Unit 1 Metal Casting Processes MT 1

Manufacturing Technology, ME-202-E
Unit- 1 (Metal Casting Processes)
1 February 2010
Syllabus:
Metal Casting Processes: Advantages and limitations, sand mold making procedure.
Patterns and Cores: Pattern materials, pattern allowances, types of pattern, color coding.
Molding materials: Molding sand composition, sand preparation, sand properties and testing, Sand molding
processes
Abstract: Casting is one of the oldest metal shaping method known to human beings. It generally means pouring of
molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape exactly to be made, and allowing that to solidify. When
solidified the desired metallic object is taken out from the refractory mould either by breaking the mould or taking the
mold apart. The solidified object is called as molding and the process as founding.
Advantages and Limitations of the process:

The various advantages of the process are as follows:
Molten material can flow into in any small section in the mold cavity and as such any intricate shapes internal or
external can be made with the casting process.
It is possible to cast practically any material be it ferrous or non ferrous.
The tooling cost is almost negligible as very simple tools are used here as compared to the other manufacturing
processes.
This process is best suitable for the small batch production as well as trial production.
I t is possible in casting process, to place the amount of material where exactly required.
Castings are generally cooled down at constant rate hence directional properties like stress concentration
remains same in all the directions.
Can be made of large sizes and weights up to 200 tonnes.
Limitations of the process are as follows:
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by casting process is not good in many cases.
Labour required in the sand casting process is relatively high.
Hard metals casted are difficult to be machined later after the process for further surface finishing.
Applications of the process:

Typical applications of sand casting process are cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill rolls,
wheels, housings, water supply pipes and special sand bells.
Terms used in Casting Process:

Flask: A molding flask is one which holds the sand mold intact, depending upon the position of the flask in the
mold structure it is referred to by various names such as drag-lower molding flask, cope-upper molding flask and
cheek-intermediate molding flask used in three-piece molding. It is made up of wood for temporary applications
and more generally of metal for long-term use.
Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. The mould cavity is made
with the help of the pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand mould. Split
pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the pattern.
Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the start of the mould making. The
pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the moulding to give
a better surface finish to the castings.
Mohammad Amir, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering., BHCET
1 February 2010
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the

two molding flasks that makes up the sand mould
split pattern it is also the dividing line between the
two halves of the pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the
two moulding flasks that makes up the sand
mould, in split pattern it is also the dividing line
between the two halves.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
moulding cavity to give a better surface finish to
the castings.
Moulding sand: It is the freshly prepared
refractory material used for making the mould
cavity, lt is the mixture of silica, clay and moisture
in appropriate proportions to get the desirable
results and it surrounds the pattern while making
the mould.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This is made of used and
burnt sand.
Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is used.
Spruce: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity. ln many
cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
Runner: The passageway is n the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach
the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters the mould cavity.
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome
the metal-o-static forces.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of castings to provide
uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification.
Sand Mould making procedure:

The procedure for making a typical sand mould is described in the following steps:
First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the floor, making the surface even. The drag
(moulding flask) is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag part of the pattern at the centre of the
flask on the board. There should be enough clearance between the pattern and the walls of the flask which should be of
the order of 50 to 100 mm. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer. Freshly
prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50
mm. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to compact the sand. The
ramming of sand should be done properly so as not to compact it too hard, which makes the escape of gases difficult,
nor too looses o that mould would not have enough strength. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is
completely scraped using a flat bar to the level of the flask edges.
Now, with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end vent holes are made in the drag to the
full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during casting solidification. This
completes the preparation of the drag.

