Sugar

Definition
Sucrose is common table sugar obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets.
The chemical Formula C12H22O11 which does not reduce Tollens or Felings reagents is determined
by the stereochemistry of the D-Glucoside and D-Fructroside linkage to form sucrose. The results of XRay studies and the Synthesis of +sucrose lead to the conclusion that (+) Sucrose is a beta DFructoside and an alpha D-Glucoside.

The Chemical Form of the Sucrose

In Simple Form of sucrose

Physical properties of Sucrose

1) Pure Sucrose Crystal are Transparent and colorless
2) Heat Conductivity of crystallized Sucrose Only Crystal of sucrose 00.00139 cal/cm-secc
3) The Dipole moment is found to be 3.1x1018 dyne/cm
4) The Dielectric constants of sucrose Crystal is different directions values and between 3.5 and
3.85 was found.
5) Piezoelectric effect of sucrose was observed, the sucrose is Dia-magnetic, and the specific
magnetic susceptibility is being 0.57.
6) The density of crystalline Sucrose at 1.5c is 1.5879gm/ml, were found powdered crystalline
sucrose.
7) Linear thermal expansion
8) Melting point of sucrose is 185-186c
9)

Specific Volume of Crystallized Sucrose is 0.63ml/gm @ 15c under Normal pressure.

10) Molecular weight of sucrose is 342.296

11) Normal Entropy of sucrose is 86.1kcal/mole
12)

Enthalpy of formation is 530.8 kcal/mole

13)

Work of formation amount to -317.6kcal/mole at 25c and 760mm pressure of Hg.

14)

Enthalpy of combustion is -1351.3kcal/mole

Chemical Properties of Sucrose:

1) Sucrose is a carbohydrate of the formula C12H22O11
2) It is a disaccharide, consisting of monosaccharide components.
3) Refined sugar contains about 99.99% of sucrose.
4) Purest sucrose is obtained by redissolving sugar in water precipitating with absolute Ethyl
Alcohol.
5) Sucrose is very soluble in water and faintly hygroscopic.
6) Small quantities of salt decrease the solubility of sucrose, while higher quantities of salt
increase it.
7) When sucrose solutions are treated with metal hydroxides under suitable conditions, colloidal
turbidities, syrup gels or flake precipitates are obtained.
8) In the presence of hydrogen ions a hydrolytic, decomposition of sucrose takes place.
9) When the sucrose solutions are heated in presence of OH-Ions,
decomposition takes place.
10) In a solution of sucrose with lime of Ph 12, the sugar loss in one hour boiling under normal
pressure was found to be about 0.5%.

Cane Preparation Equipment

The following table gives recommendations on cane preparation equipment Installed Specific powers
and tip speeds.
Cane Preparation Equipment Installed Power

Specific Power
Description
[kW/tfh]
Leveller knives
6
First knives
15
Second knives (heavy duty)
30
Shredder
60
Total
111
Southern African industry average 84

Tip Speed
[m/s]
50
60
60
100

Tip Clearance
[mm]
1000
150
50

Installed Specific Power for Milling

Table of required installed power for a milling tandem

Number of Mills

Specific Power
per Mill [kW/tfh]

Four mills

22

Five mills

20

Six mills

18

Diffuser + two mills

25

Mill Capacity Calculations

There are a large number of formulae for the calculation of the capacity of a milling tandem

Hugot gives the following formula:

A = 0.8 cnN (1-0.06nD) LD2/f

Where

c is a factor dependent on the cane preparation equipment,

c= 1.3 if the tandem is preceded by a shredder

n is the mill speed in rev/min

N is the number of rollers in the tandem

L is the length of the roll in meters

D is the mean diameter of the rollers in meters

f is the fiber percent cane

Example:
Capacity of the plant---------------------5000 TCD
Cane crushing per hour--------------5000/22 =227.27 TCH
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------352%
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------291%
Hugot gives the following formula:
A = 0.8 cnN (1-0.06nD) LD2/f
(Or)

Mill setting calculation (based on Fiber Index loaded Method)

Fiber loaded in various mill the following formula
FL=1000x AxF/60x3.14xDxNxl (Kg/m2)
Where,
A=Total Cane crushing per hour
F=Fiber percentage of cane (i.e-14%)
D=Pitch Circle Diameter of the Top Roller
N=Speed of the Roller (rpm)
L=Length of the Roller

A, Fiber % of Bagasse
Approximately percentage of fiber in bagasse foe each mill

first mill=34%
Second mill=39%
Third mill=45%
Fourth mill=50%

Formula for fiber Index is given

=Fiber % of bagassex1.75x10 kg/m

Discharge roller setting

Dr=Fiber Load/Fiber Index (mm)
Feed Roller setting
Fr=mill ratio x Discharge work opening
Trash plate setting
Tp=1.75 x feed roller work opening

Mill Sizing Nomogram

The nomogram below from is a quick guide to sizing a milling tandem

Geometry of Mills

Ratio of feed opening to discharge opening in the

mill ratio = 2
working position

Top roll mean diameter

Discharge roll mean diameter

MDT = 45 in
MDD = 45 in

Feed roll mean diameter

MDF = 45 in

Tooth Pitch

TP = 2 in

Tooth Flat

T fl = 6 mm

Tooth Angle

T ang = 45

Tooth Depth

T depth = (TP - T fl) / (2 tan(Tang / 2))

Roll Length

l roll = 7 ft

Speed of top roll

n = 3 rpm

Tooth Profile

Mill Operating Parameters

Cane throughput

tch = 250 ton/hr

f%c = 15%

fiber % cane

fibre throughput

fibrethput = tch f%c

fibrethput = 567 kg/min

Average peripheral velocity of top/feed rolls

vTF = n / 2 (MDT + MDF) / 2

vTF = 10.77 m/min

Average peripheral velocity of top/discharge rolls

vTD = n / 2 (MDT + MDD) / 2

vTD = 10.77 m/min
ffD = 850 kg/m3

fibre fill in the discharge opening

fibre fill in the feed opening

ffF = ffD / mill ratio

described volume in the discharge opening

volEscrD = fibrethput / ffD

volEscrD = 0.667 m3/min

Feed Work Opening

woF = volEscrF/ (vTF l roll)

woF = 58 mm

Top - Feed roll Centers (Working)

TF = MDT / 2 + MDF / 2 + woF

TF = 1201 mm

Top - Discharge roll Centers (Working)

TD = MDT / 2 + MDD / 2 + woD

TD = 1172 mm

Vertical distance between top and side roll centers

Vrest = 33.25 in
at rest

mill lift

l = 15 mm

Horizontal distance between top roll and feed roll

HF = (TF2 - (Vrest + l)2)
centers
HF = 839 mm

Horizontal distance between top roll and discharge HD = (TD2 - (Vrest + l)2)
roll centers
HD = 797 mm

set feed opening (Tip to Bottom)

soF = (HF 2 + Vrest2) - MDT / 2 + MDF / 2

soF = 47 mm

set discharge opening (Tip to Bottom)

soD = (HD2 + Vrest2) - MDT / 2 + MDD / 2

soD = 18 mm

Trash Plate Settings

Hugot notes that the ideal shape of a trash plate is the logarithmic spiral, and points out that the
Simplest approximation to this is an arc whose center is offset from the centre point (in the Working
position) of the top roll along a horizontal line towards the discharge roll. The amount Of the offset is
given below.
The work opening on the vertical plane through the centre of the top roll is 1.75 times the feed
work opening.

Offset Distance from center of top roll to center of

radius for trash plate surface

Ow = (MDT / 2 + woF) / 25
Ow = 25.2 mm
Rw = MDT / 2 +1.75 woF

Radius of Trash Plate in working position

Length of vertical line from centre point of top roll (in

set position) to top surface of Trash Plate

Rw = 673.1 mm
Rs = MDT / 2 +1.75 woF l
Rs = 658.1 mm

Recommended fibre fill [kg/m3] for a milling train

Mill No

7 Mill Tandem

6 Mill Tandem

5 Mill Tandem

500.0

500.0

500.0

583.3

600.0

625.0

666.7

700.0

750.0

750.0

800.0

875.0

833.3

900.0

1000.0

4
5

916.7

1000.0

1000.0

Mill Bearings
Bearing Pressures
The maximum pressure that a bearing can withstand is mainly a function of the bearing material.
The bronzes that are common in sugar mills have a recommended maximum bearing pressures of up
to 100 MPa for phosphor bronze and 50 MPa for tin-bronzes. Standard sugar mill practice limits the
bearing pressure to about 10 MPa.
Materials for Plain Bearings
The two essential elements in a plain bearing are the bearing or bearing
material itself, and the shaft or moving member. The bearing or bearing material is located in a housing
or structure, and may or may not be integral with it.
Separating these two elements is the lubricant, introduced, generally in the case of sugar mills, by
external pressure feeding.
The material of the shaft or journal is established from considerations of strength and rigidity, and
will invariably be steel. Because the conditions under which bearings must operate in service may vary
over a wide range, it is necessary that bearing materials be used which have certain desirable
properties. Amongst these we must include such factors as

mechanical strength;

softness and low melting point;

low modulus of elasticity;

corrosion resistance;

high thermal conductivity; and of course,

Economic considerations.

Since these factors cannot all be obtained to a desirable degree in a single material, it is
necessary in practice to make a compromise.
The most common bearing materials consist of
a. white metals,
b. copper base alloys, and
c. Aluminum-base alloys.

