Challenges and Advances in

Resistance Spot Welding Aluminum

Sheet
April 28, 2014
Jerry E. Gould
Technology Leader
Resistance and Solid State Welding
Edison Welding Institute
ph: 001-614-688-5121
e-mail: jgould@ewi.org

Scope the Current

Presentation

Background on spot welding

aluminum in the automotive
industry
Differences in spot welding
aluminum and steel
Technology as evolved from the
aerospace industry
Influence of electrode design
and topography
Effects of evolving equipment
Spot welding aluminum using
third body elements
Spot welding aluminum to steel

High Volume Automotive

Manufacturing in 1980

Body-in-white of steel
construction
Unitized body designs

Technology challenge
galvanized steels
Gauge reduction
Corrosion resistance

Button Size (in.)

Joining by resistance
spot welding
Increased welding
currents
Electrode life
Robotic implementation

Number of Welds (Thousands)

Development of Aluminum
Intensive Vehicles

Mandates for improved

fuel efficiency
Governmental
regulations
Market demands

Focus on aluminum
demonstrators
Ford AIV
GM EV-1
Honda NSX

Assembly within
existing manufacturing
contexts
Sheet stamping and
fabrication
Resistance spot
welding as the primary
assembly technology

Specific energy demands to

form a resistance spot weld

Theoretical
calculations of
energies to form
spot welds
Assumptions of:
6t nugget size
Energy for heating
up to Tm
Nugget melting (Hf)

10000

1000

Energy(J)

10

Calculations for
different:

Energies range from

a few hundred to a
few thousand Joules

0.5

1.5

2.5

SheetMetalThickness(mm)

Material types
Sheet thicknesses

Steel
Al
Ti

100

Page 5

3.5

Comparison of Certain Properties of

Aluminum and Steel

Material

Plastic
Electrical
Thermal
Mass Tensile Specific
Range (C) Conductivity Conductivity (Units) Strength Heat
(cal/g)
(%) Cu
(CGS)
(MPa)

Al 1100-0

607-643

59

0.53

90

0.23

Al 5052-H38 593-649

35

0.33

280

0.23

Al 7075-T6

477-643

30

0.29

500

0.22

Steel 1010

927-1482

10

0.10

500

0.11

[Reference: Welding, p.11-6, Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Sales, Inc.]

Thermal Electrical Response of

Resistance Welds

Resistance welding a
balance of
Heat generation
Heat extraction

Resistance heating
sources
Workpieces
Surfaces
Electrodes

Heat extraction
Electrodes
Thermal conductivity
Heat capacity
Cooling water
Page 7

Environment (minor)

Actual Energy Requirements for Steel Spot

Welds made with Different Heating Times

Energy Weldability Lobe for 0.8-mm HDG Steel

Energy Weldability Lobe for 0.8-mm Bare Steel

Energy data taken from previous

work
Mild and galvanized steels show
similar results
Energy for 0.8-mm steel ~3.5kJ at
400-ms weld time
Energy required drops to 500-J
at 8
Page
50-ms

Energy variations due to heat loss

to the electrodes
Short time energies compare to
heat of fusion calculations for
observed nugget sizes

Heat Generation Characteristics of

Resistance Spot Welds
35

Water-Cooled Copper Alloy Electrode

Base Metal
Weld Nugget

Base Metal

EnergyRetainedintheWeld(J)

30
25
20
0.5mmsteel

15

1mmaluminum

10
5
0
0

Water-Cooled Copper Alloy Electrode

50

100

150

200

250

WeldTime(ms)

Simplified heat balance analysis

of spot welds
Effects of process conditions
Influence of material type and
geometry
Assessments of process
efficiency

Page 9

E
I 2
T
2
2
C pV

A x
1
K
x t

Energy and Efficiency During

Resistance Spot Welding
700

1.2
1mmaluminum

600

0.5mmsteel
1mmaluminum

EnergyEfficiency

ConsumedEnergy(J)