The finished drag flask is now
rolled over to the bottom board
exposing the pattern. Using a slick,
the edges of sand around the
pattern is repaired and cope half
of the pattern is placed over the
drag pattern aligning it with the
help of dowel pins. The cope flask
on top of the drag is located
aligning again with the help of the
pins. The dry parting sand is
sprinkled all over the drag and on
the pattern. A spruce pin for
making the spruce passage is
located at a small distance of
about 50 mm from the pattern.
Also a riser pin if required is kept
at an appropriate place and
freshly prepared moldings and
similar to that of the drag along
with the backing sand is sprinkled.
The sand is thoroughly rammed,
excess and scraped and vent holes
are made all over in the cope as in
the drag. The spruce pin and the
riser pin are carefully withdrawn
from the flask. Later the pouring
basin is cut near the top of the
spruce. The cope is separated
from the drag and any looses and
on the cope and drag interface of
the drag is blown off with the help
of bellows. Now the cope and the
drag pattern halves are withdrawn
by using the draw spikes and
rapping the pattern all around to
slightly enlarge the mould cavities
that the mould walls are not
spoiled by the withdrawing
pattern The runners and the gates
are cut in the mould carefully
without spoiling the mould. Any
excess or loose sand found in the
runners and mould cavity is blown
away using the bellows. Now the
facing sand in the form of a paste
is applied all over the mould cavity
and the runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface
finish.
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A dry sand core is prepared using a core box, After suitable baking, it is placed
in the mould cavity as shown in Fig. below. The cope is replaced on the drag
taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the pins. The mould, as
shown in Fig. is ready for pouring.
Pattern Materials:
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics.
Wood: The most commonly used pattern material is wood, the main
reason being the easy availability and the low weight. Also it can be
easily shaped and is relatively cheap. But the main disadvantage of
wood is its absorption of moisture as a result of which distortions
and dimensional changes occur. A good construction may be able to
reduce the warpage to some extent. Hence, proper seasoning and
upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large scale use of wood
as a pattern material.
The usual varieties of wood commonly used for making patterns are
pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and deodar. Besides the wood, the
plywood boards of the veneer type as well as the particle boards are
also used for making patterns. Because of their availability in various
thicknesses, their higher strength and no need for seasoning are the
reasons for their usage. However, they can be used only in patterns
which are of flat type (pattern plates) and no three dimensional
contours.
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Choice of the pattern material depends essentially on the size of the casting, the number of castings to be made
from the pattern, and the dimensional accuracy required. For very large castings, wood may be the only practical
pattern material. Moulding sand being highly abrasive for large scale production, wood may not be suitable as a
pattern material and one may have to opt for metal patterns. Because of their durability and smooth surface finish,
metal patterns are extensively used for large scale casting production and for closer dimensional tolerances. Though
many materials such as cast iron, brass, etc. can be used as pattern materials, aluminum and white metal are most
commonly used. These
Are light and can be easily worked, and are corrosion resistant. Since white metal has very small shrinkage, the
white metal pattern can be made use of for making additional patterns without worrying about the double
shrinkage allowances. Most metal patterns are cast in sand moulds from a master wood pattern provided with the
double shrinkage allowance.
Plastics: Plastics are also used as pattern materials because of their low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces
and durability. They do not absorb moisture and are therefore, dimensionally stable and can be cleaned easily. The
making of a plastic pattern can be done in sand clay moulds or moulds made of Plaster of Paris. The most generally
used plastics are cold setting epoxy resins with suitable fillers. With a proper combination it is possible to obtain a
no shrink plastic material and as such double shrinkage allowances may not be required. Polyurethane foam is also
used as pattern material. It is very light and can be easily formed into any shape required. It can be used for light
duty work for small number of castings for the conventional castings and for single casting in the case of full mould
process, where the pattern is burned inside the mould without withdrawing. This plastic has a very low ash content
and hence can be burned inside the mould. The pattern material is to be chosen based on the expected life of the
pattern.
Metals: Metals are also used as the material for the preparation of the patterns. Metallic patterns are reuseable and
can be used for relatively longer period of time. These patterns does not get distort or damages quickly with respect
to the time. But also there are some disadvantages with these types of patters as they are heavy and also the cost
incurred in the production of metallic patterns is more.
Pattern Allowances:
The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final dimensions of the casting required. This is required because of
various reasons. Various types of pattern allowances are as follows:
Shrinkage: All the metals shrink on cooling except Bismuth. This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which are
amplified by an increase in temperature. However, there is a distinction to be made between the liquid shrinkage
and solid shrinkage.
Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid to solid state at the
solidus temperature. To account for this risers are provided in the moulds.
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused, when metal looses temperature in solid state. The snriakage
allowance is provided to take care of this reduction.
Draft: At the time of withdrawing the pattern from

the sand mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are
in continual contact with the sand, which may
damage the mould cavity, as shown in Fig. To
reduce the chances of this happening, the vertical
faces of the pattern are always tapered from the
parting line. This provision is called draft allowance.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the
job. But in general, inner details of the pattern
require higher draft than outer surfaces. Table 7.2 is
a general guide to the provision of drafts. The draft
Fig: Effect of draft on pattern withdrawing.

