Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IN
SEDIMENTOLO GY
9A
DEVELOPMENTS IN SEDIMENTOLOGY 9A
CARBONATE ROCKS
Origin, Occurrence and Classi$cation
EDITED BY
GEORGE V. CHILINGAR
Professor of Petroleum Engineering
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Gal$ (U.S.A.)
HAROLD J. BISSELL
Professor of Geology
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah (U.S.A.)
AND
RHODES W. FAIRBRIDGE
Professor of Geology
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (U.S.A.)
335 JAN
21 1, AMSTERDAM
52 VANDERBILT
10017
WITH
65-20140
CONTENTS
CHAPTER l. INTRODUCTION
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE (New York, N .Y., U.S.A.), G. V. CH!UNGAR (Los Angeles, Calif.
U.S.A.) and H. J. BISSELL (Provo, Utah, U.S.A.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 2. MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS
W. H. TAFT (Tampa, Fla., U.S.A.) . . . . . . . . . .
29
51
87
169
267
349
CHAPTER 8. CARBONATE ROCKS AND PALEOCLIMATOLOGY IN THE BIOCHEMICAL HISTORY OF THE PLANET
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE (New York, N.Y., U.S.A.)
399
APPENDIX
433
REFERENCES INDEX
435
SUBJECT INDEX . . .
444
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
RHODES W. FAIRBRIDGE, GEORGE V. CHILINGAR, AND HAROLD J . BISSELL
INTRODUCTION
Limestones are those rocks composed of more than 50% carbonate minerals, of
which 50 % or more consist of calcite and/or aragonite. Limestones may be white,
gray, dark gray, yellowish, greenish, blue, and, sometimes, black in color. A small
admixture of clay particles or organic matter imparts gray color to limestones.
Greenish coloration is due to the admixture of clayey material, glauconite, or
finely-dispersed ferrous compounds; whereas reddish or brownish coloration is
due to the presence of ferric iron. As pointed out by RUKHIN(1961, p.173),
coarse-grained limestones usually have lighter colors (associated with well-oxidized
conditions) than the fine-grained varieties (often indicative of deeper, possibly
reducing conditions in early diagenesis). Impurities in limestone include a spectrum
of magnesium carbonates, dolomite, silica, glauconite, gypsum, fluorite, siderite,
sulfides, iron and manganese oxides, phosphates, clays, and organic matter.
A rock with somewhat under 50% CaC03 is described as a calcareous
sandstone, shale, etc. Its carbonate fraction is often subject to differential weathering, so that it appears like a limestone; the insoluble quartz grains, etc. are often
unobtrusive and are easily released during weathering processes. Some calcareous
eolianites with less than 30 % CaC03 develop karst features and other characteristics of limestones.
Dolomites (or dolostones) are rocks composed mainly of the mineral
dolomite (CaMg(C0s)z). Pure dolomite mineral is composed of 45.7 % MgC03
and 54.3 % CaC03, in weight % (or 47.8 % COz, 21.8 % MgO, and 30.4 % CaO)
(see Fig. 1). Impurities in dolomite rock (dolostone) include gypsum, anhydrite,
iron sulfides, celestite, opal, chalcedony, iron oxides, magnesite, fluorite, and organic matter. Dolomites are quite similar to limestones in appearance and, therefore, it is difficult to distinguish between the two with a naked eye. (The term
dolostone is used by some authors to specify the rock composed of the mineral
dolomite, in large measure at least; the present authors recognize certain utility
in this term. The word is not widely used, however, because the meaning is normally clear from the context.)
R. W.
FAIRBRIDGE, G.
20 -n
-s
v
l5
Magnesium
enriched
limestones
Magnesium carbonate
( O h )
Fig.1. Graph showing MgC03 concentration in Paleozoic carbonates (data after CHAVE,1954),
ar:d two distinct peaks of magnesium enrichment. Note that high-magnesium calcites having
15-35 % MgC03 are notably absent due to their preferential dolomitization, leaving only the
limestones with MgC03 content of less than 15 %. There is a progressive dolomitization of all
ancient limestones having above 15 % MgC03. (After FAIRBRIDGE,
1957, p.128, fig.1.)
Sedimentary carbonate rocks are, for the most part, products of deposition
in marine realms and the principal repositories are the paralia- and autogeosynclines, in neritic environments. Calcium carbonate can accumulate also in deep
water, or may be found in coral atoll structures surrounded by an abyssal region,
but definitely not on the same scale as those of banks, platforms, and shelves.
Little or no evidence is available suggesting that areally-extensive carbonates ac cumulated in deep water prior to the Cretaceous. Data compiled more than 40 years
ago by VAUGHAN
(1924, p.313) from the Challenger Report on modern deep-sea
sediments, however, indicate that calcium carbonate comprises on the average
32.2 % of these sediments, largely as Globigerina and pteropod oozes, and as coral
mud and sand. As pointed out by TWENHOFEL
( I 943, p.285), This concentration
in the deeper water sediments must be balanced somewhere in other deposits; the
sediments with a deficiency of lime may be those of the continental and delta
environments. Probably the deep-sea sediments of the Paleozoic and Precambrian
eras were low or deficient in CaC03, because the lime-secreting plankton and nekton were rare or absent.
As pointed out by STRAKHOV
et al. (1954, p.720), the evolution of carbonate
rocks in many respects is different, for example, from that of iron ores (Fig.2).
According to STRAKHOV
et al. (1954, p.721), inasmuch as carbonate rocks occur
preferentially on platforms rather than in orthogeosynclines and with time the
shallow platform areas were growing at the expense of deeper geosynclinal zones,
the processes favorable to carbonate formation were more intensive during the
INTRODUCTION
5 6
pg
Cr
Tr
P
C
D
cm
500
1,000
1,500
Fig.2. Schematic diagram showing evolution of carbonate rocks. Absolute time in millions of
years is plotted on the ordinate.
A . Normal-saline seas and oceans: I = chemical calcite formation; 2 = biogenic calcite
formation; 3 = primary chemical dolomite formation; 4 = diagenetic dolomite formation.
B. Carbonate lagoons: 5 = primary dolomite formation is a necessary stage during the
history of lagoons; 6 = dolomite formation as an optional stage during the history of the lagoon,
requiring existence of definite physicogeographical conditions.
C. Lakes of arid zone: 7 = lakes of magnesium carbonate type; 8 = lakes of sodium type.
(After STRAKHOV
et al., 1954, p.720.)
R. W.
FAIRBRIDGE, G . V.
-7
SITE OF RESTRICTED
1ARRONATE SEDIMENTATION
SITE OF MAXIMUM
CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION
- . .. .
.
~
(Coastal
---.,/
NERITIC
ZONE
loo
200
300
miles
400
-
500
...- ._
.
.
.
_. - .. -
..- .- . ..
-L-I
Fpeirocrotic
~.
sea - level
BATHYAL ZONE
Fig.3. Diagram illustrating maximum distribution of carbonates during the past at times when the
sea level was universally high (thalassocratic stages), and poor development of carbonate sediments
1957, p. 157, fig. I I .)
when sea level was low (epeirocratic stages). (After FAIRBRIDGE,
of general withdrawal that were unfavorable for the formation of carbonate rocks
(e.g., parts of Upper Carboniferous, Triassic) (see Fig.3). Precambrian carbonate
rocks, where preserved from obliteration by intense metamorphism, very frequently contain traces of calcareous Algae (such as Collenia, etc.). Even where the carbonates are totally replaced by silica, it is still possible to detect the unmistakable
patterns of calcareous Algae; no tectonic process can duplicate their distinctive
cauliflower growth forms (FAIRBRIDGE,
1950). Precambrian marbles commonly
contain graphite in some sections which perhaps suggests an organic association.
It is possible that a high Mg/Ca ratio and lower pH in Precambrian sea
waters prevented the formation of hard protective and skeletal structures of organisms, or largely hindered their formation (CHILINGAR
and BISSELL,1963;
FAIRBRIDGE,
1964). Thus, during Precambrian time the carbonate rocks apparently
owed their origin not to the secretion of shells by organisms, but to biochemical
control of pH in lagoons by Algae and to direct chemical precipitation out of sea
water. Algae became important lime-precipitating organisms quite early in Precambrian times (they are found, for example, in the oldest Precambrian rocks of
Rhodesia); but only in Cambrian time did organisms of the animal kingdom begin
to participate in significant manner in extracting carbonates out of sea water.
Consequently, chemical or biochemical precipitation was over-shadowed by
biogenic carbonate formation with time.
Accumulations of carbonates in modern seas are produced by mechanical,
organic, chemical, and inorganic processes; widespread accumulations of pure to
relatively pure limestones, and in particular fine-textured varieties, represent
moderately shallow to very shallow marine realms. Some of these deposits have
.I
INTRODUCTION
resulted from chemical processes only, whereas others owe their origin to physicochemical and biological processes. Coquinas of hard-parts of organisms are
forming at present and there are substantial thicknesses and widespread occurrence
of bioclastic carbonates. Dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and magnesium-rich carbonates are not accumulating as thick deposits in present-day seas; and the few
occurrences that have been reported by ALDERMAN
and SKINNER
(1957, pp.561-567),
SABINS(1962, pp.1183-1196), H. C. W. SKINNER
et al. (1963, pp. 335-336), TAFT
(1961, pp.561-562), TAFTand HARBAUGH
(1964, pp.58-66), VONDER BORCHet al.
(1964, pp.lll6-1118), and by others all indicate shallow marine waters and require very special physicochemical conditions, such as high Mg/Ca ratio of medium
of deposition.
Recent observations, techniques, and analyses have made the picture of
dolomite formation much clearer; however, much work still remains to be done.
It is still uncertain whether direct chemical precipitation of dolomite (primary
dolomite) under natural, low-temperature and low-pressure conditions in the
Paleozoic seas was possible or not. Many questions concerning secondary dolomitization, such as the relationship between porosity and degree of dolomitization
are still unanswered. CHILINGAR
et al. (1966) recently discussed some of these problems in detail, and recognized very early diagenetic, early diagenetic, late diagenetic, and epigenetic (subsequent to lithification) dolomites. FAIRBRIDGE
(1 966) recognized syn-, ana-, and epidiagenetic stages. (See Fig.4, 5, 6.)
STRAKHOV
(1956) recognized the following four types of dolomite facies:
( I ) dolomites forming in marginal, supersaline parts of large marine basins
(mainly platforms); (2) shallow, supersaline central parts of seas on platforms;
RAINFALL
pH 7
~~~
ic H a r d
P w
Fig.5. Dolomites belonging to different stages of diagencsis, from an idealized sketch of conditions
observed in the Eifel district of Germany. (After FAIRBRIDGE,
1957, p.162, fig.13.) ( I ) Devonian
Givetian Dolomite-syndiagenetic; (2) Couvinian Limestone (Middle Devonian) - affected by
epidiagenesis corresponding to the pre-Ti iilssic land surfaces (a former hard pan), but to a
limited depth only; (3) Triassic basal conglomerate, containing two types of dolomitic boulders,
plus limestone boulders; and ( 4 ) hydrothermal dolomite, possibly enriched by anadiagenetic
(deep-seated) connate solutions moving upward along fault plane.
Water
Pressure Depth
tT
:ip
Tn Range
atrn
3r
2-
1,000
100 - 3,000
5p00
300 ro,ooo
01 Pieistocene
l e u s t a t i c oscillations
______
Primary accumulation
FREE ACGCSS
I N SEA WATER
POROUS WALLS
!!=
:a
20 ATMOSPHERES
\
ICOMPLETE=STABiLTY.
TRUNC-,,,
k!
Fig.6. Diagram of an oceanic atoll with a dolomitized core. During thc periods when the lagoon is
largely cut off from the ocean, high-density alkaline solutions enriched in Mg content seep
downward and dolomitize reef core. Porous and pcrmeable reef walls permit continued refluxing
of Mg-rich solutions until dolomitization is complete. (Aftcr FAIRBRIDGE,
1957, p.148, fig.8.)
INTRODUCTION
(3) normal marine dolomites, such as the dolomitized reefs of Upper Triassic of
Eastern Alps; and (4) dolomites forming in lagoons and in marine bays of the arid
zone, but characterized by freshened (by river) waters.
The following important types of dolomite deposits were recognized by
TEODOROVICH
(1958): ( I ) normal-marine calcareous dolomites and replacement
dolomitic limestones; (2) primary pelitomorphic (fine-textured) dolomites and
anhydrite-dolomite rocks; (3) calcareous dolomite deposits of supersaline seas,
reef lagoons and periodically drying intertidal calcareous muds; and (4) primarychemical, fine-textured calcareous-dolomitic muds, which form in continental
lakes having dry and hot sometimes seasonal) climates. Dolomites of type 2 have
formed in supersaline lagoons and may either be interbedded with strata and lenses
of anhydrite-gypsum, or they may be primary more of less homogeneous sulfatedolomite rocks.
In reviewing the distribution of Paleozoic dolomites, FAIRBRIDCE
(1 957)
pointed out that in the offshore direction in a non-evaporite facies as one proceeds
seaward the dolomitized sediments are generally replaced by nondolomitized
limestones of colder and deeper water character. Where the two alternate, one
visualizes a eustatic cyclicity. The near-shore dolomitized carbonate is richer in
terrigenous insolubles and initially Mg-rich algal nuclei, whereas the non-dolomitized layers lack such nuclei. The correlation between dolomitization and clastics
showing nearness to the shore was demonstrated by many authors as exemplified in Fig.7 (see also Fig. 8, 9). This is a very important criterion when preparing
paleogeographic maps. Much work, however, still remains to be done on this subject.
In certain deep-water limestones, one may also note a rise in the insoluble
fraction, but these rocks do not become so readily dolomitized. The insoluble
residue is likely to be authigenic quartz or chert that is secondarily derived from
fine-grained siliceous dusts or pelagic sources such as Radiolaria or diatoms
(CHILINGAR,
1953).
Modern seas are noticeably sparse in carbonate environments. There is no
single area where sedimentation of various marine limestones, with a spectrum of
evaporites and dolomitic materials, can be seen occurring contemporaneously. For
this reason certain lacustrine sites have been examined for some of the answers of
evaporite-suite sedimentation. Great Salt Lake and the Salt Flats of Utah in the
western United States have been the subject of recent studies (GRAFet al., 1959,
p.1610; 1961, pp. 219-223; GRIMet al., 1960, pp.515-520; BISSELL
and CHILINGAR,
1962, pp.200-210). Although this area represents only present-day and Pleistocene
carbonate deposition under lacustrine environmental conditions, it nevertheless
gives an insight into some of the chemical, physical, physicochemical, and organic
processes which may have operated, with certain modifications and variations,
in marine realms in the geologic past. For example, thick deposits of salts of various
chemical composition can originate in marine basins of different depths. Inflowing
90
80
El
...... .
. .. .. ..
70
60
50
<
i
z
w
c
2
c
0
I
g
a
90
30
EXPLANATION
MgCO,
IJ
35=1
20 -
INSOL
4010
01
0
I
10
INSOLUBLE
20
RESIDUE
30
40
CONTENT, %
CaCO,
VERTICAL S C A L E
50
Fig.7. Relationship between the amount of insoluble residue and dolomite content in carbonate
portion of clayey, calcareous dolomites and dolomitic limestones. (After ZELENOV,
1956, p.42.)
Fig.8. Relationship between the amount of insoluble, terrigenous grains (near-shore indicators)
and the degree of dolomitization. Purer limestones with less insoluble material have lower MgCO3
content, suggesting offshore facies. Based on a Lower Ordovician section near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. (After FAIRBRIDGE,
1957, p.155, fig.9; analyses by LESLEY,
1879.)
oceanic waters across shallow shelves reach a level of saturation for the various
dissolved salts at widely distant points, and, under certain Eh and p H conditions,
can create overlapping facies. Above a very shallow shelf, which tectonically may
be also rather stable, progressive saturation can lead to a high degree of fractional
sedimentation. Under a particular set of conditions, calcium carbonate may not
extend into the repository where saline to highly saline salts are accumulating;
calcium sulfate may also be negligible or present in rather small amounts. Variation
in degree of tectonism can, however, bring about an entirely different set of sedimentological conditions, and alternation as well as interdigitation may follow; for
example, one may observe a sequence of micritic and algal limestones, dolomicrites,
INTRODUCTION
TOP
E D HOI
sorroul@Ok
EXPLANATION
M3C0,
0caco,
INSOL
soft algal dolomicrites, bituminous limestones and dolomites, argillaceous limestones and dolomites, a spectrum of anhydrites and gypsum (gypstone), rock salt,
and other sediments which can accumulate in restricted to semirestricted environments. At times there may be an influx of detrital materials from the adjacent land
areas, as shown for example by admixtures of red mud, red silt and red-colored
NaC1-rich sediments.
Large volumes of ocean water are circulating over depositional sites upon
shelves over which water depth is more than a few centimeters, possibly some tens
of meters, and also as a rule over those shelves of more unstable (subsiding) tectonism. Passage of water across a marginal shelf, rise, reef, ridge, or other shoal
area can promote saturation, thus initiating a sequential order of precipitation
of dissolved salts. Commonly calcium carbonate will be deposited first; continued
fractionation of salts can occur in sequential fashion with progressively but
slowly increasing water depths. The latter depends mostly on the ratio of the depth
of water lost by evaporation to total depth of water. This is not to infer that the
process operates in open deep-seas but rather over thresholds of parts of the neritic
zone on which topographic irregularities occur. Deepening of the closed basin
may prevent the most concentrated solutions from mixing with those of the lesser
10
R. W.
FAIRBRIDGE, G. V.
depths and thereby trap the salt. Stagnation could dominate in the deep parts of
the basin, and deposits of darker-colored (locally bituminous) rock salts could attain
thicknesses of 100 ft. to asmuch as 1,000ft. (See also SCRUTON,
1953, pp.2498-2512;
and ADAMSand RHODES,1960, pp.1912-1929.)
Students of carbonate petrology and petrography long suspected that there
was a difference between the chemistry of modern sea water and that of the barred
basin seas of the known Paleozoic and Mesozoic salt deposits, which also contain
interlayered and interfingered carbonates. Seemingly, in deep-basin deposits the
calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate constituents dominate over the sodium
chloride accumulations, and locally gypsum-anhydrite deposits are present almost
to the total exclusion of carbonates. In shallow-shelf and platform areas, however,
sodium chloride may comprise the most extensive deposits; on the other hand,
environmental conditions may have prevailed which permitted deposition of
thick massive gypsum (gyprock), which can become altered to anhydrite under
moderate burial pressure. Bituminous limestone and/or dolomite and red beds
may also be present. The red-bed material, however, was derived from a terrigenous source and merely represents admixture of detritals into the depositional site.
Potash salts are absent or negligible in such platform deposits. The only logical
conclusion that can be arrived at when the details of ancient evaporite suites are
carefully investigated is that none of these salt deposits represents complete evaporation of a sea water basin (BORCHERT
and MUIR,1964). Thus, it would seem that
most of the salt solutions that reached a concentration beyond that of saturation for
sodium chloride were transferred back to the ocean at depth as return currents (see
Fig. 10). This rule also applies to the sodium chloride solutions in the partly closed
basins which deposited Ca and Mg salts such as CaC03, MgC03, and CaSO4.
Various platforms and shelves, particularly those which are controlled by mild
tectonism (subsidence) contain evaporite suites which were evidently precipitated
one after another in the inverse order of their solubility, that is, CaC03, CaMg
(CO3)2, CaSO4.2H20, NaCl, MgC12 and KClz, etc. It must be realized, however,
that the locus of deposition of each of the salts is diachronic, so that the maximum
thickness of each salt formation can only be measured in a profile that allows for
lateral displacement through time; in short, the salt beds contain lateral and verticolateral facies variants.
Over a shallow shelf where evaporation is high in relation to depth of water,
saturation is reached first in the inflowing water near the shelf margin, resulting
in a calcium carbonate accumulation which normally forms a belt or band parallel
to the shelf boundary. It is commonly succeeded landward by massive gypsum
deposits while the heavy chloride solutions move out basinward in bottom currents. Progressive landward evaporation of inflowing waters may also be concomitant with density stratification of various salt solutions in deeper portions of the
basin (or unstable shelf), and separation of salts from solution should be according
to the ionic ratios of the solution. This would result in chemical carbonate sedi-
11
INTRODUCTION
or SOUTH bTLANTIC
ATLANTIC
BAFFlN
K v r l l 5111-
SEA OF OKHOTSK
____ S l l l
Glbro1t.r
INDIAN OCEAN-Bab
INOIAN OCEAN
O O W 5111
_ _ Sfral,
WEDELL SEA
Sill
-MEDITERRANEAN
el Mmdeb
Of
SEA
Horm2
R E 0 SEA
~
PERSIAN GULF
SOUTH PACIFIC
Anfillem S8lli
NORWEGIAN
N m r e n 5411-
SEA-
ATLANTIC
AEGEAN
SEA
NORTH SEA-
TASMAN
M e l o n a i i ~ nSils-
NORTH ATLANTIC-
Fiord Sill
0arporur
SEA
CARl0BEAN SEA
ARCTIC SEA
NORWEGIAN
D o r r r / O r a p d c n S~II-BALTIC
FJORDS
BLACK SEA
SEA
Fig.10. Four standard types of barred basins, showing denser water (cross-hatched). Only type
AZ appears to be suitable for the formation of chemical (evaporite) carbonates. (Modified after
DIETRICH,
1963.)
mentation along the outer border, sulfates in a marginal zone, and the chlorides
in the basin center. Such an ideal distribution is seldom attained, however, and
neritic facies often display deposition cyclicity of most, if not all, of the saltswhich
occur in that environment; even in the center of the basin all phases can be present
in one cycle.