500
400
300
200

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

100
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

WeldTime(ms)

Heat capacities
Thermal diffusivities
Melting points

50

100

150

200

250

WeldTime(ms)

Energy demand curves match those

seen experimentally
Linear behavior with time
Material differences related:

3mmaluminum

Page 10

Energy efficiency a strong function

of weld time
Material thickness effect related to:

Latent heat of workpiece

Heat extraction capability

System Mechanical Dynamics

Stable weld forces critical to:

Prevent inconsistent heat

patterns
Avoid unstable expulsion
Accomplish proper forging of the
projection

Factors affecting mechanical

response requirements

Whead g ft 2

Fapp
20 x

Weld force
Weld head inertia
Collapse distance
Collapse time

Criteria for weld head inertia

based on maintaining 95% of
the applied force
Whead/Fapp typically less than
10%
Requirements for fast followup heads

Page 11

Relationship between projection collapse distance,

projection collapse time, and the head weight-to-weld
force ratio

Density
(g/cm3)
7.87
2.7
0.34

Thermal
Conductivity
(cal/cm3-s-oC)
0.18
0.53
2.94

Electrical Latent Heat

Resistivity of Fusion
(-cm)
(cal/g)
9.71
65.5
2.65
95.5
0.27
1.46

Aluminum shows roughly 1/3 the

density of steel (weight reduction!)
3 times the thermal conductivity of
steel
4 times the electrical conductivity of
steel
Implications of welding
3 times higher welding currents
1/3 of the welding time

Higher demands on welding

equipment

Weld Current, kA

Iron
Aluminum
Al/Fe ratio

Melting Specific
Heat
Point (oK)
(J/kg-oK)
1809
460
933
900
0.52
1.96

Weld Time, Electrode Force,

cycles
kN

Challenges in Resistance Spot

Welding Aluminum

Material Thickness, mm

Resistance Spot Welding of

Aluminum 1980 State of the Art

Welding
practices based
on MIL spec
guidelines
Quality measures
Metallurgical
integrity
Surface finish

| 1-mm |

Radiused
electrodes
Weld/forge
practices
Approaches
unsuitable for
automotive use

Equipment
expense
Power demands
System
maintenance

Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum

1980 State of the Art (cont.)

Automotive
adaptation concerns
High current demands
Electrode life
Use of pre-treatments

Lives of <1000 welds

Lives on galvanized
steels 1000s of welds
Focus on cleaning
procedures
Improvements in
electrode life
Not considered viable
for automotive
production

Understanding Electrode Life Based

on Galvanized Steel Experience

Electrode life
based on peel
testing
Simple destructive
test
Coarse measure
of weld size

Weld size stability

Life defined by
loss in weld size
Life corresponded
to electrode size
variations
Weld size
instability
associated with
end of life

Characterization of Electrode Life when

Resistance Spot Welding Aluminum Alloys
Button Size (mm)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Num ber of Welds

B utton Size (mm)

Electrode Life Results for 2-mm 5754 Sheet

Taken from Spinella and Patrick, SMWC X, 2006.

10

2
0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Number of Welds

Electrode Life Results for 2-mm 6111 Sheet

Electrode life testing based

on 100% peel testing
Nominally stable max weld
size
Periodic drop-outs
Drop-out vary in frequency
during the test
Initially high
Reduced at break-in
Increased before failure

Button Size (mm)

Weld Consistency Variations During Life

Testing Metallurgical Interpretation

10

6
4

2
0
0

500

1000

1500

Num ber of Welds

2000

2-mm 5754 Al test

Shallow penetration early in
wear cycle
Centering of porosity with
increaseing penetration
Expulsion and excessive
porosity with higher wear

Developments of Improved Welding

Practices for Aluminum Sheet

Change in electrode
geometry
From 6t down to 5
6t
Consistent with
steel practices
No face radius