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allowance given varies for hand moulding and machine moulding. More draft needed to be provided for hand
moulding compared to machine moulding. In machine moulding the actual draft given varies with the condition of
the machine (new, rigid, properly aligned, etc. require less draft). One thing to be noted here is that draft is always
provided as an extra metal over and above the original casting dimensions as shown in the following
Finish or machining allowance:
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are
used, the class of accuracy required on the surface
generally poor and therefore when the casting is
and the complexity of surface details. One way of
functionally required to be of good surface finish or
reducing the machining allowance is to keep entire
dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
casting in the drag flask such that dimensional
subsequent machining. Also, ferrous materials
variation and other defects due to the parting plane
would have scales on the skin which are to be
are reduced to a minimum.
removed by cleaning. Hence extra material is to be
provided which is to be subsequently removed by
machining or cleaning process. This depends on
dimensions, the type of casting material and the
finish required. This may range from 2 to 20 mm.
The machining allowance provided would ultimately
have to be removed by machining. Hence the cost
of providing additional machining allowance should
be carefully examined before finalizing.
The type of machining allowance provided would
depend on the metal cast, the type of moulding
Shake allowance: Before withdrawal from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mould cavity slightly which facilitates its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable
that the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this increase. There is no sure way of
quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel and practices involved. It is a
negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions which are parallel to the parting plane. One way of
reducing this allowance is to increase the draft which can be removed during the subsequent machining.
Distortion allowance: A metal when it has just solidified, is very weak and therefore is likely to be distortion prone.
This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting which
may have thin and long sections which are connected to thick sections. The foundry practice should be to make
extra material provision for reducing the distortion. Alternatively, the shape of pattern itself should be given a
distortion of equal amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion direction.
Types of Patterns:
There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the number of castings required and the
moulding procedure adopted.
Single piece pattern:
These are in expensive and the simplest type of
patterns. As the name indicates they are made of a
single piece as shown in Fig. This type of pattern is used
only in cases where the job is very simple and doesnt
create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for
applications in very small scale production or in
prototype development. This pattern is expected to be
entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is expected to
be flat which is used as the parting plane.
Split pattern or low piece pattern:

This is them most widely used type of pattern for
intricate casting. When the contour of the casting
makes it withdrawal from the mould difficult or when
the depth of the casting is too high then the pattern is
split into two parts so that one part is in the drag and
the other in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is
same as the parting plane of the mould. The two halves
of the pattern should be aligned properly by making
use of the dowel pins which are fitted to the cope half.
These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes
in the drag half of the pattern and thus align the two
halves properly as seen in Figure.
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Fig: Split Pattern
Gated pattern:
This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating and runner system are integral with the pattern. This
would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners and gates and help in improving the productivity of a moulder.
Cope and drag pattern:
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to
splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of the
pattern along with the gating and risering systems are
attached separately to the metal or wooden plates
along with the alignment pins. They are called the cope
and drag patterns. The cope and drag moulds may be
produced using these patterns separated by two
molders but they can be assembled to form a complete
mould. These types of patterns are used for castings
which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also
for continuous production.
Match plate pattern:
These are extensions of the previous type. Here the cope and drag patterns along with the gating and the risering are
mounted on a single matching metal or wooden plate on either side as shown in Fig. On one side of the match plate the
cope flask is prepared and on the other, the drag flask. After moulding when the match plate is removed, a complete
mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and the drag together. The complete pattern with match plate is
entirely made of metal, usually aluminum for its light weight and machinability. But when dimensions are critical, the
match plate may be made of steel with necessary case hardening of the critical wear points. The pattern and gating are
either screwed to the match plate in the case of a flat parting plane or are made integral in case of an irregular parting
plane. The casting of a match plate pattern is done usually in plastic moulds, but sometimes sand moulds are also used
When the cope and the drag patterns are similar the pattern may be kept on only one side of the plate and is used for
making both the drag as well as the cope.
These are generally used for small castings with high dimensional accuracy and large production. The gating system is
already made and attached to the match plate. Several patterns can be fixed to a single match plate, if they are
sufficiently small in size. These patterns are used for machine moulding. These are expensive but increased production
can be a favourable aspect to choose these types of patterns.
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Fig: Match Plate Pattern

