concrete beam and CFRP. Preparation o f the concrete surface and the
application of the CFRP were conducted using the same standard procedure each time.
The concrete surface was levelled to serve as a bonding plain for the CFRP. In addition,
the surface is cleaned from all the loose particles such as dust or lubricants. Finally, the
36
concrete edges were rounded to a radius o f 25 mm to decrease the stress concentration at

this edge. A hand held grinder was used to remove the surface layer and expose a large
portion o f aggregate that would be beneficial in bonding with the CFRP. Compressed air
was used to remove any loose particles. The beam was left covered inside the laboratory
until the CFRP was applied. Applying the CFRP to the concrete surface was conducted in
steps. Firstly, the concrete surface was impregnated by hand with the resin. Secondly,
each CFRP layer was impregnated with the resin. Thirdly, each CFRP layer was rolled
over the concrete surface. Finally, the CFRP layers were pressed using a steel roller to get
air bubbles out. Each beam was allowed to cure at least 4 days.
2.4.4 Performance of the test setup

Due to the complexity o f the test set-up special attention was paid to the boundary
conditions. A 3-D frame element model was developed to predict the deformation
behaviour o f the test beam. An additional load cell (L4) was used to measure the reaction
at Point F. The assumptions made concerning the beam boundary conditions were
verified by comparing the measured values o f the reaction at Point F (L4) to the values
theoretically predicted for the reaction at Point F (R l) from Equation 2.1.
R1 = + 0.708 L2 + 0.708 L3 - 0.375L1
(2.1)
Equation 2.1 was derived using linear frame analysis. The schematic diagram of
the forces applied to the tested beams is shown in Figure 2.2. The Figure shows that the
beam behaves as a one end continuous beam with a roller at Point F preventing the
vertical movement o f the beam at this Point. At Points G, and H the beam is restrained
37
such that no vertical movement or twist take place at Point B. In addition to the boundary
conditions at Points G, H, and F, there are three Point loads L I, L2, and L3 acting at
Points A, D, and E, respectively. L2 and L3 produce torsional moment (T) along with a
vertical load at Point C. LI counterbalances the moment at the centerline o f the test
region. The structural analysis for moment, shear, and torsion was conducted using linear
frame analysis. Assuming Point F is a perfect roller and Points G and F are hinges, the
following Equations were used to calculate the reactions R2 at Point H, and R3 at Point
G, respectively as shown in Figure 2.2:
R2 = - 0.354 L2 + 0.646 L3 + 0.6875 LI
(2.2)
R3 - - 0.354 L3 + 0.646 L2 + 0.6875 LI
(2.3)
The actual torque, shear force, and bending moments within the test region o f the beam
as shown in Figure 2.2 are calculated as follows:
Q 1= L 1
(2.4)
Q3 = L4
(2.5)
M l = 0 .9 LI
(2.6)
M2 = 0.7 L4
(2.7)
where Q1
Shear between Points A and B
Q3
Shear between Points C and F
Ml
Negative moment at the reactive frame section at Point B
38
M2
Positive moment at the active frame section at Point C
In the test region, shear force and torque are:

Q2 = L2 + L 3 - L 4
(2.8)
T = 0.5L2 -0.5L3
(2.9)
where
Q2
Constant shear between Points B and C
Constant torque between Points B and C
Figure 2.17 shows the expected deformation o f the specimen. The elevation view shows
the vertical displacement and the curvature o f the specimen. Sections at different
locations o f the beam show the direction and relative magnitude o f the twisting angle.
Verification that the test setup was functioning accurately was performed by comparing
the measured reaction at the roller end F with the analysis as shown in Figure 2.18.
2.5 Concrete casting and curing

The seven beams were cast in two batches, four beams and three beams were poured
together. The beams were cast in clean wooden forms stiffened with vertical wooden
supports every 300 mm to maintain the cross section shape. The forms were laid on level
floor and the beams were poured with the web vertical. The forms were painted on the
inside with lubricating oil, which facilitates the removal of the forms after the concrete
hardens. A slump test was carried out before concrete pouring to measure the workability
o f the concrete batch. Figure 2.19 shows the forms and the reinforcement cage. During
casting, 18 standard cylinders o f 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height were poured. The
39
flange and the web o f the beam were poured monolithically to ensure compatibility
between the web and the flange. The concrete was compacted using two electrical
internal poker type vibrators. The concrete was moist cured using wet burlap for 7 days
under controlled laboratory conditions. After that, the burlap and the wooden forms were
removed and the beams were stored inside the laboratory until tested. Three cylinders
were tested in compression after 7 days, three after 28 days and three on the day o f the
beam testing. Three split cylinder tests were done after 28 days.
2.6 Materials
In the experimental program, three materials were used. These are: concrete, reinforcing
steel, and carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP). Each material was tested separately
to determine its mechanical properties. These properties were used in the analytical
modeling o f the beam behaviour.
2.6.1 Concrete
Two batches o f concrete were used in constructing the beams. Both were purchased from
the same local plant with the same specification and they arrived in a concrete mix truck.
The concrete mix properties included Type 10 cement, sand, 10 mm aggregate, and
targeted concrete strength 25 MPa. Upon arrival o f the concrete truck a slump test
measured a 150 mm slump. Uniaxial compression tests were performed using a
compression test machine. During the testing, the maximum applied load was recorded
and the maximum concrete compressive strength was calculated. Three cylinders were
40
PhD Thesis - A.Deifatla
tested each time with the average o f the three values taken to account for material
variation and random errors in the testing procedure. In order to determine the modulus
o f elasticity o f the concrete, after 28 days, the applied load and the strain were recorded
during the loading o f the cylinder. Figure 2.20 shows the stress-strain curve o f concrete
under compression for both the first and the second batches after 28 days. In addition,
tension-splitting test was also conducted to measure the tensile strength o f concrete for
the two batches. Table 2.3 summarizes the concrete properties at different times during
the experimental program.
2.6.2 Steel
The reinforcement steel used was Grade 400. Coupons were cut from the longitudinal and
shear reinforcements and were tested to determine the yield stress and modulus o f
elasticity o f the steel. Each coupon was ground using a grinder to remove the ribs and
create a smooth surface at mid-length. The coupons were tested in tension, and the strain
was recorded using strain gauges. The stress-strain curves for the four coupons from #10
bars are shown in Figure 2.21. The behaviour o f the four coupons was similar. The yield
occurred at strength o f 450 MPa with a corresponding strain value o f 2.09 mm/m. The
initial elastic modulus that was calculated from the gradient o f the linear part is
approximately 215,000 MPa. The nominal area o f the transverse reinforcement was taken
100 mm2.
2.6.3 Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)

Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) is a composite material that consists o f high strength
fibres and a matrix. Common fibre reinforced polymers used in civil engineering projects
41
are glass, carbon, and aramid. Glass FRP is more economical to produce. However, in
this experimental program the beams were strengthened by carbon fibres. The carbon
FRP has higher strength and stiffness values, and lower density. The matrix supports and
protects the fibres and transfers the loads through shear stresses. It is common to use
resins between the fibres for this purpose. Matrix resins should be compatible with the
fibres and provide good resistance to the environment. However, resins may degrade
rapidly due to high temperatures and moisture. The carbon fibre material used in beam
strengthening was Tyfo BCC composite, which is compromised o f Tyfo S Epoxy and
Tyfo BCC reinforcing fabric. Tyfo BCC is a custom, bi-directional fabric used in the
Tyfo Fibrwrap System. The primary fibres are continuous in the 45 directions and the
composites provide ultimate strength in the direction o f fibres. This type was chosen
based on the nature o f the torsion cracks as being spiral and the crack inclination angles
to the longitudinal axis o f the beam are approximately 45 degrees. Uniaxial tensile
testing was performed on the coupons taken from the fibres and resin composite. The
testing followed the procedure outlined in CSA S806-02 (2002). Figure 2.22 shows the
FRP stress-strain relationship observed from the tensile testing. Figure 2.23 shows the
test setup used to test the FRP coupons. Figure 2.24 shows one o f the tested FRP coupons
before and after failure. Table 2.4 shows the properties o f the CFRP both provided by the
supplier and observed from the tensile testing o f two CFRP coupons (S3, and S4). The
results from the testing o f the FRP coupons (SI, S2) were excluded from the average
because they premature failure was influenced by the gripping o f the test machine.
42
Table 2.1 - Test beam scale factors
Parameter
Factor
Value
Concrete strength
So
Longitudinal Steel strength
S0
Transversal steel strength
Sc
Concrete Modulus o f elasticity
Sa
Steel strength
Sc
Steel Modulus o f elasticity
Sc
SgSg
Perimeter o f the section
Sg
Aggregate size
Sg
Concrete Cover
Sg
Spacing between hoops
Sg
Specimen Dimensions
Sg
Area enclosed inside the hoops
Table 2.2 - Selected torque to shear ratios.
(T /T|t) / (V / VU|t)
( T / V)
0.1 m
0.5 m
10
1.0m
Table 2.3 - Concrete strength at different dates
Batch I (24 August 2002)

Date
Batch II (27 July 2003)

feu
feu
Date
(MPa)
(MPa)
31 August 2002 (7 days)
17.7
25 August 2003 (28 days)
25.6
22 September 2002 (28 days)
25.6
15 September 2003 (TB1S2)
31.4
20 February 2003 (TB1)
35.9
22 October 2003 (TB3)
35.9
3 June 2003 (TB1S1)
38.8
1 December 2003 (TB2)
32.6
22 October 2003 (TB1S3)
38.3
16 March 2004 (TB3S4)
40.5
Table 2.4 - Properties o f CFRP provided by the supplier (average o f two tested coupons).
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Modulus of elasticity
(GPa)
Maximum tensile strain
717(449)
65(45)
1.1% (1.0%)
Test
region
a) Zhang (2001)
Test
R1
region
b) G hobarah (2002)
L : A pplied Load
R : Reaction
Figure 2.1 - Schematic structural system o f previous torsion test setups
45
R1
R2
R3
Loading
arm
Test
region
Reactive
L2
Frame
900mm
Ac ave
R oller
arm
Fra me
1700mm
700mm
Torsion m om ent diagram
Shear force diagram
M2
Ml
B ending M om ent diagram
Figure 2.2 - Schematic structural system o f the test setup
46
Figure 2.3- South view of the test setup with a specimen in place
PhD Thesis - A. Deifalta
-450 mm-
2#10
Lj
4 6#20
150 mm
2#15 [-- '450 mm8
in
^
a
T
to
25#10@200mm/
- 2#
2#15 450 m m - l
10
4
2#10
o
-25
^
-4 # 2 0
150 mm
#10@80min/
a) Roller arm
_25-2#10
-4#20
150 mm
zf
VI
tN
-4# 10
cn
b) Test region
c) Loading arm
Figure 2.4 - Typical cross sections at a) R oller arm, b) T est region, and c)Loading arm
2#10
.b.
oo
2#10
|- ---------------------------------- 2220 mm---------------------
prohibited without perm ission.
2#15
2#10
#10@ 200 mm2 # 1 0 + 2#15
4 # 1 0 + 2#15
\# 1 0 @ 8 0 m m
is m
otN
^r
-2064 mm-4080 mm-
-924 mm-
-1092 mm-
-1951 mm-
2#20
2#20
2#20
Fig 2.5 - Typical longitudinal section o f the specimen and reinforcement
#10@80mm' %
IT)
(N
2#10
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
2#15
PhD Thesis - A. Deifalla
950mm
1700mm
750mm
L2
Test region
Loading arm
L3
Roller
L4
J
Figure 2.6 - Plan view for the test rig
Test region
Loading arm
Roller ann
L4
Pin connectior
Load cell
Hydraulic iack:
L1,L2
Base
900mm
1700mm
3236mm
Figure 2.7 - Side view for the test setup
49
500 m m
rha
1 4
r't
>J
Pin c o n n e c tio n ^
Load cell
1_I
Pin connection^
Pin connection
150 m m
Hydraulic jack
Load cell-
pnO
flOOOOdODflOflQ
oaoGQodooaocm
nooaaoaaooaaaa
}
dqcoooo
40 m m
L oad cell
oooodo
cn
o
H ydraulic jack
joo ao
jooaoaodpoaaaoc)
iSaaoooocjoooooa
c o a d o a a ____
ggsfslpsliyi H ydraulic jack
sssssssgiiiiii
Base
b T
lOOODODaODDQO
.P q o o o c S O D O Q O a
l -l
S5SSS L I
3DD0d
iggsl
ODOOC QQ OO O Q
Pin conncetion
0n
OO
OQrCD
OOOO
n no
Pin conncetion
1000 m m
Figure 2.8 - Elevation at the loaded tip o f the beam
Figure 2.9 - Cross section at the active frame
500 m m
o\
Figure 2 U _ Elevation at the supported tip 0f the beam
oo
(N
OO
Figure 2.10 - Cross section at the reactive frame
PhD Thesis - A.Deifaila
u raio o Z
ZE ;
r="=F
in
u ir a o /,1 7
51
3236 m m
Figure 2.12 - Longitudinal section for the specim en show ing the layout o f the LVDT's
1700 m m
950 m m
t3
T3
CM
CN
oo
o
o
o
11
12
' V ... N ..... \
T est region
Loading arm
,\
\ .
1590 m m
'. ^
\ ^
\
\
R o ller arm
J
5
1730 m m
1230 m m
1090 m m
Figure 2.13 Strain gauges layout for longitudinal reinforcem ent
O
l
CO
A
D
15
(
(X
13 n e
X
16
14
Section a-a
E3
EJ
10
8
17 U El
18
Section b-b
y/\
i t1 5
2 &
3
Section c-c
Figure 2 . 1 4 - Cross sections showing the strain gauges used for the shear reinforcement
F20
F22
F27
F28
F29
F30
F25
F12
F10
F7
F9
F8
FI 1
F4
F6
F2
F5
FI
F3
F21
F22
F26
BeamT B1S2
Beam T B 1S 1
O
i
fc.
F21
F22
F23
F7
F17
F24
F17
Beam TB1S3
FI 8
F18
F19
F20
F19
Beam TB3S4
Figure 2.15 - Location o f the strain gauges used to measure the FRP strain
F21
F24
FI 9
F23
A nchor rod
300 m m
L100
300 m m
FRP sheet
FRP sheet
b) Schem e #2
a) Scheme #1
Ui
tz l
~Z Z 7
LI 00
300 mm
A nchor rod
@ 300 m m
L100
300 m m
A nchor rod
(a), 300 m m
VZ///^////Z/7Z)
FRP sheet
b) Scheme #3
FRP sheet
d) Schem e #4
Figure 2.16 - Proposed strengthening Schem es a) Scheme # l,b ) Schem e #2, c) Scheme #3, and d) Scheme#4.
A nchor rod
@ 300 m m
PI 100X100X10
@ 300 nun
CJ
bO
<u
10*>4
Si
<u
> (L>
oc3 CS
<L> PSi
m
03
displacem ents and rotations of the test b e a m s.
Figure 2.17 - Expected
56
300
Calculated reaction force (k N )
TB1
TB2
TB3
-TB1S1
250
TB1S3
-B T 3 S 4
200
150
100
50
100
150
200
250
Measured reaction force (kN)

Figure 2.17 - Recorded and Calculated reaction at support F for all the girders
Figure 2.18 - Forms and assembeled steel cages
57
300
25 20
15
w 10
Batch I
Batch II
200
400
600
1000
800
1200
1400
1600
Strain (micro strain)

Figure 2.19 - Stress-strain for concrete Batch I and II after 28 days
700
600 -
Stress (MPa)
500 400 300 - 200
#20/1
#20/2
#20/3
# 10/1
# 10/2
--#15/1
--# 1 5 /2
100
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000

Figure 2.20 - Stress-strain relationship for the steel reinforcements
58
20000
800
700 -
Stress (MPa)
600 500 -
Supplier
400 300 200
100
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000

Figure 2.21 - Stress-strain relationship for FRP Coupons.
Figure 2.22 - The test setup used for the tensile testing o f the FRP coupons.
59
14000
Figure 2.23 - One o f the tested FRP coupons before and after failure.
60
CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF RC TGIRDERS SUBJECTED TO TORSION

AND SHEAR
3.1 Introduction
The most recent joint report issued by the ASCE-ACI committee 445 (1998) outlined
investigating the torsion design as the next challenge for researchers. In structural
systems torsion is normally combined with shear and bending moments. Moreover, it is
common that RC girders would have a cross section o f a T-shape. Rahal and Collins
(1995a) studied rectangular RC girders subjected to combined shear and torsion. Tgirders are different from rectangular girders due to the presence o f the flange, which
adds more complexity to the effect o f the shear-torsion interaction on the behaviour o f the
girder. Most o f the shear force is carried by the web. On the other hand, the twisting
moment has to be distributed between the web and the flange, which varies based on the
dimensions and reinforcements o f the cross section.
In 1911, Bach (mentioned in Hsu 1984) suggested an approximate solution for the
analysis o f steel flanged sections including T sections subjected to torsion as shown in
Figure 3.1. The solution calculates the torsional constant o f the cross section (defined as
the ratio between the torque and the corresponding shear stress) as the summation o f the
torsional constant o f its individual rectangular components. Although the solution was
61
PhD Thesis - A.Deifal!a
intended for steel sections, the results o f several experimental studies have shown that
this assumption could be applicable for flanged RC beams with bulky cross section (Hsu
1984). This simplification was implemented in the ACI-318-71 (1971) which was the
first ACI design code that explicitly includes the torsion provisions for RC elements. The
design provisions were based on the skew bending theory. In an attempt to extend these
design provisions to include prestressed concrete, Zia and McGee (1974) proposed
torsion design provisions similar to that o f the ACI-318-71 (1971) but include the torsion
design o f prestressed concrete members. They concluded that the torsion design
provisions for T-beams are reasonably safe. However, they indicated that the margin o f
safety decreases as the cross section becomes stockier.
Another solution is the hollow tube analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997). The
hollow tube analogy assumes that only a uniform thickness o f a hollow tube with the
same outer dimensions and shape o f the investigated cross section is effective in resisting
the torsion as shown in Figure 3.2.
In the available published research, no study was conducted to examine the Shear
and Torsion provisions for the case o f RC T-beams with both flange and web closed
stirrups. Hence, the code provisions were verified and examined using experimental data
from testing rectangular RC beams rather than RC T-beams. Applying these code
provisions for the design o f RC T-beams requires evaluation. In this chapter, the
behaviour o f the three T-girders TB1, TB2, and TB3 tested under torque to shear ratios of
0.5 m, 1.0 m and 0.1m, respectively is discussed to explore the influence o f torsion-shear
62
interaction on the behaviour o f the girders. In addition, the shear and torsion design
provisions o f the North American design codes o f RC T-beams are examined. The
behaviour o f the beams in terms o f the ultimate strength, the angle o f inclination o f the
cracks, and the failure mode was calculated according to the codes. The calculations and
the experimental results are compared in order to evaluate the current shear and torsion
design provisions. The ACI-318 (2005) will be referred to as ACI. The PCI (2005) will
be referred to as PCI. The CSA (2005) will be referred to as CSA. AASHTO (2003) will
be referred to as AASHTO. The CSA (2000) will be referred to as CSA bridges.
3.2 Concrete cracking strength

The shear-torsion interaction affects the cracking torque and shear forces especially at
low torque to shear ratios. The experimental value o f the cracking strength will be taken
as the minimum o f either the strength at which the torsion and shear behaviour deviate
from the initial linear behaviour or the strength at which cracks were observed during the
testing o f the girder. For Girder TB1, the cracking strength was a torque o f 8.5 kN.m and
a shear o f 17 kN. For Girder TB2 the cracking strength was a torque o f 11 kN.m and a
shear of 11 kN. For Girder TB3, the cracking strength was a torque o f 4 kN.m and a shear
of 42 kN. The cracking patterns o f Girders TB1, TB2 and TB3 were significantly
influenced by the torque to shear ratio as shown in Figure 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5, respectively.
For Girder TB1, the first concrete crack was observed at the bottom o f the south
side o f the web as shown in Figure 3.3. The diagonal concrete cracks formed in the flange
63
were significant. The direction o f the crack propagation was similar with insignificant
variation. Significant concrete cover spalling from middle o f the flange was observed.
Close to failure, longitudinal cracks were formed in the web north side close to Point B
which extended to the middle o f the test region. New cracks formed in the longitudinal
direction rather than diagonal direction is due to the compression from the bending
moment. However, the north side is not the critical side as the torsion and shear stresses
are in opposite directions. On average, the major cracks formed an angle o f inclination
51 with the longitudinal axis o f the girder.
For Girder TB2 (as shown in Figure 3.4), the cracks propagated in a helical form
around the girder. The cracks were similar to that o f Girder TB1. Concrete cover spalling
from both the flange and web was observed. In the south side where the torsion and shear
stresses are added together, the direction o f the cracks became steeper towards point B. In
the north side where the torsion and shear stresses are in opposite directions, the direction
o f the cracks close to failure was parallel to the longitudinal direction o f the girder.
Significant concrete cover spalling was observed from both the flange and the web. On
average, the major cracks formed at an angle o f inclination o f 55 with the longitudinal
axis of the girder.
For Girder TB3 (as shown in Figure 3.5), significant diagonal cracks were
observed in both the north and south sides o f the cross section. Cracks were more
significant in the web when compared with the cracks in the flanges. The spacing
between the cracks was relatively small when compared to Girders TB1 and TB2. The
64
angle o f inclination o f the cracks varied along the test region. For the north side, the
cracks were flatter towards Point B and steeper towards Point C o f the test region. On
average, the major cracks formed angle o f inclination 30 with the longitudinal axis o f
the girder.
3.3 Total ioad-deformation behaviour