White Metal
White metals is a term used to include the tin and lead-base metals, broadly referred to as Babbitt
(after Isaac Babbitt, 1839), and since such metals are highly competitive, they are recommended for
most applications where the loading is not severe. Babbitt bearings are manufactured with the white
metal lined onto steel, cast iron and copper base alloys. Since white metal suffers a reduction in fatigue
strength with increase in temperature, and this reduction is a function of thickness, it is usual to limit the
thickness to between about 0.100-0.175 mm and thicknesses of only 0.025-0.050 mm are used with
copper lead over the back-up material. White metal is not commonly used as a sugar mill bearing
material
Copper-base Alloys
Copper-base alloys including lead-bronze, gun-metal and phosphor-bronze are widely used as
bearing materials.
Lead-bronze is the cheapest, and is used for general service bearings. It has a low tendency to
seizure, in common with the white metal bearings, and has greater fatigue strength to withstand higher
temperatures. Lead bronze bushes are frequently used in the form of single, solid units, i.e. as bushes
without the supporting shell surrounding the bearing material, as is required of the Babbitt or white
metal bearing materials. Gun-metal provides a relatively cheap and easy to machine material, having
well bearing properties and capable of withstanding Somewhat higher loads than the lead-bronze
alloys. This alloy also has good resistance to corrosion in sea water.
Phosphor-bronze is used for heavily loaded bearings, where high frictional stresses are likely to
occur. Because of the high hardness of this material, it demands the use of a hardened steel journal.
Typical Sugar Mill Bearings
Rein in Cane Sugar Engineering states that typically sugar mill bearings are tin bronzes with the
following composition

Cu

84%

Sn

10%

Pb

3%

Zn

3%

Lubrication
Sugar mill shafts do not turn sufficiently fast for a hydrodynamic film of lubricant to be formed
between the journal and the bearing. Consequently hydrostatic lubrication is required. This is achieved
by supplying lubricant to the bearing under pressure. Under these conditions, attention must be given to
the adequate supply of lubricant at all times, and in particular to the location of oil Supply holes and
grooves. Bitumen based lubricants are often used in sugar mill bearings.
Bearing Loads and Sizes
Specific roll loads are in the range of 2 to 3 MN per square metre of projected roll area. This
together with the allowable bearing pressure mentioned above indicates that the total bearing area
should be about 20% to 30% of the projected roll area. It is usual practice to allow the top roll of a sugar
mill to float in the vertical direction to:

keep a nearly constant pressure on the mat of bagasse in the mill

allow some throughput variation without sacrificing extraction

protect the mill from damage from tramp iron

Typically hydraulic rams together with a gas accumulator provide the downward force on the
bearing caps to resist the upward force of the bagasse on the mill roll. The gas accumulator acts as an
air spring. The hydraulic oil in the system is not compressible, but the gas in the accumulator is and it is
this gas that has the give that allows the roll to float. The gas in the accumulator is precharged with a
particular gas pressure. The higher the precharge pressure the softer the spring rate. A low precharge
pressure will make the system very stiff and may not allow sufficient float to let tramp iron through the
mill, which may cause damage. A high precharge pressure will make the system very soft and the top
roll bearing may continually rise up to its maximum lift. This means the mill headstock may be subjected
to very high forces, not anticipated in design.
The correct precharge pressure which ensures that the top roll floats about its design position is
important to ensure good extraction and to protect the mill from damage.

Sugar Mill Lubricants

Castrol SMR Grades
Castrol SMR lubricants are especially formulated for sugar mill roll bearings and gearboxes.
They are viscous black oils fortified with load bearing additives and incorporate emulsifiers to resist the
harmful effects of the inevitable contamination with sugar juices encountered in use. They also find use
in other heavily loaded open gears and pinions. These grades are now lead free.

Description

SMR
SMR
MEDIUM CLEAR

HEAVY

ASMR MEDIUM*

ASMR HEAVY*

Density @

0,949

0,914

0,952

0,995

1205

1925

1 228

11450

Viscosity @ 100C (mm2/s)

50,5

126,0

50,5

VIE

84

160

83

74

Color

Black

Red/Green

Black

Black

Pour Point (C)

+12

Flash Point CCC (C)

250

212

254

256

Bitumen

Yes

Nil

Yes

Yes

Compounding

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

20C
Viscosity @
40C (mm2/s)

EP Additives

167,0

Bagasse Calorific Value

Gross calorific value, also known as the higher calorific value (HCV) of bagasse is calculated from
the following formula:
HCV= [19 605 - 196, 05(moisture % sample) - 196, 05(ash % sample) - 31, 14(brix % sample)]
kJ.kg-1

The net calorific value, also known as the lower calorific value (LCV), assumes that the water
formed by combustion and also the water of constitution of the fuel remains in vapor form. In industrial
practice it is not practicable to reduce the temperature of the combustion products below dew point to
condense the moisture present and recover its latent heat, thus the latent heat of the vapor is not
available for heating purposes and must be subtracted from the HCV. By ASTM standards the HCV is
calculated at atmospheric pressure and at 20C. LCV of bagasse is calculated by the formula:

LCV= [18 309 - 207, 6 (moisture % sample) - 196, 05 (ash % sample) - 31, 14 (brix %
sample)] kJ.kg-1

Do online calculations of HCV and LCV. Select the parameter to be used as the graphs X-axis by
clicking the appropriate radio button.
Example:
Capacity of the plant---------------------5000 TCD
Cane crushing per hour--------------5000/22 =227.27 TCH
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------352%
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------291%
Mixed Juice Percentage on cane-------------------1052%
As per our capacity of the mill:
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------79.54 tons (227.27 TCH)
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------68.181 tons (227.27 TCH)
Mixed Juice Percentage on cane-------------------238.6 Tons (227.27 TCH)
Mill Balance calculation:
Mill Input=Mill Out put
Cane + Imbibitions water=Bagasse + Mixed Juice
227.27+79.54=238.6+68.181
306.81306.781
Pipe sizing
Use these pages to calculate pipe sizes and pressure drops due to friction in the
pipes, for the following products:
The pressure drop is calculated from the following formula

hf = 4fle / d v2/ 2g
where

hf = head loss due to friction

f = friction factor calculated from the formula below

le = equivalent pipe length taking into account valves and fittings

d = bore of pipe

v = average flow velocity

g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81m/s2

f = 0.001375 (1 + (20000 k / d + 106 / Re)1/3)

Where

k = relative roughness of the bore of the pipe

Re = Reynolds Number = vd /

= density

= dynamic viscosity

To be select the imbibitions water pump & motor

Specific Speed of Pumps
Pumps (and fans) can be characterized by various dimensionless parameters.

Specific Speed, Ns

Flow parameter,

Pressure parameter,

Power parameter,

Diameter parameter

The most important of these is the specific speed

Pump Selection
These dimensionless parameters can be used calculate how similar pumps operate
under differing conditions (the similarity laws). These similarity laws (detailed
below) can be used to select a pump given a duty point.
Specific Speed
The specific speed,Nsis given by;
Ns = Q0.5n/ (gH)0.75
Specific speed can also be calculated as follows where

and are defined below

Ns = 0.5/0.75
The specific speed of a pump is associated with the impeller shape
Low Specific Speed Ns=0.05

Medium Specific Speed Ns=0.10

High Specific Speed Ns=0.20

Flow Parameter
The flow parameter,
is given by;
= Q/n/D3

Pressure Parameter
The pressure parameter, is given by;

= gH/n2/D2
Power Parameter
The power parameter, is given by;
=
Diameter Parameter
The diameter parameter, is given by;
= 0.25/0.5
Pipe Specifications
Each sugar factory needs a pipe specification so that when a pipe is being repaired
or a section of plant is being added those implementing the change know exactly
which type of pipe, fittings, flanges, gaskets and valves to use.
The following are the main types of pipe that will be needed with recommended

pressure, temperature, corrosion allowance and material parameters

Corrosion
Allowance

Material

Full vacuum
100C
to 10 bar g

2 mm

Carbon Steel

Full vacuum
100C
to 10 bar g

0.5 mm

Stainless
steel

pressure Full vacuum

200C
to 3 bar g

2 mm

Carbon Steel

Condensates

Full vacuum
130C
to 10 bar g

3 mm

Carbon Steel

05

High
steam

31 bar g

400C

1.6 mm

Carbon Steel

06

Vacuum

Full vacuum

100C

0.5 mm

Stainless
steel

Sl.no

Product

Pressure

01

Non food grade

02

Food grade

03

Low
steam

04

pressure

Temperature

Pipe Stress Analysis

Why?
The reasons one does a pipe stress analysis on a piping system are as follows

to comply with legislation

to ensure the piping is well supported and does not sag or deflect in an unsightly way under its
own weight

to ensure that the deflections are well controlled when thermal and other loads are applied

to ensure that the loads and moments imposed on machinery and vessels by the thermal
growth of the attached piping are not excessive

to ensure that the stresses in the pipe work in both the cold and hot conditions are below the
allowable

How?
The model is constructed from piping general arrangement drawings, piping
isometric drawings and piping and valve specifications. Once the system is

accurately modeled, taking care to set the boundary conditions, comprehensive

stress analysis calculations are done, modifications to the model are made to ensure compliance with
the above requirements. The modifications may include one or more of the following tools
Restraints
A device which prevents, resists or limits the free thermal movement of the pipe.
Restraints can be either directional, rotational or a combination of both.
Anchors
A rigid restraint which provides substantially full fixity, i.e. encastre or built-in,
Ideally allowing neither movement nor bending moments to pass through them.
True anchors are usually difficult to achieve. A seemingly solid gusseted bracket
Welded to a house column does not qualify as an anchor if the column does not
Have the strength to resist the loads applied to it.
Expansion Loops
A purpose designed device which absorbs thermal growth; usually used in
Combination with restraints and cold pulls.
Neutral Planes of Movement
This refers to the planes on the 3 axes of a turbo machine or pump from where expansion of the
machine starts eg the fixed end of a turbine casing. This information is normally provided by the
equipment manufacturer. If not available from this source, the fixed points of the machine must be
determined by inspection and an estimation of the turbine growths calculated.
A pipe restraint positioned in line with a neutral plane prevents differential Expansion forces between
the pipe and the machine.
Cold Pull or Cold Spring
This is used to pre-load the piping system in the cold condition in the opposite direction to the
expansion, so that the effects of expansion are reduced. Cold pull is usually 50% of the expansion of
the pipe run under consideration. Cold pull has no effect on the code stress, but can be used to reduce
the nozzle loads on machinery or vessels.
Spring Hangers
Used to support a piping system that is subjected to vertical thermal movements.
Commercially available single coil spring units are suitable for most applications.