Loose piece Pattern:
This type of pattern is also used when the contour of
the part is such that withdrawing the pattern from the
mould is not possible. Hence during moulding the
obstructing part of the contour is held as a loose piece
by a wire. After moulding is over, first the main pattern
is removed and then the loose pieces are recovered
through the gap generated by the main pattern.
Moulding by the loose piece pattern is a highly skilled
job and is generally expensive and therefore should be
avoided till possible.
Follow board Pattern:

This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where
there are some portions which are structurally weak
and if not supported properly are likely to break under
the force of ramming. Hence the bottom board is
modified as a follow board to closely fit the contour of
the weak pattern and thus support it during the
ramming of the drag. During the preparation of the
cope, no follow board is necessary because the sand
which is compacted in the drag will support the fragile
pattern.
Fig: Loose Piece Pattern

Fig: Follow Board Pattern
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Sweep pattern:
It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are used for generating large shapes which
are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature such as bell shaped or cylindrical as shown in figure. This greatly reduces the
cost of a three dimensional pattern. This type of pattern is particularly suitable for very large castings such as the bells
for ornamental purposes used which are generally cast in pit moulds.
Fig.: Sweep Pattern (Procedure of Sweep)

Skeleton pattern:
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used
for building the final pattern by packing sand around
the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is
obtained with the help of a strickle as shown in Fig. The
type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon the
geometry of the workpiece. This type of pattern is
useful generally for very large castings, required in small
quantities where large expense on complete wooden
pattern is not justified.
Fig.: Skeleton Pattern
Pattern Colour Code:

The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the mould maker would be able to understand the
functions clearly. The colour codes used are:
Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as casted.
Yellow on surfaces to be machined.
Black on core prints for unmachined openings.
Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings.
Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core prints.
Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a casting.
Moulding sand composition:

The main ingredients of any moulding sand are:
The silica grains (SiO2),
The clay as binder, and
Moisture to activate the clay and provide plasticity.
Silica Sand:
The sand which forms the major portion of the moulding sand (up to 96%) is essentially silica grains, the rest being the
other oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na2O + K2O) and Magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO). These impurities should be
minimised to about 2% since they effect the fusion point of the silica sands. The main source is the river sand which is
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used with or without washing. Ideally the fusion point of sands should be about 1450 C for cast irons and about 1550 C
for steels. In the river sand, all sizes and shapes of grains are mixed. The sand grains may vary in size from a few
micrometers to a few millimeters. Shape of the grains may be round, sub-angular, angular and very angular. The size and
shapes of these sand grains greatly affect the properties of the moulding sands. Zircon sand is basically a zirconium
silicate (ZrSiO4). The typical composition is ZrO2- 66.25%, SiO2- 30.96%, Al2O3 - 1.92%, Fe2O3. - 0.74%, and traces of other
oxides. It is very expensive. In India it is available in the Quilon beach of Kerala. It has a fusion point of about 2400C and
also a low coefficient of thermal expansion. The other advantages are high thermal conductivity, high chilling power and
high density. It requires a very small amount of binder (about 3%). It is generally used to manufacture precision steel
castings requiring better surface finish and for precision investment castings.
Chromite sand:
It is crushed from the chrome ore whose typical composition is Cr2O3, - 44%, Fe2O3 - 28%, SiO2 -2.5%, CaO-0.5%, and
(Al2O3.+MgO)-25%. The fusion point is about 1800C. It also requires a very small amount of binder (about 37%). It is
also used to manufacture heavy steel castings requiring better surface finish. It is best suited to austenitic manganese
steel castings.
Olivine sand:
It contains the minerals fosterite (Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe2SiO4). It is very versatile sand and the same mixture can be
used for a range of steels.
Table: Comparison of various sand properties
Clay:
Clays are the most generally used binding agents mixed with the moulding sands to provide the strength, because of
their low cost and wider utility. The most popular clay types used are
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O), and
Bentonite (Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O n H2O).
Kaolinite has a melting point of 1750 to 1787 C and Bentonite has a melting temperature range of 1250 to 1300 C. Of
the two, Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power. The clays besides these basic constituents
may also contain some mixtures of lime, alkalies and other oxides which tend to reduce their refractoriness.
There are basically two types of Bentonites, one with sodium as adsorbed ion which is often called western Bentonite
and the other with calcium ion called southern Bentonite. Sodium Bentonite produces better swelling propertiesvolume increases some 10 to 20 times, high dry strength which lowers the risk of erosion, better tolerance of variations
in water content, low green strength and high resistance to burnout, which reduces clay consumption, in contrast the
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calcium Bentonite have low dry strength but higher green strength. It is possible to improve the properties of calcium
Bentonite by treating it chemically with soda ash (sodium carbonate).
The clay chosen for moulding sand should give it the requisite strength for the given application taking into account the
metal being cast and thickness of the casting. Normally, the river sand contains a large amount of clay and therefore can
be directly used.
Water:
Clay is activated by water so that it develops the necessary plasticity and strength. The amount of water used should be
properly controlled. This is because a part of the water absorbed by clay help in bonding while the remainder up to a
limit helps in improving the plasticity but more than that would increase the strength and formability. The normal
percentages o f water used are from 2 to 8. Besides these three main ingredients, many other materials also may be
added to enhance the specific properties. For example, cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength; pitch obtained as
a by-product in coke making if used in percentages up to 3 would improve the hot strength; and saw dust up to 2% may
improve the collapsibility by slowly burning, and increase the permeability. There are other materials such as sea coal,
asphalt, fuel oil, graphite, molasses, iron oxide, etc. which are also used for obtaining specific properties. Comparative
properties of moulding sand with various clays are shown in Table below.
Sand Preparation:
One of the most important requirements for the
preparation of sand is thorough mixing of its various
ingredients. This is essential to ensure uniform
distribution of the various components in the entire
bulk of sand.
During the mixing process any lump present in sand is
broken up and clay is uniformly enveloped around the
sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed.
Besides manual mixing, equipments called Mullers are
normally used in foundries to mix the sands. These are
essentially of two types, batch type and continuous.
A batch Muller consists of one or two Muller wheels
and equal number of plough blades all of them
connected to a single driving source. The Muller wheels
are large and heavy, and continuously rolls inside the
Muller bowl. The plough blades ensure that the sand is
continuously agitated. A combined action makes the
sand mixed thoroughly.
Fig: Batch Muller
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Moulding sand properties:

The properties of moulding sand are dependent of a great extent on a number of variables. The important among them
are:
Sand grain shape and size
Clay type and amount
Moisture content
Method of preparing sand mould
Sand grains:
The shape and size of the sand grain would greatly affect the various mouldings and properties. The sand grain size
could be coarse or fine. Similarly the grain shape could be round or angular.
The coarse grains would have more void space between the grains which increases the permeability. Similarly, the finer
grains would have lower permeability however they provide better surface finish to the casting produced. The
distribution of the grain size also plays an important role. For example, a widely distributed sand would have higher
permeability than the one with the same fineness number but where all the grains have the same size.
Angular sand grains require higher amounts of binder. The round grains would have lower permeability compared to
angular grains because of the irregular shape of the latter. The same has been depicted in Fig.
Figure: Variation of permeability with grain size

Clay and Water:
Besides the grain size clay and water have also a large influence on the properties of the moulding sand. As the
percentage of water increases in the sand its strength also I,proves but after reaching a threshold level the strength
decreases.
Types of sands:
Various types of moulding sands are as follows:
Facing sand: This sand is used next to the pattern to obtain cleaner and smoother casting surfaces. Generally, sea
coal or coal dust (finely divided bituminous coal of 2 to 8%) is mixed with the system sand to improve the
mouldability and surface finish. The sea coal being carbonaceous, will slowly burn due to the heat from the molten
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metal and give off small amounts of reducing gases. This creates a small gas pressure in the surroundings of the
cavity such that molten metal is prevented from entering into the silica grains or fuse with them. This helps in
generating good casting surface and also lets the moulding sand peel off from the casting during shake out.
Mould wash: Purely carbonaceous materials such as sea coal, finely powdered graphite or proprietary compounds
are also applied on to the mould cavity after the pattern is withdrawn. This is called the mould wash and is done by
spraying, swabbing or painting in the form of a wet paste. These are used essentially for the following reasons:
to prevent metal penetration into the sand grains and thus ensure a good casting finish, and
to avoid mould-metal interaction and prevent sand fusion.
For depositing the mould wash, either water or alcohol can be used as a carrier. But because of the problem of
getting the water out of the mould, alcohol is preferred as a carrier. The proprietary washes are available in
powder, paste or liquid form. The powder needs to be first prepared and applied where as the paste and liquid can
be applied straightaway.
Backing sand: This is normally the reconditioned foundry sand and is used for ramming the bulk of the moulding
flask. The moulding flask is completely filled with backing sand after the pattern is covered with a thin layer of facing
sand. Since the casting is not affected to any great extent by the backing sand, it usually contains the burnt facing
sand, moulding sand and clay.
Parting sand:
This is the material which is sprinkled on the pattern and to the parting surfaces of the mould halves before they are
prepared, to prevent the adherence of the moulding sand. This helps in easy withdrawal of the pattern and easier
separation of the cope and drag flasks at parting surface. It is essentially a nonsticky material such as washed silica
grains.
Properties and types of sand moulds:

In order to produce sound castings, moulds are required to have some specific properties. Some of them are:
It must be strong enough to withstand the temperature and weight of the molten metal.
It must resist the erosive action of the flowing hot metal.
It should generate minimum amount of gases as a result of the temperature of the molten metal.
It should have good venting capacity to allow the generated gases to completely escape from it
Moulds that are used for sand casting may broadly be classified as
Green sand moulds.
Dry sand moulds.
Skin dried moulds.
Green sand moulds:
Green sand is the moulding sand which has been freshly prepared from silica grains, clay and moisture. In a green
sand mould, metal is poured immediately and the castings taken out. These are most commonly used and are
adapted for rapid production, where the moulding flasks are released quickly. They require less floor space as no
storage is involved. As the mould is produced, the casting is prepared. Thus it is the least expensive of all. Also, the
tendency for hot tearing of the castings is less in green sand moulds. But mould erosion is common in these type of
moulds. The permeability of these moulds should be properly controlled, otherwise blow holes and gas inclusions
are likely to form.
Dry sand moulds:
These are the green sand moulds which are completely dried by keeping in an oven between 150- 350C for 8 to 48
hours depending on the binders in the mouldings and. These moulds generally has higher strengths than the green
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sand mould and are preferred because they are less likely to be damaged during handling. These are generally used
for medium to large castings. Better surface finish and dimensional accuracy can be achieved by dry sand mould.
The main disadvantages are the likely distortion of the mould caused during the baking process, susceptibility to hot
tearing of castings and longer production cycles. Also, this is more expensive than the green sand mould.
Skin dried mould:
Though the dry sand mould is preferable for large moulds because of the expense involved, a compromise is
achieved by drying only the skin of the mould cavity with which the molten metal comes in contact, instead of the
full mould. The skin is normally dried to a depth of 15 to 25 mm. using either torches or by simply allowing them to
dry in atmosphere. This can also be done in pit moulding. However, pouring of metal should be completed
immediately after the drying process such that moisture from the undried portion would not penetrate the dried
skin.
Melting Practice:
After moulding, melting is the major factor which controls the quality of the casting. There are a number of methods
available for melting foundry alloys such as pit furnace, open hearth furnace, rotary furnace, cupola furnace, etc. The
choice-of the furnace depends, on the amount and the type of alloy being melted. For melting cast iron, cupola in its
various forms is extensively used basically because of its lower initial and melting cost.
CUPULA:
For melting of cast iron in foundry the Cupola Furnace is used. A diagramatic sketch of this furnace is given in Fig. A
Fig. A. COPULA FURNACE

Fig. B below illustrates a crosssectional view of Cupola. It has a

construction in the form of a
hollow vertical cylinder made of
strong mild steel plates and
riveted or welded at the seams.
Welded joints are more common
in modern practice.
In large Cupolas the lower portion
is made of comparatively thicker
plates so as to make it strong
enough to hold the upper
structure and fire brick lining.
Thus, the stress in the whole
structure is distributed uniformly.
Also, such Cupolas are further
strengthened by providing the
Brick Retaining Rings at suitable
heights.
The Bottom Door of the shell can
be in one piece, hinged to a
supporting leg, or in two pieces:
each piece hinged separately to
the two opposite legs. When the
cupola is in operation, the Bottom
door is supported by a Prop so
that it may not collapse due to the
13
large weight of the charge and coke, etc., it carries. When we do not need the
COPULA for further operation, the charge feeding is stopped, air supply cut
off and the Prop is removed. As soon as the Prop is removed the Door drops
down providing a clear space for the coke fire, residue of the molten metal
with slag and the sand bed to fall down and thus the fire inside ceases
gradually.
Fig. B Cross-sectional view of COPULA Furnace