In the deeper portions of some basins, the carbonates and sulfates exhibit
finely laminated characteristics and may be bituminous, especially in the beginning
phases of accumulation. These texture and composition are in a marked contrast to
those of the reef carbonates, the primary and other dolomites, and the mottled
and wavy-laminated gypsum of the shallow-water environment. Some of these concepts are summarized in Table I as an attempt at reconstruction of paleogeologic
facies. The Permo-Triassic sedimentary sequence in a platform-to-shelf-to-basin
repository in northwestern and southern Arizona of the western United States
seems to illustrate the concepts advanced above. They also seem to be compatible
with the environment reconstructed by MCKEE(1938, pp.129-132) for the Toro-
12
TABLE I
PALEOGEOLOGIC DISTRIBUTION OF CARBONATES I N EVAPORITE-SUITE FACIES
Light carbonates
Dark carbonates
Light-colored limestone and/or dolomite, interbedded with calcarenites and/or red beds.
Dolomite, anhydrite, algal- and coarse-textured oolitic limestones
or dolomites.
Algal dolomite; algal-plate limestone; bioclastic limestone; coarse
to fine oolitic limestones and dolomites.
Mottled anhydrite or gypsum with thininter-beds of micrite, dolomicrite, and/or algal limestones.
Massive anhydrite with clouds and knots of dolomite.
Wavy-laminated anhydrite with dolomicrite and micrite lentils
and thin inter-beds; may be bituminous.
Knotty and augen anhydrite, spongy dolomite and limestone.
Thin-bedded anhydrite and dolomite or limestone in an interlayered sequence; bituminous.
Varved anhydrite, dolomite, and bituminous limestone.
Limestone with thin anhydrite layers. Sediment is bituminous.
Bituminous carbonates with little or no anhydrite or gypsum.
Shelf
I
I
I
J.
Basin
weap Formation and Kaibab Limestone of northern Arizona and southern Utah,
where there are excellent cyclothems of carbonate, gypsum, and red beds in the
sedimentary sequences. McKees ideal cyclothem in these Permian strata is as
follows:
(5) Red beds and gypsum1
( 4 ) Chemically precipitated limestones
(3) Marine limestones with mollusks or brachiopods
(2) Chemically precipitated limestones
(1) Red beds and gypsum
Workers concerned with petrology and petrography of sedimentary carbonate rocks, including modern accumulations of these sediments particularly in
the shallow marine realm, have erected a complex nomenclature of descriptive
terms many of which give a suggestion as to environment of sedimentation. Although it is not the purposein this introductorypreface to review all these names, itis
noteworthy that researchers no longer must hasten to a glossary of terms to determine the meaning of such now well-known names as calcarenite, calcisiltite,
tuffaceous carbonate, coralgal limestone, bryalgal limestone, grapestone, hard
algal limestone, micrite, dolomicrite, dolarenite, coquinite, and many others.
Nomenclatural terms and rock names are the trade-marks of sedimentary petrographers and it behooves the young worker to familiarize himself with this language.
1McKee showed these with 5 at bottom and I at top of list.
INTRODUCTION
13
14
The petrology and petrography of the carbonate rocks has been discussed in
Chapter 3 by an experienced group of French and Italian geologists: Yvonne
Gubler, along with J. P. Bertrand, L. Mattavelli, A. Rizzini and R. Passega.
This authorship reflects two interesting trends: ( I ) the steadily growing importance
of research by the Institut FranGais de Petrole and AGIP (the Italian National
Corporation), and (2) the major role played by carbonates in oil and gas basins of
western Europe (notably Aquitaine and Sicily), North Africa and the Middle
East.
Petrology deals with the geometry of the carbonate rock, its sedimentology,
bedding, intraformational structures, and field appearance. In contrast, petrography involves description of features observable on a smaller, microscopic scale:
the sedimentary micro-textures, cement and granular detail. Petrographic studies
provide feed-back of information to complete the petrologic picture. Statistical
integration can be achieved through the method worked out by IMBRIE
and PURDY
(1961).
Carbonate rocks are polygenetic; they are composed of chemical, biochemical and clastic components, generally in various mixtures. The dominant cations
in major carbonate minerals are Ca2+, Mgz+, and Fez+; minor components include
particulate clays, silica, phosphates, oxides and sulfides.
Three fundamental features of carbonate rocks are recognized:
(a) Role of orgunisms. Being able to modify the local pco2 directly or indirectly, organisms (especially the photosynthetic Algae and bacteria) play a dominant role in carbonate petrology. Thus, the paleoecology of these organisms is
critical t o the understanding of petrology of carbonate rocks.
(b) Metastable minerals. Metastable minerals, which are common amongst
the newly formed carbonates, control much of the diagenetic evolution of these
rocks. High-magnesium carbonate leads the way to stable dolomite; aragonite
soon inverts to low-magnesium calcite. Distinguishing primary from diagenetic
crystals is not always easy, and the time of diagenesis may range from the earliest
t o the latest phase of the rock's history (FAIRBRJDGE, 1967).
(c) Past distribution. Past distribution of carbonates was not always the same
as today. The fundamental dichotomy took place in the Cretaceous, with an
appearance of widespread pelagic organisms (Foraminifera and Coccolithophoridae). Prior to this time the dominant facies were neritic and organisms were
INTRODUCTION
15
16
The question of classification of carbonate rocks has been a long and vexed one,
especially when compared with the classifications of other sedimentary rocks.
The reason is not difficult to appreciate: other sediments for the most part are
fairly easily disaggregated into component grains, which may then be sorted for
size analysis; also they respond to fairly straight-forward compositional or mineralogical analysis. On the other hand, calcite, dolomite, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are all minerals that are highly susceptible to diagenetic change, to
partial or total recrystallization, and to selective leaching and replacement. Fossils
and distinctive primary syn-sedimentary structures of calcareous sediments may be
INTRODUCTION
17
totally destroyed or largely masked during diagenesis, which may include dolomitization or other fundamental modifications. Many rock types may be classified
as biogenic and inorganic, but limestones often constitute a complex mixture, for
example, an organogenic framework with an inorganic cement.
In Chapter 4, H. J. Bissell and G. V. Chilingar considered the many alternative classifications that have been offered, with special attention to the flood of
schemes that have appeared over the last decade or so. They stressed the importance of four parameters in particular:
( I ) Composition. Most authorities subscribe to a basic classification close to
that of Cayeaux (1935, interpretation of data) for limestone-dolomite mixtures:
limestone (( 5 % dolomite mineral), magnesian limestone (5-10 % dolomite),
dolomitic limestone (10-50 % dolomite), calcitic dolomite (50-90 % dolomite),
dolomite rock (( 10% calcite). Little support is given to the term dolostone
although it is attractive; geologists are mostly content to see from the context
whether dolomite refers to the mineral or to the rock.
CHILINGAR
(1957) rather favored a system of Ca/Mg ratios for compositional
definition: normal dolomites (Ca/Mg = 1.5-1.7), calcitic dolomite (Ca/Mg = 2.03 3 , etc. TEODOROVICH
(1958) provided further for a clay fraction: clayey dolomite
(35-90 % dolomite mineral, 0-45 % calcite, 30-10 % clay), etc.
(2) Texture. Bissell and Chilingar recommended a system of classification
broadly based on those of LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962) and on PLUMLEY
et al.
(1962). Three gross texture categories are identified on the basis of their genesis:
(a) Accumulated in place (chemical and biochemical)-non-granular,
colloform, etc., lack organic traces, e.g., travertine.
( b ) Accumulated in place (organic frame-builders)-e.g., coral, bryozoan,
etc. limestone ( )90 % grains), micritic coralline limestone (50-90 % grains), or
coralline micritic limestone (( 50 % grains).
(c) Clastic and wave-moved-clastic limestones are further subdivided into
those with abraded grains (detrital, skeletal, and pellets in part) and those having
accretion-aggregation grains (some pellets, lumps and coated grains). Under each
of these categories, Bissell and Chilingar recognized: ( i ) )90 % grains (detrital
limestones, including calcarenite, etc., from pre-existing rocks only; skeletal limestone, pelletal limestone, lump limestone, oolitic limestone, etc.); (ii)90-75 % grains
(micritic, detrital limestones, etc.); (iii)75-50 % grains (micritic-detrital limestones
etc.; (iv) 50-25 % grains (detrital-micritic limestone, etc.); (v) 25-10 % grains
(detrital, micritic limestone, etc.).
Most of these criteria can be established with the aid of a hand lens and a
dropper with dilute HC1.
(3) Grain-micrite ratio ( G M R ) . GMR shows the relative amounts of coarse
and fine textured carbonate material, theoretically related to wave or current action.
For rocks having 90% grains, GMR is 9 / l ; for 50% grains, l / l ; and for 10%
grains, 119.
18
(4) Energy index (EI). EI is a quantitative index for the appraisal of the rock
and its environment. )90 % grains indicate strongly agitated waters; 75-90 %,
moderately agitated; 50-75 %, slightly agitated; 25-50 %, intermittently agitated;
and 10-25 %, gently agitated.
With regard to secondary dolomites, most of the limestone classifications
may be applied if the original texture is not obliterated. Limestones altered to
cryptogenic stages may contain ghost relics and granular traces. Totally crystalline phases (aphanic or phaneric) can be classified only on basis of simple grain
dimensions. Possibly, oxygen isotope studies may enable one to distinguish between primary (direct precipitates out of sea water) and diagenetic-epigenetic dolomites. Some criteria may be used to distinguish between the latter two (diagenetic
or epigenetic) dolomites also (CHILINGAR
et al., 1967).
INTRODUCTION
19
seas from offshore platforms (e.g., the Bahamas, the Maldive-Laccadives, the South
China Sea and the Coral Sea) in regions of quasicratonic intermediate crust, there
are perhaps the greatest diversity of carbonate occurrences. The shallow environment renders them susceptible to rapid facies change under changing energy
conditions, due to shore-line changes associated with eustasy, tectonics, or sedimentary processes. Biofacies of great variety here contribute to the lithologic
heterogeneity. On the continental shelves there is potentially a considerable mixing
with noncarbonate terrigenous material. Pure carbonate deposits are more likely
to occur on the intermediate platforms; but here also there is an admixture of
clastic, pre-existing terrigenous limestone debris.
In the shelf or intracratonic environments, there are numerous cases of
mixed evaporite-carbonate sequences; this is particularly true of the past, but
not today, because the present sea-level regime is only about 6,000 years old.
In deep-sea environments of today, and back to Cretaceous times, there
are enormously widespread pelagic carbonates, coccolith ooze, Globigerina ooze;
pteropod ooze, etc. The rock equivalents were mainly the chalks and chalky marls.
Prior to Cretaceous these were rare or absent, a phenomenon of geologic history
closely related to the sudden flowering of pelagic carbonate organisms in the Late
Mesozoic, which in turn is probably related to gross changes in paleogeography
and marine geochemistry.
Particular attention is drawn to the authors treatment of the Capitan
Limestone of the classic Permian section of West Texas, U.S.A., on which they do
not agree. Friedman supports the widely accepted barrier-reef hypothesis; whereas
Sanders advocates many of the views of his former student, G. W. Moore, who
has raised doubts on many important points of the barrier-reef interpretation and
has substituted the rather astonishing alternative that the fine-grained, massive,
high-calcium, unfossiliferous limestone of the Capitan Formation is not recrystallized reef rock, but rather originated by wholesale replacement of massive Castile
anhydrite. Moores alternative contains numerous important stratigraphic and
paleogeographic corollaries, which are of more than academic interest to the geology
of this petroliferous province.
Another subject worthy of comment is the treatment accorded gravitydisplaced, calcareous, deep-sea deposits. In addition to their discussion of calcareous turbidites, the authors emphasize the paleogeographic importance of
limestone-pebble Wildflysch accumulations in defining the location of ancient
steep continental slopes. European readers, in particular, may be interested in this
subject in view of the ideas about thrust conglomerates which have persisted in
the tectonic literature of the Alpine chains. A description of true limestone thrust
conglomerate of nonmarine origin-a fan deposit described by C. R. Longwell
from southern Nevada, U.S.A.-is included by way of comparison.
Another feature of this and the succeeding chapter will also be welcomed by
European readers: the metric system has been employed.
20
21
INTRODUCTION
coincident with it. Diagenetic dolomite also may have formed penecontemporaneously by replacement of grains and cement of calcium carbonate sediments. Thus,
in borderline cases the distinction between syngenetic and diagenetic dolomites
becomes difficult or impossible. FAIRBRIDGE
(1966) puts both types into subcategories of syndiagenetic dolomite.
Epigenetic dolomite of Friedman and Sanders formed by replacement of
limestone, and is localized by post-depositional structural elements. It is closely
related to fractures and faults in carbonate rocks; and the term epigenetic is
synonymous with such terms as structurally-controlled or tectonic dolomites.
Many, but not all, epigenetic dolomites are genetically associated with metallic
deposits, notably of lead and zinc minerals. These dolomites are the anadiagenetic
rocks of FAIRBRIDGE
(1967). He recognized a distinct fourth type, related to meteoric water circulation, which he has named epidiagenetic.
Dolomite formed after burial, which includes all epigenetic and most
diagenetic dolomites, owes its origin to subsurface brines. These subsurface
formation waters are depleted in both so42- and Mgz+ ions, which probably
indicates that sulfates are involved in the dolomitization process.
Dolomites may revert back to limestones by the process of dedolomitizationl
during epidiagenesis. A genetic relationship appears to exists between the presence v l dispersed anhydrite and dedolomitization, with MgS04 being carried away
(in solution) as a by-product, according to the following reaction:
Ca.Mg(CO3)z
22
R.
W.
FAIRBRIDGE, G . V.
Primary porosity is that ielated to the initial sedimentary features that are
only slightly modified by diagenesis, etc. Several varieties of primary porosity include: (a) Framework porosity, which is controlled by the presence of water-filled
cavities in the initial sediments (organogenic, e.g., corals, sponges, calcareous
Algae, etc.). (b)Mudporosity, which is due to the original presence of vast numbers
of microscopic pores filled with connate water, that was not lost entirely during
consolidation. The pores are so small that they normally do not contribute to
any economical reservoir. (c) Sand porosity, which owes its origin particularly to
the presence of oolites, pellets and fragmented skeletal calcarenites, is often very
important. Its relative value is related to the sand/mud ratio, which in turn depends
on the rate of deposition and the energy of the regime. Cementation is a negative
feature as far as reservoir potential is concerned, because the extent to which
cements (carbonate, silica, gypsum, etc.) have filled the voids is inversely related
to the porosity and permeability.
Secondary porosity usually refers to voids (either primary, or due to fracturing) enlarged by solution. Some of this solution may occur early during syndiagenesis, with the removal of aragonitic shell parts, etc., by the acid waters being
generated as a result of bacterial activity. Further solution occurs during epidiagenesis when the entire sequence is subject to circulation of acid meteoric waters.
Inasmuch as during the deep, anadiagenetic stage the interstitial waters are normally alkaline, they are saturated with respect to CaC03. Solution is restricted to
the early and late phases of diagenesis. Calcite is considerably more soluble than
dolomite under comparable conditions. In most reservoir rocks one can observe
signs of both solution and reprecipitation, sometimes i n a multiple generation
sequence. Circulation of solutions is greatly aided by the presence of unconformities and bedding planes between beds having variable porosities, and the
growth of joints and fractures. Particularly the latter process, sometimes called
diaclastic revival, may occur repeatedly during the later phases of the evolution
of a basin. This leads to widespread fluid motion, both from uprising connate
waters and downworking meteoric waters.
Dolomitization has long been recognized as a valuable potential source of
porosity, because a molecular replacement of limestone by dolomite would lead to
about 12-1 3 % loss of mineral volume. Some investigators, however, believe that
the replacement may also occur on a volumetric basis, leading in fact to reduced
porosity. Different sedimentary components, e.g., an easily dolomitized, magnesium-rich algal lime mud may be variably graded or interstratified with pure calcitic skeletal fragments that do not dolomitize as easily.
Generally, it may be said that dolomitization increases the porosity; this
conclusion is based on extensive statistical studies. Consequently, plotting of
isopleths of equal Ca/Mg ratios and directions in which Ca/Mg ratios decrease are
of valuein exploration for oil and gas (CHiLImAn, 1953, 1956). At low percentages,
the dolomite occurs as scattered euhedral rhombs, producing little porosity change
23
INTRODUCTION
WATER, 100/o
% WATER
SATURATION
O I L , 100%
Fig.11. Areas of one-: two-, and three-phase flows in a porous medium. (EREMENKO,
1960, p.530.)
24
In the final Chapter (8), Fairbridge reviews the carbonates as climatic indicators,
first at the present-day and then at various stages of the geologic record. Mineral
thermometers are commonly used by petrologists for appraising the temperature
level of metamorphic and igneous events in geologic processes. By the same token,
calcite, aragonite and related carbonates can be employed in judging thermal levels
of former low-temperature environments; certain element ratios (Ca/Mg, Sr/Ca,
Ca/Fe/Ti) and certain isotopes may also be used to help bring a degree of precision to these estimates.
The degree of confidence in results decreases as one goes back in time, because there are large numbers of variables; and few, if any, unique solutions arc
offered. For Cambrian times, for example, the diameter of the earth is not known,
nor is the length of the day, the salinity, alkalinity or pH of sea water; and little
is known of the ecologic habits of the organisms prevalent in Cambrian seas. Such
looseness might easily lead t o an atmosphere of despair among researchers, yet in
fact there are many aspects where the experienced geologist feels intuitively on
rather safe ground. He knows the limits of metabolic tolerance in organisms and
the stability fields of many sedimentary minerals such as the evaporites. The mean
temperature of the earths surface may be stated reliably as falling in the vicinity
of 20 & 10C over the last 3 billion years. Paleontologically he can judge with a
high degree of reliability certain other environment characteristics from the
locomotory habit of organisms (sessile or nektonic, benthonic or pelagic), by
studying their appropriate swimming, flying or attachment appendages and by the
lithofacies status of the enclosing sediments. Each deduction can be made and
appraised on its own basis. The results can then be synthesized so that a general
impression can be achieved, and certain key indicators can be specified.
Of great philosophic as well as practical geologic interest is the fact
that a series of critical periods has been worked out, representing great biogeochemical revolutions in the history of the planet earth. These critical stages do not
represent any sort of deus ex machina. There is no abandonment of the basic
methodology of actualism or the philosophy of uniformitarianism; the past
continues t o be judged by the methods and observed processes of today, but a new
dynamic approach has t o be adopted. This planet is known to be a member of a
INTRODUCTION
25
26
volcanicity) while thepo, built up only slowly. Several authors believe the Pasteur
Level (poZ at 1 % of the P.A.L. or present atmospheric level) was reached at the
time of this revolution. If the p H passed from the acid side to the alkaline at this
time, the first organisms to form shells simply responded to the difficulty of removing
alkali waste products from the body fluids into an environment of high ionic
strength and high alkalinity, a serious problem in osmosis. Study of the crustacean
carapace formation and the enzyme control of body fluid pH during moulting is
a rewarding and illuminating experience.
Revolution IV. Great Coal Age (about 2.5 i0.3 108 years ago) represents
the culmination of the Paleozoic history with its continuous record of vast carbonate removal from the ocean, as limestones, followed by the coal burial of Carboniferous and Permian ages (the latter in the Southern Hemisphere). The result was
a lowering of pcoz and achievement of a peak in po2 which favored the mammalian and land reptile respiration during Mesozoic time. RUTTEN(1962, 1965) has
suggested that this high 0 2 level is necessary for the respiration and metabolism of
the great flying insects of the late Paleozoic, when ancestral dragon flies achieved
wing-spans of 3 ft. and more.