The relationship between the total load (defined as the summation o f L I, L2, and L3) and
the vertical displacement was affected by the torque to shear ratio. Figure 3.6 shows the
total applied total load versus the average vertical displacement at the west end o f the test
region (Point C) for the tested T-girders. As expected, decreasing the torque to shear ratio
causes an increase in the applied shear force and the applied total load with a
corresponding increase in the vertical displacement. In addition, the total load resistance
with respect to the vertical displacements increased with the decrease o f the torque to
shear ratio.
3.4 Total ioad-strain behaviour

The relationship between the total applied load and the longitudinal steel reinforcement
strain varied with the torque to shear ratio. Figure 3.7 shows the relationship between the
total applied load and the average strain in the longitudinal steel reinforcement at the
middle o f the test region for the tested T-girders TB1, TB2, and TB3. The plotted strain
was calculated as the average o f the top and bottom strain in the longitudinal
65
reinforcement at the counter flexure section (i.e. cross section subjected to zero moment)
which is a result from the applied torsion. The measured strain values were insignificant
before concrete cracking. After concrete cracking, the strain in the longitudinal steel
reinforcement starts increasing which shows that the steel bars became effective after the
concrete cracks. The failure total loads decreased with the increase in the torque to shear
ratio. At the same applied total load, the strain developed in the longitudinal steel
reinforcement increased with the increase in the torque to shear ratio. This is consistent
with the understanding that the average strain in the longitudinal steel bars increases with
the increase in torsion. The slope o f the total load-longitudinal steel strain o f the girder
which represents the total load/strain stiffness, increased with the decrease in the torque
to shear ratio.
3.5 Torsional behaviour

Figure 3.8 shows the relationship between the applied torque and the angle o f twist in the
test region o f the T-girders. Before cracking, the behaviour was similar for all the tested
T-girders. After cracking, girders TB1 and TB2 with the torque to shear ratio o f 0.5 m
and 1.0 m, respectively behaved in a similar manner. This is because the torsion
dominated the behaviour o f these girders. The shear dominated girder TB3 behaved
differently as compared to TB1, and TB2. The torsional stiffness o f TB3 defined as the
torque per unit angle o f twist was lower than that o f TB1 and TB2. This is because TB3
was subjected to a torque to shear ratio that is lower than that o f TB1 and TB2. In this
case, cracks associated with high shear resulted in lower torsional stiffness o f girder TB3.
66
3.6 Shear behaviour

The shear behaviour o f the tested girders was affected by the torque to shear ratio. Figure
3.9 shows the relationship between the applied shear force and the maximum strain in the
transverse steel reinforcement. The strain developed in the transverse steel bars increased
substantially with the increase in the torque to shear ratio. The transverse steel
reinforcement yielded in the case o f girder TB2 where the torsion contribution to the
strain in the stirrups was substantial.
3.7 Flexure behaviour

Figures 3.10 and 3.11 show the relationship between the bending moment and the
longitudinal steel strain at the bottom and the top o f the east and west ends o f the test
region, respectively. The longitudinal steel strain reached a maximum value o f 1.5 mm/m
which is approximately 75% o f the nominal yield strain. The increase in the shear
resulted in an increase in the total loads which lead to a change o f the bending moments
at failure for girders TB3, TB1 and TB2. As designed and observed experimentally, both
the cross section at the west and the east ends o f the test region did not experience any
yielding in the longitudinal steel.
3.8 Concrete diagonal strain

Figure 3.12 shows the variation o f the concrete tensile strain at a 45 angle with respect
to the longitudinal axis o f the girder with the applied total load. At the same total load,
the increase in the torque to shear ratio resulted in an increase in the concrete tensile
strain. The strain at the ultimate capacity increased with the increase in the torque to
shear ratio. The recorded concrete strain values are not the maximum principal strain
values as they were measured at a 45 angle with the girder longitudinal axis (which may
not be the principal direction) and averaged over a length o f 290 mm. However, the
comparison between the strains in the same location is still applicable. The variation of
the concrete compression strain with the total load is shown in Figure 3.13. At the same
applied total load, the figure shows that the developed concrete surface strain increases
with the increase in the applied torque to shear ratio. It also implies that the ultimate
strength o f the T-girders subjected to higher torsion was reached at higher concrete
compression surface strains than those subjected to lower torsion.
3.9 Longitudinal steel strain

The variation o f the strain in longitudinal steel at the top and bottom reinforcement o f the
middle section with the total load is shown in Figure 3.14. At the same total loads, the
increase in the torque to shear ratio increased significantly the strain in the longitudinal
steel both top and bottom. In addition, the difference between the strain in the top and
bottom longitudinal steel decreased with the increase in the ratio o f the torque to shear
68
ratio. The results confirm the assumption that pure torsion develops equal tension strain
at both the top and bottom bars.
3.10 Transverse steel strain

Figure 3.15 shows the transverse steel strain for the flange and web stirrups (figure 2 .13)
versus the total load. In case o f Girder TB2 (high torque to shear ratio), the strain
measured in the flange is similar to the strain measure in the web. On the other hand, in
case o f Girder TB3 (low torque to shear ratio) the strain in the web is larger than the
strain in the flange.
Figure 3.16 shows the variation o f the strain in transverse steel at the middle o f the
web north and south sides o f the cross section with the total load for the tested girders.
The south side is the side where the torsion and shear are in the same direction and the
north side is the side where the torsion and shear are in opposite directions. The strain
was measured at the middle o f the section where the maximum stresses are expected. The
figure shows that the difference between the north and south sides increases with the
decrease in the torque to shear ratio.
Figure 3.17 shows the variation o f the strain in the top and bottom o f the flange
stirrups at the middle section with the total load. For Girders T B l, the bottom strain
gauge was installed at the middle o f the stirrup. On the other hand, the bottom strain
gauge was installed on the north side o f the overlapping zone o f the stirrups. Girder TBl
(under low torque to shear ratio) strain is significantly lower than that o f TB3 (under high
69
torque to shear ratio) which agrees well with the assumption that the flange stirrup carries
mostly forces due to torsion.
3.11 Design of RC T-girders

In this section the shear and torsion provisions o f the North American codes will be
reviewed. All design equations will be listed in SI units only.
3.11.1 ACI (2005)
The ACI provisions require that the shear and torsion are analyzed separately. The steel
reinforcement required to resist torsion is added to that required to resisting shear and
moment. For shear design, the shear resistance (Vr) is given by:
Vs
(3-D
where Vc and Vs are the concrete and the steel reinforcement contribution to the shear
capacity respectively, and Vr should not exceed
(3.2)
where bw is the width o f the web, d is the effective depth o f the cross section, and Vc is
the concrete contribution determined as:
(3.3)
70
The shear carried by the transverse steel reinforcement, Vs is calculated as:
Vs = f d ^
s
(3-4)
where Av is the area o f stirrups resisting shear, s is the spacing between stirrups, and fy is
the yield stress o f the stirrups. The torsion equations are based on the variable angle truss,
where the angle 0 can be taken between 30 and 60 (recommended as 45 for reinforced
concrete members). The torsion resistance (Tr) is computed as the smallest of:
Tt = o2 Ay f -^-co t 0
or
Ti = 2 Ao fy^ pt a n t f
(3.5)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow and may be taken as 0.85 A0h
where A0h is the area enclosed inside the hoops, At is area o f steel reinforcement resisting
torsion and A| is the longitudinal steel reinforcement resisting torsion, Ph is the perimeter
o f the hoops. The concrete crushing can be prevented by applying the shear and torsion
interaction condition
V.
vM .
/
+
TrPh
< 0.67 JfT +

V
b,d
Vl - 7 A oh2y
(3.6)
3.11.2 CSA (2005)

The CSA (2005) standard provisions for the design o f beams subjected to combined shear
and torsion allows for the use o f the simplified or the general methods. The two methods
71
use the same set o f design equations. The main difference is in the way p and 0 are being
calculated. The shear resistance (Vr) shall be determined as:
Vr = V , + V ,
(3.7)
where Vc and Vs are the concrete and the steel reinforcement contribution to the shear
capacity respectively, and Vr should not exceed
Vr = 0.25fcb wd v
(3-8)
dv is largest value o f (0.9 d) or (0.72 h). The concrete contribution (Vc) is given by the
formula:
Vc = / i / f > d ,
(3'9)
where p can be taken 0.18 according to the simplified model if the stirrups are provided.
In the case o f general method, p is calculated using the following expression:
0.40
1300
P = -----------------------------1 + 1500*, (1000 + S )
(3.10)
K
J
where gx is the longitudinal strain in the steel reinforcement and Sze is equivalent crack
spacing parameter given by:
35S
Sze = TZ ~ - 0-85Sz
15 + a
(3 .H )
72
where the crack spacing Sz shall be taken as dv. The transverse steel reinforcement shall
be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis o f the beam and the value o f Vs shall be
computed by:
V =
A vf yd v cot(g)
(3.12)
where 0 is taken 35 according to the simplified method. In the case o f the general
method 0 is given by:
tf = 29 + 7000sx
(3.13)
The torsion resistance (Tr) is computed as:
T =
2A 0A ,fycot6>
(3.!4)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85 A0i,.
The concrete crushing should be checked such that:
V.
vM y
I/ TT) \
TrPh
Ao
2h
VA
< 0.25f
(3-15)
73
3.11.3 CSA bridges (2000)

For the CSA bridges, the shear and torsion provisions allow for the use o f the simplified
method (S) or the general method (G). For the simplified method (S), the nominal shear
(Vn) is written as:
A f d cot#
V = 0 .46f b d + Y y V
n
cr v v
e
(3-16)
where fcr is the concrete cracking stress which is given as:
cr
= 0 .4 J f b d
Vc v v
(3.17)
for normal density concrete, dv is the distance measured perpendicular to the neutral axis
between the resultants o f the compressive and tensile forces due to flexure but not less
than (0.9 d) where d is the effective depth o f the cross section, 0 is the angle o f
inclination o f the concrete struts and can be taken 45, s is the spacing between the
transversal stirrups and bv is the effective web width within the depth dv. For the general
method (G), the nominal shear strength (V) is calculated by:
A f d cot#
V = 2.5y#b d f + V Y -V
n
' v v cr
s
(3 1 8 )
74
where p and 0 are obtained from Table 8.9.3.4.1(a) in the CSA bridges. Using the table
requires that the value o f the ratio between the nominal shear stress (v) and fc' as well as
the longitudinal steel strain ex is known which can be calculated using the expression:
\2
n
b d
Tn*n
Pn
A
V v vy
(3.19)
oh
The longitudinal strain in the steel reinforcement ex can be written in the form:
0.5cot<9,
s
=-
M,
0.9T p,
n*n
V 2 +
A^
o
(3.20)
< 0.002
E A
s s
where Mf is bending moment corresponding to the shear. For both the simplified method
(S) and the general method (G), the torsion resistance (Tn) is computed by:
T =
n
where
2A A T co t9
o t y
A 0
(3.21)
is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85
A 0 h-
F or both the general and sim plified m ethod, the diagonal concrete crushing is prevented
by limiting the ratio between the nominal shear stress (u) and the compressive strength
(fc') to a value o f 0.23.
75
3.11.4 AASHTO (2003)
For the AASHTO, the shear and torsion provisions allow for the use o f two alternative
methods namely; simplified (S) and general method (G). Both methods use the same set
o f design equation with the only difference is in the way the (3 and 0 are calculated. The
shear resistance (Vn) shall be determined as:
A f d cot#
v y v
(3.22)
where fc' is the concrete compressive strength, dv is the distance measured perpendicular
to the neutral axis between the resultants o f the compressive and tensile forces due to
flexure but not less than (0.9 d) where d is the effective depth o f the cross section, s is the
spacing between the stirrups and bv is the effective web width within the depth dv. 0 is a
factor depends on the ability o f diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension forces
which can be taken 2.0 for the simplified method (S) or obtained from a table provided
by the AASHTO. The angle 0 can be taken 45 for the simplified method (S) or can be
obtained from the table provided by the specifications similar to J3 as explained before for
the general method (G). Using the table requires that the value o f the ratio between the
shear stress (v) and fc' as well as the longitudinal steel strain ex to be known. The shear
stress (v) can be calculated as:
76
v=
n
b d
V v M)
Vh
( 3 .23 )
A 2,
oh
The longitudinal strain in the steel reinforcement ex can be computed by:
(0.5 cot 6' V 2 +

n
0.9T p
nh
2A
M
v
(2E A )
s s
(3.24)
< 0.001
where Mf is bending moment corresponding to the shear Vn, As is the longitudinal tension
steel, and Es is the steel youngs modulus. The torsion resistance (Tn) is given by:
T =
n
2A A f co t^
o t y
(3.25)
where A0 is the area enclosed by the torsion shear flow, which may be taken 0.85 A0h.
The concrete crushing is prevented by limiting the ratio between the nominal shear stress
(v) and the compressive strength (fc') to a value o f 0.23.
3.11.5 PCI (2005)
The shear resistance (Yn) is given by:
77
V
A f d
"
-H
<V
V =max
n
( '
\
V T
c n
1+
TV
v c ny
(3 .2 6 )
where Av is the area o f stirrups resisting shear, s is the spacing between stirrups, and fy is
the yield stress o f the stirrups. T and Vn are the nominal torsional and shear resistance,
respectively, Vc is the concrete contribution to the shear resistance under pure shear
which can be written as:
vc =
b d
w
6
(3.27)
where bw is the width o f the web, d is the effective depth o f the cross section, and Tc' is
the torsional moment strength provided by the concrete under pure torsion given as:
Z x 2y
T =
c
(3.28)
15
where x and y are the dimensions o f the smallest and largest sides o f the rectangular
components o f the cross section, respectively. The torsion resistance (Tn) is given by:
78
McM aster - Civil Engineering
tx l y lA t fy
T =
n
'
\2
T V
:+ L_LJ_<T
max
(3.29)
c n
1+
T V'
V n
cy
where xi and yi are the small and large dimensions o f the rectangular stirrups,
respectively and a t is a factor based on the aspect ratio o f the rectangular components and
calculated as:
= 0.66 + 0.33(yj + x ^) < 1.5
(3.30)
The concrete crushing can be prevented by limiting the torsion to a maximum value
(Tmax) calculated as follows:
Ktf c Zx2y
max
(3.31)
36, 1 +
30C T
t uy
where Kt = 12 and the factor Ct is being calculated such that:
2.54b, d
C =
* JV y
(3.32)
The maximum shear value (Vmax) is:
79
V
max
2.5.Jfb d
y ew
f
rx ,
\2
(3 .3 3 )
3.12 Ultimate strength

The design o f beams under combined action considers four modes o f failure. Concrete
crushing, longitudinal steel yield, transverse steel yield and both transverse and
longitudinal steel yield. The provisions o f the current ACI and CSA design codes and
PCI methodology were used to calculate the strength o f the three T-beams tested in this
experimental program. The calculations were conducted by substituting in the appropriate
equations using the following values. The resistance factors were assumed unity. The
cross section dimensions were taken such that: bw = 150 mm (6 in), d = 280 mm (l l in),
A0h = 44222 mm2 (80.6 in2), Ph = 1420 mm (53.9 in.) and the area steel per unit length
(As / s) = l.O mm (0.03937 in.). The values o f the material properties determined from the
testing were used to calculate the strength. The steel yield fy = 450 MPa for the transverse
steel and for the longitudinal steel. The concrete compressive strength was taken fc =
33.6 MPa (4.9 ksi) for beam TB2 and TB3 and fc = 38.8 MPa (3.6 ksi) for beam TB l.
For the ACI, the shear and torsion provisions allow for the angle o f the principal
compression, 0 to be taken between 30 and 60 (45 for reinforced concrete members).
The angle 0 will be taken 30 or 45 for the purpose of this study. For the CSA, the
provisions allow for the use of the Simplified and the General methods for the design of
80
T-beams subjected to combined shear and torsion, both methods will be used to estimate
the strength. The load and deformation measurements for the tested T-girders are
summarized in Table 3.1. The ratios between the measured and calculated torsion and
shear capacities for the tested T-beams are summarized in Table 3.2. The strength was
calculated by taking the material and safety factors equal to unity. The PCI 2005 strength
predictions were more consistent with the experimental results when compared with the
other design provisions.
Using the provisions o f the ACI, the measured shear and torsion capacities with
respect to the calculated ones range between 0.81 and 1.43. Taking angle 0 = 45
provided a better estimate for the strength o f beam TB3 when compared to taking angle 0
= 30. For beams TB1 and TB2 the strength was limited by the maximum torsion limit.
Using the simplified and general methods o f CSA, the measured torsion and shear
capacities with respect to the calculated ones range between 0.73 and 0.89. The
simplified method provided a better estimate for the strength o f Beam TB3 when
compared to the general method estimates. The strength o f Beam TB2 was limited by the
maximum torsion limit. Using PCI method, the measured torsion and shear capacities
with respect to the calculated ones range between 0.96 and 1.18. For Beams TB1 and
TB2, strength was limited by the yielding o f the steel rather than the maximum torsion
limit. The CSA general method estimated the strength with an error up to 27% on the un
conservative side. The ACI estimated the strength with an error up to 43% on the
conservative side. The PCI method estimated the error up to 18%. The strength predicted
81
using the PCI method was closer to the experimental results when compared to the ACI
and the CSA.
3.13 Shear-torsion Interaction

Figure 3.18 shows the torsion-shear interaction ultimate strength diagrams for the tested
T-beams calculated using the current CSA and ACI design codes as well as the PCI
proposed methodology. The experimental results are also indicated on the plot. Each test
represents one point on the interaction diagram. The figure shows five shear-torsion
interaction curves; two for the ACI design code taking angle 9 = 45 and 0 = 30; and
two curves for the CSA design code using the simplified method and the general method
as well as one for the PCI method. The figure shows that the current design code
provisions give different estimates o f the strength o f T-beams subjected to combined
shear and torsion especially in cases o f significant torsion.
3.14 Failure mode

For the shear and torsion design o f beams, the failure mode could be yielding o f the
stirrups before the concrete crushing, premature diagonal concrete crushing occurs before
the stirrup reaches yield or balanced section stirrup reaches yield and concrete crushing
occurs at the same time. Table 3.3 shows the observed failure modes and the predicted
failure modes using the different design codes. For Beams TBl and TB2, the ACI and the
CSA provide reasonable prediction for the strength but lack the ability to predict the
82
failure mode. The PCI design proposal predicts the failure mode better than both the ACI
and CSA. The major difference between the different design codes is the upper limit set
for the torsion and shear to prevent premature concrete diagonal crushing failure. In the
ACI, the maximum torsion and shear formula is empirical and intended to limit the
cracks in the case o f beams subjected to shear and was implemented in the ACI-319-89
design code (MacGregor and Ghoniem 1995). In the CSA, the maximum limit was
derived to prevent premature concrete crushing.
3.15 Inclination of diagonal cracks

Table 3.4 shows the angle o f inclination o f cracks observed from the experimental study
and calculated using the code formula. The table shows no correlation between the
inclination angle o f the cracks and the angle predicted used by the design code
provisions.
3.16 Cracking torque and cracking shear