1 February 2010
A Wind Chamber or Wind Belt, as

it is more commonly known,
encircles the cupola shell at a
place little above the bottom of
the shell. This belt is connected to
the furnace blower by means of a
Blast Pipe. The amount of air
required is forced into the
chamber by the blower, which
enters the furnace through
openings called Tuyeres. These
Tuyeres are provided all around
the shell and have a definite
number and size depending upon
the amount of air required.
Charging Door is located at a
suitable height above the charging
platform. This platform is of
robust mild steel construction,
supported on four strong steel
legs, and is provided with a
Ladder. Weighed quantities of
Metal, Coke, Scrap and Flux are
collected on this platform, which
is charged into the COPULA as and
when required.
The top of the COPULA is provided
with a Mesh Screen and a Spark
Arrester. It is a cone shaped
construction, as shown in the
diagram.
This
attachment
facilitates a free escape of the
waste gases at the same
time deflects the spark and the
dust back into the furnace. In
some COPULAS the upper portion
is made tapered with the top
diameter as about half of the
inside diameter of the cupola at
the smelting zone.
Small Cupola say from 500 kg to
1000 kg capacity, are better
known as Cupolettes. They are
quite self-sufficient in operation
and have almost all the
accessories which a large cupola
possesses except the Spark
Arrester and Charging Door. Since
the height of these Cupolettes is
very small, say 2.5 meters to 4
14
1 February 2010
meters, charging is done from the top of the Cupolette. They are fixed on two reunions inside the bearings, mounted on
the supporting legs, so that they can be tilted to become horizontal for providing the fire Brick lining. This lining is
provided in all cupolas, irrespective of the size to withstand the high temperature produced inside the furnace.
Other Furnaces:
Reverberatory Furnace:
In these furnaces the fuel burners fire within a refractory hood above the metal bath. These are generally used to
melt large amounts of metal for example, aluminium to supply to holding furnaces such as those used with pressure
die casting machines. These use gas fired burners located generally high in the furnace transferring the heat by
radiation to the walls and roof. As the walls and roof become incandescent they radiate the heat to the metal bath.
These furnaces are simple and have relatively low capital cost. Thus these are generally used for melting large
volumes of metal.
Crucible Furnace:
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace. The crucible is generally heated by electric resistance or gas
flame. In these the metal is placed in a crucible of refractory metal and the heating is done to the crucible thus there
is no direct contact between the flame and the metal charge. This type of melting is very flexible since it suits a
variety of casting alloys. Degassing and any metal treatment can be completed in the crucible before it is removed
for pouring. Melt quality and temperature can also be controlled reasonably well.
Induction Furnace:
The induction furnaces are used for all types of materials, the chief advantage being the heat source is isolated from
the charge and the slag and flux would be getting the necessary heat directly from the charge instead of the heat
source. The stirring effect of the electric current would cause fluxes to be entrained in the melt if they are mixed
along with the charge. So flux is generally added after switching off the current to the furnace. Then sufficient time
must be allowed for the oxides to be removed by the flux as slag before transferring the metal for pouring. High
frequencies help in stirring the molten metal and thus help in using the metal dwarf (chips). Low cost raw materials
could, therefore, be used and at the same time better control of temperature and composition can be achieved.
Ladles:
The molten metal from the furnace is tapped into the ladles at requisite intervals and then poured into the moulds.
Depending on the amount of metal to be handled, there are different sizes of ladles. They may range between 50 kg to
30 tones depending upon the casting size. For grey cast iron, since the slag can be easily separated, top pouring ladles
would be enough. But for steels; to separate the slag effectively, the metal is to be poured from the bottom with the
help of the bottom pour ladle. The bottom pour ladle has an opening in the bottom that is fitted with a refractory
nozzle. A stopper rod, suspended inside the ladle, pulls the stopper head up from its position thus allowing the molten
alloy to flow from the ladle. As the metal in the ladle loses a large amount of heat to the surrounding atmosphere by
radiation it is necessary to account for this drop in the temperature of the casting metal.
15

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Manufacturing Technology, ME-202-E