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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

1 Exam Coverage
REACTIONS and INTERNAL FORCES
Reactions - surface forces that develop at the supports or points of contact between
bodies

LOAD CLASSIFICATION
A. According to Time

T
1. Static Load - load that is gradually applied for which equilibrium is achieved
at a very short time
Cable

2. Sustained Load - load that is constant over a long period of time

3. Impact Load - load that is applied in a rapid and impulsive manner
4. Repeated Load - load that is applied and removed successively

Roller

B. According to Distribution
Rx
1. Concentrated Load - point load

Ry

Hinge

2. Distributed Load - a load distributed along a line or a surface

Distributed Load

General Force System

Fx 0

Fy 0
Fz 0

Ry

Mx 0
My 0
Mz 0

Coplanar Force System

Fx 0

Fy 0
Mp 0

1. Axial Load load that is applied along the axis of the member
2. Torsional Load - load that twists a member

3. Flexural/Bending Load - load that is applied transversely to the longitudinal

axis of the member

Equations of Equilibrium

C. According to Location and Method of Application

Rx

Fixed

Concentrated Load

Concurrent Force System

Fx 0

Fy 0

4. Combined Loading - any combination of the first 3 above

Internal Forces - forces developed within the body of a member due to application of
external loads

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From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

1 Exam Coverage

STRESS CONCEPTS

Note:

Stress - intensity of load / force per unit area (P/A)

Units: MPa, kPa, Pa, psi, ksi

The distribution of normal stresses is statically indeterminate.

In order to assume a uniform distribution of stresses, the line of action of the
concentrated load should pass through the centroid of the section (centric loading).

Normal Stress, = N/A - stress acting perpendicular to the surface of a cross section.
Shear Stress, = V/A - stress acting parallel or tangent to the surface of a cross
section.
a

Area, A

V
a

NORMAL STRESS
Axial Stress stress resulting from axial loading.

lim

A0

F
A

ave

Bearing Stress - for connections, it is the compressive stress developed in the

members it connects.

P
A

P ave A dF dA
A

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P P

A td

From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
Sargado, Romeo Longalong, and Raniel Suiza

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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

SHEAR STRESS

1 Exam Coverage
STRAIN CONCEPTS

Simple Shear Stress - stress resulting from transverse loading.

DEFORMATION - change in the shape and size of a body subjected to an external force or a
temperature change.

In connections (e.g. pins, bolts, and rivets)

DISPLACEMENT - measures the movement of a point or a particle in a body.
Single Shear
STRAIN - describes the deformation of a body.
Normal Strain - elongation or contraction of an element per unit of length.
Unit: dimensionless (but usually expressed also as mm/m or m/m)

Double Shear

avg

L
Li

where

L algebraic change in member length, meters

Li initial length of member, meters

Punching Stress stress resulting from pressing or punching.

Shear Strain - angular change between two perpendicular line segments.

Unit: radians

' where
2
shear strain

' measured angle between two lines initially

(mutually) perpendicular to each other

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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

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ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

NORMAL STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM: TENSILE TEST

Proportional Limit - point at which when the specimen is unloaded, it returns to its
original length.
Elastic Limit - point at which stress is no longer proportional to strain, but still exhibits
elastic behavior.

application of incremental loads...

P
1 1
Ainitial

P1 P
P n P
... n 1
Ainitial
Ainitial

PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
Yield Point - point at which the specimen continues to deform without further increase
in load; deformation becomes permanent.

results to further elongation of specimen.

L1
Linitial

L2
Linitial

... n

Ln
Linitial

Strain Hardening - region after the end of yielding where additional loads can be
applied until the ultimate stress is reached.
Necking - region wherein there is reduction in cross-sectional area of the specimen
which signifies decrease in load-carrying capacity of the material.
CONVENTIONAL and TRUE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

application of incremental loads...

P1 n P
Ainitial

P1 n P
Ainstant

results to further elongation of specimen.

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Ln
Linitial

From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
Sargado, Romeo Longalong, and Raniel Suiza

MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

HOOKES LAW for NORMAL STRESS

DUCTILE and BRITTLE MATERIALS

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
-

st

1 Exam Coverage

Ductile Materials

Design engineering structures to undergo small deformations that involve only the
straight line portion for the stress-strain diagram.

HOOKES LAW
-

For the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram, stress is proportional to strain. It
is defined by the equation

E
where E is called the modulus of elasticity or the Youngs Modulus.

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Brittle Materials

HOOKES LAW for SHEAR STRESS

-

For the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram, stress is proportional to strain. It
is defined by the equation

G
where G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity or
the Kirchoffs Modulus.

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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

DUCTILITY of a MATERIAL

1 Exam Coverage
POISSON EFFECT

STRAIN ENERGY - the energy that a material tends to store internally throughout its volume
during deformation.

The elongation in one direction is accompanied by a contraction in the other

directions.

U 1 / 2 V
STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY - strain energy per unit volume; area under the stress-strain
diagram.

U 1

V 2

Modulus of Resilience, ur - it is the area under the stress-strain diagram where

stress is proportional to strain.
2
1
1 pl
u r pl pl
2
2 E

Modulus of Toughness, ut - indicates the strain-energy density of the material just

before it fractures; it is the area under the entire stressstrain diagram.

long

lat

'

Poissons Ratio - ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.

lat
long

long

lat

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E, G, and

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E
2 1

From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
Sargado, Romeo Longalong, and Raniel Suiza

st

MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

GENERALIZED HOOKES LAW
-

1 Exam Coverage
ALLOWABLE STRESSES and FACTORS OF SAFETY

For an element subjected to multi-axial loading, the normal strain components

resulting from the stress components may be determined from the principle of
superposition. This requires that (a) strain is linearly related to stress and (b)
deformations are small.