Taken from Spinella and Patrick, SMWC X, 2006

Focus from surface

quality to electrode
life
Immediate
reduction in current
requirements
Reduction in
frequency of
failures

Alternate Electrode Geometries

and Materials

Aluminum alloy
tested: 1.0mm Al
5754 Aluminum
Alternate materials
and electrode designs
CuZr, truncated cone
CuZr, truncated cone
(w/o FF)
CuCd, internal fins
OFC C107, tuncated
cone

Frequency of Defects during Electrode

Life Testing on Aluminum Sheet
Fraction of Data Group

0.7
0.6

42 Weld Moving Average of

Various Defects when using
Cu-Zr Truncated Cone
Electrodes and Fast Follow-up
Heads

42 per. Mov. Avg. (Freq Sub Min BS)

42 per. Mov. Avg. (Freq Weld Quality Pbm)

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

250

500

750

1000

1250

1500

1750

2000

Number of Welds

Fraction of Data Group

0.7
0.6

42 per. Mov. Avg. (Freq Sub Min BS)

0.5

42 per. Mov. Avg. (Freq Weld Quality Pbms)

42 Weld Moving Average of

Various Defects when using
Cu-Zr Internally Finned
Electrodes and Fast Follow-up
Heads

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

250

500

750

1000

1250

Number of Welds

1500

1750

2000

Variations in Face Diameter during Life Testing

for Different Electrode Configurations

Influence of Electrode Surface Texture on

Resistance Spot Welding Aluminum Sheet

0 Welds

1000 Welds

3000 Welds

Taken from Chan and Schotmer, SMWC XIII, 2008

Taken from Chan and Schotmer, SMWC XIII, 2008

Surface
modification by
applying electrode
coatings
Implication of
surface roughness
Improvements in
weld morphology
Corresponding
reduction in weld
quality variations
Resulting extended
electrode life

Influence of Electrode Surface Texture on

Resistance Spot Welding Aluminum Sheet

Standard Electrode Cap after Grit

Blasting

Surface showing ~5-m Texture

Sigler, et. al., SMWC XIV, 2010

Surface textures introduced by shot

blasting
Results indicate broader current ranges and
improved process tolerances
Results related to improvements in weld
morphology
Consistent with other surface texturing
results
Consistent with previous studies on
electrode wear

Sigler, et. al., SMWC XIV, 2010

Advances in Resistance Welding

Power Supplies
I

MFDC I

AC

CD

AC systems

Good electrode life

Large system mass
Large primary power requirements
Not acceptable for automotive
prodcuction

Alternative systems
CD welding

Not cost effective

MFDC welding

Low Power demands

Small welding packages
Technology of choice

Influence of Power Supply Type

on Electrode Life

Resistance Spot Welding

Electrode Set after 2000
welds using AC Current.
Note the even wear on the
opposing electrodes.

Resistance Spot Welding

Electrode Set after 700
welds using MFDC Current.
Note the un-even wear on the
opposing electrodes and
shortened life.

Role of Peltier Voltages on

Differential Electrode Wear

Peltier voltage a thermo-electric

effect
Peltier voltages can reach as
high as 100-mV for copper in
contact with aluminum
Peltier voltages either assist or
resist current flow depending
on polarity
Opposing voltages increase
local heat generation and
electrode wear
Assisting voltages reduce local
heat generation
Heat generation terms as
contact resistance measures
Differential wear promoted on
DC systems
Effect normalized on AC
systems

Automotive Resistance Welding

Systems State of the Art

Current best capability

Lightweight package

MFDC power supply

Electric servo force system

Reduced loads for robotic application

Air-free operation

Reduced manufacturing costs

Complex weld/forge capability

MFDC welding

Short electrode lives

Differential electrode wear

Electric-servo application

Poor mechanical follow-up

Implications on electrode life

Use of Tip Dressers for Resistance

Spot Weld Quality Stabilization

New generations of
tip dressing systems
Integral with robotic
gun use
Optimisation of
cutting times and
forces
Dressing
frequencies in the
10s of welds
Mitigation of
electrode wear from:

Polarity based
issues (MFDC)
Force stability issues
(electric servo-guns)

Taken from Kusano, SMWC XIV, 2010

Integral to resistance
welding aluminum in
automotive
production

Tip Dressing for Improved Electrode

Life on Aluminum Sheet (cont.)