Revolution V. Marking the first appearance of world-wide pelagic Foraminifera and coccoliths (about 1.0 & 0.2 108 years ago), Revolution V is the last
of these great thresholds. As pointed out by KUENEN(1950), this event shifted the
fundamental site of carbonate sedimentation from shelves to ocean basins (above
the calcium carbonate compensation depth). From Cretaceous onwards, the
carbonates, instead of being limited to shallow epicontinental basins and in part
continuously recycled, began to accumulate with more or less continuous burial.
It would appear that the Cretaceous Ocean was more extensively saturated or
supersaturated with respect to CaC03 than that of today. The precipitation of
CaC03 releases C02 (from the bicarbonate ion); and during the Cenozoic the ocean
appears to have slowly become less alkaline, and also cooler. Inasmuch as the
recharge rate of CaC03 is very high (it can be totally replaced in about one million
years), there is little danger of reverting to an acid ocean. Increased atmospheric
CO2 content from combustion of industrial fuel will not achieve this possibility,
because there is more than adequate reserve of limestone in the ocean floor to buffer
any such C02 imbalance.
To conclude, there is a very important moral) that may be drawn from this
analysis. It is that a thorough appreciation of the nature of biologic metabolism
is essential in the training of the thoughtful geologist. Without fairly intimate
knowledge of the nature of metabolic limits, photosynthesis, shell calcification,
body fluids, osmosis, enzymes, genetics and other aspects of living organisms, the
history of the earths atmosphere, ocean and sediments becomes meaningless.
Whereas the biological substrate is certainly an inorganic surface, and organic
evolution has certainly been in part a response to the physicochemical environment, that environment itself is essentially the product of biological activity.
INTRODUCTION
27
REFERENCES
In reviewing various chapters, in many instances the editors used the same references used by
the author of a particular chapter; these references are not repeated here.
28
STRAKHOV,
N. M., BRODSKAYA,
N. G., KNYAZEVA,
L. M., RAZZHIVINA,
A. N., RATEEV,
M. A.,
D. G. and SHISHOVA,
E. S., 1954. Formation of Sediments in Recent Basins.
SAPOZHNIKOV,
Izd. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., Moscow, 791 pp.
TAFT,W. H., 1961. Authigenic dolomite in modern carbonate sediments along the southern coast
of Florida. Science, 134 (3478): 561-562.
TAFT,W. H. and HARBAUGH,
J. W., 1964. Modern carbonate sediments of southern Florida,
Bahamas, and Espiritu Santo Island, Baja California: A comparison of their mineralogy
and chemistry. Statlford Univ. Publ., Geol. Sci., X(2): 133 pp.
TEODOROVICH,
G. I., 1958. Study of Sedimentary Rocks. Gostoptekhizdat, Leningrad, 572 pp.
W. H., 1932. Treatise on Sedimentation. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md.,
TWENHOFEL,
926 pp.
W. H., 1942. The rate of deposition of sediments: a major factor connected with alTWENHOFEL,
teration of sediments after deposition. J . Sediment. Petrol., 12: 99-1 10.
T. W., 1924. Oceanography in its relations to other earth sciences. J . Wash.Acad. Sci.,
VAUGHAN,
14: 307-313.
VONDER BORCH,C . C., RUBIN,M. and SKINNER,
B. J., 1964. Modern dolomite from South Australia. Am. J. Sci., 262: 1116-1 118.
ZELENOV,
K. K., 1956. Dolomites of Lower Cambrian deposits of northern slope of Aldan Mountain Range and conditions of their formation. In: N. M. STRAKHOV
and G. I. BUSHINSKIY
(Editors), Types of Dolomite Rocks and their Genesis-Tr. Geol. Inst., Izd. Akad. Nauk
S.S.S.R., 4: 28-74.
Chapter 2
MODERN CARBONATE SEDIMENTS
WILLIAM H. TAFT
SUMMARY
Modern carbonate sediments are accumulating in almost all depositional environments except for the very deep oceans. Chemical and physical conditions,
however, govern preservation and abundance of carbonate relative to non-carbonate material.
Most modern marine carbonate sediments owe their origin to accumulation
of bioclastic debris. Rarely can inorganic precipitation be actually proven. Mineralogical analysis of these sediments has shown that deep cold-water carbonates
are predominantly low-magnesium calcites; whereas shallow, warm-water shelf
deposits are composed predominantly of metastable carbonates (aragonite and
high-magnesium calcite) with minor amounts of low-magnesium calcite. Significant
quantities of supratidal dolomite has been reported in modern sediments.
Diagenesis is taking place in modern sediments; however, only rarely can
mineralogical or chemical changes be demonstrated in sediments that have not
been exposed to fresh water. If modern shelf sediments are good examples of
ancient sediments, almost all limestones have recrystallized.
INTRODUCTION
30
W. H. TAFT
Accumulation of carbonate sediments in the oceans is controlled areally and vertically by physical and chemical parameters such as temperature, pH, pressure,
and carbon-dioxide content of sea water (REVELLE
and FAIRBRIDGE,
1957; RODGERS, 1957). In addition, the abundance of non-carbonate material determines
whether or not the final sediment will be a limestone or a clastic sediment with
some carbonate material.
Modern sediments with more than 30% calcium carbonate tend to be
concentrated between 30 N and 30slatitude (Fig. 1). Variations from these somewhat arbitrary limits are common, particularly where warm oceanic currents (such
as the Gulf Stream) saturated or supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate
are deflected away from the equator.
Four general categories of carbonate sediments are recognized: (1)deep-sea
oozes; (2) carbonate turbidites; (3) shelf accumulations of lime sands, silts, and
muds; and ( 4 ) organic reefs and reef debris.
Fig.1, Distribution of modern marine carbonate sediments; solid black : organic reefs; lined: areas of shallow-water carbonate sediments;
1957. Printed by permisstippled: areas of other sediments, containing more than 30 % CaC03 (especially Globigerina ooze). (After RODGERS,
sion of McKinley Publishing Co. and Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists.)
32
W. H. TAFT
v)
e
cf
W
W
Fig.3. Pelletal sand from western margin of Andros Island, Bahamas. Material smaller than 0.062 mm in size has been
removed.
34
W. H. TAFT
SHELF SEDIMENTS
35
-4
Fig.6. Sand-sized bioclastic sediment from Florida Bay, Florida. Note angular nature of carbonate fragments and general
absence of whole particles.
00
Fig.7. Ooliths from Wide Opening, Bahamas (west side of Euxuma Sound).
39
40
W. H. TAFT
position. He confirmed that temperature and chemistry of sea water in which the
organisms live affect the aragonite/calcite ratio of the skeletons secreted, and in
turn the magnesium and strontium contents as well as the l 8 0 / 1 6 0 ratio of these
carbonates. (For details see WOLFet al., 1967.)
One of the most significant results of modern carbonate studies in the last
10 years has been the discovery that dolomite in significant quantities is forming in
modern supratidal carbonate environments. These supratidal environments are
closely associated with evaporitic environments, and should help to further our
understanding of ancient deposits that may have formed in a similar manner.
Reports of dolomite formation in modern sediments include those by ALDERMAN
(1959), ZEN (1959), MILLER
(1961), TAFT (1961), DEFFEYES
and MARTIN(1962),
WELLS(1962), CURTISet al. (1963), SKINNER
(1963), ILLING(1964), LUCIAet al.
(1964), and SHINNand GINSBURG
(1964).
mined the chemical composition of carbonate sediments from Australia, the Bahamas, and Pago-Pago. The techniques used by all writers were quite similar.
The sediments were separated into biological groups under microscope, weighed,
and chemical composition assigned to them from data by CLARKE
and WHEELER
(1922). The chemical composition thus calculated was then compared with the
actual chemical analysis. The results of analyses by Bramlette and Vaughan show
fairly close agreement between calculated and determined chemistry, whereas
Goldmans results suggest a loss of magnesium to sea water, especially in the finersize fractions. To test Goldmans results, CHAVE(1954b, p.596) compared the
chemistry of eight mechanically analyzed carbonate bottom samples collected
from Alaska, Maine, Florida, Bermuda, and Palau. Based on these analyses,
Chave concluded that there was no evidence for exchange of magnesium ions between the sediment and sea water for the samples tested.
TAFTand HARBAUGH
(1964) reported (1) chemical data for size-sorted sediment samples from Key West, Florida Bay, and the Ten Thousand Island areas
in Florida, (2) chemical and mineralogical data for sized samples from the Bahamas,
and (3) mineralogical data for two samples from Baja California, Mexico. These
samples were analyzed to test for gain or loss of magnesium relative to calcium
and variations in proportions of high-magnesium calcite in different grade sizes.
Any systematic change of chemistry with grain size might be useful in explaining
variations of calcium/magnesium ratios as a function of sediment sorting, or
susceptibilityof metastable carbonates to recrystallize to the stable mineral calcite.
41
ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION
The relative abundance in sea water of the two stable isotopes of carbon (13C and
W)and two of the three stable isotopes of oxygen (lSOand160) has been shown to
be fairly constant in open-ocean environments. Nearshore environments, on the
other hand, ai-e known to be deficient in I3C relative to I2C and in 1 8 0 relative to
1 6 0 , as compared to mean ocean water. These differences are attributed to: ( I ) higher
degree of volatility of 12C and 1 6 0 during evaporation, and (2) dilution by freshwater runoff deficient in 1 8 0 and enriched in IZC.
UREYet al. (1951) concluded that l 8 0 / 1 6 0 ratios of carbonates are temperature
dependent and are independent of species biochemistry or carbonate mineralogy.
Marine carbonates precipitated in equilibrium with the surrounding sea water,
therefore, should have carbon and oxygen isotope ratios diagnostic of their depositional environments.
Unfortunately, like most other geologic tools, a number of problems arise
on attempting to use oxygen isotope ratios, which include the following:
( I ) Although it is fairly well established that carbonates are precipitated
by organisms in equilibrium with the surrounding sea water, one must establish
that neither recrystallization nor diffusion has altered initial isotope ratios.
(2) Temperature at which calcium carbonate is precipitated by carbonatesecreting organisms may be appreciably different from the average yearly temperature of the depositional environment. The precise growth-time temperature is
significant. EPSTEIN
and LOWENSTAM
(1953) demonstrated substantial oxygenisotope ratio variations in different carbonate growth increments of some species
of Bermuda mollusks. Some species precipitate CaC03 year-round, whereas others
precipitate CaC03 selectively during certain periods of the year.
(3) Tolerance of organisms to unfavorable environmental changes, which may
either force an animal to migrate to a more favorable environment or, if not
42
W. H. TAFT
mobile, may cause its death, must be considered. Obviously, the mere presence
of an organism in sediments is no indication that isotopic ratios of its shell provide
absolute indication of temperature conditions of the depositional environment.
Organisms, permanently attached to the sea bottom and possessing only slight
tolerances to changes in chemical and physical environment, provide ideal working
material for determination of isotopic composition in order to arrive at the temperature of depositional environment.
Although there are a number of problems associated with interpreting
stable isotope ratios of carbonate skeletons, nevertheless this technique is in its
infancy and already a number of worth-while applications have been found. For
example, LOWENSTAM
and EPSTEIN
(1957) studied the origin of aragonite needles
on the Great Bahama Bank and concluded that the isotopic composition of these
needles would best be explained as having originated by organic precipitation.
This interpretation, however, was challenged by CLOUD(1962, p.97).
GROSS(1 964) compared ls0/16O and I 3 C / l 2 C ratios of diagenetically altered
limestone in the Bermuda islands with those of modern sediments in the surrounding marine environment, and concluded that alteration occurred in the freshwater zone. TAFTand HARBAUGH
(1964) correlated the marl underlying brackishwater sediments in Whitewater Bay, Florida, with that presently accumulating in
the Everglade swamps on the basis of their mineralogy and enrichment in 13C.
Isotope ratios are being used as indicators of paleotemperatures (EMILIANI
and MAYEDA,
1961) and although some controversy surrounds interpretation of
analytical results, judicious application of stable isotopes appears to be a powerful
tool for future use.
Physical and chemical changes are taking place in modern carbonate depositional
environments. Diagenesis of carbonates is generally more rapid but may continue
longer than is the case with most other sediment types. GINSBURG
(1957) called
attention to some of these processes in Florida Bay sediments. He noted the
following:
( I ) Presence of abundant fecal pellets at the water-sediment interface, but
loss of their individuality a few feet below the surface.
(2) Importance of organisms in reducing particle size by chemical and physical processes.
(3) Reworking of sediments by organisms that bring buried sediments to
the surface and obliterate depositional features.
(4) Activity of Bacteria in producing hydrogen sulfide, oxidation of organic
matter, conversion of organic nitrogen to ammonia, and precipitation of iron.
(5) Marked contrasts in p H between the sediments and the overlying sea
43
Fig.8. Underwater photograph of a 36-inch long vertical exposure of modern carbonates on Yellow
Bank, Bahamas. Overlying water is 17 ft. deep. Note large blocks in cliff face and near base of
photograph. Ruler rests on apparent horizontal layer 36 inches below water-sediment interface
(used for 14C dating). Probe is 4 ft. long and extends 3 ft. into the underlying sediments. Tube is
a device for removing fines during excavation.
44
W. H. TAFT
water are common. In general, sediment p H is at least one full p H unit lower than
that of sea water.
(6) Compaction, as measured by loss of moisture content, is most prevalent in
the first 6-12 inches below the water-sediment interface.
(7) No conversion of metastable carbonates to stable forms is evident;
lithification is also not noticeable, except in the intertidal zones where alternate
wetting and drying allows beach sands to be cemented by aragonite.
An excellent petrographic study of modern carbonates by PURDY(1963a,b)
demonstrates recrystallization of metastable carbonates on the Great Bahama bank.
Recrystallization, however, does not give rise to a more stable mineral species, but
rather results in a change from a micro- to a cryptocrystalline variety of the same
metastable mineral. According to PURDY(1963a,p.348), there can be no doubt that
cryptocrystalline grains are a recrystallization product, for all stages were observed
in the transition of various non-skeletal and skeletal constituents to cryptocrystalline carbonate.
Since GINSBURGS
(1957) excellent paper, a number of papers bearing on the
problem of diagenesis in modern carbonate sediments have appeared (SIEGEL,
1960, 1961; STEHLIand HOWER,1961; CLOUD,1962; INCERSON
1962; PURDY,
1963a,b; PILKEY,
1964; TAFTand HARBAUGH,
1964).
In general, these authors have shown that modern, warm-, and shallow-water
carbonate sediments are composed predominately of aragonite and high-magnesium calcite. There is little or no evidence to suggest either recrystallization to
more stable polymorphs since particles were deposited, or lithification of sediments
that have never been exposed to fresh water, other than infilling of tests by aragonite and formation of grapestone lumps (ILLING,1954) and flakes (PURDY,1963a,
p.348).
A notable exception to lack of lithification in modern carbonates is presently
being investigated on Yellow Bank, Bahamas, by the author. Fig.8 is a 36-inch
vertical exposure of modern carbonates on Yellow Bank in 17 ft. of water. Large
blocks (up to 1 cubic ft.) of partially lithified, nonstratified carbonate material
underlie a thin veneer of grapestone sediment. These blocks are held together by
worm tubes, encrusting Foraminifera such as Homotrema rubrum (LAMARK),
and
by aragonite (Fig.9).
Comparison of mineralogic composition of surface blocks (Table I) and unconsolidated surface samples with the horizontal layer 36 inches below the watersediment interface, however, suggests that these samples have not been exposed
to fresh water and have not recrystallized to more stable carbonate minerals.
PROBLEMS
45
.-
C
L
TABLE I
CARBONATE MINERAL SAMPLES AND RADIOCARBON AGE DETERMINATIONS FROM YELLOW BANK, BAHAMAS
Sample number
64-81
64-81
64-81
64-81
64-81
64-8 1
64-8 1
64-8 1
Depth beneath
sediment-water
interface (inches)
aragonite
IoW-Mg
calcite
high-Mg
calcite
surface
1
4
10
61
67
64
65
86
19
94
98
trace
1
trace
1
trace
1
trace
33
32
35
34
20
23
32
36
14
20
6
1
Mol. % Mgco3
in high-Mg
calcite
Type of sample
15
17
15
16
15
17
14
13
loose sediment
rock
rock
rock
loose sediment
rock
rock
rock
Age (years
before present)
4,810 i 130
47
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ALDERMAN,
A. R., 1959. Aspects of carbonate sedimentation. J. Geol. SOC.Australia, 6: 1-10.
F. W., 1958. Ancient sediments of Bahaman type. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
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42: 1845-1880.
BRAMLETTE,
M. N., 1926. Some marine bottom samples fromPago Pago Harbor, Samoa. Carnegie
Inst. Wash., Papers Dept. Marine Biol.,23: 1-35.
BUSBY,R. F., 1962. Submarine geology of the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas. U.S. Naval
Oceanog. Ofice, Tech. Rept., 108: 1-84.
CHAVE,
K. E., 1954a. Aspects of biogeochemistry of magnesium. 1. Calcareous marine organisms.
J. Geol., 62: 266-283.
K. E., 1954b. Aspects of the biochemistry of magnesium. 2. Calcareous sediments and
CHAVE,
rocks. J. Geol., 62: 587-599.
48
W. H. TAFT
CHAVE,K. E., 1962a. Factors influencing the mineralogy of carbonate sediments. Limnol.
Oceanog., 7: 218-223.
CHAVE,
K. E., 1962b. Processes of carbonate sedimentation. In: N. MARSHALL
(Editor), Symposium
on the Environmental Chemistry of Marine Sediments. Narragansett Marine Lab., Kingston,
R. I., pp.77-85.
K. S., WEYL,P. K., GARRELS,
R. M. and THOMPSON,
M. E., 1962.
CHAVE,K. E., DEFFEYES,
Observation on the solubility of skeletal carbonates in aqueous solutions. Science, 137:
33-34.
CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1960. Ca/Mg ratio of calcareous sediments as a function of depth and distance
from shore. Compass, 37(3): 182-186.
CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1962. Dependence on temperature of Ca/Mg ratio of skeletal structures of
organisms and direct chemical precipitates out of sea water. Bull. Southern Calif: Acad.
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CLARKE,F. W. and WHEELER,
W. C., 1922. The inorganic constituents of marine invertebrates.
U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 124: 1-62.
CLOUD,JR., P. E., 1962. Environment of calcium carbonate deposition west of Andros Island,
Bahamas. U S . , Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 350: 1-138.
CURTIS,R., EVANS,G., KINSMAN,
D. J. J. and SHEARMAN,
D. J., 1963. Association of dolomite
and anhydrite in the Recent sediments of the Persian Gulf. Nature, 197: 679-680.
DAETWYLER,
C. C. and KIDWELL,
A. L., 1959. The Gulf of Batabano, a modern carbonate basin.
World Petrol. Congr., Proc., 5th, N. Y., 1959, Sect.& pp.1-21.
DEFFEYES,
K. S. and MARTIN,E. L., 1962. Absence of carbon-14 activity in dolomite from Florida
Bay. Science, 136: 782.
DODD,J. R., 1963. Paleoecological implications of shell mineralogy in two pelecypod species.
J. Geol., 71: 1-11.
EMILIANI, C. and MAYEDA,T., 1961. Carbonate and oxygen isotopic analysis of core 241 A.
J. Geol., 69: 729-732.
EPSTEIN,S. and LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1953. Temperature-shell growth relations of recent and interglacial Pleistocene shoal water biota from Bermuda. J. Geol., 61 : 424438.
GINSBURG,
R. N., 1956.Environmental relationships of grain size and constituent particles in some
south Florida carbonate sediments. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pelrol. Geologists, 40: 2384-2427.
GINSBURG,
R. N., 1957. Early diagenesis and lithification of shallow-water carbonate sediments
in southern Florida. In: R. J. Le BLANCand J. G. BREEDING
(Editors), Regional Aspects
of Carbonate Deposition-Soc. Econ. Paleontologists Mineralogists, Spec. Publ., 5: 80-100.
GOLDMAN,
M. I., 1926. Proportions of detrital organic calcareous constituents and their chemical
alteration in a reef sand from the Bahamas. Carnegie Znst. Wash. Publ., 344: 39-65.
GRAF,D. L., 1960. Geochemistry of carbonate sediments and sedimentary carbonate rocks, Part
I, carbonate mineralogy, carbonate sediments. Illinois State Geol. Surv., Circ., 297: 1-39.
GROSS,M. G., 1964. Variations in the 180/160
and 13C/1zCratios of diagenetically altered limestones in the Bermuda Islands. J. Geol., 72: 170-194.
ILLING,L. V., 1954. Bahaman calcareous sands. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 38: 1-95.
ILLING,L. V., 1964. Penecontemporary dolomite in the Persian Gulf. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geologists, 48: 532-533.
IMBRIE,J. and PURDY,
E. G., 1962. Classification of modern Bahaman carbonate sediments. In:
Classification of Carbonate Rocks-Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Mem., I : 253-272.