Supplier's catalogues adequately cover the selection of these springs. According to Hooke's law, the
spring's supporting capacity will vary in direct proportion to the amount of displacement the spring
undergoes due to thermal movement. This variation between cold and hot should be between 25 and
50% of the hot loaded condition.
Solid Vertical Support
In places where vertical thermal movement does not create undesirable effects, or where vertical
movement is intentionally prevented or directed, solid supports in the form of rollers, rods or slippers
are used. It is important that free horizontal movement of the pipe is not impeded unless horizontal
restraint is desired.
Slipppers and rollers must be well designed and lubricated.

Fluid Flow Velocities

Guidelines for the acceptable ranges of flow velocity for various fluids found in a sugar factory
Goodall
Description

Velocity[m/s]

Water for space heating

Water for boiler feed

Saturated steam

30

50

Superheated steam

50

100

Hugot
Description

Velocity[m/s]

Superheated steam

40

76

24

37

31

46

37

49

46

76

1.25

Saturated steam
Exhaust (wet/oily)
Bled vapor
Vapor under vacuum
Suction
Water

Juice
Syrup
Molasses
Massecuites

1.2

0.5

0.25

0.5

0.1

0.2

1.25

2.5

1.2

0.75

1.25

0.5

0.75

0.15

0.3

Delivery
Water
Juice
Syrup
Molasses
Massecuites

Lyle
Description

Velocity[m/s]

Water

1.22

2.44

46

61

31

40

21

31

46

61

61

107

Superheated steam
Dry Saturated steam
Wet exhaust steam
Moderate vacuum water vapor
High vacuum water vapor

Babcock & Wilcox

Description
High pressure steam

Velocity[m/s]
41

61

Low pressure steam

Water general

61

76

2.54

3.81

m/s

ft/s

0.5 - 0.7

1.6 -8.2

1.0 - 2.5

3.3 - 8.2

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

0.5 - 1.0

1.6 - 3.3

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

1.0 - 2.0

3.3 - 6.5

1.0 - 3.0

3.3 - 9.8

m/s

ft/s

25 - 40

82 - 131

- 60

- 197

30-40

99 - 131

- 50

- 164

- 25

- 82

m/s

ft/s

- 0.5

-1.6

From a source on the internet

Maximal velocity in pipes
Water
Tap water (low noise)
Tap water
Cooling water
Boiler feed water. Suction
Boiler feed water. Discharge
Condensate
Heating circulation
Steam
Saturated Steam. high pressure
Saturated Steam. in special
cases
Saturated Steam. medium and
low pressure
Saturated Steam. at peak load
Steam / Water emulsion
Oil
Suction lines for pumps

Suction lines for pump (low

0.1 - 0.2
pressure)
Discharge line for booster pump
1.0 - 2.0
Discharge line for burner pump
Air

0.3 - 0.65
3.3 - 6.5
- 3.3

- 1.0

m/s

ft/s

Combustion air ducts

Air inlet to boiler room
Warm air for house heating
Vacuum cleaning pipe
Compressed air pipe
Ventilation ducts (hospitals)

12 - 20

40 - 66

1-3

3.3 - 9.8

0.8 - 1.0

2.6 - 3.3

8 - 15

26 - 49

20 - 30

66 - 98

1.8 - 4

5.9 - 13

Ventilation ducts (office buildings) 2.0 - 4.5

Exhaust gas
m/s
Ducts at minimum load
Stack at minimum load
Boiler with one-step burner (on off)
Boiler with two-step burner (high
- low)
Boiler with modulating burner
(3:1)
To keep the surface free from
soot the velocity should always
exceed

6.5 - 15
ft/s

- 4.0

- 13

- 5.0

- 16

5.0 - 8.0

16 - 26

10 - 15

31 - 49

15 - 25

49 - 82

3.0 - 4.0

9.8 - 13

It is recommended that the maximum inlet velocities applied to control valves should be as
shown in the tables below
Gate Valve Size

mm
15 - 25
40 - 50
65 - 100
150 - 200
250 400
Angle

Liquid

Steam or Gas

m/s

ft/s

m/s

ft/s

30

120

400

7.5

25

90

300

20

75

250

20

70

225

4.5

15

55

175

Valves Liquid

Steam or Gas

Size
mm
15 - 25
40 - 50
65 - 100
150 - 200
250 - 400

m/s

ft/s

m/s

ft/s

13.5

45

135

450

12

40

105

350

10.5

35

90

300

30

85

275

7.5

25

70

225

Cavitations in Centrifugal Pumps

There may be, on the low-pressure side of the runner, regions in which the pressure falls to values
considerably below atmospheric. In a liquid, however, the pressure cannot fall below the vapor
pressure at the temperature concerned. If at any point the vapor pressure is reached, the liquid boils
and small bubbles of Vapor form in large numbers. These bubbles are carried along by the flow, and on
reaching a point where the pressure is higher they suddenly collapse as the vapor condenses to liquid
again. A cavity results and the surrounding liquid rushes in to fill it. The liquid moving from all directions
collides at the centre of the cavity, thus giving rise to very high local pressures (up to 1 GPa). Any solid
surface in the vicinity is also subjected to these intense pressures, because, even if the cavities are not
actually at the solid surface, the pressures are propagated from the cavities by pressure waves similar
to those encountered in water hammer.
This alternate formation and collapse of vapor bubbles may be repeated with a frequency of many
thousand times a second. The intense pressures, even though acting for only a very brief time over a
tiny area, can cause severe damage to the surface. The material ultimately fails by fatigue, aided
perhaps by corrosion, and so the surface becomes badly scored and pitted. Parts of the surface may
even be torn completely away. Associated with cavitating flow there may be considerable vibration and
noise; when cavitations occurs in a turbine or pump it may sound as though gravel were passing
through the machine. Not only is cavitation destructive: the larger pockets of vapor may so disturb the
flow that the efficiency of a machine is impaired. Everything possible should therefore be done to
eliminate cavitation in fluid machinery, that is, to ensure that at every point the pressure of the liquid is
above the vapour pressure. When the liquid has air in solution this is released as the pressure falls and
so air cavitation also occurs.
Although air cavitation is less damaging than vapour cavitation to surfaces, it has a similar effect on the
efficiency of the machine.Since cavitation begins when the pressure reaches too low a value, it is likely
to occur at points where the velocity or the elevation is high, and particularly at those where high
velocity and high elevation are combined.Cavitation is likely to occur on the inlet side of a pump
particularly if the pump is situated at a level well above the surface of the liquid in the supply reservoir.
For the sake of good efficiency and the prevention of damage to the impeller, cavitation should be
avoided.

Applying the energy equation between the surface of liquid in the supply reservoir and the entry to the
impeller (where the pressure is a minimum) we have, for steady conditions

p0 /g + z1 - hf = pmin /g + v12 /2g

where

v1

is the fluid velocity at the point where the static pressure has its least value

pmin is the minimum static pressure

z1 the elevation of the surface of the liquid in the reservoir above this point where the static
pressure has its least value

p0 the absolute pressure at that surface

p0 = pgauge + patm

is the density of the fluid at its operating temperature

hf is the head loss due to friction in the suction line, care must be taken to include the effect of
all devices such as strainers and valves in the suction line.
Re-arranging the above equation gives

pmin /g = p0 /g - hf - v12 /2g + z1

For cavitation not to occur

pmin > pv
where

pv
is the vapour pressure of the liquid. These equations can be rearranged to give the
criterion for no cavitation in the pump suction line.

p0 /g - pv /g - hf - v12 /2g + z1 > 0

A parameter called Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is defined as

NSPHa = p0 /g - pv /g - hf + z1
The NPSH available at the inlet flange of the pump can be calculated from the
above equation. The pump curves in the pump catalog generally give the NPSH
required at each volume flow the pump is required to do. For good pump operation

NPSHavailable > NPSHrequired

Mixed Juice Percentage on cane-------------------238.6 Tons (227.27 TCH)

So selection of the pipe materials as per the reference of the table above

Sl.no

Product

Pressure

Temperature

01

Food grade

Full vacuum to 100C

10 bar g

Corrosion
Allowance

Material

0.5 mm

Stainless steel

So, we can select the pipe line material is Stainless steel.