Table 3.5 shows the ratio between the observed and calculated cracking torque and
cracking shear. The table shows that codes are conservative in predicting the cracking
strength. However, the codes over estimate the shear contribution strength in cases o f
high torque to shear ratios.
83
3.17 Conclusions
A series o f tests were conducted to investigate the behaviour o f reinforced concrete Tgirders subjected to different torsion to shear ratios with small unavoidable bending
moment. Based on the results o f the experimental investigation and the assessment o f the
code formulas, the following conclusions were reached:
1.
The behaviour o f the T-girders was affected by the values o f the torque to shear
ratio. The increase in the torque to shear ratio decreased the total load resistance with
respect to the vertical displacement, the total load resistance with respect to the strain in
the longitudinal steel reinforcement, and the torsional stiffness.
2.
At ultimate strength, the increase in the torque to shear ratio corresponded to
decreased total load resistance and increased vertical displacements, the steel strain and
the angle o f twist.
3.
The decrease in the torque to shear ratio increased the cracking total load which
delayed concrete cracking.
The strength predictions o f the T-beams using the provisions o f the current design codes
were compared to the experimental results. Based on the results o f the experimental
investigation and the assessment o f the code formulas, the following conclusions were
reached:
l . Using ACI and CSA design provisions as well as the PCI methodology was
accurate for the strength at low torque to shear ratios.
84
2. Using the ACI provided conservative estimates for the strength, however failed to
accurately predict the failure mode, especially in cases where the maximum
torsion limit governed the design.
3. Using the ACI and CSA provided conservative design values for the cracking
torsion strength. However, they overestimated the shear contribution strength at
high torque to shear ratios.
4. Using the CSA accurately predicted the failure mode o f the tested beam.
However, it overestimated the strength by up to 26%.
5. It is recommended to use the PCI methodology for the design o f RC T-beams, as
it provided more accurate estimates for the strength and the failure mode for the
described three tests when compared with the ACI and CSA at high torque to
shear ratios.
6. Although the conclusions o f this research were arrived at on the basis o f a limited
number o f experiments on the same T-section using three different torque to shear
ratios, the information is valuable for the design o f T-beams subjected to
combined shear and torsion. The three-Point check o f the code provisions may be
expanded with the availability o f more experimental data.
7. Comparison between the measured strength and the strength calculated using the
different design codes have shown that for the case o f RC T-beams, the strength
and failure mode predictions using the PCI design shear and torsion provisions are
closer and more consistent with the experimental results when compared with
those calculated by using the AASHTO and the CSA bridges.
Table 3.1-Summary o f the experimental results
T/V
Cracking
torque
Twist at
cracking
Cracking
Shear
Ultimate
torsion
Twist at
ultimate
Ultimate
Shear
kN.m
deg/m
kN
kN.m
deg/m
kN
Beam
TB1
0.5
8.5
0.25
17
23
2.82
46
TB2
1.07
11
0.33
11
22.7
3.16
21.4
TB3
0.1
0.13
42
10.8
0.5
105
86
A<Cl
CSA bridges
CSA
PCI
AASHTO
TB1
0.50
1.43
1.43
0.86
0.89
1.18
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
TB2
1.07
1.41
1.41
0.80
0.80
1.17
1.42
1.42
1.42
1.42
TB3
0.10
0.81
0.97
0.84
0.73
0.96
1.01
0.84
1.15
0.81
Mean
1.22
1.27
0.83
0.81
1.10
1.23
1.17
1.27
1.16
Standard
deviation
0.35
0.26
0.03
0.080
0.11
0.17
0.26
0.11
0.27
Simplified
General
Simplified
General
Simplified
General
Table 3.3 - Comparison between the observed and predicted failure mode for the tested T-girders
Beam
Observed
TB1
Stirrup yield
before failure
TB2
Stirrup yield
before failure
TB3
Stirrup yield
before failure
ACI
Excessive
concrete
cracks
Excessive
concrete
cracks
Stirrup yield
before failure
CSA
PCI
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
Stirrup yield
before failure
CSA bridges
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup yield
before failure
AASHTO
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Premature
Concrete
crushing
Stirrup
yield before
failure
45
T/V
Beam
o
O
Table 3.2 - Summary of factor of safety for the tested T-girders.
Beam
CSA
bridges
CSA
Experimental
AASHTO
PCI
45
30
TB1
51
45
30
35
42
45
45
38.5
45
34.3
TB2
55
45
30
35
42
45
45
38.5
45
34.3
TB3
30
45
30
35
42
45
45
33.5
45
32.8
Table 3.5 - Comparison between the observed and predicted cracking torque and cracking shear.
ACI
Beam
PCI
CSA
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
Cracking
torque
shear
torque
shear
torque
shear
TB1
1.95
1.01
1.71
0.96
1.38
1.45
TB2
3.86
0.38
3.38
0.36
1.93
1.93
TB3
5.37
0.27
4.70
0.25
2.63
2.64
ACI
Table 3.4 - Comparison between the observed and predicted angle o f inclination of the diagonal cracks
for the tested T-girders.
Figure 3.1 - Bach 1911 approximate solution for RC T-beams.
effective
area
under
uniform
shear flow
Figure 3.2 - Hollow tube analogy
89
First crack
d)
Fig. 3.3 - Crack pattern for girder TB1 (T/V = 0.5 m) a) south side, b) north side,
c) bottom view and d) top view
90
Figure 3.4 - Crack pattern for girder TB2 (T/V =1.0 m) a) south side, b) north side, c)
bottom view and d) top view
91
*?R?w
d)
Figure 3.5 - Crack pattern for girder TB3 (T/V = 0.1 m) a) south side, b) north side, c)
bottom view and d) top view
PhD Thesis - A.Deifa!la
400
350
TB1
300
TB2
250
- - TB3
S 200
150
100
50
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Vertical displacement at point C (mm)
Figure 3.6 - Load versus vertical displacement for TB1, TB2, and TB3.
7.00
400
350
TB1
300
TB2
250
- - TB3
1 200
100
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
Average longitudinal steel strain (mm/m)

Figure 3.7 - Load versus longitudinal steel strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
93
1.80
25
Torque, T (kN. m)
20
TB1
15
TB2
10
- - TB3
0.00
0.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
Angle o f twist (deg/m)

Figure 3.8 - Torsion behaviour for TB1, TB2, and TB3
120
TB1
100
Shear force, Q2 (kN)
TB2
- - TB3
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
Strain in transverse steel at the middle o f the test region (mm/m)

Figure 3.9 - Shear behaviour for TB1, TB2, and TB3
94
3.00
Bending moment, Ml (kN. m)
120
100
TB1
TB2
- TB3
0.00
0.40
0.20
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
Strain (mm/m)
Figure 3.10 - Moment behaviour at the east side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
120
100
Bending moment, M2 (kN. m)
TB1
TB2
TB3
0.00
0.20
0.60
0.40
0.80
1.00
Strain (mm/m)
Figure 3.11 - Moment behaviour at the west side for TB1, TB2, and TB3
95
1.20
400
350
TB1
300
|
TB2
250
- - TB3
200
150
100
10
12
14
Concrete tensile diagonal strain (mm/m)

Figure 3.12 - Concrete tensile strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
400
350
TB1
300
- TB2
^ 250
c3
- 200
o
H 150
- - TB3
100
-2.00
-1.80
-1.60
-1.40
-1.20
-1.00
-0.80
-0.60
-0.40
Concrete compressive diagonal strain (mm/m)

Figure 3.13 - Concrete compressive strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
96
-0.20
0.00
400
TBl-top
TB l-bot
300
TB2-top
TB2-bot
25
- TB3-top
TB3-bot
200
350
150
100
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.80
0.60
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
Longitudinal steel strain (mm/m)

Figure 3.14 - Longitudinal steel strain for TB1, TB2, and TB3
400
350
TBl-web
TB1-flange
300
- - TB2-web
TB2-flange
3 250
- TB3-web
TB3-flange
o 200
H 150
100
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Stirrup strain (mm/m)

Figure 3.15 - Strain in the web and flange stirrups for TB1, TB2, and TB3
97
2.50
400
TB1-south
TB1 -north
300
TB2-south
- - TB2-north
250
- TB3-south
TB3-north
Total load (kN)
350
200
150
100 - t
50
0
0.00
0.50
1.00
2.00
1.50
2.50

Figure 3.16 - Variation o f the strain in the web stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
350
TBl-top
TB l-bot
TB2-top
TB2-bot
- TB3-top
TB3-bot
300
250
200 - r
o
H
1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50

Figure 3.17 - Variation o f the strain in the flange stirrup for TB1, TB2, and TB3
3.00
<N
(N
00
~o
u
O
<N
-o
00
T5
250
Torque (kN.m)
O
<N
( m ) JBaqs
99
Figure 3.18 - Shear-torsion interaction diagrams for the T-girders
T3
CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF

THE BEHAVIOUR OF STRENGTHENED
RC T-GIRDERS
4.1 Introduction
Four T-girders; T B l, T B IS I, TB1S2, and TB1S3 were tested under torsion to shear ratio
of 0.5 m. Two T-girders; TB3 and TB3S4 were tested under torsion to shear ratio o f O.l
m. TBl and TB2 were un-strengthened control T-girders. TBl SI, TB1S2, TB l S3, and
TB3S4 were strengthened T-girders. In this chapter, the experimentally observed
behaviour of the T-girders will be compared to evaluate the effectiveness o f the proposed
rehabilitation techniques.
4.2 Strengthening techniques

The four strengthening techniques were implemented as shown in Figure 4.1. For Tgirder TBl S I, one FRP sheet was applied to the web and anchored using a threaded rod
through the web. For T-girder TB1S2, one FRP sheet was applied to the web and
extended to the bottom o f the flange where it was anchored using a threaded rod through
the flange. In addition, a steel angle was used at the intersection between the web and the
flange to prevent debonding of the FRP sheet. For T-girder TBl S3, two FRP sheets were
applied to fully wrap the beam cross section. One sheet was applied to the beam in the
shape o f an extended U-jacket as it covered the web and extended to the bottom o f the
100
flange. The second sheet was placed on the top o f the flange and was extended to the
bottom o f the flange where an overlap o f 100 mm was provided with the first sheet. To
provide adequate continuity between the two FRP sheets, a threaded rod was used to
anchor the sheets at the middle o f the 100 mm overlap. For T-girder TB3S4, two layers o f
the FRP sheets were applied to the web and one layer was applied to the flange. The
technique was implemented using three FRP sheets; a) a CFRP Extended U-jacket, was
bonded to the web and extended to the bottom o f the flange; b) a flange jacket, was
bonded to the top o f the flange and extended to the bottom o f the flange; and c) a CFRP
extended U-jacket, was bonded to the web and extended to the bottom o f the flange
similar to the first sheet. In order to achieve a continuous flow o f the forces between the
EB-FRP pieces, an overlap o f approximately 100 mm was provided at the bottom o f the
flange and a steel threaded rod was used as anchor. An additional steel angle was used to
prevent FRP local de-bonding at the re-entrant corner o f the flange and the web o f the
girder. In all the strengthened T-girders, the steel anchors were placed at an average
spacing o f 350 mm along the test zone.
4.3 Applied loading

Figure 4.2 shows the applied torque versus the applied shear for girders with T/V ratio of
0.5 m. Figure 4.3 shows the applied torque versus the applied shear for girders with T/V
ratio of 0.1 m. The relationship is represented as a straight line with a slope equal to the
ratio between the torque and shear. These two figures show that the test setup was
successful in applying and controlling the desired load.
4.4 Load behaviour

The total applied load defined as the total o f the three loads L I, L2, and L3. For T/V ratio
o f 0.5 m, Figure 4.4 shows the total applied load versus the vertical displacement
measured at the middle o f the test zone. Using the CFRP U-jacket (TBl SI), the ultimate
load capacity increased 54% more than girder TBl (un-strengthened girder). Using the
extended U-jacket (TB1S2), the ultimate load capacity increased 67% over girder T B l.
Using the full wrapping technique (T B lS3), the ultimate load capacity increased 84%
more than girder T B l. For T/V ratio o f 0.1 m, Figure 4.5 shows the applied load versus
the vertical displacement measured at the middle o f the test zone. Using the full
wrapping, TB3S4 sustained higher load o f approximately 63% when compared with TB3.
The observed differences in the ultimate load improvement due to strengthening o f the
two cases o f T/V 0.5 m or 0.1 m may be due to the differences in the failure modes o f the
tested beams.
4.5 Torsion behaviour

Figure 4.6 shows the relationship between the torque and the angle o f twist for the girders
under T/V ratio o f 0.5 m (T B l, TB l SI, TB1S2, and TBl S3). The stiffness before
cracking was similar for the different tested girders. The cracking torque increased due to
102
strengthening systems as was observed from the change in the slope o f the torque angle
o f twist plots. Using the FRP U-jacket (TB1S1), the ultimate torsion increased 48% more
than the control girder T B l. The ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder
TB1S1 increased by approximately 11% more than the control girder T B l. Using the
FRP extended U-jacket (TB1S2), the ultimate torsion increased 65% more than the
control girder T B l. The ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder TB1S2
increased by approximately 54% more than girder T B l. Using the FRP full wrapping
(T B lS3), the ultimate torsion increased 74% more than the control girder T B l. The
ability to sustain inelastic deformations for girder TB l S3 increased by approximately
120% more than girder T B l. Figure 4.7 shows the relationship between the torque and
the angle o f twist for the girders under T/V ratio o f 0.1 m. Using the FRP full wrapping
(TB3S4), the ultimate torsion increased 64% more than the control girder T B l. The
CFRP strengthening confined the concrete which improved the concrete strength,
prevented the shear cracks from widening, delayed the failure and finally resulted in a
significant increase in the ultimate deformation.
4.6 Shear behaviour

For girders with T/V ratio o f 0.5 m, Figure 4.8 shows the shear behaviour o f the girder
before and after strengthening. The CFRP arrested the cracks and increased the cracking
shear force by approximately 50%. Using the FRP U-jacket (T B lS I), the ultimate shear
capacity increased 44% more than the control girder TB l. Using the FRP extended U-
103
jacket (TB1S2), the ultimate shear capacity increased 85% more than the control girder
TB l. Using the FRP full wrapping (T B lS3), the ultimate shear capacity increased 87%
more than the control girder T B l. For girders with T/V ratio o f 0.1 m, Figure 4.9 shows
the shear behaviour o f the girder before and after strengthening. Using the FRP full
wrapping (TB3S4), the ultimate shear capacity increased 63% more than the control
girder TB3. The ultimate shear capacity, stiffness, and ductility o f the strengthened
girders showed significant improvement as compared to the control girder.
4.7 FRPstrain
Figure 4.10 shows the FRP strain measured at different locations along the south side of
the test zone for girder TB1S2. Figure 4.11 shows the FRP strain measured at different
locations along the north side o f the test zone for girder TB1S2. The strain does not vary
along the longitudinal axis of the girder until cracking occurs. Both the FRP and the
transverse steel contributed to the increase in the deformation achieved due to the
strengthening. It was found that the FRP strain is significantly higher than the strain in
the transverse steel. This can be attributed to the fact that the FRP is applied to the outer
perimeter o f the cross section further away from the shear centre o f the section. Since
FRP is a linear material, the increase in the strain will increase the force resisted by the
FRP and therefore provides higher contribution to the torsion resistance.
4.8 Failure mode

Figure 4.12 shows the failure mode for girder TB l SI. The girder failed due to concrete
spalling from the bottom o f the flange and FRP debonding at the free end o f the U-jacket.
Figure 4.13 shows the failure mode for girder TB1S2. The girder failed due to FRP
diagonal peeling off along the concrete spiral diagonal cracking that continued through
the bottom o f the flange. Figure 4.14 shows the failure mode for girder TB l S3. The
girder failed due to diagonal peeling off which propagated in a manner similar to concrete
diagonal cracks and end FRP debonding for the web. Figure 4.15 shows the failure mode
for girder TB3S4. The failure occurred by FRP debonding from the flange at the end o f
the test zone.
4.9 FRPload contribution

Strengthening using both the U-jacket and the extended U-jacket techniques was found to
increase the strength o f the beams expressed in terms o f the ultimate total load as shown
in Table 4.1. From the test measurements, the U-jacket increased the ultimate load by 92
kN which is approximately 54% when compared to the control beam. The extended Ujacket increased the ultimate load by 109 kN which is approximately 67% when
compared to the control beam.
Using the extended U-jacket is more effective than using the U-jacket as it
resulted in a strength increase value o f 17 kN which is approximately 19% when
105
compared to that o f the U-jacket technique. The use o f the extended U-jacket where the
FRP sheets was extended to the flange help arrest the flange cracks resulting in enhancing
the post-ultimate behaviour and therefore, delaying the failure. In addition the extension
resulted in increasing the enclosed area inside the expected critical shear flow path which
resulted in enhancing the torsion capacity.
4.10 Conclusions
An experimental program was conducted to investigate the behaviour o f reinforced
concrete T-girders strengthened using externally bonded CFRP when subjected to
combined shear and torsion. Based on the presented experimental measurements, the
following conclusions were reached:
Various strengthening schemes using externally bonded carbon fibre composites were
found to enhance the behaviour o f reinforced concrete T-girders subjected to
combined shear and torsion. The shear and torsion carrying capacities were increased.
The stiffness o f the girders after cracking was increased as compared to that o f the
control girder.
Although the U-jacket is easy to apply and fits various applications, it was found to
be the least effective relative to the other two schemes. The full wrapping was found
to be the most effective procedure. However, it is not likely to be applied successfully
in all practical cases due to the lack o f access to all sides o f the girder for wrapping.
Although the extended U-jacket was less effective than the full wrapping, the
106
enhancement o f the behaviour o f the girder was significant enough to warrant its
application in most practical situations.
107
Table 4.1 - FRP Load Contribution
Beam
FRP Load Contribution
% increase
(kN)
TB1S1
92
54%
TB1S2
109
67%
TB l S3
137
84%
TB3S4
212
63%
108
3 )
Angle 125x50x10
teel rods
0 15 mm
Steel rods
0 15 mm
CFRP U-jacket
CFRP extended U-jacket

A ngle 125x50x10
Steel rods
0 15 mm
Angle 125x50x10
Steel rods
0 15 mm
U-Jacket
Extended U-Jacket
Full Wrapping
CD
I
(s
Combined Full Wrapping

and Extended U-jacket
i)
a a ]
L
TB1S1
TB1S2
TB l S3
Figure 4.1 - Implemented strengthening schemes
TB3S4
FRP Flange Jacket
^ /-C F R P Flange Jacket
45
40
Torque
(kN. m)
35
30
25
20
TBl
15
TB1S2
- T B lS I
- - TB1S3
10
5
0
0
50
100
Shear force ( k N )
200
150
Figure 4.2 - Applied torque versus shear for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
20
18
t
16
Torque
(kN. m)
14
j~
12
10
X
8
6
TB3S4
TB3
4
2
0
0
50
100
Shear force (kN )
150
Figure 4.3 - Applied torque versus shear for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
110
200
350
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
- A , '- -
TBl
- - TB1S1
100
TB1S2
50
0.00
5.00
10.00
- - TBl S3
15.00
20.00
Vertical displacement (mm)
Figure 4.4 - Load behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.5 m

600
500
Load (kN)
400
200
- - TB3S4
TB3
100
0
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
Vertical displacement (mm)
Figure 4.5 - Load behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
111
18.00
45
40
Torque (kN. m)
35
30
25
20
TBl
15
10
TB1S1
TB1S2
T B 1S3
5
0
0.00
2.00
1.00
3.00
4.00
6.00
5.00
7.00
Angle o f twist (deg / m)

Figure 4.6 - Torsional behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
20
18
16
(kN. m)
12
Torque
14
10
TB3
- - TB3S4
4
2
0
0.00
2.00
6.00
4.00
8.00
Angle o f twist (deg / m)

Figure 4.7 - Torsional behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
112
10.00
TBl
- - TB1S1
TB1S2
0.00
1.00
0.50
1.50
2.00
- TB1S3
2.50
3.00
3.50
Strain in transverse steel at the middle o f the test region (mm/m)

Figure 4.8 - Shear behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.5 m
200
180
160
140
A 120
100
TB3
- - TB3S4
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
Strain in transverse steel at the middle of the test region (mm/m)

Figure 4.9 - Shear behaviour for girders under T/V = 0.1 m
3.50
2.00
1.00
0.00
'a
1:
200
100
E -l.oo
300
250
F5
2.00
F 4
F2
F 6
F 5
F I
F 3
-3.00
-4.00
Total applied Load (kN)
Figure 4.10 - FRP strain for the south side o f girder TB1S2
3.00
!F10
2.00
1.00
F12
E o.oo
Ch
100
-
1.00
2.00
F I 2
F 10
F 7
150
F 9
F 8
300
F 11
-3.00
Total applied load (kN)
Figure 4.11 - FRP strain for the north side o f girder TB1S2
114
First crack
Figure 4.12 - Failure mode for Girder TB l SI
Figure 4.13 - Failure mode for Girder TB1S2
115
Figure 4.14 - Failure mode for Girder TB l S3
Figure 4.15 - Failure mode for Girder TB3S4
116
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
CHAPTER 5 MODELING TORSIONALLY