INGERSON,
E., 1962. Problems of the geochemistry of sedimentary carbonate rocks. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta., 26: 815-847.
JANSEN,
J. F. and KITANO,Y.,1963. The resistance of Recent marine carbonate sedinients to solution. J . Oceanog. Soc. Japan, 18: 42-52.
KRINSLEY,
D., 1959. Manganese in modern and fossil gastropod shells. Nature, 183: 770-772.
KRINSLEY,
D., 1960a. Magnesium, strontium and aragonite in the shells of certain littoral gastropods. J. Paleontol., 34: 744-755.
KRINSLEY,
D., 1960b. Trace elements in the tests of planktonic foraminifera. Micropaleontology,
6: 297-300.
KRINSLEY,
D. and BIERI,R., 1959. Changes in the chemical composition of pteropod shells after
deposition on the sea floor. J. Paleontol., 33: 682-684.
49
LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1954a. Environmental relations of modification compositions of certain
carbonate secreting marine invertebrates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. US.,40: 3948.
LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1954b. Factors affecting the aragonite/calcite ratios in carbonate-secreting
organisms. J . Geol., 62: 284-322.
LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1961. Mineralogy, 180/160
ratios, and strontium and magnesium contents
of recent and fossil brachiopods and their bearing on the history of the oceans. J. Geol.,
69: 241-260.
LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1963. Biologic problems relating to the composition and diagenesis of sediments. In: T. W. D ~ N N E L(Editor),
LY
The Earth Sciences: Problems and Progress in Current
Research. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., pp.137-195.
LOWENSTAM,
H. A., 1964. Sr/Ca ratio of skeletal aragonites from the Recent marine biota at
Palau and from fossil gastropods. In: H. CRAIG,S. L. MILLERand G. J. WASSERBURG
(Editors), Zsotopic and Cosmic Chemistry. North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam, pp.114132.
LOWENSTAM,
H. A. and EPSTEIN,S., 1957. On the origin of sedimentary aragonite needles of the
Great Bahama Bank. J. Geol., 65: 364-375.
LUCIA,F. J., WEYL,P. K. and DEFFEYES,
K. S., 1964. Dolomitization of Recent and Plio-Pleistocene sediments by marine evaporite waters on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 48: 535-536.
MAXWELL,
W. G. H., JELL,J. S. and MCKELLAR,
R. G., 1964. Differentiation of carbonate sediments in the Heron Island Reef. J. Sediment. Petrol., 34: 294308.
MILLERJR., D. N., 1961. Early diagenetic dolomite associated with salt extraction process, Inagua, Bahamas. J. Sediment. Petrol., 31 :473476.
NEWELL,
N. D., IMBRIE,
J., PURDY,
E. G. and THURBER,
D. L., 1959. Organism communities and
bottom facies. Great Bahama Bank. Bull. Am. Museum Nut. HiJt., 97: 58-69.
NOLL,W., 1934. Geochemie des Strontium, mit Bemerkungen zur Geochemie des Barium. Chem.
Erde, 8: 507-560.
PILKEY,0. H., 1964. Mineralogy of the fine fraction in certain carbonate cores. Bull. Marine
Sci. Gulf Caribbean, 14: 126-139.
PILKEY,0. H. and GOODELL,
H. G., 1963. Trace elements in Recent mollusk shells. Limnol.
Oceanog., 8: 137-148.
PILKEY,0. H. and GOODELL,
H. G., 1964. Comparison of the composition of fossil and Recent
mollusk shells. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 75: 217-228.
PILKEY,0. H. and HOWER,J., 1960. The effect of environment on the concentration of skeletal
magnesium and strontium in Dendraster. J. Geol., 68: 203-214.
PURDY,E. G., 1963a. Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 1. Petrography
and reaction groups. J. Geol., 71: 334-355.
PURDY,E. G., 1963b. Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Great Bahama Bank. 2. Sedimentary facies. J. Geol., 71: 472497.
REVELLE,
R. and FAIRBRIDGE,
R. W., 1957. Carbonates and carbon dioxide. In: J. W. HEDGPETH
(Editor), Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology. I . Ecology-Geol. SOC.Am.,
Mem., 67: 239-295.
REVELLE,
R. and FLEMING,
R. F., 1934. The solubility product constant of calcium carbonate in
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3: 2089-2092.
RODGERS,
J., 1957. The distribution of marine carbonate sediments; a review. In: R. J. LE BLANC
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(Editors), Regional Aspects of Carbonate Deposition-Soc. Econ.
Paleontologists Mineralogists, Spec. Publ., 5 : 2-1 3.
RUSNAK,
G. A. and NESTEROFF,
W. D., 1964. Modern turbidites: terrigenous abyssal plain versus
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SHINN,E. A. and GINSBURG,
R. N., 1964. Formation of Recent dolomite in Florida and the
Bahamas. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 48: 547.
SIEGEL,F. R., 1960. The effect of strontium in the aragonitexalcite ratios of Pleistocene corals.
J. Sediment. Petrol., 30: 297-304.
50
W. H. TAFT
SIEGEL,
F. R., 1961. Variations of Sr/Ca ratios and Mg contents in Recent carbonate sediments of
the northern Florida Keys. J. Sediment. Petrol., 31: 336-342.
SKINNER,
H. C. W., 1963. Precipitation of calcian dolomites and niagnesian calcites in the southeast of south Australia. Am. J. Sci., 162.: 449472.
STEHLI,F. G. and HOWER,
J., 1961. Mineralogy and early diagenesis of carbonate sediments.
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TAFT,W. H., 1961. Authigenic dolomite in modem carbonate sediments along the southern coast
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H. J.
BIssELLand R. W. F A I R B R I D G E ( E ~Carbonate
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ )Rocks.
,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, B: 151-167.
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J. W., 1964. Modern carbonate sediments of southern Florida,
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Chapter 3
SUMMARY
This paper is basically a synthesis and literature review of the major features of
petrologic and petrographic knowledge on carbonate rocks. The authors have
devoted special attention to the construction of a petrologic model based on the
concept of facies as an integration of qualitative and quantitative data situated
at different scalar levels.
INTRODUCTION
General
52
Y. GUBLER
et al.
Carbonate rocks are a polygenetic group, some of which are true clastics, whereas
others are chemical or biochemical precipitates. Most of them are a mixture of
clastic and chemical carbonates whose interrelationship is an important parameter
of their diagenesis. The major mineral components are calcite, aragonite, dolomite
and, less commonly, siderite; the minor constituents are non-carbonate and include clays, quartz, and phosphate, oxide and sulfide minerals.
The three prominent and specific features of the group comprise: ( I ) organic
content, which can be considered as primary genetic; (2) the crystallinity, either
crypto- or diagenetic (SHVETSOV,
1958), or other textural forms of the carbonate
particles such as pellets or oolites; and (3) geographic distribution in the past.
(I) In regard to the primary petrogenesis, either in marine or lacustrine
environments, organisms are providers of carbonates, because they are able to
modify, directly or indirectly, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Algae, by
photosynthesis, are the most important community associated with carbonate
precipitation (WOLF,1962). Thus the relationships between organic populations
and their distribution (paleoecology) have to be considered as an important set
of data in the petrologic model.
The organisms fix Ca2+ in the shell, and contribute to the elaboration of
stromatolitic or other structures, or they may be represented by transported
material (NEWELL
and RIGBY,1957; TAFT,1962).
(2) Because of the metastability of its crystalline structure, high-magnesium calcite is converted into stable dolomite, and aragonite is transformed into
calcite. These transformations can take place very shortly after the sediments are
buried. The original structures of carbonate rocks, both mineralogical and organic,
thus often become obscure. How, when and where this diagenesis takes place is
one of the most difficult problems of the petrology of carbonate rocks. Most
dolomites seem to have originated this way (FAIRBRIDGE,
1957; DE CHARPAL
et al.,
1959). The problem of diagenesis involves the crystalline sparite which is considered to be depositional by FOLK(1962), and to be the product of recrystalli-
53
54
Y. GUBLER
et al.
Lithofacies
Lithofacies may be defined in terms of the extent of variations of micro- and
mega-characteristics of the particular features introduced during the origin, and
other properties of the rock considered as a whole. It reflects a succession of homogeneous or heterogeneous primary deposits (Fig.1) modified by diagenesis during
the compaction stage and very often also afterwards.
Dirnensional fabrics
Microfacies
Each primary deposit is the product of the hydrochemical, hydrodynamic and
thermodynamic factors and organic materials of the particular environment;
these factors and components also control the speed of deposition. A primary microfacies can be defined as consisting of laminae, thickness of which is no greater
than the largest diameter of the coarsest grain (DOEGLAS,
1962).
It seems necessary to point out the geometrical characteristics because the
term microfacies is used and defined in different ways:
( I ) For the purpose of stratigraphic dating by correlation of the qualitative
elements observed in thin sections, paying special attention to the organisms
(CWILLIER,1951, 1952; FAIRBRIDGE,
1954).
(2) From a genetic point of view, CAROZZI
(1950, 1958,1959, 1961) proposed
1
55
this term to express the vertical variations of minute elements (minerals or microorganisms) that reflect successions of primary microfacies.
For the petrologic model, the term primary microfacies must be reserved
for the observations made in sections parallel to the plane of deposition, whether
it is flat or undulating. Thus, this term is applied to an oriented section in reference to a geometrical plane in which, in the case of clastic limestones, preferred
orientation can be measured by means of petrofabrics (SANDER,
1936).
An analysis of the primary microfacies situated in the plane of stratification
reveals the hydrodynamic and organic processes responsible for the nature, size,
shape, sorting and orientation of the particles. All this can be quantified and
treated statistically. The microfacies at the time of deposition is defined by the
ratios of its particular components, as seen in Plate IE.
Microsequences
The vertical succession is a natural sequence that records all the variations during
deposition of time fractions, including the period of any diastem (non-deposition;
LOMBARD,
1956) or alteration. It coincides with the succession of geometrical planes
which reflects the successivevariations of microfacies. These are visiblewhen achange
appears in the microfacies, as shown in Fig.1, and can be observed in thin sections
or peels perpendicular to the planes of deposition. In the case of deposition of
clastics as cross-laminations, these thin sections enable directional measurements
to be made of bottom currents (POTTER
and PETTIJOHN,
1963). The microsequences,
as shown by CAROZZI
(1950, 1958,1961),reflectthe history of filling-in of the basin.
Whether the thickness of the layer is a few centimeters or about 1 m, the
term microsequence can be utilized to define a natural succession of microfacies
constituting the layer. No matter what the scale may be, the problem is the same.
The succession of microsequences in a geological sequence constitutes large
units that may be rhythmic. This rhythmicity can be a function of the deformation
or any major climatic changes registered in time in geochemical components
(LOMBARD,
1956; STRAKHOV,
1957), granular components, or organic components
(LECOMPTE,
1958).
Only quantitative analysis of successions of both microfacies and microsequences (FONDEUR,
1964) enables the physical properties of original clastic carbonates to be defined, even if they have been largely obliterated by diagenesis.
Diagenesis in carbonate rocks is the most complex problem. As is observed
in Recent sediments, it commences immediately after deposition (GINSBURG,
1957; CLOUD,1962). Diagenesis can also appear much later during the history of
a sediment and disturb the original composition and structure or grain texture
(BATHURST,1958; POWERS,
1962); it can occur even after lithification of the rock
(DECHARPAL
et al., 1959). FAIRBRIDGE
(1967) recognizes syndiagenesis, anadiagenesis and epidiagenesis. Diagenesis is produced by: ( I ) various organic
processes (GINSBURG,
1957), the textural and structural aspects of which include
56
Y. GUBLER
et al.
57
- .
Fig.1. Bioclastic limestone in the reef complex of Wolayersee, Carnia, Austria (Middle Devonian).
General aspect of a composite layer having thickness of 23 cm. It comprises a succession of
microsequences composed of calcarenite and calcilutite; the rock is fissured and scattered dolomite appears in sequences I-2 and 5. MI-MI corresponds to a section parallel to the plane of
stratification, giving a detailed microfacies. Numbers I-5 correspond to a continuous succession
of thin sections showing detailed structure of the rock.
58
Y. GUBLER
PLATE I
et al.
59
60
Y. GUBLER et al.
61
Fig.2. Application of contact microradiography. Sample IFP A-604, Robion B.A.; x 30.
A. Micrography in natural light. B. Micrography in polarized light. C . Microradiography with
vanadium. D. Microradiography with calcium. (After SCHMITT,
1963.)
62
Y. GUBLER
et al.
rocks, CAROZZI(1950, 1958, 1961) using 250 sq. mm thin sections has made
statistical investigations of the microscopic components, based on the clasticity
index, crystallinity and frequency of the detrital components (either organisms
or minerals). The values computed were then plotted graphically as variables
expressing a sequence of microfacies that he considered to be indicative of bathymetric changes in the environment.
A similar approach was made by PASSEGA
(1957, 1960) who considered that
the hydrodynamic characteristics of the environment are reflected in the distribution of grain size as represented by two parameters: i.e., C, 1 percentile approach
value of maximal diameter; and M , the median. The location of C and M on a
logarithmic diagram is indicative of the type of current which prevailed during
deposition.
In this chapter the authors have not discussed either genetic or descriptive
classifications which are dealt with elsewhere in this book; however, it is important to mention here the practical classification introduced by FOLK(1959) whose
aim was to establish the spectrum of the textural types which reflect the physical
energy of the depositional environments. It is based on the relationship between
transported particles (allochems) and chemical particles (micrite). FOLK(1959)
developed a carbonate terminology consisting of only a handful of labels for major
rock types determined by descriptive and quantitative methods. This system
provides a framework within which the sedimentary petrographer may introduce
as many variables as necessary, based on field work, e.g., color, hardness, bedding,
sedimentary structures, slumping, detailed paleontological data, trace elements,
stromatolitic structures, birdseye textures, vugs, etc.
Special attention must be devoted to the relationship between certain carbonate minerals, such as dolomite, and minor constituents, such as clay and organic matter (DECHARPAL
et al., 1959), which appear to play a role in diagenesis.
This conclusion is supported by the studies of Recent sediments by CLOUD
( I 962)
and TAFT(1963).
The main purpose of this research is to relate any carbonate rock to its depositional environment and thus to reconstruct the original paleogeography.
Fig.3. Correlations based on lithologic sequences of the Black Marble of Golzinne (Middle Frasnian, Belgium); the Golzinne Formation is divided
here into nine groups of lithologic sequences and the base of the FalnuQ formation into four. s.v.Z.- s6rie virtuelle locale= local virtual series (Lombard): O = calcareous shales; 1 = shaly limestones; 2 = nodular limestones; 3= biomicrites; 4= pure micrites (black marbles); 5= dolomitic
limestones; A = quarry of Villeret; B= quarry Marchand; C= quarry Arthur-Etienne; D = quarry Marbres-Pierres-Granites; E= quarry JosephEtienne; F= quarry Merbes-Sprimont; g = quarry Dejaiffe; H and I = quarry of 1Agasse; J= quarry Deffense; K = quarry Des Polissoirs; L=
well Puits des Isnes; M = quarry van Rompaye; N = quarry Artoisenet; 0 and P= quarry at Huccorgne. (After MAMET,1963.)
cn
w
64
Y. GUBLER
et al.
= porosity
65
fieldinvestigations on the Recent carbonate sediments of the platforms in the Bahamas (ILLING,1954; GINSBURG,
1956, 1957; NEWELL
and RIGBY,1957; TAFT,1961,
1962; CLOUD,1962), the Gulf of Batabano (DAETWYLER
and KIDWELL,1959),
and the Persian Gulf (HOUBOLDT,
1957; EVANSet al., 1964) have produced a
general life-size model of the organic communities and mechanical accumulation
processes found in such areas. These comprise climatic, hydrodynamic, biochemic
and geochemic (including isotopic), and diagenetic processes. On the basis of
petrographic and petrologic analyses, and taking into account all the basic data
provided by these fundamental studies, the authors of this chapter hope to present
a clearer picture of how to identify the former geographic setting of carbonate
rocks and their physical properties.
Using only standard field and microscopic equipment, the authors tried in
two examples to apply in the field the results of quantitative analysis obtained
from thin sections. In both cases they used continuous field recording (petrolog
in the first case and electric log in the second case).
EXAMPLES
67
W
+lOOrn,
c.4
r *'O0
c3
C.6 c 2
80
+ 80
70
* 70
* 60
60
R;g,)Reef
Bioclastic
~lmestone D C h a l k
BrokenbiDck
Basement
Macroscopic data
Structure fine cross-bedded
Color: white
Fracture: irregular
hems Cora Is. echinoids,A
Alloct
Nature
~~
~~
small coral
algal
detritus
Iasycladace
Observations
coated sparite
detritic particles
(7)
normal
broken,
round
echinoids
detritus
lithic
fragments
(chalk)
normal
micritic deposition
in intergranular
voids(2)
round
Fig.6. Form for recording petrologic and petrographic data of carbonate rocks.
Fig.4. "Petrolog" of the quarry A. Pisolitic limestones of Vigny, France. Symbols used for apparent granulometry: CG= coarse granular; VC= very coarse; C= coarse; M= median;
F= fine; VF= very fine.
68
Y. GURLER
et al.
PLATE I1
Grain size
Granulometric data of sample 1253 in section C.4 (see Fig.5). A. Histograms based on hand
specimen (unbroken line) and on thin section (broken line). B. Cumulative curves based on
hand specimen (unbroken line) and on thin section (broken line). C . Hand specimen. D. Thin
section.
69
VC
sample!
1254
1253
1252
1251
&
1250
11249
CG
1248
1247
1246
1245
1242
1241
-7
---__
Fig.7. Variations of grade-size of most frequently occurring grain in section C.4, M= median;
C = coarse; VC= very coarse; CG= coarse granular; I = measured on macroscopic samples;
2 = measured on slides; 3= based on field data.
70
Y. GUBLER
et al.
continuous observations in the field. Only the most representative grains (most
frequent) were studied, and the results are illustrated in Fig.7.
The granulometric curves differ as given below.
( I ) The curves of the random hand specimens differ from the continuous
granulometric log recorded in the field. This may be explained by non-represen-
C4 C6
C2
U
0
c
c
<
+75n
+70n
+65n
20
40
rnm
Fig.9. Variation of porosity (A) and most frequent grain size (B) with depth in sections C.2, C.4
and C.6, I = section C.2; 2= section C.4; 3 = section C.6.
71
tative sampling; yet the general shape of the two curves is more o r less the same.
(2) It appears that the distribution of size of most frequently occurring grains
on using the hand specimens is not the same as the one obtained on using the thin
sections. The fabric of the rock is composed of coarse grains 2-7 mm in size,
which appear in very few thin sections because of the small surface area (and
thickness) considered. On the other hand, thin sections reveal numerous particles
from 200-800p in size. Thus, there is a superposition of two granulometric methods.
I n this case, micro- and macroscopic analyses are complementary, and illustrate the
genetic a n d textural characteristics of the rock. From this, one may conclude that
there are three main points to be considered in any petrologic study: ( a ) the need
to orient all thin sections, a n d to relate each one to a single lamina and not to a
microsequence; (b) how dangerous it wouId be to make a granulometric interpretation of a section based on only one oriented thin section; and (c) the problem
of samples being representative.
Physical characteristics
In general, porosities decrease laterally from west to east (from section C.4 to C.2,
as shown in Fig.8).
72
Y. GUBLER
et al.
Infruence ofclasticity. The sorting is about the same in the upper part of sections
C.6, C.4, and C.2; the grading of porosities is in the same direction as the clasticity
(Fig.9). It is different for the lower parts which calls for further explanation.
Iquence of cementation. In two samples presented on Fig. 10, the granulometric
characteristics (grain size, sorting) are nearly equal, and the physical properties
are subordinated to the greater or lesser development of the matrix. Carbonate
lime is particularly unfavorable as far as porosity is concerned, because it fills the
intergranular spaces. The bioclastic constituents are coated with chemically precipitated calcite.
It can be concluded that the cleanliness (absence of clay fractions) of the original carbonate sediment is as important as it is in quartzose sandstones. The penetration of carbonate solutions into this calcarenite and subsequent precipitation,
at different times during diagenesis, destroy a considerable portion of the original
porosity.
Petrography of Triassic and Jurassic reefs, northwest Gela area, southeast Sicily,
Italy1
In the second example, the lateral facies variations of Triassic and Jurassic reef and
basin formations in an area northwest of the Gela oil field, southeast Sicily, are
discussed by the authors (Mattavelli, Rizzini and Passega), Fig. 11. The facies
variations were studied mostly by making petrographic analyses of cores and
cuttings from the Gela and Cammarata fields and from well Pozzillo I (see location
on Fig. 11j. Electric log correlation was also used.