Definition of
desired electrode
profiles
Determination of
dressing schedules
Frequency
Force
Time

Taken from Sigler, Gaarenstroom, and Militello, SMWC XII, 2006

Shown application
Dress every 20
welds
Typical material
removal ~200-m
Stability in weld
quality throughout
an electrode life
test

Tip Dressing for Improved Electrode

Life on Aluminum Sheet

Cap Dressed with a Ridged Tool

Ridges Resulting from Dressing

Taken from Sigler, Schroth, Karagoulis, and Zuo, SMWC XIV, 2010

Use of dressers to
create surface
topography
Definition of high
initial contact
resistance
Development of
improved nugget
penetrations
Reduction in
interfacial failures
Process robustness
similar to other
roughing techniques
Combined surface
roughening/ dressing
for optimum weld
consistency

Conductive Heat
Resistance Welding

Third body resistance

heating process
Use of cover sheets over the
area to be resistance welded
Heat generation
In cover sheets
Conducted into Al

Active pressures on the

weld
Advantageous solidification
path
Hourglass weld profile
Welds free of porosity
Application to single side
welding

Steel cover Sheet

3
Heat Flow

Heat Flow
1

Steel cover Sheet

Experimental Procedures

Aluminum alloys studied

2024 T3
7075 T651

All materials 2-mm thick

Sample cleaning
Etched in basic solution
Stored in celophane
Scotchbriting before use

Sample size 113-mm X

31-mm
Samples welded in the
tensile shear
configuration
Cover sheet material

Bare steel
Thicknesses 0.8-mm 2.5mm

Experimental Procedures
(cont.)

Welding equipment
Push-pull welding configuration
Conrac 120-kVA welding transformer
Robotron 211 controller

Miyachi 326A current meter

12-mm flat face shunting electrode
Range of workpiece electrodes
Tensile shear testing - ASTM-E8
Metallographic inspections
Post weld aging - B597-92
Aging times selected at 0, , , , and 1
times the recommended practice
Aging temperatures at and 30oC above
the recommended practice

Developed Welding Practices

Iterative welding trials

Target 6-mm button size
Similar practices used for
both alloys
Developed practice:

19-mm dia. electrode with a 100mm face radius.

1.5-mm cover sheet
8-kN weld force
24-cyc on/4-cyc off pulsation
9 weld pulses
21-kA weld current
10-cyc downslope to the weld
current

>7-mm weld diameter at

faying surface

Macrostructure of Single Side

Conductive Heat Resistance Spot
Welds

Macrograph Showing the AsWelded CHRSW in 2024

Macrograph Showing the AsWelded CHRSW in 7075

Joining of Aluminum and Steel

in the Automotive Industry

Mazda MX-5 aluminum trunk lid and

steel bolt retainer joined by friction spot
welding
2012 Audi A6 featuring aluminum and
steel construction

Trends toward dissimilar metal joining driven by weight reduction efforts to

drive toward new CAFE standards.
Renewed challenges for prevention of galvanic corrosion.