STRENGTHENED RECTANGULAR RC
GIRDERS
5,1 introduction
Torsion in members of a structural system may be the result o f primary or secondary

causes. The case o f primary torsion occurs when the external load has to be resisted by
torsion. In such situations, the torsion required to maintain static equilibrium, can be
uniquely determined. This case may also be referred to as equilibrium torsion. It is
primarily a strength problem because the structure or its components will fail if the
torsion resistance cannot be provided. A simple member subjected to eccentric line load
along its span, cantilever and eccentrically loaded box girders are examples o f primary or
equilibrium torsion. In statically indeterminate structures, torsion may result from the
requirements of continuity and is considered as secondary torsion. Disregarding
continuity in statically indeterminate reinforced concrete structures at various stages o f
loading could be the cause o f serious damage.
In most structural problems, strengthening using FRP could be the most effective
solution. FRP strengthening o f RC members subjected to torsion is a special, complex
and fairly recent area of research that involves the influence o f several parameters and
unique failure modes. Torsion strengthening can take several configurations as shown in
figure l .9. There are no analytical models for representing the full torsional behaviour o f
117
rectangular RC beams strengthened using FRP. In this chapter, an analytical model

capable o f predicting the full behaviour (i.e. up to failure) o f strengthened RC beams
subjected to torsion is developed. The model is based on the modified compression field
theory (MCFT). The model is validated using the available experimental results by other
researchers (Ghobarah et al. 2002).
5.2 Testing rectangular beams
Limited research focused on investigating the behaviour of strengthened concrete beams

under pure torsion (Ghobarah et al. 2002). Figure 5.1 shows a schematic diagram o f the
test setup using one hydraulic jack and a spreader beam. Figure 5.2 shows the structural
system with plots o f the shear, torsion, and bending moment diagrams. The test region
was subjected to combined torsion and small bending moment. In the experimental study
conducted by Ghobarah et al. (2002), a total o f 11 RC beams namely N l, N2, N3, C l,
C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, G1 and G2 were tested under torsion and small bending moment
within the test zone. Figure 5.3 shows the reinforcement details o f the tested beams.
Beams C l, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, G l, and G2 were strengthened as shown in Figure 5.4.
Beams Cl to C6 were strengthened using CFRP. Beams G l and G2 were strengthened
using GFRP.
118
Traditionally, the analysis o f RC beams under torsion is based on the thin tube, space
truss analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997). Moreover, only the concrete area enclosed by
the stirrups is considered in the strength calculations. The concrete cover is neglected as
it is assumed to be unconfined and spalls before ultimate limit state are reached which
was confirmed by experimental evidence in the early 70s by Arbesman (1975). An
analytical model is developed on the basis o f the properties o f an equivalent thin hollow
tube and is required to satisfy equilibrium between stresses, and compatibility between
strains. The beam cross section is divided into four segments as done by Rahal and
Collins (1995b); each segment represents one side o f the beam and is subjected to in
plane loading as shown in Figure 5.5. Each segment has the same shear flow but different
effective thickness. For each segment, Mohr circle for the strain or the stress is used to
evaluate the relations between the average strains or the average stresses and the
constitutive models for the concrete, steel and FRP are established. In addition, Mohr
circle for the curvatures and the rate o f the angle o f twist is applied at the connection
between the segments.
5.3.1
Model description
1. The model predicts the full behaviour (i.e. up to failure).
2. The model uses displacement control to solve the model equations.
119
3. The effective thickness o f each segment will be different based on the loading
conditions and the FRP bonded to the face.
The variation in the effective thickness o f the FRP bonded and un-bonded segments is a
result o f the following:
The FRP prevents the spalling o f the concrete cover. Hence, the concrete cover
can be considered effective in resisting torsion. On the other hand, the cross
section side without FRP will be subjected to concrete spalling.
The FRP bonded to the surface arrests the tension cracks which will decrease the
concrete softening and confine the concrete thus increasing the ultimate
compressive strain o f the concrete. Hence, increase the ability o f the beam to
undergo large deformation.
The FRP will provide additional tension reinforcement to the concrete increasing
its ability to resist diagonal tension resulting from the applied torsion.
By applying the hollow tube analogy (Collins and Mitchell 1997), the behaviour o f
the whole cross section is dominated by uniform shear stresses and the core o f the section
contribution to the torsion resistance is neglected. Each thin strip at the side (segment) o f
the cross section is subjected to uniform shear flow (q) acting in the plane o f the cross
section which can be calculated as follows:
120
Where T is the torque resisted by the cross section and A0 is the area enclosed by the
perimeter o f the shear flow tube. Each segment will be subjected to uniform in-plane
shear flow. In the longitudinal direction o f the beam, the segments will resist the shear
flow by forming a truss mechanism consisting o f a concrete diagonal strut to resist the
diagonal compression. While the FRP and the transverse reinforcements resist the
diagonal tension. The longitudinal steel reinforcements act as top and bottom chords o f
the truss resisting the axial forces in the beam. The uniform in-plane shear stress
(x j)
acting on each segment (i) can be calculated as follows:
r ,= A
t;
(5.2)
where t, is the effective thickness o f segment (i).
5.3.2
Mohr circle for the average concrete strain
According to the MCFT, Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete strain
for each o f the segments as shown in Figure 5.6. Relationships between the average
strains can be established as follows:
2(s2 + e x)
(5.3)
tan(0)
where J is the shear strain, s2 is the average principal compression strain, ex is the
average longitudinal strain, and 0 is the inclination angle of the principal strains.
121
(5 .4 )
Y
2 tan(0)
where sy is the average transverse strain
(5.5)
2tan(0 + pf - 9 0 )
where 8ft is the average FRP strain in the direction o f the fibres and Pf is angle o f
inclination o f the direction o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the beam.
(5.6)
6, - S2 + x + y
where sj is principal average tension strain in the concrete.
5.3.3
Equilibrium conditions for average concrete stress
According to the MCFT, M ohrs circle can be constructed for the average concrete stress
as shown in Figure 5.7. Relationships between the average stresses could be established
as follows.
(5.7)
= c j2 - a y - c r
Where a x is the average longitudinal stress,
02
is the principal average compression
stresses, a y is the average transverse stresses and Gi is the principal average tension
122
PhD Thesis - A.Deifalia
stresses. The direction o f the principal stresses is defined by the angle 0, which can be
calculated such that:
(5.8)
tan2 (0) = ()
(5.9)
Where x is the inplane uniform shear stress.
By applying the equilibrium conditions o f the forces in the transverse direction as

shown in Figure 5.8, the transverse stress in the concrete can be calculated as:
S = Ph<*st + P fCTft sin(pf ) + a , - x ta n ( 0 )
(5.10)
where Ph and Pf are the ratios o f the transverse steel and the FRP reinforcement per unit
length o f the span to the gross area o f the concrete cross section, respectively, pf is the
angle o f inclination o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the segment, ost is the steel
reinforcement stress and oa is the tension stress in the direction o f the fibres.
The angle o f twist will cause each segment to warp and consequently the concrete
struts will be subjected to bending. This bending will cause curvature for each segment
(cp) which can be related to the twist rate (\p) in the form:
123
(5.11)
(p = vj/sin20
After solving each segment independently, the model accounts for the compatibility at
the comers. By applying Mohr circle for the curvatures o f the elements, the following
equation was derived by Onsongo (1978):
cpd = cpt sin2(0 ) + cpL cos2(0 ) + vp sin(20)
(5.12)
where cpdis the curvature in the direction o f angle 0, (pLis the longitudinal curvature and
rp( is the transversal curvature.
Previous experimental investigations into the behaviour o f RC concrete beams

under torsion have shown that it is reasonable to assume a linear distribution for the
concrete principal diagonal strain across the walls o f the thin equivalent tube (Mitchell
and Collins 1974). Hence, the thickness o f the walls can be related to the surface strain in
the concrete as follows:
(5.13)
where g2Sis the maximum compression principal strain at the surface o f the concrete.
124
5.3.4
Segment assem blage
Assuming that the cross section will act as a thin tube with an effective thickness (t), the
principle o f virtual work can be applied such that the external work done by the applied
Torsion (T) is equal to the internal work done by the shear stress (x), the following
relation can be derived:
(5.14)
v
Where the shear stress is assumed uniform along the perimeter and the thickness t which
can be evaluated as follows:
t =
(5.15)
Substituting Equation 5.15 into Equation 5.14 and assuming unit length element, the
volume integration can be replaced by integration along the perimeter, then:
Simplifying the equation by dividing both sides by T and cancelling t from the
denominator and nominator o f the right side o f the equation, the angle o f twist per unit
length (\|/) can be written as:
125
Jyds
(5.17)
vi/
----2A0
Assuming that the thickness o f each wall segment is constant along its length, hence the
twist per unit length (y) can be calculated such that:
(5.18)
=
----2A 0
where y, is the shear strain o f each segment and 1, is the in-plane depth o f each segment
and A0 is the area enclosed inside the centerline o f the hollow tube analogy, which can be
calculated from the geometry o f the cross section, A0 can be calculated in the form:
. - a . - S iA
<5-19)
i=]
where f is the thickness o f each segment and Ac is the area o f the gross concrete cross
section. The perimeter o f the centre line o f the equivalent thin tube (P0) can be calculated
using:
p O = r C - / ..
(5'20)
i-i
where Pc is the perimeter of the concrete section.
126
5.4 Equilibrium of the whole cross section
The beam cross section is subdivided into small mesh elements as shown in Figure 5.9,
hence, the three equilibrium equations can be applied such that:
(5.21)
where Nvk is the shear contribution from each segment, o 'Ci is the concrete stress at the
centroid o f the mesh element (i), AACj is the area o f the mesh element (i), n is the number
o f concrete mesh elements, a 'Sj is the stress in the steel longitudinal reinforcement for
each bar (j), As is the area o f each bar (j), and m is the number o f steel bars.
Taking moments of the forces about x-axis through the elastic centroid o f the
cross section gives:
(5.22)
where yCj is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), ySj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each
longitudinal steel bar (j), n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, and ySk is the
distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each segment.
127
Taking moments o f the forces about y-axis through the elastic centroid o f the
section gives:
(5.23)
i=l
j=l
k=l
where xci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), xsj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each
longitudinal steel bar (j), and n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, and xSk is the
distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each segment.
5.5 Material models

For reliable analytical modeling for the behaviour o f RC elements, it is important to
establish stress-strain relationships that accurately represent the material behaviour. In the
case o f RC beams strengthened using Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP), the behaviour
depends on three materials: concrete, steel and FRP.
5.5.1
Concrete models
The concrete model is simply the relationship between the stress and strain for the
concrete. The uni-axial compression stress-strain relationship for concrete can be
established by conducting a standard compression test for a concrete cylinder. However,
the standard compression test does not capture the effect of diagonal cracking (softening)
128
or confinement due to FRP jackets or steel ties. Thus, several concrete models were
proposed in the past to capture both softening and confinement.
5.5.1,1 Compression behaviour of Concrete

Over the last three decades, modeling the compression behaviour o f concrete was
investigated by several researchers. Figure 5.10 shows stress-strain relationships
developed by different researchers over the years. At the same strain, the difference
between the stress values obtained from different models could reach 50%. The Belarbi
and Hsu (1995) model was adopted and modified to include the effect o f the FRP
confinement as shown in Figure 5.11. Previous experimental investigations have shown
that bonded FRP, which provide mild confinement, will enhance the ultimate strain o f
concrete without a significant increase in strength (Ilki et al. 2004, Sause et al. 2004). To
account for this effect, the descending branch o f the concrete model is represented as
follows:
i f ^ < l
P2c
if - ^ - > 1
Me
129
(5.24)
(5.25)
(5 .2 6 )
(5.27)
where pi is the softening coefficient o f the concrete stress, P2 is the strain softening
coefficient, s 2 is the principal concrete strain, and e c .is the concrete strain at the peak
stress.
5.5.1.2 Tension Behaviour of Concrete

Before cracking, the tensile strength o f concrete can be calculated as:
(5.28)
where ai is the tensile strength o f the concrete,
81
is the principal concrete average strain
and Ec is the Youngs modulus o f the concrete. After concrete cracking, experimental
investigations have shown that even after extensive cracking concrete can sustain tensile
stresses which provide concrete shear strength. A model suggested by Collins and
Mitchell (1997) will be adopted:
(5.29)
130
As shown in figure 5.12, this model gives higher values for the tension strength after
cracking which goes with merit o f the FRP bonded concrete where the FRP arrests the
cracks and increases the tension stiffening.
5.5.2
Steel reinforcement
The steel is assumed to be elastic up to yield and perfectly plastic after yield such that:
(5.30)
5.5.3
Fibre reinforced polymers
Experimental results o f FRP coupons have shown that FRP stress-strain relationship is
elastic up to failure such that:
(5.31)
(jf - E ff f < 0.5frmax
Where or is the stress in the direction o f the FRP fibres, Ef is youngs modulus o f the FRP
sheets provided by the supplier, f is the strain in the FRP fibres, and fmax is the maximum
tensile strength o f the FRP provided by the supplier. Limiting the FRP strength to 50% of
the maximum stress provided by the supplier is an assumption based on the results o f the
FRP coupons testing.
Assuming that the behaviour FRP is elastic up to failure, the constitutive model
would be a straight line bounded by the effective FRP strain level. The effective strain
131
level o f the FRP depends on several parameters such as the dominating failure mode o f
the beam, FRP properties, beam dimensions, concrete properties, and strengthening
scheme configuration. The following relationship was used to limit the FRP strain:
Efl< Ef
(532)
where gfUis the FRP maximum tensile elongation.
5.6 Solution technique
The set o f equations (Equations 5.1 to 5.10, Equations 5.12 to 5.13 and Equations 5.18 to
5.32) was solved together using a coded program written in the Visual Basic
programming language. A description o f the input, algorithm and a flow chart are
provided in Appendix A.
The torque-twist relationship for Beams C l, C2, C3, C4, C5, G l, and G2 were
calculated from the model and compared to experimentally observed ones. For
beams C l and G l with continuous FRP wrapping, the model predictions for the
torsional behaviour o f the strengthened beams are in very good agreement with
the experimental results (Figures 5.13 and 5.14). The error at the ultimate load
level is within 5%. For beams C4 with wide strips CFRP wrapping, the model
132
predictions are in good agreement with the experimental data up to maximum

moment. The prediction error is less than 1% at the ultimate load level (Figure
5.15). Past the maximum moment there is a difference between the predictions
and experimental results as the descending branch was difficult to establish in
the test. For the case of beams C3 and C6, which are the beams with spiral strips,
the model predictions for the behaviour are in excellent agreement with the
model. At the ultimate load level, the error in the prediction was less than 5%
(Figures 5.16 and 5.17). For beams C2, G2, and C5, which are the beams with
the relatively wider spacing, the model predictions were in good agreement with
the experimental results (Figures 5.18, 5.19 and 5.20). At the ultimate load level,
the prediction error was less than 15% which is still reasonable taking into
consideration that the model prediction for the behaviour was quite similar. The
reason behind this slight increase is that these beams are being analyzed as
continuously wrapped beams while the FRP sheets cross section area is being
reduced to account for the spacing between the strips. Such a simplification
ignores that the concrete between the strips is not bonded to FRP and
accordingly could experience spalling, relatively excessive cracking and is less
likely to receive confinement. Experimental observations confirm that failure
occurs between the FRP strips (Ghobarah et al. 2002).
133
5.8 Conclusions
A model capable o f predicting the full behaviour up to failure for RC beams

strengthened in torsion was developed. The model is based on the MCFT which
was extended to include the modeling o f FRP strengthened elements. The model
predicts the externally bonded FRP to the torsion strength o f the beam along the
loading history. The model accounts for all the possible strengthening techniques
including continuous wrapping, spiral wrapping, one sided wrapping and strips
wrapping. The model is displacement control rather than force control. The
model was validated using the available experimental results and was found to
correlate reasonably well. In all cases, the error was less than 15% which is quite
reasonable in such cases.
134
Figure 5.1 - Schematic diagram o f the test setup

P /2
P /2
0.25
n
P L /2
P L /2 ,
0.5P
Shear
F o rce
0.5P
B e n d in g
M onent
T o rs io n
M onent
Figure 5.2 - Shear, bending and torsion distribution
-2440-
-6.32 mm wire
i
35
Top reinforcement 2# 10
-150
350
25
Bottom reinforcement 2# 15 for all beams

Stirrups spacing 70 mm for beams Cl to C5 and Gl, G2
120 mm for beams C6
-25
Figure 5.3 - Dimensions and reinforcement details o f the tested beams

300
H 100 h 200
1000 -
1000 -
C l and G l
-1 5 0
100
-5 0
100
C4
100
1000
1000--------
C2and G2
C5
100
100
1000
1000
70
^ 150
C3
C6
Figure 5.4 - Strengthening schemes for the beams.
136
c)
Figure 5.5 - Model idealization a) Solid rectangular cross section, b) Equivalent
hollow tube, and c) Four segments.
137
She;ir Strain (y)
Figure 5.6 - Mohr circle for average concrete strain
Shear Stress(x)
Norm^lStress (cr)
T <Figure 5.7 - Mohr circle for average concrete stress
\cr. 4 ,
St
\<y
A..,
4,
Figure 5.8 - Segment equilibrium in the transverse direction.
'centroid
^centroid
Figure 5.9
Mesh used to check equilibrium
139
Uncracked Concrete
Vecchio and collins (1982)
Compressive stress f2 (MPa)
Shiria and Nogushi (1989)

Vecchio and Collins (1994)
Belarbi and Hsu (1995)
Vecchio and collins (1986)
Belarbi and Hsu (1995)
0.002
0.001
0.003
0.004
0.005
Compressive strain (2 )
Figure 5.10 - Concrete compressive models
40
Compressive stress (MPa)
35
Uncracked Concrete
30
Belarbi and Hsu 1995
25
20
Proposed Model
15
10
5
0
0.001
0.002
0.004
0.003
0.005
0.006
Strain (mm/mm)
Figure 5.11 - Concrete compressive model
140
0.007
Tensile stress fj (MPa)
Collins and Mitchel (1997)
Belarbi and HSU (1995)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.002
0.001
0.004
0.003
0.005
0.007
0.006
Tensile strain (sj)

Figure 5.12 - Concrete tensile models
20
Torsional moment (kN.m)
18
16
14
12
10
Experimental
6
Analytical
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
Angle o f twist (deg./m)

Figure 5.13 - Torsional behaviour for beam C l
141
16
18
20
<L>
ao
<a
d
o
Experimental
Analytical
10
14
12
16
18

Figure 5.14 - Torsional behaviour for beam G l
18
16
14
12
10
CD
8
CS
d
o
Experimental
o
H
Analytical
2
0
0
10
12

Figure 5.15 - Torsional behaviour for beam C4
142
14
12
Experimental
Analytical
12
14
12
14
10

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
Experimental
Analytical
2
0
0
10

20
18
16
14
12
G
a>
10
d
g
_o
Si
O
Experimental
Analytical
E1
4
2
0
0
10
14
12
16
18
Angle of twist (deg./m)

18
16
14
12
ao
10
8
Experimental
c3
G
O
Analytical
o
H
4
2
0
0
10

144
12
14
18
16
14
12
10
8
Experimental
6
4
Analytical
2
0
0
10
12

Figure 5.20 - Torsional behaviour for beam G2
145
14
CHAPTER 6 MODELING THE BEHAVIOUR OF

STRENGTHENED RC T-GIRDERS
6.1 Introduction
There are no analytical models available for representing the behaviour o f strengthened
RC girders subjected to combined shear and torsion. However, several models were
developed for predicting the behaviour o f un-strengthened concrete girders subjected to
combined straining actions. These models were either empirical models, or theoretical
ones. Empirical models were developed by fitting experimental data such as Klus (l 968)
or the skew bending theory which was developed and applied by several researchers
(lessig 1958, Hsu 1968, Elfgem 1972, Badawy 1977 and Ewida 1981). Or theoretical
models such as the model developed by Rahal and Collins (l 995b). In this model the
existing space truss model was updated to include concrete softening and tension
stiffening. The model also accounted for the spalling o f the concrete cover and the linear
distribution o f concrete surface strain due to torsion as well as combining the torsion and
shear stress. However, the model was applied only to rectangular girders under combined
shear and torsion. Structural members subjected to torsion may be o f different
configurations including rectangular, T-shape, L-shape and box girder. The model is
force control where the applied force is assumed and the deformations are predicted.
Hence, the model is capable o f predicting the behaviour up to the ultimate strength only
and not up to failure. In this chapter, the model developed by Rahal and Collins (l 995b)
was adopted and further extended to include the ability to predict the behaviour o f cross
146
sections with different shapes including flanged girders while being subjected to torsion,
shear and bending moments. In addition, the model will be modified to include predicting
the behaviour o f girders strengthened with FRP. Discussions in this chapter will be
limited to the change and modifications made to Rahal and Collins (1995b) model.
6.2 Model description

This model is similar to the model presented in Chapter 5 with the following differences:
1. The model deals with shear and torsion behaviour rather than torsion behaviour.
2. The model predicts the behaviour up to ultimate strength rather than the full
behaviour (i.e. up to failure).
3. The model uses force control rather than displacement control to solve the model
equations.