We can consider the following points to select the pipe size:
Density is a physical characteristic, and is a measure of mass per unit of volume of
a Material or substance. It is a measurement of the amount of matter in a given
volume of Something. The higher an object's density, the higher its mass per unit
of volume. The average density of an object equals its total mass divided by its

total volume. A denser object (such as iron) will have less volume than an equal
mass of some less dense substance (such as water). Water is the reference with
its highest density at 3.98 C ( = 1 g/cm3) and the correct
SI unit of = 1000 kg/m3.
1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3.
Density Examples: Solid - water - noble gas
Copper has a density of 8950 kg/m3 = 8.95 kg/dm3 = 8.95 g/cm3.
Water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 = 1000 g/L = 1.000 kg/dm3 = 1.000 kg/L = 1.000 g/cm3 = 1.000
g/mL.
Helium has a density of 0.1785 kg/m3 = 0.1785 g/L = 0.0001785 kg/dm3 = 0.0001785 kg/L =
0.0001785 g/cm3 = 0.0001785 g/mL.
Density of Sugar Factory Products
The tables below give the approximate range of densities for selected cane factory
products. This data is taken from multiple sources including Hugot and Tromp

lb/ft3

kg/m3

Whole stick cane, tangled and tamped

12.5
down as in a cane transport vehicle

200.2

Whole stick cane, neatly bundled

25

400.5

Billeted cane

22

352.4

Whole stick tangled cane but loosely

10
tipped into cane carrier

160.2

Knifed cane

18

288.3

20

320.4

7.5

120.1

Sugar Cane

Shredded cane
Bagasse exiting the final mill

Bagasse stacked to 2 metre height

11
(moisture = 44%)

176.2

Sucrose crystal

99.0

1586.2

Amorphous sucrose

94.1

1507.7

Bulk white sugar

54.9

880

Bagged white sugar

43.7

700

Raw sugar (96 Pol) in a pile

56.2

900

Bagged raw sugar

42.4

680

The International Standard Atmosphere

For the design of pans, evaporators, barometric condensers and in NPSH
calculations for pumps it is necessary to know the atmospheric pressure. While
many cane sugar factories are close to the sea, there are those that are at higher
altitudes where atmospheric pressure is below the well known 101325 Pa for sea
level there are tables of atmospheric pressure variation with altitude; the table
below is the International Standard Atmosphere adapted from Thermodynamic and
Transport Properties of Fluids arranged by GFC Rogers and YR Mayhew, 3rd edition
International Standard Atmosphere
Z
[m]
-2500
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500

p
[Pa]
135210
127780
120700
113930
107480
101325
95460
89880
84560
79500
74690

T
[K]
304.4
301.2
297.9
294.7
291.4
288.15
284.9
281.7
278.4
275.2
271.9

[kg/m3]
1.5473
1.4782
1.4114
1.3470
1.2849
1.2250
1.1673
1.1117
1.0582
1.0066
0.9570

3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000

70120
65780
61660
57750
54050
50540
47220
44080
41110
38300
35650
33150
30800
28580
26500
24540
22700

268.7
265.4
262.2
258.9
255.7
252.4
249.2
245.9
242.7
239.5
236.2
233.0
229.7
226.5
223.3
220.0
216.8

Tables are not convenient for computer calculations: regression formulae have
been prepared from the above data for temperature and density; pressure can
then be calculated from the universal gas law.
T = 288.15 - 0.006492255 Z
= 1.225 e(-0.09543718(Z/1000) - 0.001321598(Z/1000)2)
p = R0/MT
where

T is temperature in Kelvin

is density in kg/m3

p is pressure in pascals

Z is altitude (above mean sea level) in meters

R0 is the universal gas constant = 8134.4 J/kg/K

M is the molar mass of air = 28.9647 kg/kmol

Water Pipe Sizing

Water Properties

Temperature

Pressure

bar abs

0.9093
0.8634
0.8194
0.7770
0.7365
0.6975
0.6602
0.6243
0.5901
0.5573
0.5258
0.4958
0.4671
0.4397
0.4136
0.3886
0.3648

Mass Flow

ton/h

Max Flow Velocity

m/s

Pipe System

Type

Description
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valves (Fully Open)
Globe Valves (Fully Open)
Angle Valves (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)
Ball Valves (Fully Open)
Plug Valves (Fully Open)
Swing Check Valves
Wafer Check Valves

The above are consider to be select the pipe size:

Numbers/Length

Example:
Mixed Juice

Temperature

45 C

Pressure

5 bar abs

Mass Flow

238.6 ton/h

Max Flow Velocity

1.2 m/s

Type

Description

Numbers/Length

Pipe length

60mtrs

Short Radius 90 Bends

Long Radius 90 Bends

Short Radius 45 Bends

Tees - Line Flow

Tees - Branch Flow

180 Return Bends

Gate Valves (Fully Open)

Globe Valves (Fully Open)

Angle Valves (Fully Open)

Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)

Ball Valves (Fully Open)

Plug Valves (Fully Open)

0
0

Swing Check Valves

Wafer Check Valves

Water Pipe Sizing Results

Water Temperature
Mass Flow
Density
Viscosity
Volume Flow
Flow Velocity
Frictional Head Loss
Pipe Size
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valve (Fully Open)
Angle Valve (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valve (Fully Open)
Ball Valve (Fully Open)
Plug Valve (Fully Open)
Swing Check
Wafer Check

45.0C
238.0 ton/h
990.4 kg/m3
0.6 mPa.s
240.3 m3/h
0.9 m/s
0.4 m
DN300
5
2
2
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0

Steam Pipe Sizing

Steam Properties

Pipe System

Temperature

Pressure

bar abs

Mass Flow

ton/h

Max Flow Velocity

m/s

Type

Description
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valves (Fully Open)
Globe Valves (Fully Open)
Angle Valves (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)
Ball Valves (Fully Open)
Plug Valves (Fully Open)
Swing Check Valves
Wafer Check Valves

Example
Evaporator Steam Inlet
Pressure3kg/cm
Temperature----120c
Flow rate---35 t/hr
Saturated steam velocity----50

Numbers/Length

Steam Properties

Temperature

120 C

Pressure

3 bar abs

Mass Flow

35 ton/h

Max Flow Velocity

50 m/s

Pipe System

Type

Description

Numbers/Length

Pipe length

60mtrs

Short Radius 90 Bends

Long Radius 90 Bends

Short Radius 45 Bends

Tees - Line Flow

Tees - Branch Flow

180 Return Bends

Gate Valves (Fully Open)

Globe Valves (Fully Open)

Angle Valves (Fully Open)

Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)

Ball Valves (Fully Open)

Plug Valves (Fully Open)

0
0

Swing Check Valves

Wafer Check Valves

Steam Pipe Sizing Results

Steam Temperature
Steam Pressure
Mass Flow
Specific Volume
Viscosity
Volume Flow
Flow Velocity
Frictional Pressure Loss
Pipe Size
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valve (Fully Open)
Angle Valve (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valve (Fully Open)
Ball Valve (Fully Open)
Plug Valve (Fully Open)
Swing Check

120.0C
3.0 bar abs
35.0 ton/h
0.6 m3/kg
12.9 Pa.s
5.7 m3/s
49.6 m/s
12.6 kPa
DN400
0
5
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0

Pump selection
The following data can required the pump selection
Pump duty
Volume flow= ______________m3/h
Head
Density

=
= kg/m3

Line Frequency=50Hz/60Hz
Example:

Mixed Juice: 238 tons/hr

Volume Flow: 238tons/hr (or) m/h
Head= 30 m (approx)
Density=320.4 kg/m
Line Frequency=50 Hz

Selection
Speed
[rpm]
2955
1478
985
739

Dia Max
[%]

Eff Op
[kW]

Power

Installed
Power
[kW]

Pump Size

Imp
[mm]

No Selection

173

75.8

8.2

11

150-315

315

72.0

8.7

11

No Selection

459

65.3

9.5

11

No Selection

604

58.5

10.6

15

Dia Max
[%]

Eff Op
[kW]

Mixed Juice: 238 tons/hr

Volume Flow: 238tons/hr (or) m/h
Head= 30 m (approx)
Density=320.4 kg/m
Line Frequency=60 Hz
Selection
Speed
[rpm]
3546
1773
1182
887

Power

Installed
Power
[kW]

Pump Size

Imp
[mm]

No Selection

150

76.0

8.2

11

125-315

267

73.8

8.4

11

No Selection

387

68.8

9.1

11

No Selection

507

63.0

9.9

15

Liquid - Liquid Heater Rapid Design

Usually imbibitions water is hot condensate from the process house, often
contaminated with sugar and not suitable for boiler feed water. This hot
condensate is too hot for imbibitions duty, for two reasons;

hot imbibitions releases waxes from the canes causing the mills to slip

during the winter months hot imbibitions can cause clouds of mist in the mill house
which reduces visibility (a safety hazard)

This hot condensate must be cooled before it can be used as imbibitions. The
obvious product to cool it against is the mixed juice from the mills. Hence a liquid
liquid heater

Cane throughput

TCH

Fibercon

Brix%Cane

Imbibition%Fibre in Cane
Moisture%Bagasse
Brix%Bagasse

%
%

Imbibition Temperature (into heater)

Imbibition Temperature (out of heater)

Juice Temperature (into heater)

Mixed Juice Purity
Tube Length
OHTC

Example:

C
%
m
kW/m2K

Cane throughput

227TCH

Fibercon

15%

Brix%Cane

15%

Imbibition%Fibre in Cane

300%
50%

Moisture%Bagasse

2%

Brix%Bagasse

95C

Imbibition Temperature (into heater)

70C

Imbibition Temperature (out of heater)

35C

Juice Temperature (into heater)

85%

Mixed Juice Purity

3.8m

Tube Length

0.4kW/m2K

OHTC

Basic Data

Juice Flow

258.2t/h

Imbibition Flow

102.2t/h

Juice Inlet Temp

35.0C

Juice Outlet Temp

44.9C

Imbibition Inlet Temp

95.0C

Imbibition Outlet Temp

70.0C

LMTD

42.1C

Tube Length

3.8m

Heat Flux

2978.5kW

176.9m2

Heating Surface

Design Options
The following table gives a number of options that should provide an acceptable
design of liquid liquid heater

Tube Dia

Tubes per Pass

Passes

Flow Velocity

35

37

13

2.3

42

31

13

1.9

42

37

11

1.6

54

19

16

1.8

76

29

2.5

Vacuum Equipment
Purpose of the Vacuum Equipment
The vacuum equipment's function is to remove the incondensable gases that find
their way into the vapour stream.
The incondensable gases come from the following sources:

leakage of air into the vessels;

inherently in the juice;

air in the heating steam

air in the cooling water

Quantity of Air to be Removed

A number of authors have expressed an opinion on the the amount of
incondensable gas to be removed from the condensers. Sadly, and as is typical
there is little agreement among them. the quantities of air to be removed as

follows.