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
-

Design structural members or machine components such that the working stresses
(or actual load) are less than the ultimate strength (or ultimate load) of the material.

FACTOR OF SAFETY - measure of safety of a structural or machine element under its

design or applied loads.

Factors affecting FS:

uncertainty in material properties (dimensional tolerances, residual stresses due to

uneven cooling)
uncertainty of loadings (e.g. change in occupancy)
importance of member to integrity of whole structure (bracing/secondary members
lower FS than primary FS)
risk to life and property
uncertainty of analyses (approximate analyses: use larger FS)
number of loading cycles (effect of fatigue may result to sudden failure)
types of failure (brittle vs. ductile materials former must adopt larger FS)
maintenance requirements and deterioration effects (conditions that expose
member to elements require larger FS, e.g. reinforced concrete requirements: soil,
elements)
influence on machine function

x
y
z

x y z
E

x
E

y z
E

x y
E

z
E

Application of FS: Design vs. Analysis

Design

when designing,

Working Stress - expected stress once the

element is in service.

F .S .

strength of material, R
working stress, S

Analysis
Actual Stress - resulting stress in the element
when it is already in actual
use.

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actual loading,
F .S .

strength of material, R
actual stress, S

From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
Sargado, Romeo Longalong, and Raniel Suiza

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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

1 Exam Coverage

STRESSES and DEFORMATIONS ARISING from AXIAL LOADING

Varying Load and Cross-Sectional Area

If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces, or the cross-sectional area or
modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from one region of the bar to the next, the
above equation can be applied to each segment of the bar where these quantities are
all constant.

AXIAL DEFORMATION FORMULA

Consider a bar, which has a cross-sectional area that gradually varies along its length, L
x

dx

dx

P1

P2

P(x)

P(x)

PL

AE

Sign Convention:
P - positive if tensile
P - negative if compressive

- positive (elongation)
- negative (compression)

The stress and strain in the element are

Procedure for Analysis:

a. Obtain the internal axial force P
- by method of sections and equations of equilibrium
- if P varies along the member's length, determine P(x)
- If several constant external forces act on the member, the internal force
between any two external forces must then be determined.
For
convenience, construct a normal-force diagram.
b. Compute the displacement / deformation,

P( x )
A( x )

d
dx

From Hooke's law,

E
P( x )
d
E
A( x )
dx

P( x )dx
A( x )E

Consider the figure below, the solid lines represent the unstrained (unloaded) configuration of
the system and the dashed lines represent the configuration due to a force applied at B.

Integrating,
L

P( x )dx
A( x )E
0

PRINCIPLE:

where
= displacement of one point on the bar relative to another point
L = distance between the points
P(x) = internal axial force at the section, located a distance x from one end
A(x) = cross-sectional area of the bar, expressed as a function of x
E = modulus of elasticity

C
L
R

Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area

PL
AE

P
E, A
L

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D
AB y
BD x

For very small displacements, the axial

deformation in any bar may be
assumed equal to the component of
the displacement of one end of the bar
(relative to the other end) taken in the
direction of the unstrained orientation of
the bar.

B'
x

From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
Sargado, Romeo Longalong, and Raniel Suiza

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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

1 Exam Coverage

ANALYSIS of STATICALLY DETERMINATE AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

Consider,

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

PA
PB
30

45

A change in temperature can cause a material to change its dimensions. If the temperature
increases, generally a material expands, whereas if the temperature decreases, the material
will contract. The deformation due to a temperature change of a material is given by,

30

45

T LT

B
A

100
kN

where

Equations of Equilibrium (CFS) = 2

Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Number of Unknowns = 2

100 kN

ANALYSIS of STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

Consider,

PA

PC
PB

45

30

45

30

B
A

100
kN
100 kN

Equations of Equilibrium (CFS) = 2

Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Number of Unknowns = 3

3.
4.

Temperature Effects on Statically Determinate Members

Members are free to expand or contract when they undergo a temperature change.
Thermal stresses are zero.
Temperature Effects on Statically Indeterminate Members
Thermal displacements on members can be constrained by the supports,
producing thermal stresses that must be considered in design.
THERMAL STRESS
- induced stress when the body that is subjected to a temperature change is
restrained (free movement prevented).
For elastic action, thermal stresses are computed by:
1. Assuming that the restraining influence has been removed and the member
permitted to expand or contract freely
2. Applying forces that cause the member to assume the configuration dictated
by the restraining influence.
A

Procedures:
1.
2.

- coefficient of thermal expansion (1/C)

L - length of the member
T - algebraic change in temperature (C)

Draw a Free Body Diagram (FBD).

Recognize the type of force system on the FBD and note the number of
independent equations of equilibrium available for the system.
If the number of unknowns exceeds the number of equilibrium equations, a
deformation (compatibility) equation must be written for each extra unknown.
When the number of independent equations and deformation equations equal the
number of unknowns, the equations can be solved simultaneously. Deformations
and forces must be related in order to solve the equations simultaneously.

B
L

P T

PL
LT
AE
TE

B'

Thermal Stress

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From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
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MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES I

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1 Exam Coverage

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
This principle states that stresses due to different loads may be computed separately and
added algebraically, provided that the sum of the stresses does not exceed the proportional
limit of the material and that the structure remains stable.
GENERALIZED HOOKES LAW
For multi-axial loading, temperature effects can be incorporated by adding its strain
components to the previously discussed strain components in Hookes Law using the
principle of superposition.

x y

y
z

x
E

y
E

x y
E

z
E

T
T
T

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From the lectures of Jaime Hernandez,Jr., Ian Sison, Glenn Pintor, Juan Michael
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