In the proposed model, the following assumptions are considered:
The longitudinal strain follows the Bemoulli-Navier hypothesis which indicates

that plane section before bending will remain plane after bending (i.e. the strains
along the depth o f the cross section will be distributed linearly).
Mohr circle can be used to evaluate the strain, curvature, and stress status at any
point in the plane.
147
The direction o f the principal stresses at any point in the plane is coincident with
the direction o f the principal strain evaluated at the same point in the plane
(Vecchio and Collins 1982).
The cross section torsional behaviour is dominated by Saint-Venants torsion
which indicates that the torsional moments will induce uniform shear flow which
is being resisted by the equivalent hollow tube cross section.
Similar to the girders subjected to bending where the effective depth o f the
longitudinal concrete strut is a function of the applied bending moment, the
effective thickness o f the diagonal concrete struts is a function o f the applied
torsion and shear (Collins and Mitchell 1997).
The model consisted o f two systems; one dimensional stress 1-D system, and two
dimensional stress 2-D systems. The 1-D system is subjected to external biaxial
moment, external axial force, and internal axial force due to the effect o f the 2-D
system. The 2-D system is subjected to torsion, biaxial shear, and longitudinal
strain from the 1-D system. However, the 2-D system did not consider the nonuniform distribution o f longitudinal reinforcement, which is significant in the
torsion analysis (Rahal and Collins 1995b).
The capability o f predicting the behaviour o f the flanged girders is added to the model
where the flanged cross section is being sub-divided into several rectangular cross
sections. Each rectangular part is being solved independently while subjected to the
applied combined shear and torsion. For example, the T-girders can be subdivided into
rectangular sections as shown in Figure 6.1. After modeling each rectangular section, the
148
principle o f superposition is applied to obtain the strength and the deformations o f the
whole T-girder, while assuming that the angle o f twist for the T-girder and the sub
divisions (i.e. rectangular parts) are the same. Although this assumption is not necessarily
true for all cases, it will provide a good simplification for the problem. The torsion (T)
applied on the flanged cross section is calculated such that:
(6.1)
T = IT ,
1=1
where Tj is the torsion carried by each rectangular part and n is the number o f rectangular
subdivisions. While the shear strength is calculated as follows:
(6.2)
v =l v ,
where V) is the shear carried by each rectangular part and n is the number o f rectangular
subdivisions. While the stirrup strain s is calculated such that:
(6.3)
= 2 >
i =l
where s t is the stirrup strain for each rectangular sub-division and n is the number of
rectangular subdivisions.
For solving each rectangular part, the model proposed by Rahal and Collins
(1995b) was adopted where the diagonal compressive strain distribution within the
concrete diagonal struts is assumed to be linear and consequently the diagonal
149
compressive stress is assumed to be non-uniform. Hence, the non-uniform stress can be

replaced by an equivalent uniform stress block. Moreover, the torsion stresses and the
uniform shear stresses are being replaced by one equivalent uniform stress block as
shown in Figure 6.2 The proposed model is based on the properties o f an equivalent
hollow tube section and is required to satisfy equilibrium between stresses, and
compatibility between strains. The behaviour is assumed to be dominated by uniform
shear stresses and that the core part o f the cross section contribution to the torsion
resistance is not significant. The external shell around the core is considered to be
effective in resisting the torsion by being subjected to uniform in-plane shear flow. The
external shell around the core is being sub-divided into four segments, one segment for
each side. Each segment is subjected to uniform shear stress as well as longitudinal strain.
Each o f the elements will resist the shear flow by forming a truss mechanism consisting
o f a concrete diagonal strut to resist the diagonal compression. While the FRP and the
tension reinforcements resist the diagonal tension. The longitudinal steel reinforcements
act as top and bottom chords of the truss resisting the axial forces in the girder. Each side
o f the cross section is assumed to be subjected to uniform shear flow due to the torsion
(qt) which can be calculated as:
where T is the torque resisted by the cross section, A0 is the area enclosed inside the
center o f the shear flow. The shear flow due to the shear (qs) is:
150
V
< is= -r
(6 .5 )
V is the shear force, and 1 is the length o f the segment parallel to the shear plane. Hence,
the average shear flow (q) can be calculated:
(6.6)
where tt is the thickness o f the segment resisting the torsion, ts is the thickness o f the
segment resisting shear. The shear stress (u) acting on each segment can be calculated as
follows:
(6.7)
t
where t is the effective thickness o f each segment resisting both shear and torsion.
6.3.1
Mohr circle for the average concrete strain
Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete strains for each segment as
shown in figure 5.6. Relationships between the average strains were similar to equations
5.3 to 5.6.
6.3.2 Mohr circle for average concrete stress
Mohr circle can be constructed for the average concrete stress as shown in figure 5.7.
Relationships between the average concrete stresses were similar to equations 5.7 to 5.10.
151
For calculating the effective thickness o f each segment, equations 5.12 and 5.13 were
applied.
Equations 5.18 to 5.20 were applied
6.3.4 Equilibrium of the whole cross section
The model deals with beams subjected to torsion, shear, biaxial bending and axial force.
By subdividing the beam cross section into a mesh o f small element and applying
equilibrium in the longitudinal direction gives:
^
i=1
j=1
k=l
(6.8)
where N is the axial force applied on the cross section, Nvk is the shear contribution from
each segment, a 'Ci is the concrete stress at the centroid o f the strip (i), AACi is the area of
the mesh element (i), n is the number o f concrete mesh elements, a 'sj is the stress in the
steel longitudinal reinforcement for each bar (j), As is the area o f each bar (j), and m is
the number o f steel bars. By taking moment for all the forces about the x-axis through the
elastic centroid o f the cross section gives:
(6.9)
E f c ^ A c i V c i + E ( a sjASJ)ysJ = M x + 2 X y s k
i=l
j= l
k=l
152
where yci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), ysj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the centre o f each bar (j),
ySk is the distance between the elastic centroid and the segment centroid, and Mx is the
moment around the x-axis. By taking moments about the y-axis through the elastic
centroid o f the cross section gives:
i=l
j=l
k-1
where xci is distance between the elastic centroid and the centroid o f each concrete mesh
element (i), xSj is the distance between the elastic centroid and the center o f each bar, xSk
is the distance between the elastic centroid and the segment centroid, and My is the
moment around the y-axis.
6.3.5 Material modeling
Material models used were similar to equations 5.24 to 5.31

6.4.1 RC girders under torsion and bending moments
The model was used to predict the torsional behaviour of three rectangular RC girders
N l, N2, and N3 that were tested while subjected to combined torsion and bending
(Ghobarah et al. 2002). The three girders had the same cross section dimensions.
However, the stirrup spacing was different as shown in Figure 6.3. The developed model
153
was applied to predict the behaviour up to ultimate torsion. The comparison between the
model predictions and the experimental results for the tested RC girders are shown in
Figures 6.4 to 6.6. The predicted behaviour was found to be in close agreement with the
experimental results.
6.4.2 RC T-girders under combined torsion and shear
The three T-girders TB1, TB2, and TB3 were tested under torque to shear ratio value of
0.5, 1.0, and 0.1 m. The T-girders were subdivided into two rectangular girders using the
three proposed solutions as shown in Figure 6.1. The comparison between the behaviour
in the form o f torque versus twist and shear force versus stirrup strain predicted by the
model and the experimentally observed behaviour is shown in Figures 6.7 to 6.12. The
figures show that the three solutions yield a similar behaviour. Although solution II has
the disadvantage o f including the common part o f the flange and web twice, it appears to
predict the behaviour slightly better than the solution I and solution III for the case o f
TB2. However, for cases o f TB1 and TB3 solution II overestimates the torque and shear
force.
6.4.3 FRP strengthened RC T-girders under combined shear and torsion
Four T-girders TB1S1, TB1S2, TB1S3 and TB3S4 were strengthened using FRP and
tested up to failure. The experimental program was described in chapter 3. The developed
model was used to predict the shear and torsion behaviour o f the four T-girders. Figures
6.13 to 6.20 show the comparison between the predicted and the observed behaviour.
154
With the exception of TB1S1, the model predictions agree well with the experimentally
observed behaviour. This is might be because for girder TB1S1, the FRP was only
wrapped around the web.
6.5 Conclusions
An analytical model was developed that is capable o f predicting the behaviour o f un
strengthened and strengthened rectangular and T-girders subjected to combined shear and
torsion. The experimental and analytical results were compared in order to verify the
model. The model was found to provide reasonable predictions.
155
c)
Figure 6.1 - Rectangular Divisions a) Solution I, b) Solution II and c) Solution III.
"Stresses due to torsion
-Stresses due to shear
a)
c)
b)
Figure 6.2 - Compression Stress distribution within the concrete strut a) actual stress
distribution, b) equivalent stress distribution, and c) uniform stress distribution.
156
---------------- 2440-
-6.32 mm wire
Top reinforcement 2# 10
Bottom reinforcement 2# 15 or N 1 andN 2

and 2#20 for N3
-1 5 0
Stirrup spacing 70 mm for beams N2

120 mm for beams N 1
200 mm for beams N3
350
I
ir - 25
Figure 6.3 - Dimension and reinforcemenets of beams N l, N2, and N3
12
10
8
6
Experimental
4
- - Analytical
2
0
0
10
12
Angle of twist (deg/m)

Figure 6.4 - Torsional behaviour for beam N l.
157
14
12
Torsional moment (kN.mm)
10
Experimental
- - Analytical
4
0
0
10
12
14
Rotation (deg./m)
Figure 6.5 - Torsional behaviour for beam N2
12
Torsional moment (kN.mm)
10
8
6
4
Experimental
Analytical
2
0
0
10
Rotation (deg./m)
Figure 6.6 - Torsional behaviour for beam N3
12
30
Torque, T (kN. m)
25
20
^ >"
Experimental
15
Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
10
0
0.00
0.50
1.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
2.50

Figure 6.7 - Torsional behaviour of TB1 using Solution I, II, and III
50
45
40
Experimental
- - Solution I
Solution II
- -Solution III
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80

Figure 6.8 - Shear behaviour of TB1 using Solution I, II, and III
159
2.00
25
20
15
10
Experimental
- - Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
0
0.00
3.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
1.50
Figure 6.9 - Torsional behaviour of TB2 using solution I, II, and III
0.50
1.00
4.00
25
20
Experimental
- Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
0
0.00
2.50
2.00
1.00
1.50
0.50
Figure 6.10 - Shear behaviour of TB2 using solution I, II, and III
160
3.00
12
Torque, T (kN. m)
10
6
Experimental
4
- - Solution I
Solution II
Solution III
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60

Figure 6.11 - Torsional behaviour of TB3 using solution I, II, and III
120
100
Experimental
- - Solution I
- - Solution II
Solution III
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00

Figure 6.12 - Shear behaviour of TB3 using solution I, II, and III
161
1.20
40
35
Torque, T (kN.m)
30
25
20
15
10
Experimental
Analytical
5
0
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
Angle of twist (deg /m)

Figure 6.13 - Torsional behaviour of TB1S1
Experimental
10 -i
0.00
Analytical
2.50
2.00
1.50
0.50
1.00
Figure 6.14 - Shear behaviour of TB1S1
162
3.00
50
45
40
Torque, T (kN.m)
35
30
25
20
/-
15
Experimental
10
Analytical
5
0
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
Angle of twist (deg /m)

Figure 6.15 - Torsional behaviour o f TB1S2
100
Experimental
Analytical
0.00
2.50
1.50
2.00
0.50
1.00
163
3.00
50
45
40
Torque, T (kN.m)
35
30
25
20
15
Experimental
10
Analytical
5
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
4.00
3.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
Angle o f twist (deg /m)

Figure 6.17 - Torsional behaviour ofTBlS3
100
Experimental
Analytical
1 0 -i
0.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.50
1.00
Figure 6.18 - Shear behaviour of TB1 S3
164
3.50
20
18
16
Torque (kN. m)
14
12
10
Experimental
- - Analytical
6 -,L
4
2 -t0
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Angle of twist (deg / m)
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
Figure 6.19 - Torsional behaviour of TB3S4

200
180
160
Shear force (kN)
140
120
100
Experimental
- - Analytical
20
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00

3.50
CHAPTER 7
SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF RC GIRDERS

STRENGTHENENED FOR TORSION AND SHEAR
7 .f
Introduction
During the past decade, rehabilitation and strengthening o f structures has been an
important research topic worldwide (FIB 2001, CSA-S806-02 2002 and ACI 440.2R-02
2002). Due to the lack o f adequate research on the analysis o f torsion strengthening,
design o f RC members strengthened in torsion is not well developed yet. Design codes
such as the CSA-S806-02 (2002) and the ACI 440.2R-02 (2002) covered most cases o f
strengthening structures subjected to flexure and shear but did not include provisions for
the design o f RC members strengthened in torsion using externally bonded FRP. On the
other hand, The FIB (2001) proposed design equations for the case o f RC beams
strengthened in torsion.
In general, de-bonding failure accompanied by excessive concrete cracking is the

common failure in the case o f torsion strengthening. De-bonding failure may occur due to
bond slip at the interface between FRP and concrete, or due to FRP peeling off as a result
of concrete cracking. Several models are available for the analysis o f bond between FRP
and concrete. Most o f these models were calibrated using results from simple shear
testing o f FRP sheets bonded to concrete blocks. These models can be classified into
three categories empirical based models (Swamy et al. 1986, Hiroyuki et al. 1997, Maeda
166
et al 1997), fracture mechanics based models (Yuan and Wu 1999), and semi-empirical
models (Teng et al. 2002). All these models accounted for the fact that the FRP ultimate
strength might not be reached, regardless o f how large the value o f the interface length
between the FRP and the concrete is. Therefore, most o f these studies proposed a formula
for the calculation o f a theoretical length (i.e., effective bond length) which is being used
to calculate the maximum FRP shear stress. In this chapter, a simplified model is
introduced that can be used to design RC girders strengthened for torsion and /or shear.
The model is validated using the available experimental data. The presented formulas can
also be presented as basis for code provisions.
7.2 Torsion
7.2.1 FIB (2001) model (FIB-Model)
The model assumed that there is no interaction between the steel and FRP contribution to
the torsional resistance of the section. The contribution o f the FRP to the torsion capacity
o f the beam (Tf) for the case o f full wrapping and U-Jacket wrapping, respectively, were
computed as:
Tf (full FRP wrapping) =
2Ef s f t f w f bh cot(O)
s.
Tf (U - Jacket wrapping) = 0.5Tf (full FRP wrapping)
167
(7.1)
(7.2)
where
E f
is Youngs modulus o f the FRP, tf is the thickness o f the FRP, b and h are the
width and depth o f the concrete section, respectively, Wf is the width o f the FRP strip, Sf
is the spacing between strips, 0 is the angle o f inclination o f the diagonal cracks to the
longitudinal axis o f the beam. The effective FRP strain Sf is calculated using the
formulas:
2/ 3
-f = 0.17( )V fu
E faPf
p
forCFRP
(7-3)
for GFRP
(7-4)
2/ 3
0.048(^2 f A1s fa
E fu P i
where SfUis the ultimate strain in the FRP and pf is FRP reinforcement ratio with respect
to concrete calculated as:
_ 2 t fw f
(7.5)
Pi ~ ubsf
7.2.2 Proposed strength model
Assuming no interaction between the internal steel reinforcement and the external FRP
reinforcement, the total torsion capacity o f the RC beam (Tr) can be computed by:
Tr = T c +T s +Tf
(7.6)
where Tc is the concrete torsion contribution which was neglected, Ts is the steel torsion
contribution, and
T f
is the FRP torsion contribution. The assumption implied in Equation
7.6 that there is no interaction between the steel and the FRP is not entirely accurate.
168
However, in most o f the cases that require strengthening internal steel reinforcement are
yielding or deteriorated. Therefore, this assumption may be used for the purpose o f
simplifying the analysis. Using the Mohr circle equilibrium space truss along with the
hollow tube analogy, the torsion contribution o f inclined steel reinforcements (Ts) to the
total torsion capacity o f RC beam may be computed as:
2A0fyA ,(cosps + s in p s)
(7.7)
where A0 is area enclosed inside the centreline o f the shear flow path, fy is the yield stress
o f the reinforcement, At is area o f the reinforcement resisting torsion, 0 is the angle o f
inclination o f the principal cracks, ss is the spacing between the centerline o f the
transverse steel reinforcements and |3S is the angle o f inclination o f the steel
reinforcement. Similarly, the FRP contribution (Tf) to the torsion capacity can be
calculated by:
, _ 2AofffA f (cosPf + sinp f )
(7.8)
f=
where Aof is area enclosed inside the critical shear flow path due to the strengthening, ff is
the stress in the FRP sheets at failure as specified by the supplier, Pf is angle o f
orientation o f the fibre direction to the longitudinal axis o f the beam and Sf is the spacing
between the centreline of the FRP strips, and Af is the effective area o f the FRP resisting
torsion calculated using:
A f=nftfW f
(7.9)
169
where nf is the number o f FRP layers and Wf is the width o f the FRP strips. Equation 7.9
implies that using a number o f FRP layers is equivalent to using one FRP layer with the
same total area. Experimental observations have shown that this is not necessarily the
case (Zhang et. al. 2001, Panchacharam and Belarbi 2002). For the purpose o f
simplifying the design, this assumption will be used in this study. Using Equations 7.6,
7.7, 7.8, and 7.9 will account for the effect various parameters such as strengthening
techniques, number o f FRP layers, thickness o f each layer, spacing between FRP strips,
fibre orientation o f FRP sheets, average stress level o f the FRP sheets, and angle o f
principal crack. In order to use the above-mentioned equations, the FRP effective stress
has to be computed.
The FIB (2001) task force report indicated that if developing a rigorous analytical
model to calculate the effective FRP strain level is a possibility, it is extremely difficult.
Assuming the stress-strain relationship o f the FRP sheets to be elastic up to failure where
failure occurs when the FRP strain reaches the maximum effective FRP strain level. The
maximum effective strain level o f the FRP depends on several parameters such as the
dominating failure mode o f the beam, FRP properties, beam dimensions, concrete
properties, and strengthening scheme configuration. The FRP constitutive model is
assumed to be elastic up to failure which is determined by limiting the effective FRP
strain to the maximum specified by the supplier.
Beams strengthened in torsion fail either by de-bonding or rupture o f FRP. In both

cases, the effective strain level is lower than the ultimate strain level. For the case o f de-
170
bonding failure, the effective strain is lower than the ultimate strain due to the existence
o f an effective bond length which governs the maximum interfacial force between the
FRP and the concrete. Teng et al. (2002) proposed a formula for determining the effective
bond length (Le) for FRP strengthened RC beams in the form:
(7-10)
This formula will be used in this study to calculate the development length. De-bonding
failure could occur due to excessive concrete cracking or bond slip. The effective FRP
strain is limited in order to account for the FRP peeling off failure which occurs as a
result o f concrete cracking. The failure strain is written as:
(7.1D
f
s
e f
This limit was derived based on the maximum shear stress that the RC beam can sustain
under torsion loading. Another limit for the effective FRP strain was introduced to
account for bond-slip failure. The effective bond slip failure strain is written as:
(7.12)
where otf is a constant that takes into account the difference in the stress distribution
between the continuous FRP sheets and the strips and can be calculated as:
171
af=
( 2 ------^ )
sf sinp,
(1+
(7.13)
Wf -)
sf sinpf
This limit was developed based on the non-linear fracture mechanics bond model
introduced by Teng et al. (2002). The original model was developed to predict the
strength o f RC beams strengthened in shear. It was modified and calibrated to fit the
proposed model for the case o f torsion strengthening o f RC beams. For the case o f
rupture failure, strengthened beam fails at an effective strain level lower than the ultimate
strain level which is due to the non-uniform distribution o f the strain across the concrete
cracks. Another limit was derived by taking into account the axial rigidity o f the FRP
with respect to the concrete section. The model is being used to predict the strain limit for
beams failing in rupture where the effective FRP tensile strain can be computed by:
0.1s,,
f ~ /E D ,0.86
f ft
(7-14)
where Sfu is the ultimate FRP tensile strain and pft is the FRP reinforcement ratio and
given by the formula:
Pft =
Af
(7.15)
Mf
where tc is the thickness o f the equivalent hollow tube section taken as A0f / pf. Equations
(7.11), (7.12), and (7.14) represent the three proposed limits for the effective FRP strain.
172

The calculated strength using the proposed model was compared to the measured
strength available from the literature review from various sources as shown in Table 7.1.
For the purpose o f this study, angle 0 was taken 45 in order to simplify the design
equations. Comparison between the measured torsional moment capacity o f the sections
and the one calculated using the proposed model and the FIB model are summarized in
Table 7.2. The ratio between the strength calculated by the current model to the
measured strength has an average value o f 1.12, standard deviation value o f 0.25,
maximum value o f 1.56 and minimum value o f 0.672. The ratio between the FIB (2001)
calculated strength to the measured strength has an average o f 0.293, standard deviation
o f 0.203, maximum o f 0.7 and minimum o f 0.037. The proposed simplified procedure
appears to apply effectively and compare well to the available test results.
7.4 Torsion and shear

There are no available simple models to predict the behaviour o f strengthened reinforced
concrete beams subjected to combined shear and torsion. In this section, an analytical
model is proposed which can be used to calculate the strength o f the tested T-beams. The
model is based on the 45 truss mechanism for shear and the 45 space truss mechanism
for torsion.
7.4.1 Assumptions
Several assumptions were made to simplify the development o f the model. The total
resistance of the cross section can be calculated by assuming that the principle o f
superposition applies. The beams total shear resistance (Vt) and total torsional resistance
(Tt) can be calculated as:
V T = V C + V s + V f
(7.16)
T . = T C + T s + T f
(7.17)
where Vc and Tc are the concrete contribution to the total shear and torsion resistance,
respectively, Tc is taken equal to zero, and Vs and Ts are the steel contribution to the total
shear and torsion strength, respectively. The FRP contribution to the total shear and
torsion resistance are denoted
V f
and
T f,
respectively. This assumption implies that the
interaction between the CFRP, steel and concrete is insignificant which is plausible for
the following reasons:
1. After concrete cracking, the concrete contribution is considered to be relatively

small when compared to the steel and CFRP contributions.
2. Once the steel has yielded, further increase in the force carried by the steel due to
strain hardening is considered small. Consequently, the interaction between the
steel and CFRP may be neglected. However, in cases where the CFRP fails under
low levels o f strain while the steel has not yielded yet, the strain in the steel has to
174
PhD Thesis - A.Deifa!la
be calculated based on the CFRP strain level and to satisfy equilibrium and
compatibility conditions.
In addition, it has the following advantages:
1. Conservative estimates for the strength which is suitable for design purposes.
2. The evaluation o f the CFRP contribution to the strength o f the beams is estimated
separately which is the main emphasis o f the simplified approach.
7.4.2 FRP contribution to the strength