leakage of air [kg/h] = 0.345V, where V is the volume of the vessel [m3]

air in the juice [kg/h] = 0.1mj, where mj is the flow of juice [t/h]

air in the cooling water = 0.035mw, where mw is the flow of cooling water [t/h]

air in the heating steam is not counted

Juice Clarifiers
Introduction
A clarifier is used to separate out the solids suspended in the cane juice. These
solids originate from sand adhering to the cane stalks as well as from material
inherent in the cane stalk. The separation takes place by allowing the solid
particles to settle out onto a tray. The solids are swept from the tray into a mud
compartment, from which it is pumped to filters for desweetening and dewatering.
In the past multitray clarifiers, such as the Dorr, Graver, Bach and RapiDorr were
popular, but the SRI clarifier is almost standard for all new installations. The SRI
clarifier is a single tray clarifier (also known, oddly, as a tray less clarifier),
characterized by short juice retention times (usually 40 minutes or less).
The benefits of the single tray short retention clarifier are:

Short retention time, hence less sucrose destruction, and color formation

Higher throughput capacity

Lower capital cost

Lower maintenance cost

Easy to liquidate and hence regular cleaning is possible

Flocculent usage and operability appear to be no different from multitray clarifiers

Design
The main design parameters are up flow velocity and the residence time
Up flow Velocity
The up flow velocity is calculated as half the initial settling rate of the mud in the
juice. The initial settling rate is the slope of the steeply downward sloping part of

the settling curve below. In the case of a Greenfield project where the settling
characteristics of the mud are unknown, the up flow velocity can be assumed in
the range 65 to 80 mm/min (Most SRI clarifiers in South Africa operate with an
Up flow velocity below 72mm/min).

Residence Time
The residence time is usually on the range of 40 to 45 minutes.
Sizing
Given the volumetric juice flow and the above two parameters; the cross sectional
area (hence diameter) and the operating depth of the clarifier can be calculated

Specification for Vacuum Pan, Evaporators And Juice Heater Tubes Less
Than Three Meters Long
Scope
This specification covers the material selection, dimensional tolerances, heat
treatment, surface condition, inspection and testing, marking, and packing for

tubes that will be installed in vacuum pans, evaporators and juice heaters in which
the tubes are less than three meters long.
Quantities and Sizes

Number of tubes required:

Length of tube required:

Nominal outside diameter of tubes

Wall thickness of tubes

Material
The tubes shall be of TP304L stainless steel, with a longitudinal welded seam
Code of Manufacture
The tubes shall be manufactured, inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM
A269 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel
Tubing for General Service
Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with ASTM A269
Heat Treatment
The heat treatment shall be in accordance with ASTM A269
Surface Condition
The external and internal weld bead shall be made flush. The tubes shall be
supplied free of mill scale. This can be achieved either by pickling or bright
annealing. The tube ends shall be cut square and deburred.
Inspection and Testing
The tubes shall be inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM A269. The
inspection and testing will be done using an independent inspection authority, at
the client's cost.
Marking
Each shall be marked in accordance with ASTM A269 and in addition shall bear the

following marks Sugartech Specification

Packing
The tubes shall be packed in bundles with wooden frames to protect the tube
ends. The bundles shall be strapped and shrink-wrapped in plastic. A means of
lifting the bundle, in a way that will not damage the tubes, shall be provided.
Specification for Vacuum Pan, Evaporators And Juice Heater Tubes More Than Three Meters
Long
Scope
This specification covers the material selection, dimensional tolerances, heat
treatment, surface condition, inspection and testing, marking, and packing for
tubes that will be installed in vacuum pans, evaporators and juice heaters in which
the tubes are more than three meters long.
Quantities and Sizes

Number of tubes required:

Length of tube required:
Nominal outside diameter of tubes
Wall thickness of tubes

Material
The tubes shall be of TP439 stainless steel, with a longitudinal welded seam
Code of Manufacture
The tubes shall be manufactured, inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM
A268 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic
Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with ASTM A268
Heat Treatment
The heat treatment shall be in accordance with ASTM A268

Surface Condition
The external and internal weld bead shall be made flush. The tubes shall be
supplied free of mill scale. This can be achieved either by pickling or bright
annealing. The tube ends shall be cut square and deburred.
Inspection and Testing
The tubes shall be inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM A268. The
inspection and testing will be done using an independent inspection authority, at
the client's cost.
Marking
Each shall be marked in accordance with ASTM A268 and in addition shall bear the
following marks Sugartech Specification
Packing
The tubes shall be packed in bundles with wooden frames to protect the tube
ends. The bundles shall be strapped and shrink-wrapped in plastic. A means of
lifting the bundle, in a way that will not damage the tubes, shall be provided.
Sugar Factory Tubes for Heating, Evaporating and Crystallizing
Some desirable characteristics of tubes for juice heaters, evaporators and pans are

easy to expand into the tube plate

corrosion resistant

similar co-efficient of thermal expansion to the shell of the vessel

have a good heat conductivity

have a smooth and bright inside surface: a very low surface roughness favors a higher flow of
the juices

have a long life

have a good cost : benefit ratio

The choice material is between:

mild steel

copper (or brass)

austenitic stainless steel (types AISI 304 and / or 316)

special alloys (with higher chromium / nickel contents)

ferritic stainless steel

In practice the choice is between mild steel, 304 stainless steel or 439 stainless
steel. 304 for shorter tubes and 439 for longer tubes. Carbon steel is not
recommended because in the long run (a period of say 20 years) carbon steel
tubes work out more expensive.
Carbon Steel
If it is decided that carbon steel tubes are to be used the recommended
specification is BS3605 Gr 320
304 Stainless
This grade of stainless steel can be used where the tube length is less than three
meters. The coefficient of thermal expansion for 304 is 1.810-2 mm/m/C which
is substantial more than that of carbon steel. When the vessel is hot the thermal
stresses in the tubes will be high. Tubes of 304 stainless steel should always be
annealed after welding.
439 Stainless Steel
ASTM TP439 is a titanium stabilized ferritic grade of stainless steel (17-19% Cr)
which is recommended for long evaporator or pan tubes (in excess of 5m long)
Advantages of grade 439

fully ferritic metallurgical structure (ensured by the titanium stabilization)

very good weld ability and ductility;

inter-crystalline corrosion resistance;

pitting corrosion resistance;

Full immunity to stress corrosion.

Coefficient of thermal expansion (in the range 0C - 100C) is 1.0210-2 mm/m/C

Stress corrosion cracking

This type of corrosion occurs when

A susceptible material is subject to

mechanical stress in a

corrosive environment

In an evaporator, pan or juice heater under the above conditions the result will be
cracks leading to breakage in the area near the tube plate.
The danger of stress corrosion cracking exists in virtually all evaporators. The risk
will be higher if tubes over 7 meters in length (some designs of continuous pans,
Falling-film evaporators and Kestner evaporators). Ferritic stainless steels are
immune to stress corrosion cracking
Heat transfer
Thermal conductivity of ferritic stainless material is 40% higher than that of
austenitic grades (like 304, 304L, 316 or 316L) i.e.: 26 vs. 15 watt/metre/C.
Recommended Wall Thickness
For evaporators and heaters, with tube length less than five meters a wall
thickness of 1.2 mm is acceptable, for tubes longer than five meters a wallthickness of 1.50 mm is quite sufficient (even on longer lengths up to 11 m) Tubes
with 2.0 mm would be harder to swage into the holes and would require a 600C
Pre-heating of tube ends.
Wall-thickness 1.6 or 1.75 mm are recommended for those tubes located near
Steam-entrance and subject to some vibration during the process.
For vacuum pans with 100 mm diameter tubes the recommended wall thickness is
1.5 or 1.6mm.Allow 0.6 mm clearance between tube and plate.
Tube Hole Tolerances and Clearances
The following definitions will help explain the calculation of hole clearances
Tolerance
Is the amount by which the actual size of the hole or tube varies from the
nominal size. This variation depends on the manufacturing process and on

random errors.
Clearance
Is the difference in size between the hole and the tube. Because there is a
maximum and a minimum tube outside diameter and a maximum and a
minimum hole diameter there will be a range of clearances.
Tolerances
The tube OD tolerances depend on the tube manufacturer and his equipment and
process. In the same way the tube sheet hole tolerances are a function of the hole
making process. The best we can do is specify tolerances the manufacturer can
achieve at a reasonable cost.