The Gela field is situated on the Ragusa Plateau. A discussion of the Triassic
and Jurassic facies will be presented first and will be followed by an interpretation
of the paleogeography.
Triassic and Jurassic formations, Ragusa Plateau
A complete description of these formations, named by RIGODE RIGHIand BARBIERI (1958), can be found in papers by KAFKAand KIRKBRIDE
(1959) and by
1
Fig.11. Location map and cross-section showing electric log correlations; oil fields in southeast
Sicily, Italy.
u
3
75
SCHMIDT
DI FRIEDBERG
(1962). The general geology of the Ragusa Plateau and the
Gela oil field are discussed by Rocco (1959). The Triassic and Jurassic formations
on the Ragusa Plateau are described below.
Taormina Formation. Middle and Upper Triassic. Thickness more than 3,000 m.
Generally massive algal dolomite.
Streppenosa Formation. Upper Triassic. Thickness 300-400 m. Interbedded dark
shales and microcrystalline limestones and dolomites.
Villagonia Formation. Lower Jurassic (Liassic). Thickness 200-400 m. Interbedded microcrystalline limestones and marls.
Giardini Formation. Middle and Upper Jurassic (Dogger-Malm). Thickness
50-200 m. Microcrystalline limestones and mark with basalt and tuff flows.
76
Y. GUBLER
et al.
50
100m
Fig.13. Petrographic log of Taormina Formation, well Gela 32. Lithologic symbols as in Fig.12.
Crosses indicate basalts.
77
Triassic. The Taormina Formation can be subdivided into three units on the basis
of its facies (Fig.13). The lower two units were reached only in the Gela field.
The upper unit was partially penetrated also by the Cammarata and Pozzillo wells.
The lowest unit is a greyish algal dolomite, continuously cored in the Gela
field. The maximum thickness of this unit penetrated by Gela wells is 500 m. Its
maximum thickness, however, is much greater (exceeding 2,500 m in the Ragusa
field).
The dolomite is massive, fractured and vuggy. Bedding cannot be recognized.
The maximum size of the dolomite crystals is about 250 p. Algae include stromatolites, Codiaceae and a few Solenoporae. Shale is almost completely absent.
This unit, called the Algal Dolomite, is overlain by the second unit, a
finely crystalline dolomite named for its color the Tan Dolomite. The latter,
50-100 m thick in the Gela field, is fairly well bedded and includes a few paperthin streaks of greenish grey shale.
Dolomite crystals have a fairly constant size ranging from 20 to 100 p. A small
amount of anhydrite crystals is also present. This unit is not vuggy and has only
fracture porosity. Its lithologic characteristics are quite uniform in the Gela field.
The uppermost unit of the Taormina Formation is the Brecciated Dolomite,
which resembles the Algal Dolomite. It also contains algal remains and is formed
by dolomite crystals up to 300 p in size. This unit includes a number of beds of
breccia formed by fragments of Algal and Tan Dolomites up to a few centimeters
in diameter. In Cammarata 1, the Brecciated Dolomite contains fragments of
green Algae.
The Streppenosa Formation overlies the Taormina Formation and consists
of black fossiliferous shales interbedded with black micrites; the clastic ratio being
on the average 0.6. Micrites contain fragments of Mollusca and Algae (particularly of green and blue-green Algae) and very few ostracods. Micrite forms beds
ranging in thickness from a few centimeters to several meters. Good electric log
correlation shows that these micrite beds are persistent laterally. The pyrite and
organic matter contents of shales and micrite are high.
In the Gela field, the micrite beds gradually increase in thickness and content
of fossil fragments to the northwest, as shown by the petrographic logs of wells
Gela 26 and Gela 37 (Fig.12).
In the Cammarata well the equivalent of Streppenosa Formation studied on
cuttings is argillaceous biomicrite. Fossils in fragments are Algae, ostracods, and
rare sponge spicules. Algal fragments, which are abundant, range in size from
100 p to 2 mm. In a few places the fossil fragments are well rounded.
The electric log of Cammarata shows a few low resistivity streaks of highly
argillaceous biomicrite, that form cycles similar to those formed in Gela by the
shale beds of the Streppenosa Formation (see Fig. 11). Doloniitization of the
Streppenosa equivalent is only slight, but is somewhat greater near the contact
with the Taormina Formation.
78
Y. GUBLER
et al.
I n the Pozzillo well, the equivalent of the Streppenosa Formation is a biolithite, consisting mostly of Algae in position of growth. These are mostly Solenoporae, Codiaceae and in part stromatolites. The cavities between organisms are
filled with fossil fragments cemented by sparry calcite. A number of cores show
that this is a massive reef core and not a talus formed by debris. There is only a
partial dolomitization in the biolithite; however, it is greater than in the biomicrite of Cammarata.
Lower Jurassic (Liassic). In most of the Gela field, the Lower Jurassic is represented by the Villagonia Formation. In well Gela 26 this formation can be subdivided into two units. The lower unit is formed by grey or tan argillaceous
cherty micrites interbedded with marls. The micrites contain Radiolaria, a few
ostracods, and algal fragments.
I n the same well, in fairly sharp contact with the lower unit, the upper unit
which is much richer in fossils, is a biomicrite. Rounded algal fragments are much
larger than those of the lower unit and have a maximum size of 5 0 0 , ~Intraclasts
.
formed by micrite may be present but are difficult to distinguish from the rounded
algal fragments. Fossils and intraclasts form approximately 50 % of the biomicrite.
I n well Gela 37, the Villagonia Formation has facies similar to those of the
upper unit of Gela 26. The greatest lateral facies variation in the Villagonia Formation occurs between Gela 37 and Cammarata 1 wells (see Fig. 12). In the Cammarata well, the formation consists mostly of biosparrudites and biosparite containing
some intraclasts. Fossil fragments are mostly Algae (Solenoporae and partly
Codiaceae), crinoids and mollusks. The upper part of the formation forms the
reservoir of the Cammarata field.
In Pozzillo 1 well, the presence of an equivalent of the Villagonia formation
is uncertain. A reef identical to the Streppenosa equivalent is directly overlain
by the Giardini Formation and, possibly, is the equivalent of the lower part of the
Villagonia Formation. The upper part of the formation is probably represented by
a diastem.
Middle and Upper Jurassic (Dogge-Malm). In contrast to the formations described above, in the Gela area, the Giardini Formution does not show any lateral
facies variations. It consists of cherty reddish and greenish, fossiliferous, argillaceous micrites with streaks of shale. Fossils are pelagic: Tintinnidae and Radiolaria. Contact with the underlying Villagonia Formation is sharp.
The principal characteristics of the formations discussed here are summarized in Table I.
Paleogeographic evolution
A n interpretation of the Triassic and Jurassic facies relationships and a tentative
reconstruction of the basins can be presented as follows.
79
TABLE I
THE PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VILLAGONIA AND STREPPENOSA FORMATIONS
..- ...
.~
Wells
Gela 26
Villagonia Formation and equivalents
clastic ratio
65
percentage of fossils
and intraclasts
Cela 37
22
50 %
100-200 p
500 p
1,000 p
8.48
0-5 %
125-300
p~
100-150 p
100-150
250
400 p
/L
Pozzillo I
biolithite
60 %
l0-15%
p~
50 %
percentage of fossils
and intraclasts
Cammarata 1
500-1,000
,U
biolithite
2 cm
biolithite
0
biolithite
40 %
125-250
2 mm
,U
biolithite
biolithite
-
The Algal Dolomite was most probably a reef covering the whole of the Gela
field as well as most of the Ragusa Plateau. In Gela offshore, the upper part of
the Algal Dolomite is laterally replaced by the Streppenosa Formation, which
represents the basin facies.
The sedimentary features of the reef are almost completely obscured by
dolomitization, but in the massive dolomite a number of algal and bioclastic structures can still be seen. The growth of this reef was so rapid that it succeeded in
maintaining a relatively shallow platform, by building a thickness of more than
2,500 m (in Ragusa) of algal dolomite in an area of considerable subsidence.
Petrographic characteristics give some indications about the depth of the
sea that covered the platform. The platform was sufficiently shallow to permit algal
life, but was sufficiently deep to be swept by waves that kept it free of clay and micrite. Only occasionally did waves break at the edge of the platform. This explains
why breccias are rare and back-reef facies is absent. The absence of quartz sand
indicates that the platform was isolated from the continent.
80
Y . GUBLER
et al.
81
than the Streppenosa sea. This is indicated by the abundance of Algae in the Villagonia Formation, and the eastward advance of the Pozzillo reef talus.
The lower part of the Villagonia Formation still has a fairly deep-water
facies in Gela 26 well, where it consists mostly of cherty shales containing Radiolaria and sponge spicules. In this well, the upper part of the formation, which is
a biomicrite, contains, as compared to the lower part, less shale, larger fossil
fragments, and a greater percentage of algal fragments. The sea, therefore, became
progressively shallower during deposition of Villagonia Formation. In well Gela
37, the Villagonia Formation, which consists mostly of biomicrites containing
more than 50 % fossil fragments with practically no Radiolaria or siliceous
sponge spicules, has a shallower water facies than the Streppenosa Formation.
In Cammarata area the Villagoniabormation was deposited in a very shallow
and turbulent water environment. The formation is a reef talus formed by coarse
bioclastic fragments partially cemented by sparry calcite. Fragments are well
rounded and are as much as a few centimeters in size; micrite is absent.
In the Pozzillo area, reef construction probably continued during a part of
Villagonia, but during Upper Villagonia the regressive sea caused the emergence
of the Pozzillo area.
The Giardini Formation marks a complete change in paleogeographic conditions and the beginning of a new sedimentary cycle with deposition of widespread
pelagic sediments.
Thus, in the area northwest of Gela oil field, the combined use of petrographic and subsurface methods resulted in a fairly precise reconstruction of the
evolution of the sedimentary basin during the deposition of Triassic Taormina
and Streppenosa and Lower Jurassic Villagonia Formations.
Of particular interest is the thick (several thousand meters) Algal Dolomite
(Taormina), a reef that formed a broad shallow-water platform in an area of
rapid subsidence. The southern part of the platform was separated by a slope
from the deep sea floor on which argillaceous and calcareous muds of the Streppenosa Formation were deposited. A change in sedimentation conditions and the
end of the Algal Dolomite reef formation occurred as a result of considerable
decrease in subsidence. Basin facies transgressed over the reef. Gradual lateral
changes from basin to reef facies, that took place during transgression of the
Streppenosa sea and regression of the Villagonia sea, are illustrated accurately by
petrographic logs.
In Gela, the oil is trapped in the Algal, Tan, and Brecciated Dolomites of
the Taormina Formation and in Cammarata area, in the bioclastic limestones of
the Villagonia Formation. Closure is formed by the Streppenosa Formation in
Gela and by the Giardini Formation in Cammarata. Shales and micrites of the
Streppenosa Formation are probably the source rocks.
Y. GUBLER
et al.
CONCLUSIONS
Exceptional progress has been made during the last ! 5 years in the field of petrography of carbonate rocks due to the introduction of new methods of laboratory
analysis. In particular, new techniques of physical analysis (electronic microscopy,
X-ray diffractometry, fluorescent X-ray diffractometry, emission spectrography,
etc.) have made it possible to make a rigorous and more thorough identification
of the carbonates making up a rock. In addition, methods such as digital data
processing by integrating instruments for establishing characteristic parameters
for each rock have proved to be of great value.
Depending on the parameters taken into consideration, and taking into
account the different aspects of the data provided by current sedimentation research, a petrographic examination can resuIt in a recognition of the features of
the original depositional environment. It also enables one to evaluate some of the
textural characteristics which influence the physical properties of the rock.
The writers have also tried to demonstrate that a mere petrographic examination (by thin section) is only rarely satisfactory in giving a representative picture
of the rock. Limestones and dolomites usually constitute heterogeneous bodies
whose anisotropies can only be discerned on a field scale, and cannot be perceived
by means of any more thorough petrographic analysis. This presents a difficult
scalar problem.
Reservoir engineers and oil field geologists have attempted to approach this
scalar problem from the point of view of mathematical theory. One of the causes
of the difficulties they have encountered stems from the fact that the life-size data
(i.e., the petrologic information) they have to deal with are often incomplete and
too qualitative. Consequently, it is imperative that geologists supply them with
data which are as complete and quantitative as possible. The writers feel that the
only way to do this is by systematic and standardized sampling and presentation of
data. It is only under such conditions that measurements can be compared so
that correlations can be established from one profile to another and from the
field to hand samples and to thin sections. The results thus obtained will be complementary and would enable geologists to construct a petromodel.
As for the environments considered, efforts have thus far mainly concentrated on reef complexes (particularly Paleozoic); and relatively little is as yet known
about the petrology of pelagic limestones including chalks, which, nevertheless,
are of considerable regional importance since the Cretaceous time. The scattered
data available on these younger carbonate rocks appear to indicate that the same
methods would be applicable in approaching the problem.
The solution of the fundamental problems of diagenesis requires geochemical and thermodynamic methods just as it does petrographic and petrologic
procedures. As far as the mineralogical replacements during diagenesis are
concerned, one should be aware of the important part played by minor elements
83
(i.e., both in solid solution and as ionic impurities in interstitial waters). Consequently, the necessity of applying the above-mentioned methods of analysis for studying
them becomes evident.
One should also be aware of the effects of pressure and temperature which
always influence crystallization. Based on observations made on all scales (from
the field study to thin sections), the role of geologists is thus to detect the effects of
pressure and temperature, their magnitudes and variations.
Taken all together, these data can only be synthesized on the scale of a petromodel, which is the basic unit that the sedimentary petrologist has to consider.
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Chapter 4
CLASSIFICATION O F SEDIMENTARY CARBONATE ROCKS
HAROLD J. BISSELL AND GEORGE V. CHILINGAR
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
It should be noted, that more than three-fourths of the surface of the earth is
covered by water, and certain modern-day carbonates are forming. About threefourths of the total land area is directly underlain by sedimentary rocks, and
approximately one-fifth of these consists of carbonate rocks. Thus, it is desirable
to study present-day environments of carbonate sedimentation and carefully to
investigate indurated equivalents in the geologic record, in order to group carbonate rock types into a single classification or, more likely, multiple classifications
having value to both field and laboratory investigators.
No single scheme of classification appears to have universal appeal or utilitarian value to geologists, as is evinced by the blizzard of nomenclatural and classification proposals in recent years; and any proposal must be meaningful if it is
to be applicable to the tremendously variable and areally extensive carbonate
suites. As a beginning, the field classification should be workable to the investigator equipped with no more than a hand lens and acid bottle. This same scheme
should be expandable to the degree necessary for the worker whose laboratory
contains higher power magnification, as provided by various binocular, petrographic, and electron microscopes, X-ray equipment, and analytical physical and
chemical apparatuses.
Perusal of the literature indicates that geologists normally define carbonate
rocks as those containing more than 50 % of carbonate minerals; investigators
88
customarily recognize limestone and dolomite (or dolostone) as the two compositional types. Some workers prefer to treat the two divisions separately, whereas
others demonstrate that a scheme of classification can be devised to include both.
Rocks containing as little as 10% CaC03 often weather like limestones. Nevertheless, it seems that limestones are best defined as sedimentary rocks containing
more than 50% of the minerals calcite (plus aragonite) and dolomite (possibly
including ankerite), with calcite dominant. Dolomite (or dolostone) is a sedimentary rock containing more than 50 % of the minerals dolomite (perhaps including
ankerite) and calcite (plus aragonite), with dolomite more dominant. In the discussion which follows, limestones are treated separately from dolomite rocks
(dolostones), largely because numerous dolomites are the result of diagenetic
alteration of limestones. The dual classification, therefore, may result in a more
objective approach in the investigation. It will be pointed out, however, that a
classification which includes both rock types is nonetheless workable, but of necessity must be handled by a trained petrographer.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIMESTONES
General stutemenl
89
TABLE I
QUANTITATIVE SCHEME OF CALCITE-DOLOMITE-CLAY
SERIES
(After TEODOROVICH,
1958, p.299)
~
Content (%)
Name of rock
~-
Clayey limestone
Slightly-clayey dolomitic limestone
Slightly-clayey limestone
Limestone
Slightly-dolomitic limestone
Dolomitic limestone
Highly-dolomitic limestone
~~
~~
clay
calcite
30-10
5-10
5-10
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
35-90
9045
95-85
100-90
95-80
80-65
6547.5
dolomite
045
547.5
0-5
0-5
5-20
15-35
30-50
PETTIJOHN
(1949, pp.289, 313) pointed out that limestones are a polygenetic group
of rocks, and proposed a chemical scheme of classification that shows intergradaand KENNER
(1955, pp.46-48) also proposed a
tions of carbonate rocks. GUERRERO
classification of limestone-dolomite series on the basis of CaO/MgO molar ratio,
more or less a modification of Pettijohns quantitative scheme. On the basis of
relative amounts of calcite (CaCOs), dolomite (CaMg(CO&), and clayey material,
TEODOROVICH
(1958, p.299) proposed the divisions given in Table I.
Several methods of classification of carbonate rocks on the basis of chemical
composition were reviewed by CHILINGAR
(1960). Table I1 gives types of limestones
that can be recognized on the basis of Ca/Mg (weight) ratios.
TABLE 11
CLASSIFICATION OF LIMESTONES ON BASIS OF
ca/Mg RATIO
__
._
- - ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
.~
Rock name
4.74-16
16-60
60-105
>105
90
91
CALCITE
S I L I C A and C L A Y
DOLOMITE
numerical sequence, and each number shows percentage of the end-members that
are representative of the composition of the rock. The closest number to each
member is approximately 100 % of that end-member. For example, in Mollazal's
diagram, 1 means essentially pure calcite (or calcitic limestone), 21 is dolomite,
and 5 approximates 75% (60-80%) calcite, 18% (16-24%) dolomite, and 7 %
(4-16%) silica and clay. Thus, it .is possible to demonstrate the composition of
a carbonate rock, and in particular limestones, by one number only.
Texture
92
TYPE \
TYPE I\
TYPE III
TYPE I V
93
94
rock. Various types of calcirudites, biocalcirudites, edgewise conglomerates, flatpebble conglomerates, polymictic and oligomictic conglomerates, calcarenites,
biocalcarenites, reef-front breccias, calcisiltites, calcilutites, dismicrites, and others
originate in this manner.
Skeletal grains may be fragmental, or nonfragmental. Some workers prefer to
reserve the term skeletal limestones for those varieties which are in-place framebuilders, or bioaccumulated with little or no abrasion. Some fossiliferous limestones
and biostromes fit this category. Perhaps a more realistic approach to application
of the term skeletal grain is to view it as an intra-basin (or any type of sediment
depositional repository such as shelf, platform, etc.) deposit, and, therefore, of
either fragmental or nonfragmental nature. The division between a fragmental
skeletal limestone and an intraclast composed of abraded and water-worn fossil
debris (= fossiliferous-fragmental), however, may be arbitrary. Workers apply the
(1904,
term bioclastic today, not necessarily in the sense suggested by GRABAU
1913), but more commonly to the fossiliferous-fragmental limestones. THOMAS
(1960, pp.1833-1834) objected to the latter practice, but geologists have evidently
made the slight departure from GRABAUS earlier (1904) usage and the term is
more or less ingrained in the language. Even GRABAU
(1913) later modified his
first suggestion.
Skeletal grains, whether fragmental or nonfragmental, may consist of Foraminifera, Algae, crinoids (or crinoidal debris), brachiopods, molluscs, and others.
These grains may be combined with detrital grains (whether allogenic or intraclastic, or both), and/or with micritic material, pellets, lumps, etc. MOSHER
and PINNEY
(1963, pp.219-222) devised an excellent scheme in their textural classification of
limestones (which is a modification of that by LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962),
by applying the hyphen ( - ) and the comma ( , ). For example, skeletal-micritic
limestone indicates approximately equal amounts of skeletal and micritic material,
but skeletal, micritic limestone is one composed mostly of micrite in which 10-25 %
of skeletal elements are embedded. This scheme was utilized earlier by CHILINGAR
and BISSELL(1963a) in a classification of limestones.