A linear interaction between the CFRP area per unit length resisting shear and that
resisting torsion was assumed. Since in this study the area per unit length is equal to the
thickness, a linear interaction relationship between the thickness o f CFRP resisting shear
and thickness resisting torsion will be used to predict the strength o f the beams. The total
FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous wrapping) calculated to
resist both shear and torsion t can be calculated as:
f
tr t, +1,
(7.i8)
where t is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous wrapping)
V
resisting shear and t^ is the FRP area per unit length (i.e. thickness in case o f continuous
wrapping) resisting torsion. Using the assumptions o f the 45 angle truss analogy model,
175
commonly used for the shear analysis o f RC beams, contribution o f the CFRP to the
shear resistance o f the beam V may be written as:
Vf = 2 E fsfdtv(cosP + sinP)
(7.19)
V
resisting shear, E is Youngs modulus o f the CFRP composite sheets, Ef is the effective
FRP strain, (] is the fibre orientation with the longitudinal axis and d is the depth o f the
sheet resisting shear. The hollow tube analogy and the 45 angle space truss model,
commonly used for the torsion analysis o f steel RC beams, was extended to account for
the 45 fibre oriented CFRP used as external reinforcement and the effect o f the
anchors. Therefore the contribution o f CFRP in torsion is written as:
Tf = 2 E fs fA oft t(cosP + sinP)
(7.20)
resisting torsion, A is calculated as 0.75 A0 with A0 is being calculated based on critical
of
shear flow which varies for each strengthening technique.
7.4.3 Solution technique

Equations 7.14 to 7.20 were used to calculate the CFRP contribution to the beam strength
following the trial and error procedure outlined in Figure 7.1. Following Ghobarah et al.
(2002), the strain level o f the CFRP sheets was taken 3 mm/m which was found to agree
176
with the average CFRP strain measured for the three tested T-beams. In order to
investigate the effect o f anchors, the calculations were performed twice. In the first
analysis, the anchors were assumed to carry axial force as a part o f the CFRP shear and
torsion resisting mechanism. The area A0 is shaded as shown in Figure 7.2.
7 .5
Model verification
The results o f these calculations are summarized in Table 7.3. The comparison
between the calculated strength and the measured strength o f the CFRP
contribution showed that the difference in the predicted and measured CFRP
contributions to the beam strength is small. The calculation error has a mean o f
7.36% and coefficient o f variation C.O.V. o f 5.88% which implies that the
anchors have to be considered in the calculation to determine the shear and
torsion resistance.
7 .5
Conclusions
A simplified strength model for the analysis o f RC beams strengthened for torsion and
shear was presented. The model included the effect o f different parameters such as
strengthening technique, number and thickness o f layers, spacing between FRP strips,
FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle o f diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model
was verified using an extensive experimental database from various sources. A linear
shear-torsion interaction superposition is proposed for the FRP resisting torsion and that
177
resisting shear. The design methodology is being verified against the results o f the
experimental program. The proposed procedure provides conservative estimates for the
FRP thickness required to resist the applied torsion and shear. Further experimental
testing is required to generalize the procedure and expand its applicability, in particular,
the prediction o f the effective FRP strain needs to be further investigated.
178
Table 7.1 - Configuration o f strengthened beams
FRP
Concrete
Beam
H
(mm)
B
(mm)
f*C'
(MPa)
wf
(mm)
(mm)
L2
250
150
17.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
L3
250
150
17.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
L4
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
"3
&
L5
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
120
s
C3
-C
si
L6
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
150
L7
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl strips
60
150
L10
250
150
18.8
CFRP
vl and hz strips
60
120
Cl
350
150
37
CFRP
VI
C
O4
C2
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
100
200
C4
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
200
300
-**
C5
350
150
37
CFRP
vl strips
100
250
u
-G
pfi
a
C6
350
150
37
CFRP
-/+45 strips
100
230
G1
350
150
37
GFRP
VI
G2
350
150
37
GFRP
vl strips
A90W4
279
279
34
GFRP
VI
A90S4
279
279
34
GFRP
vl strips
114.3
o
o
Type
Configuration
sf
Continuous
ft
O
O
w
Continuous
100
200
Continuous
228.6
a
11
aa
a
a
C90U3
279
279
31
GFRP
U-jacket
Continuous
>
B90U2-anchor
279
279
26
GFRP
Anchored U-jacket
Continuous
B0L4 / 90S4
279
279
26
GFRP
vl and hz strips
<Z)
vl = fibre oriented in the transversal direction of the member

Hz = fibre oriented in the longitudinal direction of the member
U-jacket = the top side of the beam is not bonded to FRP
114.3
228.6
Table 7.2 - Comparison between the model and the experimental data base
Measured
Torsion
Tf
Beam
FIB (2001) model
Proposed model
Failure mode
Ratio between
Calculated and
Measured torsion
Ratio between
Calculated and
Measured torsion
(kN. m)
L2
2.37
FRP Rupture
0.34
1.454
w*.
L3
4.39
Concrete fracture
0.40
0.890
L4
5.13
FRP Rupture
0.16
0.672
C3
L5
4.69
Concrete fracture
0.38
0.857
Ml
L6
3.25
FRP Rupture
0.22
1.027
L7
3.71
Concrete fracture
0.41
0.928
L10
3.71
FRP Rupture
0.36
1.023
Cl
7.15
N.A.
0.46
1.108
C2
3.02
De-bonding
0.67
1.405
C4
4.95
De-bonding
0.50
1.031
C5
2.47
De-bonding
0.70
1.477
C6
7.10
FRP Rupture
0.30
1.154
G1
8.13
N.A.
0.063
1.222
G2
2.19
De-bonding
0.16
1.560
A90W4
27.00
FRP Rupture
0.039
0.740
A90S4
17.00
FRP Rupture
0.045
1.133
C90U3
7.00
De-bonding
0.17
1.384
B90U2-anchor
7.00
De-bonding
0.14
1.135
B0L4/90S4
17.00
FRP Rupture
0.039
1.067
.d
r*
L.
JS
O
A
N
OS
s
cs
a
>
C3
u
d
Mean
Standard deviation
=
=
0.293
0.203
1.119
0.250
Maximum
Minimum
=
=
0.700
0.0390
1.560
0.672
180
Table 7.3 - Comparison between measured and calculated strength
Shear(kN)
Torsion (kN.m)
Difference %
Beam
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
TB1S1
10.46
10.09
20.14
17.44
3.63%
TB1S2
14.70
15.38
32.19
33.69
4.42%
TB1S3
17.62
17.55
37.43
38.46
5.28%
TB3S4
7.84
7.34
69
82.31
17.12%
Average
7.36%
C.O.V.
5.88%
181
Calculate T f/ Vf
Assume the tt.
Calculate tv using equation (7.18).

Calculate Tfnewand Vfnewusing equation
7.19 and 7.20
No
(Tfnew / Vfoew) Tf / Vf
Yes
End Iteration and output data
Figure 7.1 - Flow chart for the procedure used in the analysis.
182
2,5
TB1S1
50
TB1S2
1 -7 5 J
1 -7 5 J
TB1S3
TB3S4
Figure 7.2 - Hatched area is enclosed inside the expected shear flow path (Ao).
183
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
8m1 Summaty
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the shear and torsion
behaviour o f RC T-beams. A test setup capable o f simulating the behaviour o f
RC T-girders subjected to torsion, shear and very little moments was designed
and constructed. Three T-girders were tested while subjected to three different
torque to shear ratios. The ratios were selected in order to cover a wide range o f
the torsion-shear interaction curve. In addition, the shear and torsion provisions
o f the North American design codes were assessed.
An experimental study was conducted to explore the strengthening o f RC Tbeams using FRP. Four strengthening schemes were proposed and implemented.
The behaviour o f the strengthened T-beams was discussed. The effectiveness of
the proposed techniques was evaluated.
An analytical model capable o f predicting the full behaviour o f torsionally
strengthened rectangular RC beams was presented. The model accounts for
various
strengthening
techniques
including
continuous
wrapping,
spiral
wrapping, one sided wrapping and strips wrapping. The model was validated
using available experimental results and was found to correlate reasonably well.
184
An analytical model capable o f predicting the behaviour o f strengthened RC

T-girders under combined shear and torsion was developed.
A simplified strength model for the analysis o f torsionally strengthened RC
beams was presented. The model included the effect o f different parameters such
as strengthening technique, number and thickness o f layers, spacing between
FRP strips, FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle of diagonal crack, and
FRP type. The model was verified using available experimental database from
studies by other researchers.
A simplified model for the analysis o f RC beams strengthened for combined
shear and torsion was proposed. The model assumes a linear interaction between
the FRP area resisting torsion and that resisting shear. The model accounts for
different parameters including strengthening techniques, number and thickness o f
layers, spacing between FRP strips, FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle
o f diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model was verified using the four T-beams
tested in this study.
8.2 Conclusions
In chapter 3, the effect o f the torsion-shear interaction on the behaviour o f RC Tgirders was explored and the following conclusions were reached:
The behaviour o f the T-girders is affected by the values o f the torque to shear
ratio. The increase in the torque to shear ratio decreases the load resistance with
185
respect to the vertical displacement, the load resistance with respect to the strain
in the longitudinal steel reinforcement, the torsional stiffness.
At ultimate strength, the increase in the torque to shear ratio corresponds to
decreased load resistance and increased vertical displacements, the steel strain,
and the angle o f twist. The decrease in the torque to shear ratio increased the
cracking load which delayed concrete cracking.
In addition, the North American codes were used to design the RC T-girders
and the results were compared to the observed behaviour and the following was
concluded:
Using ACI, CSA and PCI design provisions provide accurate predictions of
the strength at low torque to shear ratios.
Using the ACI code provisions provides conservative estimates for the
strength but fails to accurately predict the failure mode especially in cases where
the maximum torsion limit governs the design.
Using the ACI and CSA provisions provide conservative design values for
the cracking torsion strength. However, overestimate the shear contribution to
strength at high torque to shear ratios.
Using the CSA provisions accurately predicts the failure mode o f the tested
beam. However, they overestimate the strength by up to 26%.
The strength and failure mode predictions using the PCI shear and torsion
design provisions are closer and more consistent with the experimental results
when compared with those calculated by using the AASHTO and the CSA.
186
In Chapter 4, the behaviour o f the strengthened T-girders was compared with

each other and with the unstrengthened T-girders and the following was
concluded:
Various strengthening schemes using externally bonded carbon fibre
composites were implemented and were found to enhance the behaviour o f
reinforced concrete T-girders subjected to combined shear and torsion. The FRP
prevented the concrete cover spalling which increased the ultimate strength. The
FRP arrested the tension cracks and provided partial confinement which delayed
the failure.
Although the U-jacket strengthening technique is easy to apply and fits
various applications, it was found to be the least effective relative to the other
extended U-jacket and the full wrapping.
The full wrapping was found to be the most effective procedure. However, it
is not likely to be applied successfully in all practical cases due to the lack o f
access to all sides o f the girder for wrapping.
Although the extended U-jacket is less effective than the full wrapping, the
enhancement o f the behaviour o f the girder is significant enough to warrant its
application in most practical situations.
Anchor bolts delayed debonding at the end and at the overlap joints o f the
CFRP sheets. The anchors were found to carry axial tension force as a part o f the
developed shear flow mechanism to resist applied torsion.
187
Using steel angles at the flange-web re-entrant comers prevented local de
bonding of the CFRP.

In chapter 5, a rational model capable o f predicting the foil behaviour up to
failure o f rectangular RC beams strengthened in torsion with an error less than
15% was developed.
In chapter 6, an analytical model was developed that is capable o f predicting
the behaviour o f unstrengthened and strengthened T-beams subjected to
combined shear and torsion. The experimental and analytical results were
compared in order to verify the model. The model was found to provide
reasonable predictions.
In chapter 7, a simplified strength model for the analysis o f torsionally
strengthened RC beams was presented. The model included the effect o f different
parameters such as strengthening technique, number and thickness o f layers,
spacing between FRP strips, FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle of
diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model was verified using an extensive
experimental database from various sources. The proposed procedure provides
conservative estimates for the FRP torsion contribution.
In addition, a simplified model for the analysis o f RC beams strengthened for
combined shear and torsion. The model assumes a linear interaction between the
FRP area resisting torsion and that resisting shear. The model accounts for
different parameters including strengthening techniques, number and thickness o f
layers, spacing between FRP strips, FRP orientation, FRP effective strain, angle
188
o f diagonal crack, and FRP type. The model strength predictions were compared
with the available experimental results. The model provides conservative
estimates.
8.3 Recommendations for future research

Further testing should be conducted in order to:
Investigate the behaviour o f RC L-girders, double T-girders and Box girders.
Cover a wider range o f the torsion-shear interaction ratios.
FRP strengthening without using angles or anchors.
FRP strengthening using FRP anchors instead o f steel anchors.
Investigate the behaviour FRP reinforced T-girders, L-girders, and Box
girders.
Generalize the analytical and simplified models.
Improve the equations used to estimate the FRP effective strain.
Investigate the size and test scale effects by testing girders o f different sizes.
Investigate the effect o f prestressing.
189
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196
APPENDIX A DETAILS OF CODE USED FOR

CHAPTER 5
A. 11nput
b, d, b v l, d v l, bv 2 , dv 2 , bvoid, dvoid
fpc, epc, fcr
ntr, barnumb
For ntr times
Fyh, Fuh, E lh , E2h, E3h, epsh
For barnumb times
ahbys, smx, smy, smz, agg
For 4 times
spall
for 4 times
kl
FRP
nfm
for nfm times
nffaces
for nffaces times
confinedfactor
Fy(i), Fu(i), el (i), E2(i), E3(i), eps(i)
ty(i), sa(i), y(i), z(i), dep(i)
limittw(i)
covw(i)
betafw(i), Efw(i), efuw(i), rofw(i)
fmw(i), fmclinationw(i)
A.2 List of input definitions
(b) overall width o f the girder cross section
(d) overall depth o f the girder cross section
(bvl) effective width resisting vertical shear
(dvl) effective depth resisting vertical shear
A-1
(bv 2 ) effective width resisting horizontal shear
(dv 2 ) effective depth resisting horizontal shear
(bvoid) width of a void in the girder cross section
(dvoid) depth o f a void in the girder cross section
(fpc) concrete compressive strength
(epc) concrete strain at peak stress
(fcr) tensile strength o f concrete
(ntr) number o f types o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(bamumb) number o f longitudinal steel bars
(Fy) yield strength o f each type o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(Fu) ultimate strength o f each type o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(E l) modulus o f elasticity o f each type o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(E2) stiffness o f the yield plateau o f the longitudinal steel reinforcement

(E3) stiffness o f the strain hardening curve o f the longitudinal steel reinforcement
(eps) strain at which the strain hardening starts o f the longitudinal steel
reinforcement
(Fyh) yield strength o f each type of transversal steelreinforcement

(Fuh) ultimate strength o f each type o f transversalsteel reinforcement
(E lh) modulus o f elasticity o f each type o f transversal steel reinforcement
(E2h) stiffness o f the yield plateau o f the transversal steel
(E3h) stiffness o f the strain hardening curve o f the transversal steel
(epsh) strain at which the strain hardening starts for the transversal steel
(ty) material type o f the specified steel bar
(sa) area o f each steel bar
(y) the vertical location o f each steel bar
(z) the horizontal location o f each steel bar
(dep) prestrain in the bar,
for steel bars
(ahbys) the cross section area of one leg o f the stirrup divided by the spacing
between the stirrups
A-2
(smx) the average spacing between the cracks in the longitudinal direction
(smy) the average spacing between the cracks in the vertical direction
(smz) the average spacing between the cracks in the horizontal direction
(agg) maximum size o f the coarse aggregate
(limittw) limit on the thickness o f each wall ( half the parallel dimension for the
solid sections)
(spall)
(covw) clear concrete cover
(K l) spalling indicator
(FRP) 0 if unstrengthened girder, 1 if strengthened girder
(nfm) number o f FRP types used
(betafw) angle of inclination o f fiber direction for each FRP type
(Efw) youngs modulus o f each FRP type
(eftrw) ultimate strain for each FRP type
(rofw) thickness o f FRP sheet divided by the spacing between strips
(nffaces) number o f faces bonded to FRP
(fmw) FRP type used for this face
(finclinationw) the angle o f orientation used in installing the FRP sheet
(confined_factor)
if spalling is considered,
if spalling is ignored
A-3
A.3 Sample of Input file

Input file for Girder C l
b = 150, d = 350, bvl = 150, dvl = 280, bv2 =350, dv2 =100, bvoid = 0, dvoid
fpc = 25, epc = 0.00192, fcr = 1.65
ntr =1, barnumb = 4
Fy = 409, Fu =0, El=200000, E2=1000, E3=4743, eps=0.0225
Fyh = 456.8, Fuh = 0, E lh = 200000, E2h = 1000, E3h = 4743, epsh = 0.0225
ty(i)
sa(i)
y(i)
z(i)
dep(i)
200
-45
-1 2 0
200
-45
120
100
45
120
100
45
-1 2 0
Ahbys = 0.27, smx = 250, smy = 250, smz = 250, agg

75
limittw(i)= 75
75
75
Spall= 0
FRP = 1
Nfm = 1
Betafw = 0, Efw =235000, efuw=.015, rofw = 0.167
Nffaces=4
finclinationw(i)
fmw(i)
1
90
90
90
90
confined factor =
A-4
A.4 Flow Chart

Input Section Geometry
Input concrete, steel
properties
and
FRP
Assign initial value for the parameters
Assume walls effective thickness
Assume average longitudinal strain and curvatures
Calculate average shear stresses
Contribution (Figure A.2)
C heckequilibrium
24a
Yes
No
Check thickness
Yes
Print output
Figure A .l - Flow chart for the Main Program.
A-5
CONTRIBUTION
Input shear stress

and longitudinal
Assume the diagonal strain
Assume the angle o f inclination
Solve the wall element
Check the angle
NO
Yes
Check the diagonal
NO
stress
Yes
Return to main program
Figure A.2 - Flow chart for subroutine contribution.
A-6
A.5Algorithm
Using the beam C l whose input is presented in section A.3, a detailed algorithm will be
disscused in this section. The program outcome is a behaviour curve that starts at initial
value o f zero stress and zero strain. Hence, the correct values for all the parameters can
be easily predicted at this point. For the calculation o f the next point, the solution o f
previous point is being used as the initial assumption for the next step and so on. Using
small steps along with the trial and error method make it easy to converge and obtain a
unique solution.
1. Assign initial value to diagonal concrete strain o f the left segment. This value
increase in small steps in order to obtain the full behaviour. A middle step is being
chosen to further clarify the solution.
6*
0.0012
A ]
2. To solve the equations presented in chapter 5, the trial and error method will be
used to solve the equations together. I have chosen to assume the effective
thickness o f the four segments.
t, = t 2 = t 3 = t 4 = 30.685mm
A 2
3. Using the known effective thicknesses for the segments, calculate the area
enclosed inside the centerline o f the shear flow using Equation 5.19.
A 0 = 38078.602mm2
4. Assume the average longitudinal strain at the centroid and the curvature around
the x and y axis.
^centroid = 5.8E - 5
A.4
o
II
X
9-
A.5
o
II
9-
A .6
5. Solve the left segment using the known diagonal strain, average longitudinal
strain to obtain the shear flow and the longitudinal forces in the left segment, (by
using Equations 5.2 to 5.10 and Equations 5.24 to 5.32)
6.
step 6 is done using trial and error by assuming the shear flow (qi) = 106.3 N/m
and the angle o f inclination (0j) = 0.627 and then substituting in equations as
follows:
Using equation 5.2 calculate the shear stress (ii) = 3.459 MPa
Using equation 5.3 calculate shear strain y =3.467E-3
Using equation 5.4 calculate the transverse strain sy = 1.189E-3
Using equation 5.5 calculate the FRP strain Sft = 1.189E-3
Using equation 5.6 calculate the diagonal tensile strain si =2.447E-3
Using equation 5.30 calculate the steel stress os = 237 MPa
Using equation 5.31 calculate the FRP stress Of = 279.48 MPa
Using equation 5.10 calculate the transverse stress a y= 1.89 MPa
Using equation 5.24 calculate the concrete diagonal stress c2=6.47 MPa
Using equation 5.7 calculate the longitudinal stress ox = 3.794 MPa
Using equation 5.8 calculate the angle o f inclination 0new = 0.5845 radian
Using the fixed point iteration, calculate the difference between 0 and 0new- If the
difference larger than 0 .0 1 rad, the take 0 = 0 new and repeat step 6 again until you
get the right value where 0 = 0.6408 radian
Using equation 5.9 calculate the shear flow q = 106.83 N/mm
By taking equilibrium at the any section o f the segment we can calculate the resulting
Nvl
N vl =33640
7. Use the shear flow calculated from the left segment as initial value for the other
three segments. Calculate the torsional moment using Equation 5.1
q 2 = q 3 = q 4 = q, = 106.826
T = 8135609.837
Ag
N /m m
N.mm
A-8
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
8.
For the three remaining segments, using the known shear flow and the effective
thickness obtain the longitudinal forces in each segment.
9. To solve the three remaining segments, I have assumed the diagonal strain (2 ) as
well as the the angle (0 ) and will verify at the end o f the loop.
Using equation 5.2 calculate the shear stress (ti) = 3.476 MPa
Using equation 5.3 calculate shear strain y -0.00346
Using equation 5.4 calculate the transverse strain sy = 1.18E-3
Using equation 5.5 calculate the FRP strain Cft = 1.18E-3
Using equation 5.6 calculate the diagonal tensile strain si =2.44E-3
Using equation 5.30 calculate the steel stress os = 236 MPa
Using equation 5.31 calculate the FRP stress c?f = 277 MPa
Using equation 5.10 calculate the transverse stress oy = 1.845 MPa
Using equation 5.24 calculate the concrete diagonal stress 02=6.5009 MPa
Using equation 5.7 calculate the longitudinal stress ox = 3.871 MPa
Using equation 5.8 calculate the angle o f inclination Onew = 0.6444 radian
Check the assumption o f 0 in the same way as step
value where 0 = 0.642 radian
and iterate until you get the right
Using equation 5.9 calculate the concrete maximum diagonal stress