Clearances
The designer of a vessel can control the clearance between tube OD and tube
sheet hole diameter. But as noted above this will be a range.
The minimum clearance should be such that the tube material once expanded
into the tube undergoes plastic deformation; that is, the strain has exceeded the
yield point. In most stainless steels there is no definite yield point, rather a 0.2%
proof strain is regarded as the yield criterion. The criterion set for minimum
clearance is thus 0.3% strain for no good reason other than it is greater than
0.2%.The maximum clearance shall be such that the tube material is not strained
more than 2.0%. See graph below (from Thum and Micleots)

It must be noted that both the minimum and maximum clearance criteria are
Somewhat arbitrary, but they have proved themselves in practice in a number of
Different types of vessels.
Practical Application
Kestner evaporator tube
For this example we will consider a 2 in nominal diameter tube. The tube OD
Tolerance is given by the manufacturer as +/- 0.23 mm.
Tube nominal diameter

Dtnom = 50.8 mm
Tube OD tolerance

told = 0.23 mm
Minimum tube diameter

Dtmin = Dtnom - told

Dtmin = 50.57 mm
Maximum tube diameter

Dtmax = Dtnom + told

Dtmax = 51.03 mm
In order to get plastic deformation of the tube as it is expanded it must be
strained more than 0.2%, say 0.3%
Diametral strain

= 0.30%
Diametral dilation

d = Dtnom
d = 0.152 mm
Nominal hole diameter

Dhnom = Dtmax + d
Dhnom = 51.18 mm
The hole is going to be drilled and an ISO tolerance of H12 is achievable i.e. the
tube hole diameter is 51.18H12. The H12 tolerance is +0.000 +0.300
Tube hole tolerance

tolh = 0.300 mm
Minimum hole size

Dhmin = Dhnom + 0.000 mm

Dhmin = 51.18 mm
Maximum hole size

Dhmax = Dhnom + tolh

Dhmax = 51.48 mm

Check
We will now check that the calculated clearances meet our criteria set above
Minimum clearance

Cl min = Dhmin - Dtmax

Cl min = 0.15 mm
Minimum diametral strain

min = Clmin / Dtnom

min = 0.3% - Okay
Maximum clearance

Cl max = Dhmax - Dtmin

Cl max = 0.91 mm
Maximum diametral strain

max = Cl max / Dtnom

max = 1.796% - Okay
Continuous vacuum pan tube
In this example we will consider a 4 in nominal diameter tube. The tube OD
Tolerance is given by the manufacturer as +/- 0.38 mm.
Tube nominal diameter

Dtnom = 101.6 mm
Tube OD tolerance

told = 0.38 mm
Minimum tube diameter

Dtmin = Dtnom - told

Dtmin = 101.22 mm
Maximum tube diameter

Dtmax = Dtnom + told

Dtmax = 101.98 mm
In order to get plastic deformation of the tube as it is expanded it must be
Strained more than 0.2%, say 0.3%

Diametral strain

= 0.30%
Diametral dilation

d = Dtnom
d = 0.305 mm
Nominal hole diameter

Dhnom = Dtmax + d
Dhnom = 102.28 mm
The hole is going to be drilled and an ISO tolerance of H12 is achievable ie the
Tube hole diameter is 102.28H12. The H12 tolerance is +0.000 +0.350
Tube hole tolerance

tolh = 0.350 mm
Minimum hole size

Dhmin = Dhnom + 0.000 mm

Dhmin = 102.28 mm
Maximum hole size

Dhmax = Dhnom + tolh

Dhmax = 102.63 mm

Check
We will now check that the calculated clearances meet our criteria set above
Minimum clearance

Cl min = Dhmin - Dtmax

Cl min = 0.30 mm
Minimum diametral strain

min = Clmin / Dtnom

min = 0.3% - Okay
Maximum clearance

Cl max = Dhmax - Dtmin

Cl max = 1.41 mm
Maximum diametral strain

max = Cl max / Dtnom

max = 1.393% - Okay
Tube Installation
Points to note when expanding tubes into tube plates
1. Ends of expanded tubes must never be welded to tube plates.
2. When expanding tubes into plates it is essential to start at the top of the vessel surplus of 5 mm
(3/16") must be kept. One must ensure that tube ends remain exposed above the tube plates.
3. Five-roller expander with safety clutch should preferably be used instead of usual three-finger
expander.
4. Provide a crash stop in order to avoid swelling of the tubes just inside the plate-level.
5. When replacing tubes in plates, make sure that the surface of the bottom plate is quite clean
and smooth. If necessary it must be repaired adequately.
6. It is necessary to protect tubes near the steam entrance. Baffles should be built in. This will
avoid thermal shock and mechanical stresses which might be especially high at this particular
part of the vessel.

Sugar Factory Tubes Sheet Ligaments

The ligament on a tube sheet is the material between two tube holes. In a perfect

World the all the ligaments on a tube sheet will be exactly the same size. However
Due to the variation in hole size due to tolerance and also due to mistakes in hole
Centre positioning there may be ligaments which are smaller than the theoretically
Calculated ligament. Now if it is found that on a particular tube sheet one or more
Of the ligaments is smaller than the others are we to reject the tube sheet and all
The work done on it? If the tube sheet is rejected, the manufacturing Programme
Will be delayed, and costs incurred.
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) has guidelines on
Minimum allowable ligaments on tube sheets. Unfortunately their
Recommendations only go up to 2 inch OD tubes, and so some extrapolation for 4
Inch tubes are required.

tube dia tube pitch

[inch]
[inch]

maximum
hole
diameter
[inch]

nominal
ligament
[inch]

minimum
permissible
ligament
[inch]

dt

p/d t

p-d t

dh

p-dh

0.250

0.313

1.250

0.063

0.259

0.054

0.025

0.250

0.375

1.500

0.125

0.259

0.116

0.060

0.375

0.500

1.330

0.125

0.384

0.116

0.060

0.375

0.531

1.420

0.156

0.384

0.147

0.075

0.500

0.625

1.250

0.125

0.510

0.115

0.060

0.500

0.656

1.310

0.156

0.510

0.146

0.075

0.500

0.688

1.380

0.188

0.510

0.178

0.090

0.625

0.781

1.250

0.156

0.635

0.146

0.075

0.625

0.813

1.300

0.188

0.635

0.178

0.090

0.625

0.875

1.400

0.250

0.635

0.240

0.120

0.750

0.938

1.250

0.188

0.760

0.178

0.090

0.750

1.000

1.330

0.250

0.760

0.240

0.120

0.750

1.063

1.420

0.313

0.760

0.303

0.150

0.750

1.125

1.500

0.375

0.760

0.365

0.185

0.875

1.094

1.25

0.219

0.885

0.209

0.105

0.875

1.125

1.290

0.250

0.885

0.240

0.120

0.875

1.188

1.360

0.313

0.885

0.303

0.150

0.875

1.250

1.430

0.375

0.885

0.365

0.185

1.000

1.250

1.250

0.250

1.012

0.238

0.120

1.000

1.313

1.310

0.313

1.012

0.301

0.150

1.000

1.375

1.380

0.375

1.012

0.363

0.185

1.250

1.563

1.250

0.313

1.264

0.299

0.150

1.500

1.875

1.250

0.375

1.518

0.357

0.180

2.000

2.500

1.250

0.500

2.022

0.478

0.250

Standard Ligaments

96% of ligaments shall be greater than

ligstd = p - dh - (0.0032 t / dt in + 0.030 in)
Where t = tube sheet thickness
Minimum Permissible Ligament

No ligament shall be less than

ligmin = -0.0010465 + 0.510467 (p-dh)
The factors in the above formula come from a linear regression of the data in the

Table above.
Example 1
In this example we consider a 2 in kestner evaporator type tube
Tube plate thickness

t = 25 mm
Tube outside diameter

dt = 2 in
dt = 50.8 mm
Maximum tube hole dia

dmax = 51.48 mm
Tube hole pitch

p = 70 mm
Drill drift tolerance

toldd = 0.0016 in t / dt
toldd = 0.02 in
Standard ligament

lstd = p - dmax - (2 toldd + 0.030 in)

lstd = 17.72 mm
Minimum ligament

lmin = 0.0010465 mm + 0.5067383 (p - dmax)

lmin = 9.38 mm
Example 2
In this example we consider a 4 in continuous vacuum pan type tube
Tube plate thickness

t = 25 mm
Tube outside diameter

dt = 4 in
dt = 101.6 mm
Maximum tube hole dia

dmax = 102.63 mm
Tube hole pitch

p = 120 mm
Drill drift tolerance

toldd = 0.0016 in t / dt
toldd = 0.01 in

Standard ligament

lstd = p - dmax - (2 toldd + 0.030 in)

lstd = 16.59 mm
Minimum ligament

lmin = 0.0010465 mm + 0.5067383 (p - dmax)

lmin = 8.78 mm

Desuperheating of Steam
A desuperheater is a device that cools superheated steam to a temperature close
to its saturation temperature, usually by spraying atomized droplets of water into
The flow of superheated steam. Superheated steam is steam that is at a
Temperature above its saturation temperature.
Desuperheating of steam is an almost universal feature of a sugar factory. This is
for two reasons

Steam turbines are generally designed to leave some superheat in their exhaust to prevent
erosion of turbine blades by water droplets

Juice and syrup should be boiled at less than about 125C to reduce color formation and
sucrose destruction

There are numerous methods of desuperhing steam each with their own
advantages and disadvantages: a good discussion on the various approaches to
Desuperheating is given by Sprirax Sarco
Theory
A heat and mass balance over the desupeheater yield two equations
ms2hs2 = ms1hs1 + mwhw
ms2 = ms1 + mw

Combining these yields

mw = ms1 (hs1 - hs2) / (hs2 - hw)
Symbols
m --mass flow rates [kg/s]
h -- enthalpy [kJ/kg]
Subscripts
w
--cooling water
s1
--steam upstream of the desuperheater
s2
--steam downstream of the desuperheater

Sucrose Losses in a Cane Sugar Factory

The data below are the industry average figures from South African factories as
published in SASTA Procedings. The figures given in the table and graph below are
as a percentage of the sucrose entering the factory in cane.
The losses in 1993 and 1994 were high as a result of the drought at that time. It is
quite clear that the losses in bagasse and filter cake are almost constant, while the
loss in molasses varies a lot, the undetermined loss is fairly stable from year to
year

Sucrose losses as a percentage of sucrose entering the factory

Bagasse

Filter Cake

Molasses

Undetermined

Total

1988

2.37

0.27

9.64

1.96

14.24

1989

2.40

0.27

9.26

1.85

13.78

1990

2.33

0.26

8.76

1.98

13.33

1991

2.25

0.29

9.02

1.92

13.48

1992

2.05

0.27

8.86

1.76

12.94

1993

2.19

0.25

11.31

2.23

15.98

1994

2.25

0.25

12.07

2.29

16.86

1995

2.13

0.22

10.97

2.01

15.33

1996

2.31

0.22

11.37

2.15

16.05

1997

2.28

0.25

9.84

1.81

14.18

1998

2.26

0.24

9.40

2.00

13.90

1999

2.27

0.25

9.29

2.10

13.91

2000

2.07

0.19

9.25

1.99

13.50

2001

2.25

0.18

9.45

1.92

13.80

2002

2.04

0.18

8.62

1.87

12.71

2003

2.21

0.15

8.96

1.67

12.99

2.13

0.17

9.48

1.95

13.73

2.02

0.14

9.65

1.96

13.77

2.21

0.23

9.73

1.97

14.14

2004
2005
Average

Sulphitation Part I
Sulphitation processes are subject to almost as many modifications as simple
Defecation. The variations may include the following:
1. modifications of the sequence of addition of lime and SO2 (liming first, sulphiting first,
simultaneous addition of lime and gas, fractional procedures);
2. temperature modifications (sulphiting cold or hot, stepwise heating); and