DUNHAM
(1 962) classified limestones according to depositional texture, and
suggested terms such as mudstone, wackestone, packstone, grainstone, and boundstone. PRAYand WRAY(1963) utilized some of these textural terms in their study
of Pennsylvanian porous algal facies exposed along Honaker Trail and the canyon
walls of the San Juan River in southeastern Utah. By contrast, BAARS(1963)
pointed out that unaltered limestones are composed of lime mud (micrite or
matrix of some writers), particles or grains, cement, and pore space. He foland PENDEXTER
(1962) and subdivided particles
lowed the suggestion of LEIGHTON
into: ( I ) skeletal, (2) detrital, (3) composite grains, ( 4 ) coated grains, and (5)
pellets. FERAY
et al. (1962) indicated in their classification that skeletal material is
biochemical in origin and is secretionary in nature, and stated that: Skeletal
material is produced by organisms progressively secreting calcium carbonate in
95
96
and PENDEXTER
(1962) pointed out that lumps may range in size up to algal
biscuits. Workers may encounter difficulties in distinguishing lumps from grapestones (see IMBRIE
and PURDY,1962, p.266); or from bits of lime mud torn from the
sea floor, that through agitation are rolled around and increase in size through
aggregation and composite clustering. Lime ooze in the littoral zone may become
disrupted, rolled around and shaped into lobate or irregular masses, and ultimately
become indurated. Such material could be termed lumps. Furthermore, flocculated
lime ooze particularly through mingling of brackish and saline waters may form
lumpal limestones, lumpal-micritic limestones, etc. ; this would result in a glomeroclastic texture. Thick and areally extensive limestones that contain numerous
lumps, and in fact are to be termed lump limestones, occur in Cenozoic deposits of
the western interior of the United States. These limestones are largely of the lacustrine environment although many may have accumulated in saline to penesaline
waters, and others are evidently strictly of fresh-water origin.
Numerous Permian algal limestones in parts of the eastern one-half of
Nevada and western one-half of Utah contain lumps; it is believed that many of
these lumpal limestones are composed of disrupted algal colonies some of which
were broken and re-shaped to form lumps through current and wave action in
shallow marine waters. Algal dust, as pointed out herein, may have become
organized into pellets, intermediate pelletoid grains, or micritic grains; these may
be termed the grains of matrix of ILLING
(1954).
The textural term oolitic has been applied to limestones for many years;
WOLF(1960, p.1415) preferred the term coated grains for ooids or oolites to
include concentrically formed materials up to the size of pisolites. Wolfs classification is identical in most respects to that of Jersey Production Researchcompany
(LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962). Thus, coated grains are those having concentric
or enclosing layers of calcium carbonate around a central nucleus, and include
oolites, pisolites, Algae-encrusted or Foraminifera-encrusted skeletal grains.
These coated grains fall into three principal categories, as follows: ( I ) OoZitessmall spherical or subspherical accretionary grains generally less than 2.0 mm in
diameter that in thin section display concentric and/or radial structure. A variety
in this group is the superficial oolite in which the thickness of the accretionary
coating is less than the radius of the nucleus. (2) Pisolites-grains similar to but
larger than oolites, and less regular in form (commonly crenulated); they are
generally 2.0 mm or more in diameter. (3) Algae- or Foraminifera-encrustedgrains
-these are carbonate grains having a nucleus (generally a skeletal or rock fragment) about which Algae or Foraminifera have formed encrustations.
It is herein suggested that the textural term axiolitic (radial-cylindrical)
should be added, either as a subdivision within (I) and (2) above, or as a fourth
category of the oolitic class. The term was applied originally to igneous rocks
(ZIRKEL,1876), but has utility for sedimenta. carbonate rocks if no attempt
is made to assign a particular genetic significance it. Axiolitic is a textural term
98
99
100
TABLE 111
SIZE CLASSIFICATION
(After WENTWORTH,
1922; modified by LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962)
~~
Grade-size
scales (mm)
--
~ _ -
8.0
~~
WENTWORTH
(1922)
-~
._
~~
LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962)
_
Pebble gravel
4.0
_
~
~
-~
.~
1 .o
0.5
~~~
Coarse-grained
~
Medium sand
Medium-grained
Fine sand
Fine-grained
~-
~~
0.125
~.
0.0625
~~
Very coarse-grained
0.25
____~-
~~
Granule gravel
2.0
0.0312
Reference
~.
~-
Very fine-grained
~~
Silt
Coarselv
Micrograined
0.016
0.002
0.001
Clay
Cryptograined
PENDEXTER
(1962, p.52) modified the Wentworth grade scale, that was proposed
for clastic sediments, to apply to carbonate rocks, as shown in Table 111.
The above textural terminology may find a certain application for petrologists and petrographers; it is hardly scientific when an authors description of
limestone states that the rock is fine-grained when in reality it is micritic,
(1959, 1962) also modified the Wentfinely crystalline, or cryptocrystalline. FOLK
worth scale, but used a crystallinity scale for the authigenic constituents. A
comparison of some of the prevailing particle size scales is presented in Table IV.
It is herein pointed out that certain terminology of DEFORD(1946) has utility, and
has generally been overlooked by petrographers. The term aphanitic is still
used by numerous sedimentary petrographers, although the term aphanic is preferred. MOLLAZAL
(1961, pp. 14-18) discussed crystallinity of limestones, particularly those that have been diagenetically altered. In following usage of DEFORD
(1946), he applied the term aphanic to those limestones which have a crystalline
101
(and/or grained) texture, the discrete particles of which are smaller than 0.004 mm
in size. Microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline textures are also included here;
but aphanic is a term to apply in the field when magnification no greater than 10 x
hand lens is available. Subsequent work in the laboratory with thin sections and
polarizing microscope will determine if it is micro- or cryptocrystalline. In following
the usage of DEFORD
(1946) and the variation of MOLLAZAL
(1 96 1, p. 1S), the writers
believe that the textural term aphanic should replace the term aphanitic for sedimentary carbonate rocks, and that the upper limit of particles should be considered
as 0.01 mm. Both grained and crystalline textures are included in Table IV;
micrograined and microcrystalline, and for the smaller particles, cryptograined and
cryptocrystalline are appropriate terms, defined in the laboratory. Aphanic is an
excellent field term, particularly for micritic limestones and dolomites, lithographic
limestones, etc.
On the basis of extensive research work, KHVOROVA
(1958, p.1 I ) proposed
the following useful classification: ( I ) very coarse-grained (or crystalline)--> 1 mm:
(2) coarse-grained-0.5-1 mm; (3) medium-grained-0.25-0.5 mm; ( 4 ) finc-grained
-0.1-0.25 mm; (5) very fine-grained-0.01-0.1 mm; (6) micrograined - <0.01
mm; and (7) cryptograined (pelitomorphic, cryptocrysta11ine)- <0.005 mm.
Additional proposals that are made at this time include revisions in size
limits of the phaneric sedimentary carbonate-rock particles. Inasmuch as textural
classification includes grained as well as crystalline particles, it is important that
the petrographer should distinguish between these in both field and laboratory
studies. The term macrocrystalline is used, with slight modification, after that of
HOWELL(1922); this also includes macrograined textural types if they are macroclastic. Limits of size grades are identical to those given by DEFORD
(1946) for
megagrained rocks. Perhaps the terms megagrained and megacrystalline are more
appealing to some geologists than the terms adopted by the writers. The terms mesocrystalline and mesograined are valuable, and although d o not correspond precisely
to the lower limit set by DEFORD
(1946) are, nonetheless, within the limitations of
normal routine field and laboratory investigations. It is not necessary that the
medium- and coarse-textured sedimentary carbonate textural types correspond
precisely with the size-grade limits of the WENTWORTH
(1922) sandstone textural
groups. Sands are segregated into textural types and sizes commonly by sieving,
whereas carbonates are examined with the hand lens and microscope and, therefore, lend themselves to study by the scales indicated herein. Aphanic has utility
in both field and laboratory studies as a scale size; in the laboratory it can be ascertained if the carbonate has a microcrystalline or micrograined (i.e., microclastic)
texture, or should be termed cryptocrystalline or cryptograined. It is possible to
determine finely crystalline or finely grained textures in the field with the 10 x hand
lens, and more precisely establish size limits later in the laboratory. With the above
information available, it should be possible to classify more objectively the sedi-
102
TABLE IV
PARTICLE SIZE SCALES
Kr nine
(1$48)
2 oarsely
:rystalline
grained)
4.0
2.0
1.0
Howell
(1922)
DeFord
(194 6)
Petti'ohn
(194d)
Macrocrystalline
Megagrained
Calcirudite
Medium
:rys t alline
grained)
Tinely
xystalline
grained)
Calc-.
arenite
MesoCrystalline
Mesograined
Microcrystalline
Paurograined
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.062
Calcilutite
0.05
0.025
0.016
0.01
0.004
Cryptocrystalline
Micrograined
0.002i
0.001
Crypto:rained
103
(1-961)
Folk
The present
(1959,1962) authors
stalline
Extremely
coarsely
crystalline
Mollazal
'
MacrocryCoarse
Medium
Fine
Coarse
4.0
Very
coarsely
Crystalline
2.0
1.0
Coarsely
crystalline
0.5
Medium
Medium
crystalline
Fine
0.25
lI
0.1
Fine
fine
Finely
crystalline
crystalline
Size
(mm)
crystalline
Finely
0.062
0.05
(grained)
0.025
Very
finely
crystalline
Microxystallinc
0.016
Microcrystalline
(grained)
0.01
0.004
Aphano crystalline
0.0025
Cryptoxystalline
Cryptocrystalline
(grained)
0.001
104
mentary carbonate rocks, particularly by those workers who investigate the problems of diagenesis and permeability-porosity.
Any scheme of sedimentary carbonate-rock classification should take into
account, if at all possible, the energy level of the depocenter (= depositional environment). PLUMLEY
et al. (1 962) have provided detailed information concerning this parameter in the classification and stated that: The depositional energy
level, which is a function of wave and current action, varies in space and time and
leaves its record in the rocks (PLUMLEY
et al., 1962, p.86). Their classification
plan includes five major limestone types and fifteen subtypes based upon interpretation of the energy level, and in part upon the biota. Sedimentary petrologists
are more aware than ever that fossils are part of the rock and are not primarily a
tool for the paleontologist. In many instances fossils provide the data necessary
for environmental interpretation where other evidence might be open to subjective appraisal. Algae in particular fit this category.
and POWERS
In their classification of Arabian carbonate rocks, BRAMKAMP
(1958, pp.1305-1317) indicated two major energy types: ( I ) quiet-water deposits,
and (2) current-washed deposits. Coarse carbonate clastics (calcirudites) and some
calcarenites, as would be expected, were classified as current-washed deposits;
whereas calcarenitic limestones and fine-grained limestones (calcilutites) were
assigned to the quiet-water group. CHILINGAR
and BISSELL(1963a, table 3, p.9)
utilized a somewhat similar plan in their classification of limestones. RICH(1963,
1964) expanded the carbonate-rock classification scheme of BRAMKAMP
and POWERS
(1958), but did not stress the energy-level factor. It is herein recommended that
petrologists and petrographers devote considerable time to the objective study of
this parameter in sedimentary carbonate-rock classification. The study of turbidites,
for example, is not limited to noncarbonate rocks, and the field worker can map and
plot the major depositional energy levels; he can also enhance these studies objectively with detailed laboratory studies.
Serious consideration should be given, it is contended, to the Energy Irzdex
(EI) classification of PLUMLEY
et al. (1962). They proposed the following five
water; 11-intermittently agitated water; 111-slightly
major types: I-quiet
agitated water ;IV-moderately agitated water; and V-strongly agitated water.
As they pointed out, each type is a pigeonhole with boundaries that, although
arbitrary, can be determined by semi-quantitative and qualitative analysis of the
primary textural properties. BOUMA(1962) demonstrated that an objective study
is possible with noncarbonate sedimentary rocks; it is herein contended that
an equally valid scientific and objective approach is possible with all sedimentary
carbonate rocks. Field work is an obvious prerequisite to detailed laboratory investigations; one discipline must complement the other. PLUMLEY
et al. (1962) have
provided detailed information relating to criteria by which a semi-quantitative
interpretation of agitated-water environments can be made; their paper is generally
available, and that information need not be repeated here. Geologists are devoting
105
considerable time and energy mapping environments, and any worthy tool must
be given serious consideration (see BOUMA, 1962; ~ M B R I Eand PURDY,1962; and
G. E. THOMAS,
1962).
LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962, p.50) suggested that determination of the
grain/micrite ratio has value in their textural classification of limestones. This
ratio appears along the vertical axis of their chart, and is the sum of the percentages
of grains divided by the percentage of mud-like material (micrite). Essentially, this
grainlmicrite ratio (GMR) is equal to:
% (detrital grains
mineral grains
106
H. J. BISSELL A N D G. V. CHILINGAR
the GMR is < 1 the rock contains less than 50 % grains. This is shown in the classification of limestones by MOSHER
and PINNEY
(1963) as modified after the one by
L EIGHTON and PENDEXTER
(1 962).
In any tabular form of rock classification, various pigeonholes are usually
set up arbitrarily for the grain types, and many rocks consist largely of one textural type, such as micrite, calcarenite, etc. Seemingly, most limestones contain
two or more grain types. Where two or more grain types are present in approximately equal amounts in the rock, it is suggested that the two names be hyphenated,
such as detrital-micritic limestone. Most generally, however, one grain type predominates over the other. In this case, the limestone is given the name of the predominating grain type with the other as an adjectival modifier, or essential prefix.
For example, the carbonate may contain 60% skeletal grains and 40% detrital
grains; this would be termed detrital-skeletal limestone. If the rock is composed of
15 % detrital grains and 85 % skeletal grains, however, it is termed detrital, skeletal
limestone. In other words, the contents of grains (in %) are arranged in tabular form
in the order of increasing percentage in the classification scheme. A rock composed
of 10 % detrital grains and 70 % skeletal grains, all embedded in micritic material
composing 20 % of the whole, could be named detrital, micritic, skeletal limestone.
If detrital grains and micrite are present in about equal amounts, such as 15 % each,
and skeletal material comprises the remaining 70%, the rock is named detritalmicritic, skeletal limestone. The name should be euphonious, and pronounceability will dictate the order of arrangement where the hyphen is used.
WOLF(1960; see also LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962) applied a plan of
pigeon-holing limestones according to textural types; the vertical and horizontal
lines in their charts are arbitrarily assigned for guidance, not limitation. For example, a carbonate may consist of approximately equal amounts (say 30% each) of
detrital, skeletal, and pelletal material, cemented with micrite; it could, according
to the suggestions advanced by the present writers, be termed detrital-skeletalpelletal limestone cemented with micrite. It may be more pleasing to the ear of a
listener to term the rock a detrital-pelletal-skeletal limestone cemented with micrite. It would not be termed micrite; perhaps preference would dictate that it
should be identified as a micritic, detrital-pelletal-skeletal limestone. This differs in
no fundamental fashion, other than constituents involved, from the naming of
an igneous, or a metamorphic rock; for example, quartz-muscovite-albite schist,
etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF DOLOMITES
General statement
107
TABLE V
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS INTERMEDIATE IN COMPOSITION BETWEEN PURE LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES
Rock name
Limestone
Magnesian limestone
Dolomitic limestone
Calcitic dolomite
Dolomite
calcite
dolomite
>95
90-95
50-90
10-50
<10
<5
5-10
10-50
50-90
>90
(After TEODOROVICH,
1958, p.299)
Group name
Content (%)
dolomite
Clayey dolomite
Slightly-clayey calcitic dolomite
Slightly-clayey dolomite
Dolomte
Slightly-calcitic dolomite
Calcitic dolomite
Highly-calcitic dolomite
35-90
90-45
95-85
100-90
95-80
80-65
65-47.5
calcite
045
5-47.5
0-5
0-5
5-20
15-35
30-50
clayey material
30-10
5-10
5-10
0-5
0-5
0-5
0-5
108
H. .I.
BISSELL AND G . V. CHILINGAR
TABLE VII
FROLOVAS CLASSIFICATION OF DOLOMITE-MAGNESITE-CALCITE
SERIES
(After FROLOVA,
1959, p.35)
Name
Content (%)
dolomite
Limestone
Slightly dolomitic limestone
Dolomitic limestone
Calcitic dolomite
Slightly calcitic dolomite
Dolomite
Very slightly magnesian dolomite
Slightly magnesian dolonlite
Magnesian dolomite
Dolomitic magnesite
Slightly dolomitic magnesite
Magnesite
5-0
25-5
50-25
75-50
95-75
100-95
100-9 5
95-75
75-50
50-25
25-5
5-0
calcite
95-100
75-95
50-75
25-50
5-25
0-5
-
magnesite
0-5
5-25
25-50
50-75
75-95
95-100
CaOIMgO
ratio
> 50.1
9.1 -50.1
4.0 -9.1
2.2 -4.0
1.5 -2.2
1.4 -1.5
1.25-1.4
0.80-1.25
0.44-0.80
0.18-0.44
0.03-0.18
0.00-0.03
109
110
W
u)
2
E
0
n
W
LL
_I
4
IW
I
0
F
z
5
Clear-grained
relic
Micro-grohed
relic
Cleor -grained
dolomites
Micro-grained
dolomites
relics
negofive
wilh
wifh
structure
with negative
sfructure
micro-groined
pisolitic
plsolltlc
and
pisolitic
bean-shoped
e,
13
] 5C8x
8
._
v
cr
1 'f
I cd
18
15
1 V6
cn
m"
lc!
a
rn
'0
1 .^
%
Fa
I A
1 %
19
Other
Cryptograined-pelitomorphic
from irregular groins
Detrital
or
Oolitic
Detrital
Biornorphic-detritol
or
Biornorphic
oollllc
Detrifal
breccia
Biomorphic - detrital
Biomorphic
SlltY
Sandy
etc.
Conglomerate and
Radiolife,
Oolitic-like
and
Oolitic
8
Bio-dctrital
Biomorphic - d e t r i l a l
.-
Biomorphic
111
112
LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962, p.57) stated the following concerning the
genetic implications in naming of dolomites: In spite of attempts to avoid genetic
implications in naming dolomites and dolomitic rocks, it is impossible to do so
completely. They cited the example of dolomitic limestone, and also pointed
out that the association of finely micrograined dolomites, laminated dolomites, and
dolomitic breccias with anhydrite, chert, and microcrystalline micritic limestone,
has led t o the use of the term primary dolomites in evaporitic sequences. Some
TABLE VIII
CHARACTERISTICS OF DOLOMITE GROUPS~
(After LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962; modified by the present authors)
_ _ _ _ _ ~ ~
Dolomites in evaporitic sequences
Dolomitized rocks
~.
~~~
113
petrographers avoid the word primary when referring to the dolomites in such a
sequence, but this appears to be no more than a play on words. If the entire sequence is an evaporite sequence or suite, then the dolomite is possibly an evaporite;
if it is primary then no justification can be found to avoid the term. It should be
remembered, however, that some very early diagenetic dolomites are classed as
primary by many geologists (see BISSELL
and CHILINGAR,
1962).
After making a survey among various geologists concerning the terminology
of carbonate rocks, RODGERS
(1954, p.232) stated: . . . common American usage
calls dolomite primary only if the particles were dolomite when first formed, as by
direct precipitation from sea water; otherwise they are secondary. SANDER(1936)
termed dolomite primary if the particles were dolomite when they reached their
present position in the rock fabric, secondary only if they are replacements of
some material that occupied the same position. Rodgers has made an excellent
point, in that if the terms primary and secondary are to be used, their meaning
must be defined.
LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962, pp.57-58) pointed out that each of their two
groups of dolomites has particular textural characters and rock associations; these
are listed in Table VIIi, with additions of the present authors.
114
TABLE IX
CLASSIFICATION OF
LIME ST ONES^
detrital
skeletal
Detrital
limestone2
Skeletal
limestone
Strongly agitated
(growth and deposition
in strongly agitated
HzO)
9/1
75
Slightly agitated
(includes to-andfro HzO action)
Intermittently
agitated (alternately agitated
and quiet HzO)
Relatively quiet
(deposition in
quiet HzO not necessarily
stagnant-may
be gently agitated)
90
1/1
50
25
119
10
________
Micritic,
detrital
limestone3
Micritic,
skeletal
limestone
Micriticdetrital
limestone
Micriticskeletal
limestone
Detritalmicritic
limestone
Skeletalmicritic
limestone
Detrital,
micritic
limestone
Skeletal,
micritic
limestone
Micritic
limestone
Micritic
limestone
1
2
115
Accumulated in place
_.
~~
accretion-aggregation grains
~
organic
frame builders
pellets
lumps
coated grains
Pelletal
limestone
Lump
limestone
Oolitic,
pisolitic,
oopelletal,
algal,
etc.
limestone
Colonial corals,
stromatoporoids,
colonial Algae,
bryalgal, bryozoan,
foraminiferal,
etc.
limestone
Micritic,
pelletal
limestone
Micritic,
lump
limestone
Micritic,
oolitic,
pisolitic,
etc.
limestone
Micriticpelletal
limestone
Micriticlump
limestone
Micriticoolitic
pisolitic,
etc.
limestone
Micritic coralline,
algal, bryalgal,
etc.
limestone
(use appropriate
comma and/or hyphen
for correct
combination)
Pelletalmicritic
limestone
Lumpmicritic
limestone
Ooliticpisolitic
etc.
micritic
limestone
Pelletal,
micritic
limestone
Lump,
micritic
limestone
Oolitic,
pisolitic,
etc.,
micritic
limestone
Micritic
limestone
Micritic
limestone
Micritic
limestone
Corailine, algal,
bryozoan, bryalgal,
etc.
micritic limestone
(use appropriate
comma and/or hyphen
for correct
combination)
chemical,
biochemical
116
117
useful in their studies of the porous algal limestones of Pennsylvanian age along
Honaker Trail in the canyon walls of the San Juan River, southeastern Utah.