Issues with Joining Al to Steel

Large difference in melting

points
Formation of low melting
temperature constituents
Difference in crystal structure
Al is FCC, Fe is BCC

Multiple intermetallic phases

Knowledge Gained from Friction

Welding Aluminum to Steel

Process characteristics
Short heating times
Higher welding temperatures
require additionally reduced heating
times
Macrosection of an aluminum to steel
inertia friction weld

Temperature profile of the interface of dissimilar FWed joint

450

Steel
Aluminium

400

3000
2500

300

2000

250

RPM

Temperature (C)

350

200

1500
1000

150

500
100

50

100

200

300

400

500

-500

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Time (s)

Typical thermal cycle for an Al-to-steel inertia weld

35

Time (ms)

Deceleration profile for an inertia weld between

aluminum and steel

Intermittent Nature of
Intermetallic Formation

Intermetallic across joint

Resistance Spot Welding Aluminum

to Steel with Transition Materials

Roll bonded transition

materials
Aluminum
Steel

Key aspects to the

transition material
Thickness
Ratio of material
thicknesses
Alloys

Positioning between
the steel and
aluminum
Spot welding with
separate weld nuggets

Growth of the Aluminum and Steel

Nuggets when using Transition Materials

Heating in the body

of the steel
Heat soak to melt
aluminum epitaxially
Growth of the
aluminum nugget
into the attached
sheet
Steel nugget
formation between
the separated from
the aluminum
Nugget distortion
based on metal
compliance and
expulsion

Intermetallic Formation and

Failure modes

Process typically uses

extended cycle times
Similar to steel welding

Observations of
intermetallic formation
Failure modes may
include
Button pull-out
Partial button pull out
Interfacial failure

Strength supported by
circumferential roll
bonded structure

Use of Melting Interlayers to Facilitate

Aluminum to Steel Spot Welding

Criteria
Remain below aluminum solidus
Compatible with both aluminum and
steel
Potential for high joint strength
Corrosion resistance
Widely available

Zinc-5% Aluminum
Standard aluminum soldering alloy
(Teut = 382C)
Bulk strength ~ 60% of 6061-T6
Galvanic corrosion protection

Coating Process

Ultrasonic bath
immersion
Ease of application
No surface preparation
or fluxing
Bath both preheats and
coats substrate
Rapid
Uniform

Resistance Joining

Widely accepted
sheet joining method
Rapid
Ease of achieving
heat balance
Current and cycle
adjustments
Electrode diameter
ratios adjustments

Joint Microstructure
Steel
Steel
Zinc (Galvanizing)

Zn-5Al
6061 Aluminum
6061 Aluminum

Steel
Steel

Al-Fe intermetallic
Zn-5Al
6061 Aluminum
6061 Aluminum

Lap Shear Test Results

Al : Fe
Electrode
Diameter
Ratio

Mean Ultimate Load

(kN)

Maximum Joint
Efficiency
(%)

12/4

2.74

33

12/4

5.36

59

4:1

12/4

7.56

94

36.0

4:1

n/a

1.85

21

17.7

4:1

0.5

n/a

1.59

20

21.4

1:1

8/4

2.13

29

Weld Condition
No.

RMS Current
(kA)

No. of Pulse
Cycles

15.5

1:1

15.7

1:1

15.7

Weld Condition No.3

Weld Times
(Weld/Hold)

Challenges and Advances in Resistance

Spot Welding Aluminum Sheet Summary

Background on spot welding

aluminum in the automotive
industry

Experience through the 1980s

Differences in spot welding

aluminum and steel
Resistivity and conductivity
Effects on spot welding
requirements

Technology as evolved from the

aerospace industry
Differing quality requirements
Effects on necessary equipment
Power demands and maintenance

Influence of electrode design

and topography
Limited impact of electrode
materials
Effect of electrode diameters
Role of surface roughness

Effects of evolving equipment

Effect of DC welding
Differential electrode wear
Dressers mitigating wear effects
Use of active surface profiling

Spot welding aluminum using

third body elements
Steel cover sheets
Augmented surface heating
Potential for single side welding

Spot welding aluminum to steel

Metallurgical challenges welding
aluminum to steel
Use of roll bonded transition
materials
Use of active interlayers to
promote welding

Questions?
Jerry E. Gould
Technology Leader
Resistance and Solid State Welding
Edison Welding Institute
ph: 001-614-688-5121
e-mail: jgould@ewi.org