3. Addition of reagents (batch, continuous, with either manual or automatic control). Obviously
these variables permit a large series of combinations, and only the most commonly used are
outlined here.
Cold Sulphitation
The cold raw juice is pumped through a tower or box with a counter-current of SO2
to absorb as much gas as possible (acidity 3.0-4.0 ml 0.1 N alkali for 10 ml of
juice; pH 4.0 or below). Liming to slight acidity (pH about 6.5) is followed by
heating, settling, and decanting as in the defecation process. Evaporation to a thin
syrup follows, and the syrup is settled for 6-24 h before vacuum pan boiling. One
boiling, yielding a near-white sugar that is heavily washed in the centrifugal, is
frequently followed by a second boiling to a raw sugar. The "boil-back" molasses is
allowed to settle for several weeks before it is placed on the market. The success
of the process is largely dependent on the quality and price of this molasses.
Sulfitation can also be carried out by injecting SO2 (industrial liquid SO2 in
cylinders) into the cold raw juice to a level of about 400 ppm SO2. This is for the
production of raw sugar and A molasses. The A molasses is inverted to yield a
sucrose-invert ratio of about 1:1, giving a total sugar of 65% at 80 Brix, with an
SO2 level of 30-40 ppm.
Sulphitation after Liming
This process is termed alkaline sulphitation as opposed to acid sulphitation
previously described. It uses about 8 gal (30 liters) of 26 Brix milk of lime per 100
gal (378 liter) of juice giving a large excess of lime. Sulphitation is then carried out
to about pH 7.5 producing a heavy precipitate that may be removed with settling
and decantation. Heavier liming (10-12 gal, 38 - 45 liter), will result in a
precipitate that permit filter-pressing. After evaporation the syrup is cooled and
sulphited to slight acidity (pH 6.5). Treating diffusion juice with lime and then
sulphitation decreases the color of syrup, raw sugar, and refined sugar by 25%
46% and 35% respectively the filterability is improved and molasses purity is

lower, giving better sugar recovery

Hot Sulphitation
Hot sulphitation serves to reduce the solubility of calcium-sulphite, which is more
soluble at low temperatures, the minimum solubility is at about 75C (167 F).
The juice is first heated to this temperature then sulphited and limed boiled, and
settled. Harloff's process is a hot treatment procedure in which the juice is heated
to 75 C and the lime and SO2 are added simultaneously in such a way as to
maintain the reaction acid to phenolphthalein and alkaline to litmus (pH about 7.47.8), except toward the end, when a quantity of lime is added to attain a strongly
alkaline reaction (pH 10+), after which the sulphitation is completed to neutrality
to litmus (pH about 7.2). As in all other similar processes, the juice is finally
brought to boiling temperatures in juice heaters and settled.

Continuous Sulphitation
Continuous sulphitation means the continuous addition of SO2 and lime to the
constantly flowing stream of juice. Marches shows many different procedures with
diagrams indicating construction details, methods of lime and gas addition, baffles
to ensure proper circulation and other details. Many of the continuous liming
processes may have different fractional procedures, but are not in general
practice.
Sulphitation of Syrup
Sulphiting the syrup leaving the evaporators gives a sugar of higher and more
regular quality than juice sulphitation alone. The syrup density is lower than in
ordinary defecation processes, 55 Brix against 65 Brix or higher Sulphited syrup is
usually maintained at a distinct acid reaction, pH 6.1 - 6.5.
Control of Temperatures and Reactions

Good circulation and thorough mixing both of the lime and of SO2 are very
important a bent circulation baffle devised by Thompson gives the best results in
cylindrical sulphitators Avoidance of high alkalinities at high temperatures or for
extended periods is recommended for the same reasons as in defecation control:
such high alkalinities result in decomposition of reducing sugars and in color
formation. Poor mixing of lime and juice may produce local over-liming.
Temperatures above 75 C are detrimental and some prefer not to exceed 70 C
until the final pH adjustment is made, to give a clarified juice to the evaporators of
pH 6.9-7.0.

Sulphitators
Generally the mixed cold juice is sprayed into tall vertical cylindrical tanks, 4ft (1.2
m) or more in diameter and possibly 15 ft (4.5 m) high, fitted for the upper twothirds with a series of hardwood grids made of 2 x 4 ft (0.6 x 1.2 m) timbers set
on edge. The juice enters the top of the tower in a spray and falls through the
wooden grillwork, where it encounters the rising current of SO2. Either the flow of
gas through the system is induced by an air ejector or the SO2 is under pressure.
The sulphitated juices are drawn from the conical bottom of the tower at a pH of
3.8-4.0, limed in a separate liming tank to pH 6.5-6.8, then heated to boiling and
settled.
Continuous sulphitation can be carried out in cylindrical sulphitators holding a fixed
volume of juice. Heated juice (75 C) flows through the tank continuously, while
the milk of lime is added constantly to the entering juice and a continuous
pressurized flow of SO2 into the liquid near the bottom of the tank supplies the
needed circulation. The supply of gas is kept constant, and the lime addition is
regulated by a controller. In actual practice, the juice is pre-limed before entering
the sulphiting tank, generally to neutrality, then is maintained near the neutral

point by the sulphitation-lime addition.

Zozulya et al. describe a new sulphitator which comprises a vertical tank with a
feed-line at right angles to the top of the side wall. The juice is fed into the feedline through a perforated disc and comes into contact with SO2 gas metered
through a valve at right angles to the liquid stream. An internal cyclone at the top
of the tank acts as exhaust gas-liquid separator and as supplementary mixer for
the incoming gas and the juice. Performance data of this new design show results
superior to the conventional spray type with better gas utilization and
Decolourisation.
Sulphitation with Bentonite
A process employing colloidal bentonite combined with sulphitation was developed
in Argentina for the production of direct-consumption white sugars, especially with
juices of deteriorated or frozen cane. Bentonite is clay, and the material selected
is sold in Argentina under the trade name Clarigel. The advantages claimed are
lower sulphur and lime consumption, much greater removal of organic non-sugars,
better boiling properties of syrups and molasses because of reduced viscosities,
and less scaling of evaporators.
Sulphur Stoves or Burners
The production of SO2 occurs when sulphur is burned in a current of air. Oldertype stoves operate intermittently; modem burners provide for the addition of
sulphur without interruption of the burning.
In any type of sulphur burner the air supplied to the furnace should be dry,
because moisture in the air will cause the formation of sulphuric acid, obviously
detrimental to piping, and soon, and can be especially serious if it reaches the
juice. The drying agent is generally quicklime spread on trays, and it should be
replaced before it becomes saturated with water, about every 8 h.
Rotary sulphur burners use induced draft. Mechanical feed ensures continuous

operation. Best results are obtained with sulphur of high purity (99.6-99.9%). The
sulphur melts by its own heat of combustion in the rotating cylinder, presenting a
large surface for combustion as the sulphur drips through the air. Air is drawn in at
an adjustable neck ring and anti-sublimation sleeve at the connection between the
rotating drum and combustion chamber, a cast-iron or brick lined compartment
with baffles, where the oxidation of the sulphur and mixing with the diluting air are
completed. A uniform gas (5-16% SO2) free of sulphuric acid is delivered to the
sulphitators.
There are new methods of SO2 generation. The Swedish Celleco SBM-250 sulphur
burner

has a burning capacity of 5 t/d but has a turn-down ratio of 20:1, or 250 kg/d. It
is normally operated at 2.0-3.0 psig, but can also function effectively at 42 psig. A
typical flow scheme for a modern SO2 generation plant is given

Liquid Sulphur Dioxide

Where transportation costs will permit, liquid SO2 offers many advantages.
MeGinnis diagrams a system for the introduction of liquid SO2.
The method is comparatively trouble free and adapts itself readily to automatic pH
control. A large reduction in sulphur consumption results; freedom from sulfuric
acid, precise control of SO2 addition, and elimination of sulfur-burning equipment
are other advantages.

Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide has also been tried in sugar refining. and reduced white sugar

color by 46% and ash by 20%.