BRAMKAMP
and POWERS(1958) and POWERS(1962) demonstrated the utility of
their classification of limestones and diagenetically altered limestones for Arabian
Upper Jurassic reservoir rocks. G. E. THOMAS
(1962) tested his classification of
carbonate rocks on selected Paleozoic carbonate cycles and reef complexes in a
western Canada basin; in his scheme of classification, carbonate rocks can be described and grouped into textural and porosity units for mapping purposes. NELSON
et al. (1962) used the term skeletal limestones for rocks which consist of, or owe
their characteristics to, the in-place accumulations of calcareous skeletal material.
Their limestone classification is, therefore, one in which the rock is classified according to the organism primarily responsible for its formation. These workers reviewed usage of the terms reef, bioherm, biostrome, and bank, and related terms,
as well as making certain recommendations as to correct usage.
Attempts have been made to classify the modern Bahamian carbonate
sediments; one such classification is that of IMBRIE and PURDY(1962). Their scheme
identifies five discrete sample groups, as follows: ( I ) oslitic, (2) grapestone, (3)
coralgal. (4) oolite, and (5) lime-mud facies. They tested their scheme of classification together with that of FOLK(1 959), with substantial success. Their shelf
lagoon sands, for example, include the oolite, oolitic, and grapestone facies, and
are comparable to the oosparites and intrasparites of Folk. Outer platform sands
of the Bahamas embrace their coralgal facies, equivalent to Folk's biosparites and
biopelsparites. Their muddy sands of the shelf lagoon are the lime-mud facies,
thus equivalent to oomicrites, intramicrites, biomicrites, biopelmicrites, and pelmicrites of Folk. RICH(1963, 1964) proposed a limestone classification, based on
his studies of rocks of Late Paleozoic age in southern Nevada; his classification is,
however, mostly a modification of the scheme of BRAMKAMP and POWERS
(19x9, and
of others.
Many of the classifications just mentioned were published by the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists in 1962 as a symposium Classification of
Carbonate Rocks (HAM,1962). This work is generally available, and the charts which
it contains need not be reprinted here. BAARS(1963, p.101) pointed out that this
". . . symposium is a monument to the advancement of our understanding of the
carbonate rocks and is highly recommended as an introduction to the study of
carbonates. However, no particular classification was found to be mutually
agreeable to all authors. And so it goes. For every carbonate petrographer there
is a unique system of classification." Although BAARS(1963) did not propose a
scheme of classification of limestones, he did discuss them in terms of these compositional types: lime mud (= micrite or matrix), particles or grains, cement, and
pore space. He recognized five kinds of particles (which are the ones suggested by
LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962), as follows: ( I ) skeletal particles, (2) pellets, (3)
coated grains, (4) detrital particles, and (5) composite particles.
118
TABLE X
CLASSIFICATION OF DOLOMITES
9
9
2
.i;
.e
Y
z
Y
E
.-
Major
part
organic
Reefs
Banks
-~
_ -~
Major
part
detrital
Pellets
-
2;
~.
Lumps
Moderately
to strongly
altered
(but
preserving
vestiges of
texture and
composition
of original
rock)
~~
--
~~
Major
part
chemical
or
biochemical
Dolomitized chalk
Micrograined
Detrital
-~
-~
___
-Foraminiferal, sparry criquinites,
brachiopods, molluscs, algal
Skeletal
(u
~~-~~-
.~
Megalumps to microlumps
~-
concentric rings
grains
~
-~
Superficial oolites
and pisolites
-~
-~
_-
__
--
Cryptogeniccompletely
altered to
complete
obliteration.
Few negative
relics may be
present,
suggesting
texture and
composition
of original
carbonate
_-
~~~
~-
~~
~-
-~
119
Phaneric
___-
Aphanic
Sparry
dolomite
(dolosparite)
Micri tic
dolomite or
dolomicrite
(some types
are primary
dolomicrite,
and may be
laminated)
Finely crystalline
Microcrystalline
__________
Cryptocrystalline
___
~
(uniform textures
may be primary;
some contain
fine silt and clay.
- 0.01
mm
- 0.001
mm
TAFTand HARBAUGH
(1964) made a detailed study of the mineralogy and
physical chemistry of the modern carbonate sediments of southern Florida, the
Bahamas, and Espiritu Santo Island, Baja California; they did not classify the
sediments according to any prevailing scheme nor did they present a new classification, but their data contribute in a very substantial manner to an understanding of some of the processes of sedimentation and diagenesis of modern carbonate
materials. If judiceously utilized, this information can assist any petrographer
working with modern or ancient sedimentary carbonates.
Soviet geologists have made excellent contributions to the knowledge of
sedimentary carbonate rocks, and particularly to their classification. The two
classifications recommended by the present writers include the one by TEODOROVICH (1958, p.291), which is presented in Fig.3 of this chapter, and the one by
SHVETSOV
(1958, p.292). These classifications were published in English by BISSELL
and CHIUNGAR(1961, pp.612 and 615, respectively). KRUMBEIN
and SLOSS(1963,
pp. 179-1 SO) also called attention to the classifications of these Soviet workers.
Obviously, no single classification of the sedimentary carbonate rocks and
particularly the limestones will immediately suit taste and fit the needs of each
120
121
EXPLENATION OF PLATES
PLATE I
rial, and quartz sand grains in finer-grained matrix. Derryan age Oquirrh Formation, Blue Spring
Hills, Oneida County, Idaho; x 3.
B. Detrital limestone, composed of silt- and sand-size limeclasts, lumps, algal material, and some
quartz sand grains. Bird Spring Formation (Pennsylvanian), Lee Canyon area, Clark County,
Nev.; x 3 .
C. Detrital limestone, composed of silt- and sand-size limeclasts, with some skeletal grains, in
finer-grained matrix. Ely Limestone (Pennsylvanian), Burbank Hills, Millard County, Utah; x 3.
D. Detrital limestone, composed of oolites, pellets, limeclasts, and some quartz grains, with minor
interstitial lime mud. Morrowan age part of Morgan Formation, Duchesne River Valley,
Duchesne County, Utah; x 4.6.
E. Calcarenitic limestone, composed of sand-size limeclasts, crinoid ossicles, some algal material,
and subangular to subrounded quartz grains, embedded in matrix of finer-grained material.
Derryan age portion of Wood River (?) Formation, Arc0 Hills, Butte County, Idaho; x3.
F. Calcarenite showing graded bedding. Rock is composed of limeclasts, algal material, pellets,
and micro-lumps, with quartz sand grains. Cedar Fort Member @esmoinesian age) of Oquirrh
Formation, Cedar Mountains, Tooele County, Utah; x 3.
PLATE I1
A. Micritic limestone. Rock is composed of very fine-textured to micritic limestone with minor
amount of skeletal material. Ely Limestone (Pennsylvanian), Pancake Range, Nye County, Nev.;
x 30.8.
B. Detrital limestone, composed of abraded and broken brachiopod shells, crinoid ossicles, algal
material, lumps, and bryozoan fragments in finer textured particulate lime material and micritic
material. Hall Canyon Member (Morrowan age) of Oquirrh Formation, Oquirrh Mountains,
Utah County, Utah; x 7.7.
C. Skeletal-detrital limestone. Fusulinids (Triticitessp.) in silt- and sand-size particulate limestone,
algal material, pelletal material; and quartz silt and sand grains. Missourian portion of Oquirrh
Formation, Hobble Creek Canyon, Utah County, Utah; x 7.7.
D. Skeletal-detrital limestone, composed of disarticulated brachiopod tests, limeclasts, in matrix
of calcilutite containing some quartz silt and sand grains. Garden Valley Formation (Permian),
Diamond Range, White Pine County, Nev.; X 3.
E. Detrital limestone, composed of sand- and silt-size limeclasts, pelletal material, and some quartz
silt and sand grains. Ely Limestone (Pennsylvanian), Leppy Range, northeast of Wendover,
Tooele County, Utah; x 3.85.
F. Detrital limestone, composed of interlayered calcilutite and calcarenite, with fractures filled
by sparry calcite. Ely Limestone (Pennsylvanian), Pancake Range, Nye County, Nev.; x 7.7.
PLATE I11
A. Calcarenite, slightly quartzose. Rock is composed of limeclasts, algal and pelletal material in
fine-grained quartzose-calcareous material, and with subrounded quartz grains also present.
Derryan age portion of Weber Formation at Pullem Creek, Wasatch County, Utah; x3.85.
B. Micritic limestone (calcilutite), composed of lime mud in which quartz silt grains and some
silt-size limeclasts are embedded. Virgin Limestone Member (Lower Triassic) of the Moenkopi
Formation, Blue Diamond Mountain, Clark County, Nev.; x 61.6.
C. Calcisiltite with calcilutite layers. Rock consists of silt-size limeclasts and lime mud, with
silt-size and very fine-grained sand-size quartz particles. Summit Springs Member (Medial
122
Leonardian age) of Pequop Formation, Southern Butte Mountains, White Pine County, Nev.;
x23.1.
D. Dolomicrite with very fine-grained quartz and with few negative fossil relics. Wolfcampian age
portion of Weber Formation, Morris Ranch area on south side of Uinta Mountains, Uinta County,
Utah; x 61.6.
E. Dolosiltite with admixed quartz silt grains. Rock consists of cross-stratified particulate siltsize dolomite, and some interlayered dololutite. Leonardian age portion of Spring Mountains
Formation, west side of Kyle Canyon in Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nev.; x 30.8.
F. Primary dolomicrite with interlayered fine-grained dolosiltite and some silt-size quartz grains.
Incipient diagenesis has occurred in some layers. Leonardian age portion of Spring Mountains
Formation, Love11 Wash area in Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nev.; x 61.6
PLATE IV
A. Biocalcarenite (= criquinite, or encrinal limestone). Rock consists of crinoid ossicles, bryozoan
fragments, and some bladed Algae, with interstitial material (= matrix) composed of sparite
and calcisiltite. Riepe Spring Limestone (Wolfcampian age), Moorman Ranch area, White Pine
County, Nev.; ~ 4 . 6 .
B. Skeletal-detrital limestone, consisting of abraded fragments of crinoid ossicles, bryozoan fragments, pelletal material, and algal material; interstitial material is calcisiltite. Virgilian age
portion of Wood River Formation near Hailey, Blaine County, Idaho; x 7.7.
C. Reefal limestone with admixed skeletal and detrital material. Rock consists of bryalgal material
enclosing tests of schwagerinid fusulinids, crinoid ossicles, algal pellets, and minor limeclasts.
Lime mud fills open spaces. Pequop Formation (Leonardian age), Diamond Range, White Pine
County, Nev.; ~ 7 . 7 .
D. Skeletal-detrital limestone with admixed quartz sand grains. Rock consists of pelecypod shell
fragments, few crinoid ossicles, limeclast lumps, and algal material. Virgin Limestone Member
(Lower Triassic) of Moenkopi Formation, Bird Spring Range (Cottonwood Pass area north of
Goodsprings), Clark County, Nev.; x 7.7.
E. Skeletal-detrital limestone, composed of the alga Mizzia sp. with intertwined bryozoans and
bladed Algae (= bryalgal limestone), and with admixed silt-size limeclasts. Pequop Formation
(Leonardian age), Cherry Creek Range, Elk0 County, Nev.; X 23.1.
F. Diagenetically-altered biocalcarenite. Rock consists of crinoid ossicles and intertwined bryozoans with interstitial calcilutite. Rim cement, impingement, and secondary overgrowth are
present. Toroweap Formation (Permian), Blue Diamond Mountain, Clark County, Nev. ; x 7.7.
PLATE V
A. Skeletal-detrital limestone. Rock is composed of fossiliferous-fragmentalmaterial, consisting
of lithoclastic carbonate detritus admixed with bioclastic detritus of bryozoans, encrinal material,
and algal fragments. Garden Valley Formation (Permian), Diamond Range, White Pine County,
Nev.; ~ 3 . 8 5 .
B. Skeletal-micrite. Tests of Triticites sp. and some crinoid ossicles (some replaced by sparite),
embedded in micrite. Ferguson Mountain Formation (Wolfcampian, Permian), Ferguson
Mountain, Elko County, Nev.; x 7.7.
C. Calcarenite. Rock consists of crinoid ossicles (some of which are slightly altered diagenetically),
with interstitial space filled with calcilutite and calcareous cement. Bridal Veil Falls Member
(Morrowan age) of Oquirrh Formation, Provo Canyon, Utah County, Utah; x 3.85.
D. Detrital limestone. Rock consists of slightly abraded tests of the fusulinid Pseudoschwugerina
sp. in a matrix of organic-rich calcisiltite. Mid-portion of the Ferguson Mountain Formation
(Wolfcampian, Permian), Ferguson Mountain, Elko County, Nev.; x 4.6.
E. Skeletal limestone. Consists mostly of tailings of pelecypod valves, with interstitial space
filled by calcarenite and sparite cement. Thaynes Formation (Triassic), Aspen Range, Caribou
County, Idaho; X 1.1.
123
A. Skeletal limestone, consisting of pelecypod shell fragments, some algal filaments and pellets,
and calcarenitic interstitial material. Sparry calcite fills some interstitial space. Thaynes Limestone
(Triassic) on Dry Ridge, Lanes Creek quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho; x 3.
B. Calcarenite with skeletal material. Rock consists of silt- and sand-size limeclasts and some
quartz sand grains, surrounding tests of schwagerinid fusulinids and some crinoid ossicles.
Carbon Ridge Formation (Permian), Carbon Ridge, Eureka County, Nev.; ~ 4 . 6 .
C. Pelletal-skeletal limestone, composed of algal pellets, limeclasts, bryozoan material, and some
brachiopod shells (filled with sparite). Gerster Formation (Permian), Medicine Range, Elko
County, Nev.; x 3.85.
D. Lumpal (= lump) limestone, consisting of limeclasts, few crinoid ossicles, algal pellets, and
Foraminifera (including fusulinids); in calcisiltite matrix. Bird Spring Formation (Pennsylvanian),
Spring Mountains west of Mountain Pass, Clark County, Nev.; x 7.7.
E. Micrite with skeletal material. Rock consists of silty micrite containing brachiopod shell fragments that have sparite fillings. Hall Canyon Member (Morrowan age) of Oquirrh Formation,
Fivemile Pass area, Utah County, Utah; ~ 2 3 . 1 .
F. Sparite after skeletal limestone. Rock consists of straparollid gastropods and some crinoid
ossicles, with replacement and infilling of sparite. Gerster Formation (Permian), Currie Hills,
Elko County, Nev.; x 3.
PLATE VIII
A. Pelletal calcarenite, consisting of algal pellets, limeclasts, and silt- to sand-size quartz grains.
Wolfcampian age portion of Oquirrh Formation, Right Fork of Hobble Creek Canyon, Utah
County, Utah; x7.7.
124
B. Skeletal calcisiltite. Rock is composed of tests of triticitid fusulinids, few limeclasts, and rare
algal pellets, all in matrix of petroliferous calcisiltite. Ferguson Mountain Formation (Wolfcampian, Permian), Ferguson Mountain, Elko County, Nev.; x 7.7.
C. Encrinal limestone (= criquinite), composed of abraded crinoid ossicles, rare limeclasts, in
matrix of calcisiltite that contains few quartz grains. Encrinal material has been diagenetically altered to a slight degree. Morgan Formation (Pennsylvanian), Weber Canyon, Morgan County,
Utah; ~ 7 . 7 .
D. Skeletal calcisiltite, consisting of brachiopod tailings (= fragniental) that are in part replaced by sparite, in organic rich calcisiltite that contains few fine-textured quartz sand grains.
Bridal Veil Falls Member (Morrowan age) of Oquirrh Formation, Provo Canyon, Utah County
Utah; ~ 7 . 7 .
E. Diagenetically altered skeletal limestone. Rock is composed of algal (?)pellets, crinoid ossicles,
bryozoan fragments, and abraded brachiopod shells, all in various stages of replacement by
sparite. Toroweap Formation (Permian), Star Range, Beaver County, Utah; x 7.7.
F. Calcisiltite with Algae. Rock consists of calcisiltite enclosing the alga Solenopora sp., and smaller algal pellets. Upper Member (Late Leonardian age) of Pequop Formation, Southern Butte
Mountains north of Moorman Ranch, White Pine County, Nev.; x 7.7.
PLATE IX
A. Sparite with skeletal material. Rock consists of medium- to coarsely-crystalline sparite enclossing crinoid ossicles, brachiopod fragments, bryozoan material, and millerellid Foraminifera.
Morgan Formation (Pennsylvanian) at type locality in Weber Canyon, Morgan County, Utah;
x23.1.
B. Pelletal-skeletal limestone, composed of fossiliferous-fragmental material, algal pellets and
limeclasts, Foraminifcra, in sparite matrix. Brazer Formation (Upper Mississippian), Wellsville
Mountain near Deweyville, Boxelder County, Utah; X 7.7.
C. Pellet limestone, composed of algal pellets and limeclast pellets, encrinal material, bryozoan
fragments, and silt- to sand-size quartz grains. Morrowan age portion of Oquirrh Formation,
Gilson Mountain area, Juab County, Utah; x 7.7.
D. Skeletal limestone showing effects of diagenesis. Rock consists of fragments of bryozoans,
rare crinoid ossicles, and few pellets, with interstitial material composed of calcisiltite. Kaibab
Limestone (Permian), Gold Hill District, Tooele County, Utah; x 7.7.
E. Coated grains. Rock consists of oolites, pellets, algal plates, and limeclasts in micrite. Virgin
Limestone Member (Lower Triassic) of Moenkopi Formation, east of Blue Diamond Mountain,
west of Las Vegas, Clark County, Nev.; ~ 7 . 7 .
F. Coated grains in sparite. Rock is composed of oolites showing both radial and concentric
structure, skeletal material with coatings, and few limeclasts in coarsely crystalline sparite. Lodgepole Limestone (Mississippian), Western Judith Mountains, Fergus County, Mont.; x 7.7,
PLATE X
A. Pelletal-detrital limestone, consisting of algal pellets, limeclast pellets and limeclast detrital
material, lumps, and scattered abraded skeletal material; much of the material has been diagenetically altered. Morgan Formation, west end of Uinta Mountains, Wasatch County, Utah; x 7.7.
B. Lump limestone in sparite. Rock consists of organic-rich limeclast lumps (and possibly algal
material) surrounded by coarsely-crystalline sparite. Toroweap Formation (Permian), Bird Spring
Mountains west of Arden, Clark County, Nev.; X 15.4.
C. Coated grains in sparite. Rock is composed of skeletal and limeclast grains with oolite overgrowths, all in medium-crystalline sparite. Brazer Formation (Mississippian), Weber River
Canyon, Morgan County, Utah; ~23.1.
D. Pellet limestone, composed of spindle-shaped and rod-shaped pellets (for the most part filled
with sparite) in interstitial material of Algae and calcarenite. Pequop Formation (Permian), central
part of Cherry Creek Range, White Pine County, Nev.; X23.1.
125
E. Coated grains in micrite. Rock consists of oolites showing both concentric and radial structure;
some are distorted. Interstitial material is largely micrite, with local patches of sparite. Hannah
Formation (Mississippian), Saypo quadrangle in Sawtooth Mountains, Teton County, Mont.;
% 30.8.
F. Lump limestone in sparite. Rock consists of limeclast lumps, possible algal material, algal
pellets; in medium-crystalline sparite. Leonardian age portion of Spring Mountains Formation,
northern Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nev.; x 3.85.
PLATE XI
A. Biogenic limestone, consisting of organic frame-building alga, Kumia sp. (by some referred to
the stromatoporoids). Interstices consist of algal pellets and limeclasts. Derryan age portion of
Wells Formation, South Schmid Ridge, Dry Valley quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho; x 7.7.
B. Diagenetically altered skeletal limestone, consisting of schwagerinid fusulinid tests, algal
filaments and plates, bryozoans, and encrinal material, altered in varying degrees to sparite.
Pequop Formation (Leonardian age), west end of Leppy Range, Elko County, Nev.; x 7.7.
C. Algal limestone (biogenic) in micrite. Rock consists of the alga Mizzia sp. (some surrounding
skeletal elements), in micritic limestone in which fine quartz silt grains and occasional crinoid
ossicles are present. Pequop Formation (Leonardian age), low hills east of Lund, White Pine
County, Nev.; x 15.4.