MPa
0 2 new
= 6.465
Calculate the ratio between difference 0 2 and o2new. If the ratio is not 1 then take S2ew
= 2 multiply the ratio. And repeat step 9 again and again until .2 converge to
0.001967
By taking equilibrium at the any section o f the segment we can calculate the resulting
Nvl
N v2 =33277.067N
a h
N v3 =11884.6667N
N v4 =11884.667N
A.13
10.
12
calculate the forces on the whole cross section due to the segment longitudinal
forces
N = -91782N
A.14
M x =3210N.mm
^25
M y = ON.mm
16
11. Using the fixed point iteration, check the equilibrium using the three equilibrium
equations for the whole cross section (using Equations 5.21 to 5.23). If
equilibrium is not satisfied then reassume the concrete longitudinal strain at the
centroid and the curvatures. For these values, equilibrium is satisfied, no need for
iteration.
12. Calculate the angle o f twist using Equation 5.18
\|/ = 4 E - 5
A.17
13. Using equations 5.12 and 5.13 calculate the effective thickness o f each segment.
After a few iterations, the following values were obtained
t, = t 2 = t 3 = t 4 = 30.75mm
A .18
In step 13 the following conditions has to be satified

A. 19
A .19
Symbols are as shown in Figure A.3. These equations were derived to insure that the
actual and the uniform stress distribution will produce the same normal force and bending
moment (i.e. equivalent).
A-10
Actual strain
Actual stress
av
Average stress
Figure A.3
A-11
APPENDIX B CODE USED FOR THE MODEL

PRESENTED IN CHAPTER 6
B.1 Input
b, d, b v l, d v l, bv 2 , dv 2 , bvoid, dvoid
xnx, vy, vz, tm, my, mz
fpc, epc, fcr
ntr, barnumb
- For ntr times
Fy(i), Fu(i), el(i), E2(i), E3(i), eps(i)

Fyh, Fuh, E lh , E2h, E3h, epsh
For barnumb times
ty(i), sa(i), y(i), z(i), dep(i)

ahbys, smx, smy, smz, agg
For 4 times
limittw(i)
spall
- for 4 times
covw(i)
kl
FRP
nfm
- For nfm times
betafw(i), Efw(i), efuw(i), rofw(i)

nffaces
for nffaces times
fmw(i), finclinationw(i)
confined factor
B.2 List of Input definatlons

(b) overall width o f the girder cross section
(d) overall depth o f the girder cross section
(bvl) effective width resisting vertical shear
B-1
(dvl) effective depth resisting vertical shear

(bv 2 ) effective width resisting horizontal shear
(dv2 ) effective depth resisting horizontal shear
(bvoid) width o f a void in the girder cross section
(dvoid) depth o f a void in the girder cross section
(xnx) applied axial force
(vy) applied vertical shear force
(vz) applied horizontal shear force
(tm) applied twisting moment
(my) applied bending moment around the y-axis
(mz) applied bending moment around the z-axis
(arm) ratio between torque and shear
(fpc) concrete compressive strength
(epc) concrete strain at peak stress
(fcr) tensile strength o f concrete
(ntr) number o f types o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(barnumb) number o f longitudinal steel bars
(Fy) yield strength o f each type o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(Fu) ultimate strength o f each type of longitudinal steel reinforcement
(E l) modulus o f elasticity o f each type o f longitudinal steel reinforcement
(E2) stiffness of the yield plateau o f the longitudinal steel reinforcement
(E3) stiffness o f the strain hardening curve o f the longitudinal steel reinforcement
(eps) strain at which the strain hardening starts o f the longitudinal steel reinforcement
(Fyh) yield strength o f each type o f transversal steel reinforcement
(Fuh) ultimate strength o f each type o f transversal steel reinforcement
(Elh) modulus o f elasticity of each type o f transversal steel reinforcement
(E2h) stiffness o f the yield plateau o f the transversal steel
(E3h) stiffness o f the strain hardening curve o f the transversal steel
(epsh) strain at which the strain hardening starts for the transversal steel
(ty) material type o f the specified steel bar

(sa) area o f each steel bar
(y) the vertical location o f each steel bar
(z) the horizontal location o f each steel bar
(dep) prestrain in the bar, 0 for steel bars
(ahbys) the cross section area o f one leg o f the stirrup divided by the spacing between the
stirrups
(smx) the average spacing between the cracks in the longitudinal direction
(smy) the average spacing between the cracks in the vertical direction
(smz) the average spacing between the cracks in the horizontal direction
(agg) maximum size of the coarse aggregate
(limittw) limit on the thickness o f each wall ( half the parallel dimension for the solid
sections)
(spall) 1 if spalling is considered, 0 if spalling is ignored
(covw) clear concrete cover
(K l) spalling indicator
(FRP) 0 if unstrengthened girder, 1 if strengthened girder
(nfm) number o f FRP types used
(betafw) angle o f inclination o f fiber direction for each FRP type
(Efw) youngs modulus of each FRP type
(efuw) ultimate strain for each FRP type
(rofw) thickness o f FRP sheet divided by the spacing between strips
(nffaces) number o f faces bonded to FRP
(fmw) FRP type used for this face
(finclinationw) the angle of orientation used in installing the FRP sheet
(confined_factor)
B.3 Sample of Input file

Girder T B 1 1
150.250.150.200.250.100.0.0
0,104200,0,10500000,0,0
25.6.0.00192.1.5
1,6
418.0.200000.1000.4743.0.02
418.0.200000.1000.4743.0.02
1.300,-50,-150,0
1.300.50,-150,0
1.300.50,-125,0
1.300,-50,-125,0
1,200,50,150,0
1,200,-50,150,0
0.5,250,250,250
20
75,75,75,75
0
0
1.25.25.25.25.0.4
0
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126.96 62.63 66.95 115.17
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TB1S3 test data

S1
m m /m m
0
0.04
0.073
0.072
0.078
0.087
0.087
0.089
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.093
0 .1 0 2
0.101
0.121
0.123
0.152
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.17
0.177
0.193
0.206
0.219
0.267
0.266
0.296
0.332
0.33
0.344
0.528
0.559
0.622
0.632
0.634
0.742
0.724
0.759
0.738
0.743
0.908
0.981
1.369
1.411
1.425
1.537
S2
m m /m m
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0 .0 0 2
-0.001
-0 .001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0.001
-0 .001
0
0
0 .001
0.001
0
0.001
0
0.001
0
0 .0 0 2
0 .0 0 2
0.004
0.009
0.013
0.026
0.025
0.031
0.05
0.051
0.053
0.123
0.134
0.149
0.151
0.152
0.195
0.189
0.199
0.191
0.191
0.35
0.392
0.551
0.58
0.59
0.667
S3
m m /m m
-0.001
-0.001
0
0
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0 .0 0 1
0.001
0.001
0.001
0 .001
0 .0 0 2
0.013
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0 .0 2
0 .021
0.027
0.052
0.072
0.116
0.116
0.133
0.169
0.168
0.174
0.299
0.309
0.334
0.338
0.337
0.415
0.403
0.427
0.412
0.416
0.679
0.748
1.11
1.148
1.162
1.258
S4
m m /m m
S5
m m /m m
S6
m m /m m
S8
m m /m m
S9
m m /m m
S10
m m /m m
0
0 .0 1 2
0.025
0.024
0.026
0.029
0.029
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.031
0.034
0.033
0.039
0.039
0.037
0.039
0.039
0.039
0
0 .0 0 2
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.01
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0 .011
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0 .0 1 1
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.025
0.025
0.029
0.036
0.036
0.037
0.061
0.067
0.069
0.07
0.07
0.074
0.073
0.074
0.073
0.073
0.087
0.096
0 .1 0 1
0 .1 0 2
0 .1 0 2
0.104
0
-0.035
-0.036
-0.037
-0.039
-0.038
-0.038
-0.038
-0.037
-0.037
-0.037
-0.036
-0.039
-0.039
-0.037
-0.036
-0.034
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.039
-0.038
-0.032
-0.028
-0.024
-0.018
-0 .0 2 2
0.009
0.009
0.015
0.034
0.024
0.024
0 .1 0 2
0.127
0.158
0.174
0.189
0.238
0.215
0.239
0.239
0.257
0.327
0.354
0.455
0.485
0.498
0.604
0
0 .0 2 2
0
-0.004
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.024
0.024
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
-0.006
0
0 .0 1 1
0.014
0.015
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.025
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.031
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.033
0.033
0.035
0.04
0.053
0.132
0.133
0.167
0.188
0.211
0.231
0.424
0.517
0.577
0.592
0.61
0.663
0.707
0.819
0.839
0.889
1.183
1.26
1.513
1.56
1.605
1.752
-0.007
-0.007
-0.006
-0.006
-0.007
-0.007
-0.007
-0.007
-0.008
-0.008
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
0.016
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.018
0.018
0.019
0 .0 2
0 .0 2 2
0.024
0.024
0.024
0.024
-0.004
-0.004
-0.004
-0.005
-0.005
-0.007
0 .01
0.032
0.033
0.044
0.044
0.055
0.063
0.104
0.136
0.145
0.148
0.148
0.149
0.138
0.082
0.067
0.042
-0.068
-0.089
-0.174
-0.193
-0.213
-0.251
0.024
0.023
0.024
0.025
0.026
0.029
0.039
0.054
0.054
0.039
0.039
0.039
0.044
0.047
0.051
0.051
0.052
0.049
0.049
0.055
0.059
0.057
0.063
0.071
0.065
0.072
0.075
0.073
0.08
0.077
0.078
0.071
0.067
0.08
0.098
0.371
0.378
0.382
0.402
C-17
0.058
0.06
0.063
0.064
0.081
0.1
0.115
0.117
0.117
0 .121
0.115
0.095
0.089
0.076
0.066
0.064
0.031
0.03
0.028
0 .0 2 2
TB1S3 test data