Sulphitation Part II
Current Technology
The carbonated liquor after the first filtration still contains an appreciable amount
of calcium in solution which has to be removed. This is done. By treating the
filtrate with sulphur dioxide to form calcium sulphite precipitate. The latter is then
separated from the liquor during a second filtration to produce a final clear liquor.
Sulphitation is not an essential part of a carbonization refinery, another Process
such as ion-exchange can also be used to remove excess calcium.
Equipment
Because sulphitation is only a minor operation in a carbonization refinery, geared
mainly to reducing excessive alkalinity to the neutral point, the amount used is
relatively small and the apparatus sometimes a bit crude. Especially the sulphur
burner. The equipment in use in our refineries to perform liquor sulphitation
consists of:
1. the sulphur burner for production of SO2 gas
2. a tower for contacting liquor and SO2
Or a venturi system of contacting, such as the Quarez sulphitator.
Design Considerations
Sulphur burner, Production of SO2 gas:
The combustion of sulphur is required to produce sulphur dioxide, because the
reaction takes place in the gaseous state between sulphur vapour and oxygen,
according to the formula:
S + O2 SO2 + 293 kJ
The reaction is exothermic and the combustion gas has an SO2content of 6 to

16%. A simple type of sulphur burner is normally used being of the stationary type
and quite suitable for the light sulphitation of liquor required. Ideally the design
and operation of sulphur burners require that some important points be
Recognized, in particular:
1. Keep to a minimum the formation of SO3 which will react with moisture in the air to produce
sulphuric acid. The cooling of SO2 gas to below 200C is essential, the production of SO3 then
being negligible (5). The, drying of the air of combustion is also required to prevent the formation
of H2SO4.
2. Prevent the sublimation of sulphur, which can cause blockages and impair SO2 production by
controlling the furnace temperature to less than 300C.
3. The air flow should be kept constant and controlled.
4. A regulated supply of sulphur should be provided, if possible.
The points mentioned above are not easy to control in the type of furnace in use,
but then the operation is not critical enough to warrant a more complex approach.
The Sulphur Tower
As the name implies this is a tower containing splash trays, stacked on top of one
another and designed to create a continuous passage for the liquor from the top to
the bottom, while the SO2 gas travels up the tower. The liquor is broken into
droplets in falling from one splash tray to the next. The gas is drawn up the tower
by suction from a fan and the exhaust fumes are dispersed into the atmosphere.
Reaction takes place as the SO2 conies into contact with the liquor. The sulphited
liquor, with calcium sulphite precipitate in suspension, exits the tower at the base
into a small seal tank, since the tower is under slight vacuum.
The Quarez
The Quarez sulphitation system consists of a holding tank, a circulating pump, a
venturi and sulphur furnace to produce SO2 the level in the tank is kept constant
by means of an overflow. Liquor in the holding tank is circulated by the pump and
a certain amount is forced through an injector creating a vacuum, which causes
the SO2 gas to be sucked in and mixed. The rest of the liquor by-passes the

injector by means of an adjustable valve, the setting of which controls the amount
of gassing and the final pH of the liquor.
This system is in operation in Pongola and the data available on the installation is
given here:

22

Tons/hr

25

Tons/hr

Volume of liquor to
Sulphitation

20

m/hr

Number of circulations

15

/hr

300

m/hr

Refined sugar throughput

Tons Brix in Raw Melt

Capacity of circulating pump

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Operating control
Sulphitation is carried out to a pH of 7.0 and even at 6.9 6.8; but a lower pH
than this will result in inversion of sucrose and must be avoided. It is therefore of
paramount importance to reliably control the final pH set point. This is generally
done by varying the proportion of SO2 gas to liquor by measuring liquor pH.
Filtration
Filtration of the sulphited liquor should take place at or near 85C to take
advantage of the decreasing solubility of calcium sulphite at high temperatures as
well as lower viscosity. A heat exchanger of the shell and tube type is normally

used for this purpose. The amount of calcium sulphite precipitate is much less than
the carbonate precipitate and less filtering surface is required.
Disposal of Sweet Water
The cake from the primary and secondary filters is sent to sludge filters for
sweetening-off. The sweet water should be returned to process that is C and B
sugar melting, B and C, pan movement water, etc and preferably not back to the
raw sugar refinery melter, on account of color and ash increase in refinery melt.

Distillery Yields
Background
Just as in a sugar factory there are a number of measures of operational efficiency
in a distillery. In the sugar industry ratios like extraction, boiling house recovery,
and overall recovery are well defined and universally understood. Sadly in the
alcohol industry things are a little more disorderly. To help bring a little order the
following is offered
Theory
There are four commonly used measures of yield

Fermentation yield

Fermentation efficiency

Alcohol recovery

Overall Conversion Efficiency

Fermentation yield
Fermentation yield is measured in liters of absolute alcohol in beer per ton of
sugars in molasses, and is calculated by the formula below
Yf = Vb ab / (Mm fsm)
where
Yf = fermentation yield
Vb = volume of beer [liter]

ab = alcohol content of beer (v/v)

Mm = mass of molasses [tonne]
fsm

= fermentable sugars content of molasses (m/m)

Fermentation efficiency
Fermentation efficiency is an expression of how much alcohol was actually
produced in beer relative to the amount that could be theoretically produced, and
is given by
Ef = Yf 0.794 / 0.5111 (100/1000)
The factor 0.794 corresponds to the specific gravity of absolute alcohol and the
factor 0.5111 is best explained as follows: If one kilogram of sugar was completely
fermented (using theoretical 100% efficient yeast); 511.1 grams of alcohol and
1000 - 511.1 = 488.9 grams of carbon dioxide would result.
Alcohol recovery
Alcohol recovery is a measure of how much alcohol was finally produced relative to
the amount that was in the beer. It shows the amount of losses in the evaporation
and distillation sections combined. Alcohol recovery is calculated as follows
Ede = (aaVp + ssVf) / aaVb 100
where
Ede = Alcohol recovery (or distillation and evaporation efficiency)
aaV p

= volume of potable alcohol as liters absolute alcohol

ssV f

= volume of feints as liters absolute alcohol

aaV b

= volume of beer as liters absolute alcohol

Overall Conversion Efficiency

Overall conversion efficiency is a measure of how much alcohol is finally produced
relative to the amount that could be theoretically produced, and is given by

Eo = Ef Ede 100

Values of Yield
The following table gives values of yield that one would expect in a well run
Distillery
Parameter

Value

Alcohol Recovery

98.5%

Fermentation Yield

573

Fermentation Efficiency

89%

Overall Conversion Efficiency

87%

Alcohol from Cane Molasses

This article sets out a way of calculating how much alcohol you can make from
the molasses your sugar factory produces.
How much molasses?
The fist step is to calculate how much molasses you will produce. In the Southern
African Industry it is usual to express the amount of molasses made per tonne of
cane crushed at a standard molasses brix of 85
The South African Industry average figures for the past five years are shown
Below

Molasses at a standard 85Bx

Year

Molasses% Cane

2000/01

3.70

2001/02

3.93

2002/03

4.03

2003/04

3.73

2004/05

4.16

So the amount of molasses produced is

M = C M85 0.85 / Bm
where
M = tonnes molasses produced
C = tonnes cane crushed
M85 = Molasses at 85 brix as a percentage on cane crushed
Bm = Actual brix of molasses produced
Fermentable sugars
The next step is to calculate the amount of fermentable sugars (FS) in the
molasses. The fermentable sugars in molasses are sucrose, glucose and fructose;
there are other sugars present in molasses, they are either unfermentable or are
in small enough quantities that they can be ignored.
There are a number of ways of measuring fermentable sugars in molasses; the
most accurate is High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
The Lane and Eynon method also described in the SASTA Lab Manual is a two step
process, which measures reducing sugars by titration. Reducing sugars are those
sugars which reduce Fehlings reagents. Glucose and fructose reduce Fehlings
reagents, sucrose does not, so the sucrose is inverted using hydrochloric acid and
the reduction titration is repeated and the total reducing sugars can be calculated.
The problems with this method are

there are other substances in the molasses which are also reducing agents, but are not
fermentable sugars, so this method overestimates the amount of fermentable sugars, and

the titration is complex and requires a degree of skill to ensure repeatability, that may not
always be present in a sugar factory laboratory.

South African Industry data on molasses quality are given as a guideline

South African Industry Average Molasses Quality

Year

Refractometer brix

Sucrose/refractomete
r brix Purity

Fructose%

Glucose%

FS%brix
molasses

2000/01

84.26%

37.21%

7.55%

5.41%

52.59%

2001/02

84.44%

37.03%

7.58%

5.47%

52.48%

2002/03

85.09%

37.24%

7.14%

5.13%

51.66%

2003/04

84.79%

37.92%

7.08%

5.22%

52.43%

2004/05

83.97%

36.94%

7.93%

5.20%

52.58%

So, it is clear that about 52.5% of the brix in molasses are fermentable sugars. To
calculate the tonnes of fermentable sugars in molasses we use the following
Formula
FS = M Bm FS%B
where
FS = tonnes fermentable sugars in molasses
M = tonnes molasses produced
Bm = Actual brix of molasses produced
FS%B = fermentable sugars as a percentage on brix in molasses
Alcohol Yield

in

The amount of alcohol produced is given by

A = FS Yf Ede
where
A = liters of alcohol produced
Yf = Fermentation yield
Ede = Alcohol recovery (or distillation and evaporation efficiency)
Design a limed juice flash tank

Tank
Mixed Juice Diameter
Flow [tonne/h] [mm]

Flash
[DN]

Pipe Juice
[DN]

Inlet Juice
[DN]

Outlet

Drain [DN]

50

1457

350

150

200

80

60

1625

400

150

200

80

70

1756

400

150

200

80

80

1878

450

150

250

100

100

2097

500

200

250

100

125

2344

550

200

250

100

150

2569

600

200

300

100

175

2774

650

250

300

100

200

2966

700

250

350

150

225

3146

750

250

350

150

250

3146

800

300

350

150

275

3478

800

300

400

150

300

3633

850

300

400

150

325

3700

900

300

450

150

350

3926

950

300

450

150

375

4063

950

350

450

150

400

4194

1000

350

450

150

Juice Heaters
Because high pressure steam is very valuable, exhaust steam is often used
for juice heating or, if possible, preferably bled vapour from the evaporators. It is
thus necessary to have a heat exchanger between vapour and juice; this is
provided by the juice heaters. The juice heater (below) consists of an assembly of
tubes; the juice circulates through the tubes, and the vapour outside them.
Suitable headers force the juice to pass a certain number of times from bottom to
top and from top to bottom of the heater by restricting the juice each time to a
few of the tubes.

Vertical Juice Heater (Coil)

The basic calculation of the juice heater is to calculate the amount of heat
transferred using the overall heat transfer co-efficient (OHTC), the log mean
temperature difference
(LMTD) and the heating surface area.
Q = h A Tlog

Where