S11
m m /m m
S12
m m /m m
0
0.029
0.031
0.031
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0
0 .0 2 2
0.038
0.038
0.045
0.052
0.051
0.052
0.052
0.032
0.032
0.031
0.033
0.032
0.052
0.052
0.052
0.067
0.067
0.033
0.032
0.033
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.035
0.034
0.089
0.089
0.108
0.13
0.131
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.032
0.031
0.029
0.028
0.041
0.061
0.062
0.081
0.081
0.113
0.135
0.297
0.425
0.49
0.507
0.523
0.557
0.616
0 .6 8 8
0.7
0.713
0 .8 8 8
0.938
1.103
1.135
1.181
1.29
0.13
0.131
0.131
0.131
0.183
0.279
0.28
0.319
0.317
0.362
0.394
0.468
0.526
0.597
0.598
0.602
0.612
0.685
0.746
0.744
0.744
0.879
0.939
1.059
1.066
1.095
1.133
S13
m m /m m
0.009
0.117
0.136
0.137
0.149
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.152
0.116
0.118
0.125
0.117
0.116
0.141
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.142
0.143
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.144
0.094
0.232
0.233
0.225
0.245
0.178
0.241
0.312
0.517
0.681
0.683
0 .6 8 6
0.705
0.788
0.244
0.252
0.252
0.457
0.529
0.765
0.792
0.844
0.874
S14
m m /m m
0
0.025
0.052
0.051
0.061
0.068
0.068
0.068
0.068
0.069
0.069
0.069
0.087
0.087
0.096
0.096
0.106
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.118
0.119
0 .1 2
0.123
0.126
0.177
0.267
0.267
0.311
0.315
0.376
0.416
0.515
0.557
0.616
0.618
0.611
0.633
0.677
0.716
0.707
0.694
0.738
0.773
0.797
0.801
0.819
0.818
S15
m m /m m
-0 .001
-0.007
-0.004
-0.004
0
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0 .0 2 2
0 .021
0.034
0.034
0.043
0.056
S16
m m /m m
S7
m m /m m
S17
m m /m m
0
-0.006
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
0.004
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.009
0.029
0.029
0.035
0.035
0.04
0.047
0
0.078
0.097
0.098
0.104
0.11
0.11
0 .1 1 2
0.113
0.113
0.113
0.115
0 .1 2
0 .1 2 2
0.13
0.135
0.151
0.153
-0 .0 0 1
-0.097
-0.118
-0.119
-0.126
-0.132
-0.132
-0.134
-0.134
-0.134
-0.135
-0.136
-0.143
-0.147
-0.153
-0.157
-0.174
-0.18
0.056
0.056
0.056
0.057
0.057
0.056
0.056
0.055
0.055
0.084
0.107
0.107
0 .121
0.121
0.145
0.161
0.199
0.219
0.237
0.237
0.237
0.241
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.047
0.048
0.058
0.068
0.069
0.075
0.074
0.086
0.095
0.113
0 .1 2 1
0.127
0.266
0.291
0.289
0.288
0.325
0.33
0.325
0.324
0.324
0.317
0.13
0.137
0.137
0.136
0.144
0.147
0.148
0.148
0.148
0.144
0.153
0.153
0.153
0.154
0.154
0.155
0.161
0.167
0.183
0.199
0.235
0.24
0.327
0.476
0.626
0.726
1.522
1.779
1.993
2.041
2.071
2.257
2.321
2.519
2.556
2.662
3.381
3.661
4.662
4.803
4.94
5.379
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.179
-0.184
-0.189
-0.204
-0.237
-0.266
-0.266
-0.296
-0.253
-0.271
-0.297
-0.416
-0.511
-0.583
-0.601
-0.618
-0.656
-0.687
-0.742
-0.749
-0.766
-1.029
- 1.121
-1.515
-1.588
-1.661
-1.834
0.126
0.126
0.127
C-18
S18
m m /m m
0
0.125
0.158
0.159
0.169
0.178
0.179
0.18
0.182
0.182
0.182
0.185
0.194
0 .2 0 1
0.21
0.216
0.252
0.256
0.256
0.256
0.256
0.257
0.257
0.26
0.269
0.281
0.3
0.303
0.317
0.317
0.339
0.359
0.379
0.4
0.706
0.856
0.982
1.001
1.037
1.174
1.264
1.556
1.581
1.725
2.662
2.902
6.175
6.507
6.829
7.699
TB1S3 test data
S19
mm/mm
S20
mm/mm
S21
mm/mm
S22
mm/mm
S23
mm/mm
S 24
mm/mm
S25
mm/mm
Hor 1
mm
Hor 2
mm
0
-0.135
-0.16
-0.162
-0.172
-0.179
-0.179
-0.181
-0.182
-0.182
-0.182
-0.184
-0.191
-0.198
-0.205
-0.21
-0.234
-0.239
-0.239
-0.239
-0.239
-0.239
-0.239
-0.236
-0.241
-0.247
-0.27
-0.299
-0.328
-0.329
-0.361
-0.377
-0.42
-0.448
-0.589
-0.706
-0.776
-0.79
-0.8
-0.826
-0.865
-0.933
-0.949
-0.974
-1.157
-1.197
-1.234
-1.229
-1.241
-1.255
0
0
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0
0.001
0.001
0
0.001
0 .001
0
0 .001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0
0.038
0.044
0.044
0.047
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.051
0.051
0.051
0.052
0.054
0.057
0.059
0.062
0.074
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.076
0.076
0.076
0.076
0.08
0.084
0.096
0.119
0.149
0.149
0.161
0.164
0.178
0.184
0.191
0.194
0.192
0.194
0.19
0.195
0.199
0.213
0.214
0.227
0.425
0.494
0 .8 6 8
1.028
1.22
1.921
0
-0.069
-0.08
-0.081
-0.085
-0.088
-0.089
-0.09
-0.091
-0.091
-0.09
-0.092
-0.095
-0.098
-0 .101
-0.104
-0.116
-0.118
-0.118
-0.118
-0.117
-0.117
-0.118
-0.116
-0 .1 2
-0.123
-0.133
-0.152
-0.174
-0.174
-0.189
-0.193
-0.213
-0.224
-0.307
-0.385
-0.424
-0.44
-0.454
-0.487
-0.531
-0.611
-0.621
-0.648
-0.809
-0.857
-1.018
-1.074
-1.138
-1.313
0
0.087
0 .1 0 2
0.104
0.109
0.115
0.115
0.117
0.117
0.117
0.117
0.119
0.124
0.129
0.134
0.139
0.157
0.158
0.158
0.158
0.158
0.158
0.158
0.158
0.164
0.17
0.185
0.201
0.216
0.216
0.231
0.239
0.261
0.279
0.345
0.419
0.452
0.471
0.495
0.554
0.613
0.788
0.832
0.913
1.503
1.639
2.557
2.739
2.94
3.585
0
-0.099
-0.113
-0.115
-0 .1 2 2
-0.126
-0.127
-0.127
-0.129
-0.129
-0.128
-0.13
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
0.000
0.000
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
-7.7E-05
0.153212
-0.135
-0.14
-0.145
-0.149
-0.166
-0.167
-0.167
-0.167
-0.167
-0.167
-0.167
-0.164
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
-0 .0 0 1
0.000
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
0.000
0.000
-0 .001
-0 .0 0 1
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.006
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.004
0.008
0.008
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.005
-1.9E -05
0.015026
0.014721
0.01474
0.014702
0.014778
0.014778
0.014798
0.014778
0.014798
0.014798
0.014798
0.014798
0.014817
0.011766
0.011708
0.011537
0.011384
0.011365
0.011365
0.011384
0.011365
0.01127
0.011213
0.011289
0.011251
0.011346
0.01127
0.011518
0.011518
0.011518
0.011632
0.011537
0.011499
-0.00492
-0.004805
-0.004748
-0.004824
-0.004843
-0.00492
-0.004843
-0.004405
-0.004767
-0.004939
0.134264
0.161723
0.477276
0.502008
0.519971
0.75757
0.001
0.001
0 .001
0 .0 0 2
0 .0 0 2
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.008
0 .011
0 .0 1 2
0.013
0 .0 1 2
0.015
0.017
0 .021
0.021
0 .0 2 2
0.028
0.029
0.033
0.034
0.035
0.039
-0.169
-0.173
-0.187
-0.204
-0.223
-0.223
-0.25
-0.257
-0.288
-0.301
-0.333
-0.408
-0.426
-0.436
-0.44
-0.45
-0.487
-0.545
-0.558
-0.586
-0.776
-0.799
-0.806
-0.827
-0.85
-0.87
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 1
-0 .0 0 2
-0 .0 0 1
0.153096
0.153096
0.153039
0.153173
0.153135
0.153116
0.153096
0.153154
0.153135
0.153135
0.153154
0.153154
0.153173
0.153154
0.153135
0.153154
0.153173
0.153193
0.153193
0.153193
0.153193
0.153212
0.153135
0.153193
0.153193
0.153193
0.172282
0.172243
0.17232
0.172301
0.172339
0.172282
0.172108
0.190755
0.190774
0.190851
0.190755
0.252082
0.304903
0.464754
0.488615
0.57921
1.041828
1.179761
1.958481
2.050673
2.099974
2.400374
C-19
TB1S3 test data
Hor 3
mm
Hor 4
mm
Hor 5
mm
Hor 6
mm
Hor 7
mm
Hor 8
mm
Hor 9
mm
Hor 10
mm
3.8E-05
0.368767
0.403633
0.403595
0.432358
0.43251
0.000039
0.033099
-0.021277
-0.021316
-0.031122
-0.066352
-0.066352
-0.066352
-0.066313
-7.6E -05
0.430603
0.579643
0.596657
0.639572
0.679741
7.6E-05
-0.186227
-0.185695
-0.184288
-0.184364
-0.184935
-0.184859
-0.184935
-0.184859
-0.184783
-0.184859
-0.184668
-0.185885
-0.185923
-0.173414
-0.171703
-0.16292
-0.166
-0.166152
-0.166038
-0.165924
-3.8E-05
-0.226361
-0.152709
-0.147951
-0.126635
-0.105853
-0.106119
-0.106081
-0.106081
-0.106158
-0.106119
-0.101742
-0.10178
-0.078219
-0.066876
-0.047502
0.050129
0.054735
0.054735
1.9E-05
-0.174176
-0.498788
-0.527875
-0.610796
-0.684532
0.681763
0.697937
0.699692
0.699768
0.69973
0.71804
0.751877
0.794792
0.838776
0.888748
1.130295
1.134949
1.135063
1.134987
1.135063
1.134949
1.134834
1.158562
1.182365
1.236267
1.418533
1.635589
2.022323
2.076492
2.323379
0.000039
-0.000362
-0.000438
-0.0004
-0.000438
-0.000419
-0.0004
-0.000419
-0.000419
-0.0004
-0.000381
-0.000419
-0.0004
-0.000381
-0.000419
-0.000381
-0.0004
-0.000343
-0.000343
-0.000381
-0.000381
-0.000381
-0.000438
-0.000419
-3.9E -05
0.472069
0.296846
0.289459
0.238901
0.205811
0.205311
0.195576
0.192152
0.192306
0.192421
0.181263
0.150135
0.121239
0.068873
0.041131
-0.147596
-0.161448
-0.161448
-0.161563
-0.161525
-0.161448
-0.161563
-0.161217
-0.20685
-0.244942
-0.362834
-0.563182
-0.882807
-0.883153
-1.081076
-1.192004
-1.43483
-1.6331
-2.450919
-3.18332
-3.718568
-3.877938
-4.13473
-4.590293
-4.985409
-5.916464
-6.04867
-6.462831
-9.241878
-10.048631
-12.702296
-12.702297
-12.702298
-12.702304
0.432548
0.432625
0.432586
0.432701
0.432548
0.453148
0.453224
0.476723
0.48645
0.505981
0.601311
0.601463
0.601539
0.601578
0.601616
0.601539
0.601539
0.601578
0.601692
0.648002
0.74089
0.802116
1.005897
1.031456
1.154022
1.232757
1.463165
1.643028
2.222442
2.630348
2.873688
3.005218
3.175468
3.422241
3.676758
4.261856
4.40628
4.688377
6.378212
6.841469
9.119339
9.472427
9.832535
11.251259
-0.066313
-0.066352
-0.066352
-0.115768
-0.115768
-0.199135
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-0.246961
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-0.00465
0.024883
0.140883
0.183981
0.235102
0.607599
0.719453
1.442664
1.589244
1.711601
1.914225
2.466812
2.827644
3.143234
4.194908
5.008163
5.580063
5.802536
6.112289
6.623001
7.122459
8.233642
8.464622
9.023514
12.215729
13.091011
17.42527
18.060646
18.643532
21.011696
-0.166038
-0.16581
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-0.165316
-0.151248
-0.151096
-0.097866
-0.09646
-0.068628
-0.006083
0.099539
0.107143
0.214059
0.384165
0.425114
0.555602
0.597235
0.655446
0.803005
1.085654
1.144397
1.273668
2.03717
2.290124
3.186813
3.516076
3.81112
4.512875
-0.000362
-0.0004
-0.000343
-0.000362
-0.000343
-0.000362
-0.000305
-0.000305
-0.000343
-0.000324
1.478138
1.478253
1.478234
1.478196
1.478234
1.478196
1.478157
11.889783
11.889058
11.885911
11.878472
11.875783
11.870061
11.869622
11.86884
11.866818
0.054659
0.054811
0.054735
0.054735
0.054469
0.075175
0.09394
0.180343
0.273369
0.465283
0.489605
0.594469
0.683536
0.838529
0.961473
1.365322
1.763575
2.054948
2.15513
2.298514
2.522933
2.769658
3.346542
3.449692
3.688805
5.261798
5.719925
7.632441
8.016497
8.40946
9.738203
-0.687264
-0.725944
-0.726022
-0.726061
-0.726022
-0.750458
-0.833457
-0.895992
-1.019996
-1.096484
-1.447858
-1.523492
-1.523647
-1.523861
-1.524365
-1.524558
-1.528725
-1.557618
-1.608952
-1.703307
-1.932363
-2.330924
-2.941429
-3.010824
-3.359718
-3.563038
-4.025975
-4.423819
-6.016009
-7.366993
-8.382025
-8.626402
-8.814596
-8.814614
-8.814614
-8.814625
-8.814618
-8.814611
-8.814616
-8.814614
-8.814599
-8.814613
-8.81461
16.671037
C-20
TB1S3 test data
Ver 1
mm
Ver 2
mm
Ver 3
mm
Ver 4
mm
Ver 5
mm
Ver 6
mm
Ver 7
mm
Ver 8
mm
-3.7E-05
0.041961
-0.093106
-0.093068
-0.199494
-0.320717
-0.320717
-0.320699
-0.320755
-0.320773
-0.320717
2E-05
0.053442
0.033184
0.033184
-0.036742
-0.108114
-0.108114
-0.108134
-0.108154
-0.108154
-0.108134
-0.108134
-0.272408
-0.272447
-0.563276
-0.600683
-0.943741
-1.248179
-1.248179
-1.248179
-1.248179
-1.248179
-1.248297
-1.305101
-1.305062
-1.305062
-1.305043
-2.188616
-2.948099
-2.948099
-3.33443
-3.395243
-4.00588
-4.473693
-5.542835
-6.050734
-6.662622
-6.690467
-6.690526
-6.690546
-7.392793
-8.004936
-8.033836
-8.033915
-9.293808
-9.873444
-10.804893
-10.805213
-11.040767
-11.094419
-0.000115
0.237579
-0.22194
-0.222054
-0.380211
-0.526772
-0.526772
-0.52681
-0.526848
-0.526848
-0.52681
-0.526886
-0.809098
-0.859795
-1.378174
-1.378174
-2.129212
-2.410927
-2.410965
-2.410889
-2.410851
-2.410851
-2.410927
-2.523652
-2.587662
-2.676087
-2.799645
-3.718033
-4.401551
-4.401474
-4.715767
-4.951439
-5.299721
-5.584069
-7.008553
-7.354241
-7.739487
-7.739296
-7.739449
-8.017273
-8.017273
-8.396073
-8.395462
-8.395958
-8.963433
-9.33178
-10.711441
-10.711594
-10.711708
-10.807038
-9.7E-05
0.384841
0.227856
0.227934
0.153218
0.101996
0.102054
0.102054
0.101996
0.102016
0.101977
-3.9E-05
0.030013
-0.254664
-0.254742
-0.312388
-0.400359
-0.400359
-0.400359
-0.400476
-0.400398
-0.400437
-0.001562
0.972139
0.964017
0.964017
0.963705
0.761592
0.760967
0.760967
0.760967
0.760343
0.760967
-0.168444
0.894306
0.935835
0.938249
0.947439
0.953073
0.951651
0.950827
0.952017
0.951663
-0.002773
-0.899308
-0.98508
-0.988592
-0.949033
-0.845146
-0.844407
-0.843667
-0.841634
-0.841819
0.950647
0.102035
-0.009534
-0.009534
-0.202498
-0.202537
-0.473926
-0.541108
-0.541089
-0.541127
-0.54105
-0.43166
-0.55023
-0.607993
-0.862774
-0.904808
-1.357387
-1.35727
-1.357309
-1.460112
-1.460112
0.952208
0.964664
0.959675
0.979297
0.976442
0.985777
0.992844
0.994254
-0.842558
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-0.541089
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-0.684443
-0.727975
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-1.258559
-1.574723
-1.574723
-1.708505
-1.841083
-1.968205
-2.132956
-2.920871
-3.090554
-3.256257
-3.256296
-3.256296
-3.323537
-3.323653
-3.498016
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-3.497686
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-3.903517
-3.854082
-3.780181
-3.435106
-1.460151
-1.460151
-1.50398
-1.586604
-1.658066
-1.748691
-2.141674
-2.498984
-2.499023
-2.729293
-2.914173
-3.068455
-3.313595
-4.474667
-4.94239
-5.265198
-5.265198
-5.496132
-5.920806
-5.92065
-6.271052
-6.270583
-6.41784
-7.542146
-8.038867
-10.306448
-10.449138
-10.649122
-11.648302
0.760655
0.761592
0.760343
0.595716
0.596341
0.407973
0.407973
0.408286
0.409535
0.408598
0.408286
0.409223
0.183369
0.182745
0.183057
0.183994
-0.221168
-0.222418
-0.222418
-0.464515
-0.646947
-0.646635
-0.64726
-1.445401
-1.501943
-1.503504
-1.50163
-1.501318
-1.562857
-1.560671
-1.559734
-1.559734
-1.480076
-0.944025
-0.929343
-1.350749
-1.282961
-1.146137
-0.646947
0.993807
0.992757
0.993708
0.980474
0.978531
0.979424
0.983358
0.992623
1.020925
1.010969
1.011903
1.015372
1.025821
1.029093
1.048547
1.095025
1.095095
1.112251
1.11977
1.139107
1.154743
1.152254
1.205596
1.208618
1.216764
1.255567
1.287424
1.391973
1.40791
1.41225
1.474225
-0.556961
-0.556961
-0.558255
-0.563801
-0.482096
-0.481356
-0.480987
-0.481911
-0.388006
-0.349372
-0.350296
-0.32571
0.018485
-0.057674
-0.158789
2.084952
0.733125
0.630162
0.52683
0.464534
0.43274
0.021258
-0.726286
-0.779524
-0.979534
-2.848209
-3.092214
-3.631059
-3.835137
-4.094485
-4.632591
-0.320773
-0.511438
-0.5114
-0.954501
-0.954538
-1.402877
-1.712015
-1.712015
-1.712071
-1.712033
-1.711977
-1.712015
-1.712033
-1.712015
-1.814418
-1.81453
-2.595765
-3.389122
-3.389084
-3.780815
-3.780759
-4.486397
-4.932809
-6.08744
-6.930711
-7.333714
-7.333691
-7.397717
-7.397679
-8.070975
-8.578919
-8.586376
-8.58878
-8.586713
-8.586713
-8.586714
-8.586713
-8.586712
-8.586714
C-21
TB1S3 test data
Ver 9
mm
V er10
mm
L1
kN
L2
kN
L3
kN
L4
kN
-0.418469
1.646027
0.223517
-0.000259
-0.386677
-0.318496
-0.318614
-0.318496
-0.318732
-0.318637
-0.318567
-0.318661
-0.318614
-0.318708
-0.318637
-0.318755
-0.318755
-0.318732
-0.318685
-0.317362
-0.332075
-0.332406
-0.332618
-0.332784
-0.332807
-0.333067
-0.333634
-0.33354
-0.33354
-0.433202
-0.523466
-0.768301
-0.773355
-0.892077
-0.927195
-1.102998
-1.209793
-1.735952
-2.219978
-2.550023
-2.639388
-2.789355
-3.04444
-3.276664
-3.878278
-3.927377
-4.173771
-5.640421
-6.036829
-7.58865
-7.878068
-8.115163
-9.049658
0.128827
17.272991
26.959379
27.356693
28.971865
31.264183
31.434921
32.008904
32.349863
32.381846
33.197359
33.381121
35.067091
37.065134
38.701067
39.88978
43.026117
44.504465
44.53219
44.557467
44.609308
44.651991
44.742647
49.035589
50.264925
52.791945
55.211542
60.589388
60.037069
62.839407
3.2E-05
4.75343
10.562784
10.730934
11.141886
12.33426
12.352736
12.672774
12.913298
12.922747
13.327356
13.4682
14.104973
15.151706
15.948109
16.324517
16.511484
17.964421
17.981724
17.983807
18.001761
18.003844
18.051333
21.416882
22.109066
23.469885
23.122752
25.88303
23.813635
25.555674
0.038478
7 .7 4 9 7 4 4
0.001521
8.474316
18.315115
18.719625
19.761272
22.089935
22.084426
22.76452
63.746355
66.054922
67.446875
73.889761
82.004828
83.704077
89.964239
93.969481
97.087889
100.386969
98.519552
98.9335
106.443251
112.036703
114.515753
117.508558
127.19779
131.734976
134.150061
151.724157
25.144398
27.163702
27.150952
32.229655
35.243258
34.065375
38.176192
41.722205
43.942137
44.321928
41.625143
39.582289
46.724276
49.767935
46.64725
47.068415
53.635058
55.699641
57.258093
72.810896
0.274933
-0.328491
-0.599139
-0.834796
-0.928344
-0.994043
-1.09259
-1.106158
-1.149005
-0.999755
-1.139007
-1.751001
-1.789563
1.649597
2.922858
2.858588
2.886438
2.336572
2.110199
2.045929
2 .0 2 0 2 2 1
2.103058
2.310864
2.19375
7.476032
7.882361
7.853082
7.036853
5.233722
7.898785
8.333679
9.0685
10.328192
9.796894
10.053974
8.692163
8.972095
9.049933
11.779981
12.140607
12.734033
13.675232
13.498846
17.388611
16.606659
17.944189
19.04035
12.990421
13.031091
14.407343
15.355756
15.356779
15.418393
15.427403
15.443574
15.499489
15.43846
17.301144
17.327056
18.758443
18.734431
20.158366
22.506459
22.527207
22.517321
22.466374
22.491799
22.474265
22.276515
22.274373
22.408364
22.111644
26.186774
30.299065
30.49165
32.452237
31.321416
35.746941
39.477082
41.529134
43.60637
48.927071
49.215806
48.711984
48.15907
54.378697
57.830235
58.798135
58.252229
63.85621
66.533509
73.277222
72.710275
75.643967
75.069619
23.215398
23.211307
24.047918
24.356388
25.624469
27.865905
29.332939
30.536922
32.686199
34.232647
34.239463
34.254047
34.277492
34.285518
34.411716
40.148506
41.587268
44.422092
46.06615
51.028537
47.918758
51.112461
50.7411
54.311199
54.205875
61.448879
69.278087
69.388866
75.442676
81.133937
85.25793
87.965717
82.741909
81.013927
92.415752
99.891223
96.243076
97.725162
107.980594
112.905216
115.05743
140.11819
C-22
r-~
C/3
E
E
in t"- OO O n

H 4
o

C l ON C l P

CO p

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in
in
in
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CO i n
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P oo 00

p p
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d d

p p
p NO
NO NO

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c /3
P
H
E
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b
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b
Cl d

n ON i n oo ON m
d d co CO CO P

in
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ON ON NO OO ON ON ON
P P i n NO d

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cd CO co P

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C/3
S9
TB2 test data
00
C/3
E
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d co co P

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On
p P
oo 00 oo Os

p p
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C-35
TB3S4 test data
Ver 3 Ver 4 Ver 5 Ver 6 Ver 7 Ver 8 Ver 9 V er10 SH 1 SH 2 SH 3 SH 4
L1
L2
L3
L4
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
kN
kN
kN
kN
-9.34
-9.51
-9.51
-9.72
-9.75
-10.15
-10.19
-10.43
-10.43
-10.63
-10.91
-11.09
-11.14
-11.38
-11.42
-11.65
-11.73
-12.41
-12.41
-12.44
-12.44
-12.56
-13.96
-15.02
-16.09
-16.19
-16.23
-16.49
-17.88
-17.99
-18.11
-21.05
-6.25
-6.38
-6.38
-6.53
-6.53
-6.76
-6.86
-6.99
-6.99
-7.11
-7.32
-7.32
-7.50
-7.60
-7.60
-7.72
-7.81
-8.13
-8.13
-8.13
-8.13
-8.13
-8.33
-8.33
-7.43
-7.25
-7.20
-6.88
-5.43
-5.22
-5.22
-1.64
-8.35
-8.52
-8.55
-8.67
-8.71
-8.94
-8.99
-9.17
-9.18
-9.33
-9.53
-9.62
-9.70
-9.75
-9.81
-9.95
-10.02
-10.19
-10.19
-10.19
-10.19
-10.28
-10.49
-10.43
-9.14
-8.85
-8.81
-8.41
-6.62
-6.34
-6.34
-2.03
-10.72
-10.96
-11.03
-11.25
-11.36
-11.97
-12.06
-12.42
-12.45
-12.78
-13.16
-13.40
-13.56
-13.82
-13.93
-14.29
-14.43
-15.17
-15.17
-15.22
-15.22
-15.51
-17.06
-18.29
-20.31
-20.65
-20.74
-21.36
-23.90
-24.06
-24.19
-24.19
8.40
8.59
8.63
8.78
8.80
9.05
9.13
9.27
9.31
9.50
9.73
9.79
9.85
9.89
9.94
10.08
10.17
10.35
10.35
10.35
10.35
10,43
10.68
10.58
9.16
8.80
8.76
8.33
6.41
6.15
6.15
2.24
13.24
13,63
13.68
14.04
14.20
15.03
15.13
15.54
15.59
16.12
16.14
16,22
16.22
16.33
16.33
16.33
16.33
16.38
16.38
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.37
16.36
16.37
16.24
16,22
16.21
16.17
16.15
15.04
13.35
8.21
6.85
6.65
4.94
-1.42
-2.16
-2.18
-14.40
8.24
8.30
8.55
8.55
8.69
9.16
9.46
9.77
9.77
10.07
10.37
10.67
10.68
10.97
11.11
11.58
11.58
12.19
12.19
12.25
12.32
12.62
14.01
14.90
17.32
17.93
17.93
18.84
22.16
22.47
22.77
30.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.11
0.12
0.12
0.15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-0.11
-0.11
-0.11
-0.12
-0.12
-0.14
-0.14
-0.15
-0.15
-0.16
-0.16
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.19
-0.19
-0.20
-0.21
-0.21
-0.21
-0.21
-0.22
-0.23
-0.24
-0.27
-0.28
-0.28
-0.30
-0.33
-0.34
-0.34
-0.41
0.19
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.28
0.29
0.31
0.31
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.39
0.41
0.41
0.44
0.45
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.57
0.61
0.67
0.70
0.71
138.72
142.71
143.87
148.38
150,03
157.92
160.06
165.48
166.30
170.83
176.70
178.86
182.74
185.69
186.33
190.71
193.57
197.50
198.12
198.59
198.43
204,16
214.41
214.66
114.92
118.74
119.59
123.52
124.65
131.62
133.06
138.40
138.94
142.62
148.37
150.55
153.06
155.50
156.07
160.36
162.31
166.07
166.61
166.92
166.65
170.93
181.19
181.44
155.45
160.99
161.83
166.85
168.87
177.48
180.01
186.54
187.52
192.78
199.83
201,88
206.42
209.52
210.37
215.25
216.82
217.32
217.94
218.30
220.48
219.05
223.27
222.23
182.60
181.67
181.99
182.22
184.88
184.64
189.40
191.18
98.49
101.53
101.70
105.37
105.59
113.08
113.46
117.85
117.90
120.39
125.25
128.78
129.43
132.09
132.14
136.65
137.06
144.91
144.35
144.11
143.25
143.20
147.45
146.77
147.55
146.22
146.01
148.01
146.81
145.74
146.26
135.03
16.62
16.96
17.16
17.54
17.65
18.10
18.26
19.30
19.32
19.36
19.43
19.83
21.25
22.24
24.67
25.05
25.21
26.01
29.15
29.40
29.69
36.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.00
0.73
0.80
0.81
0.81
0.90
218.73
221.68
222.74
223.36
223.38
231.12
245.31
246.42
248.57
248.90
249.57
249.37
250.03
250.04
250.05
250.07
o
do
00
Ver 6 Ver 7
<D
Ver 3 Ver 4 Ver 5
<
TB3S4 test data
Ver 9 V er10 SH 1 SH 2 SH 3 SH 4
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
-22.04
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-23.88
-0.60
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
-0.68
3.31
3.32
4.41
7.41
8.06
-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
-24.19
1.26
-1.75
-1,73
-2.35
-4.32
-4.84
37.89
43.30
43.36
45.16
49.42
50.20
-17.23
-24.93
-24.93
-26.61
-31.09
-32.06
32.35
39.11
39.12
41.54
46.99
47.89
mm
mm
0.17 -0.01
0.19 -0.03
0.19 -0.03
0.19 -0.03
0.20 -0.04
0.21 -0.04
L1
L2
L3
L4
mm
mm
kN
kN
kN
kN
-0.43
-0.46
-0.46
-0.47
0.92
0.94
0.94
0.94
0,96
0.96
223.51
218.77
217.69
219.94
215.89
210.82
194.41
201.06
200.79
203.15
204.50
200.05
133.24
127.56
127.15
125.74
120.79
119.08
250.03
250.03
250.01
250.01
-0.48
-0.48
250.02
250.02

Behaviour and Strengthening of RC T-Girders in Torsion and Shear (Deifalla PHD Thesis)

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Behaviour and Strengthening of RC T-Girders in Torsion and Shear (Deifalla PHD Thesis)

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BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC T-GIRDERS IN TORSION AND

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BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC T-GIRDERS IN TORSION AND

BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTHENING OF RC

Doctorate o f Philosophy (2007)

TITLE: Behaviour and Strengthening o f RC T-girders in Torsion and Shear

AUTHOR: Ahmed Deifalla, M.Sc., B.Sc. (Cairo University)

SUPERVISOR: Professor Ahmed Ghobarah

NUMBER OF PAGES: xxiv, 194

1.2 Torsion behaviour o f RC beams

1.3 Torsion strengthening o f RC beams

1.4 Shear and torsion behaviour o f RC beams

1.7 Thesis organization

CHAPTER 2 TESTING OF RC T-GIRDERS UNDER TORSION AND

2.2 Test T-beams

2.2.1 Test beam scale

2.2.2 Test beam design

2.2.3 Concrete dimensions and reinforcement

2.3 Test setup

2.3.1 Loading actuators

2.3.3.1 Load cells

2.3.3.2 Linear variable differential transformers

2.3.3.3 Strain gauges

2.4 Test procedure

2.4.1 Torque to shear ratio

2.4.2 Loading sequence

2.4.3 Strengthening techniques

2.4.4 Performance o f the test setup

2.5 Concrete casting and curing

2.6.3 Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)

CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF RC T-GIRDERS

3.2 Concrete cracking strength

3.3 Total load-deformation behaviour

3.4 Total load-strain behaviour

3.5 Torsional behaviour

3.6 Shear behaviour

3.7 Flexure behaviour

3.8 Concrete diagonal strain

3.9 Longitudinal steel strain

3.10 Transverse steel strain

3.11D esignof RC T-girders

3.11.1 ACI (2005)

3.11.2 CSA (2005)

3.11.3 CSA bridges (2000)

3.11.4 AASHTO (2003)

3.11.5 PCI (2005)

3.12 Ultimate strength

3.13 Shear-torsion interaction

3.14 Failure mode

3.15 Inclination of diagonal cracks

3.16 Cracking torque and cracking shear

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOUR

4.2 Strengthening techniques

4.3 Applied loading

4.4 Load behaviour

4.5 Torsion behaviour