D. Organic-rich micritic limestone with Strornatactis (?).Rock consists of petroliferous limestone
containing elongate bodies referred with query to Stromatactis. Riepe Spring Limestone (Wolfcampian, Permian), Rib Hill near Ruth, White Pine County, Nev.; ~ 2 3 . 1 .
E. Biogenic-skeletal limestone, consisting of alga (or stromatoporoid) Komia sp., fusulinid tests,
algal pellets, crinoid ossicles and limeclasts. Interstitial space partially filled with sparite and remainder by organic-rich calcilutite. Derryan age portion of Ely Limestone, South Schell Creek
Range south of Patterson Pass, Lincoln County, Nev.; x 15.4.
F. Biogenic limestone in sparite, consisting of the alga Osugia sp., surrounding limeclasts, bryozoans, and other material; in sparite. Some sparite has filled open spaces in skeletal material.
Rogers Spring Limestone (Redwall? Limestone), Star Range, Beaver County, Utah; x 15.4.
PLATE XI1
In place, organic frame-builders (biogenic).
A. Reefal limestone, composed of coraIs, Algae, and sponges, with micrite in interstitial space.
Permian of Guadalupe Mountains, Texas; x 7.7.
B. Bryalgal limestone, consisting of various bryozoans intermeshed with Algae, and infilled with
lime mud. Leonardian age portion of Pequop Formation, Maverick Spring Range, White Pine
County, Nev.; x 77.
C. Reefal limestone, consisting of brachiopods, Algae, and bryozoans, enclosed in micrite.
Garden Valley (?) Formation, east side of Diamond Range, White Pine County, Nev.; x7.7.
D. Reefal limestone, composed of bryozoans, sponges, spicular material, and few brachiopod
fragments enclosed in lime mud that is organic rich. Leonard Formation, Glass Mountains,
Texas; x6.2.
E. Reefal limestone, composed of lioclemid bryozoans, Algae, Foraminifera, and crinoid ossicles.
Largely fore-reef in situ accumulation. Pequop Formation (Leonardian age), Spruce Mountain
area, Elk0 County, Nev.; x 3.85.
F. Reefal limestone, consisting of bryalgal material, some of which has undergone diagenetic
change to sparite and microsparite. Gerster Limestone (Guadalupian age), Medicine Mountains,
Elk0 County, Nev.; x 7.7.
126
PLATE XI11
Diagenesis.
A. Dolomitized calcilutite; rock consists of dolomite secondary after calcilutite. Original sediment
contained variable amount of organic matter and was stratified. Summit Springs Member (Medial
Leonardian age) of Pequop Formation, west end of Leppy Range, Elk0 County, Nev.; x 30.8.
B. Crystalline criquinite; rock consists of coarsely crystalline material, the fabric having resulted
from diagenesis of an encrinal limestone, with the original texture almost completely obliterated
in the process. Some algal material is relatively unaltered. Lower part of Kaibab Limestone, low
hills east of Ruby Marshes, Elko County, Nev.; ~ 7 . 7 .
C. Dolomitized biomicrite, consisting of dolomitized algal filaments and plates (now resembling
a form of Stromutuctis), in partially dolomitized micritic matrix. Leonardian age part of Spring
Mountains Formation, west side of Kyle Canyon, Clark County, Nev.; x 30.8.
D. Dolomitized micrite, consisting of porous rock that originally was a micrite and now is a
dolomite with substantial porosity and permeability. Pakoon Formation, east side of Frenchman
Mountain, Clark County, Nev.; ~ 4 6 . 6 .
E. Dolomitized skeletal limestone, consisting of medium- to coarsely-crystalline dolosparite,
secondary after bryozoans, encrinal material, algal filaments and pellets, and possibly Foraminifera. Both positive and negative relics are present. Toroweap Formation, south of Garnet R.R.
Siding, Clark County, Nev.; x 15.4.
F. Dolosparite, consisting of mosaic of dolospars, secondary after limeclast limestone. Thin unit
in Guilmette Limestone (Devonian), Toana Range north of Whitehorse Pass, Elko County, Nev.;
X 15.4.
PLATE XIV
A. Dolosparite, consisting of cloudy sparry dolomite, secondary after calcarenitic limestone with
impure matrix. Lower Kaibab Formation (Permian), Maverick Spring Range, northern White
Pine County, Nev.; x 30.8.
B. Diagenetically-altered skeletal limestone; rock consists of calcite spar developed in a stratified
skeletal-detrital limestone. Unnamed Wolfcampian age (Permian) carbonate sequence, Arc0
Hills, Butte County, Idaho; x 23.1.
C. Incipient dolomitization of a calcarenite. Rock is composed of subhedra to imperfect euhedra
of dolorhombs and less-altered sparry calcite, with relatively unaltered calcarenite matrix. Loray
Formation (Permian), Dead Horse Wash, west of Egan Range, White Pine County, Nev.; x 23.1.
D. Sparite, some of which is diagenetically altered to subhedra of dolospar. Rock originally was
a calcarenite with impure matrix, and now is a mosaic of sparite and dolosparite. Wolfcampian
age part of Weber Formation, Duchesne River area, south flank of Uinta Mountains, Duchesne
County, Utah; x23.1.
E. Diagenetically dolomitized skeletal limestone, consisting of vary-grained (vary-crystalline)
sparry calcite and sparry dolomite, anhedral to subhedral, with patches of less altered material.
Original texture strongly altered, some obliterated, but with negative skeletal relics (= crinoid
ossicles and bryozoans). Plympton Formation (Permian), Gold Hill district, Tooele County,
Utah; x15.4.
F. Coarsely crystalline sparite, consisting of calcite spar; no dolomite. Chilliwack Group (Permian), Cascade Mountains, Wash.; ~ 2 3 . 1 .
PLATE XV
A. Diagenetically-altered calcilutite, showing development of eyes of silicified material (possibly
replaced algal material) in dololutite. Some quartz sand grains are present. Park City Group
(Permian), near The Thumb, 10-12 miles north of Knolls, Tooele County, Utah; x15.4.
B. Slightly altered skeletal-detrital liniestone, showing positive relic of fusulinid test, negative
127
skeletal material, and limeclasts set in altered matrix. Upper Member (Late Leonardian age) of
Pequop Formation, west end of Leppy Range, Elko County, Nev.; x 15.4.
C. Dolomitized skeletal-detrital limestone, showing almost complete obliteration of original fabric; spots or eyes of dolospar are the lighter colored areas, and darker colored spots may be
relics of algal pellets. Matrix is dololutite, secondary after limestone. Kirkman Limestone (Wolfcampian age), South Tintic Mountains, Juab County, Utah; ~ 2 3 . 1 .
D. Dolomitized skeletal-detrital limestone, showing negative and positive relics of skeletal material, in matrix of calcisiltite and dolosiltite. Grandeur Member of Park City Formation (Permian),
Southern Wasatch Mountains, Juab County, Utah; x 15.4.
E. Highly-altered diagenetic dolomite, showing negative relics of material not determinable as
organic or inorganic, in matrix of less altered dolosiltite. Few relatively unaltered quartz sand
grains are present. Plympton Formation (Permian), Granite Mountain area of Northern Confusion Range, Juab County, western Utah; x 15.4.
F. Moderately advanced diagenesis in skeletal limestone, showing positive relics of bryozoans,
and the stromatoporoid Komia sp. Ely Limestone (Pennsylvanian), west side of Pequop Mountains, southwest of Shafter, Elko County, Nev.; x 15.4.
PLATE XVI
A. Sucrosic dolomite, diagenetic after limestone. Rock shows considerable porosity and dead oil
in vugs. Wolfcampian age portion of Weber Formation at canyon of Duchesne River, Duchesne
County, Utah; x 30.8.
B. Diagenetically-altered skeletal-calcarenite, showing first-stage crystallization, but not dolomitization, of limeclasts and algal to pelletal material. Wolfcampian age part of Oquirrh Formation
at South Mountain west of Stockton, Tooele County, Utah; x23.1.
C. Advanced diagenesis including partial dolomitization of a skeletal-detrital limestone. Rock
shows sparite and dolosparite in mosaic of subhedra and euhedra. Vuggy porosity has been developed and dead oil is present. Lower Member of Kaibab Formation, south of Cottonwood Wash
and east of Keystone Thrust, Clark County, Nev.; ~ 2 3 . 1 .
D. Diagenetic dolomite, secondary after limestone. Rock shows mosaic of anhedra and subhedra
of dolomite, with remnants of sparite. Toroweap Formation (Permian), Northern Muddy Mountains just southwest of Glendale Junction, Clark County, Nev.; x 7.7.
E. Dolosparite. Rock shows advanced-stage diagenetic dolomitization of an earlier-formed
limestone. Well-developed dolorhombs (some by impingement) have formed a fabric having low
to moderate intercrystalline porosity. Fairly high permeability. Wolfcampian age part of Weber
Formation on south flank of Uinta Mountains near Morris Ranch, Uinta County, Utah; x 38.5.
F. Diagenetic dolomite, secondary after encrinal limestone. Rock shows mosaic of anhedra and
subhedra of dolomite, with remnants of calcarenite. Suturing has occurred at crystal-grain boundaries. Summit Springs Member (Medial Leonardian Permian) of Pequop Formation, Ferguson
Flat, Elko County, Nev.; x 7.7.
PLATE 1
PLATE I1
129
PLATE 111
Legend see p. 12 1.
PLATE IV
131
PLATE V
PLATE V1
133
PLATE VII
PLATE VIII
135
PLATE IX
PLATE X
137
PLATE XI
PLATE XI1
139
PLATE XI11
PLATE XLV
141
PLATE XV
PLATE XVI
143
I44
H. J. BISSELL A N D G. V. CHILINGAR
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150
GLOSSARY]
Accretionary: added through overgrowth upon a pre-existing grain and/or organic structure or
framework; may be concentric, and may originate through rolling.
Aggregation: added through coagulation, flocculation, adherance or other method to result in
a composite grain or structural mass. May be algal, foraminiferal, algal-dust, or other
materials aggregated together or to another mass, fossil, or grain. May be a method of
forming lumps.
Algal: relating in any manner to algal limestones or dolomites; more commonly the Rhodophyta
or red Algae and some genera of the Cyanophyta or blue-green Algae.
Algal dust: a term designated to describe micro-textured to finely textured dark-colored (usually
brown and brown-gray) micritic and matrix material in carbonates which also contain
discernible algal remains.
Allochthonous: an accumulation of transported material; for sedimentary carbonate rocks this
amounts to transported grains, fossil fragments, rock fragments, and organic matter into
the depocenter from adjacent area(s).
Allogenic: term meaning generated elsewhere; in a manner similar to allochthonous, in that the
constituents came into existence outside of, and previous to, the rock of which they are
now a part. For example, quartz sand blown from land into an evaporite sequence; gravel
washed into a basin and mixed with lime mud.
Anadiagenetic: this term applies to dolomitization (secondary) that occurs under considerable
burial, including most tectonic dolomitization (cf. syndiagenetic and epidiagenetic).
(After FAIRBRIDGE,
1966.)
Anhedral: individual crystals devoid of crystal boundaries or faces; particularly applicable to dolomites and dolomitized limestones of certain varieties.
Aphanic: term to describe the texture of most micritic limestones and dolomicrites; individual
crystals and grains less than 0.01 mm in size. A useful field term to describe lithographic
and sub-lithographic carbonates. To be used in lieu of uphunitic.
Articulate: refers to fossils having two or more parts joined together in their natural relationship;
for example, valves of brachiopods or molluscs, fronds of bryozoans, columnals of crinoids,
etc.
Authigenic: generated on the spot; refers to those constituents that came into existence with or
after the formation of the host rock. For example, albite that forms in some limestones,
calcite or dolomite rhombs over grains, etc.
Autochthonous: pertaining to objects that originated in the places where they now occur, and
therefore are in situ; examples are frame-building organisms such as corals, algal masses,
various bioherms, etc.
Autoclastic breccia: refers to a common structure observed in dolomites; a result of diagenetic
shrinkage followed by recementation.
1 To
be used as an aid in describing sedimentary carbonate rock terms. It is not intended to cover
all definitions of the rock names.
151
Axiolitic: a type of elongated or subspherical oolite or pisolite in which the radial structure(usually acicular needles) develops toward the periphery at right angles to a central axis; may
have superimposed concentric structure.
Bahamite: name of granular limestones that closely resemble the present deposits of the interior
of the Bahama Banks. The texture varies from calcisiltites to calcirudites, in which the
grains are accretionary and commonly are composite, consisting of smaller granules bound
together by precipitated material into aggregate grains.
Bank: an in situ skeletal limestone deposit formed by organisms which do not have the ecological
potential to erect a rigid, wave-resistant structure.
Beach-rock: a friable to well-cemented beach sediment consisting of calcareous debris (detrital
and/or fragmental skeletal) cemented by calcium carbonate.
Bioaccumulated: applied to limestone deposits formed by sedentary but noncolonial organisms
and their related ecologic communities. Characterized by a predominance of unbroken
fossils, diverse organic components, lack of (or poor) sorting, and scarce fine-grained
matrix.
Biocalcarenite: special group of calcarenites, mechanically deposited carbonate detritus of sand
size (1 /16-2 mm in diameter); predominantly composed of organic fragments of any kind,
the products of organic activity which have an internal structure such as foraminifera], algal, and faecal pellets, and recognizable fossil detritus worn to sand size. Numerous encrinal limestones fit in this category.
Biocalcirudite: rudaceous, sedimentary carbonate rock, the discrete particles of which are composed of fragmental fossiliferous material; individual particles are larger than 2 mm in diameter. Almost any type of reef-building organisms such as stromatoporoids, branched
corals, and calcareous Algae can be broken away, worn to a variable degree, and concentrated into biocalcirudites.
Bioclastic: a clastic sedimentary carbonate rock which owes its essential character to organisms
(GRABAU,
1913). In view of disparity of definition, it is herein suggested that this term be
expanded to embrace fossil detritus that is largely intraclastic, whether of rudaceous,
arenaceous, or lutaceous texture, and which originates (or originated in the past) largely
by being broken and transported by water currents and waves before coming to rest.
Bioclastic limestone, therefore, may be poorly sorted, moderately sorted, or well sorted;
and it may be clean or have a matrix of finer detritus.
Bioconstructed: term applied to limestone deposits resulting from the vital activities of colonial
and sediment-binding organic communities. Algal, bryozoan, bryalgal, stromatoporoidal,
coralline, and coralgal colonies are predominant.
Biogenic: sedimentary carbonate rock, a deposit of organic material or materials formed through
the physiological activities of the organisms.
Bioherm: an organic reef or mound built by corals, stromatoporoids, gastropods, echinoderms,
Foraminifera, pelecypods, brachiopods, Algae, and other organisms. It is a reef, bank, or
mound that is reeflike, moundlike, lenslike or an otherwise circumscribed structure of
strictly organic origin, embedded in rocks of different lithology.
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Biomicrite: a major group of biogenic limestones containing a significant admixture of fine-textured carbonate material filling the spaces between organic tests and fragments.
Biosparite: a foraminifera1 limestone composed largely of tests of bottom-dwelling and floating
organisms, and lacking a fine-textured matrix; mostly crystalline.
Biostrome: a term for stratiform deposits, such as shell beds, crinoid beds, and coral beds, consisting of, and built mainly by, organisms or fragments of organisms (mostly sedentary),
and not swelling into moundlike or lenslike forms.
Birdseye: spots or tubes of sparry calcite in limestones (and some dolomites). These calcite eyes
are common to pelsparites, and may have resulted from one of the following (or certain
combinations thereof): ( I ) precipitation of sparry calcite in animal burrows, or in worm
tubes; ( 2 ) soft-sediment slumping or mud cracking; (3) precipitation of sparry calcite in
tubules resulting from escaping gas bubbles; (4) re-working and rapid deposition of soft
sediment containing semicoherent clouds of calcareous mud and spar; (5) recrystallization of calcareous (or dolomitic) mud in patches; and ( 6 ) arrested dolomitization.
Boundstone: applies to most reef rock, stromatolites, and some biohermal and biostromal rocks
in which the original components were bound together during deposition, and remain
substantially in position of growth.
Breccia (sedimentary) : a rock composed of consolidated angular fragments, most of which are
larger than 2 mm in diameter, plus matrix and/or cementing material. CAROZZI
(1960)
mentioned a crystallization breccia that resulted from the differentiation in place of a homogeneous calcilutite. Crystallization began at numerous points scattered throughout thc
rock but was incomplete, and as a result the crystallized patches appear as fragments In
a groundmass that was spared by the process.
Bryalgal: a term for limestones composed largely of materials constructed in situ by organic
frame-building bryozoans and Algae; the word is a contraction of bryozoan-algal framebuilding organisms. Resultant deposits range in thickness from thin units to biostromes,
bioherms, patch-reefs, and larger reefs.
Calcarenite: a mechanically deposited carbonate rock consisting of sand-size carbonate grains
(1 /16-2 mm in diameter); the particulate material in this rock may be of lithoclastic and/or
bioclastic derivation, and comprises 50 % or more of the rock.
Calcilutite: by decrease in grain size, a calcarenite grades through a calcisiltite into a calcilutite,
thus forming a rock composed of 50% or more of clay- (plus some silt-) size carbonate
particles; includes biocalcilutites and lithocalcilutites.
Calcirudite: the term is used as a general designation for mechanically deposited carbonate
rocks that are composed of 50% or more of angular to rounded fragments over 2 mm in
diameter, and have matrix and/or cementing material.
Culcisiltite: a rock type intermediate between calcarenite and calcilutite, in that it consists mostly
of silt-size carbonate detritus that comprises 50% or more of the rock; includes biocalcisiltites and lithocalcisiltites.
Calclithite: a limestone containing 50 % or more of fragments of older limestone(s) that experienced erosion and redeposition. The individual particles are termed extraclasts.
Calcsparite: see sparite.
Caliche: it is a lime-rich deposit found in soils and is formed by capillary action drawing the lime-
153
bearing waters to the surface where, by evaporation, the lime is precipitated. In bajadas,
intermonts, alluvial fans and colluvium of parts of the Great Basin of the western United
States some of the caliche deposits are dolomitic due to presence of extensive dolomite
rubble. Caliche, whether calcareous and/or dolomitc, also cements alluvial fans to form
Janglomerale.
Carbonate: rocks composed of more than SO%, by weight, of carbonate minerals. For practical
microscopic work, area percentages, which approximate weight percentages, are used
because they are easier to estimate and measure.
Cement: clear to opaque, crystalline material occurring in the interstices between grains and matrix
material, or between grains. It may be sparry calcite and/or dolomite, and thus is termed
sparite; but more commonly, it is smaller than 0.03 mm in crystal size. Cement commonly
is chemically precipitated material into voids and in situ onto the surfaces of the hostframework. The calcareous cement in limestones may be of different crystal size-grades:
micrite (often mistaken for detrital matrix), microsparite, and sparite. The morphologic
and textural types are cryptocrystalline, microcrystalline, granular, fibrous, blady, and
drusy. Carbonate cement often resembles products formed by recrystallization and grain
growth.
Chalk: a porous, fine-textured material, light colored, friable to subfriable, largely to wholly
calcareous. It may be slightly tuffaceous. Commonly finely grained, not crystalline, and
may be composed largely of foraminifera1 tests and/or comminuted remains (notably of
Coccolithophoridae). Chalk can also be of partly chemical origin, although it normally
represents the flour formed by break-down of skeletal, nonskeletal, and pelletoid grains
and algal dust. It is largzly micro-textured (about 0.01 mm or smaller).
ClaJt: an individual constituent of detrital sediment or sedimentary rock produced by the physical
disintegration of a larger mass either within or outside the depocenter of accumulation.
A limeclast, therefore, may be an intraclast of the limestone particle, or a fragment disrupted from partially consolidated lime mud on the sea floor or lake bottom. Particulate
material may also be doloclasts (see extraclast and intraclast). Clasts of all dimensions are
recognized in the older literature in part as penecontemporaneous intraformational
detritus.
Clastic: particles of either fragmental or chemical origin that have been rolled around and
abraded before coming to rest in a sediment. The variety intraclast originates in the depocenter of sedimentation.
Coated grains: grains possessing concentric or enclosing layers of calcium carbonate (or dolomitized remnant); for example, oolites, pisolites, superficial oolites, and algal-encrusted
skeletal grains.
Composite grain: aggregation grains (detrital, skeletal, pelletal, algal, coated grains, etc.) formed
from clustering of two or more discrete particles. It may also result from aggregation of
lumps. Some resemble grapestones.
Compound-pellet: a pellet of silt-, sand-, or granule-size or larger originating from pelletal 01
pelletoid limestone with micritic or sparry cement, and may also have matrix or interstitial
material.
Coquina: carbonates consisting wholly or largely of mechanically sorted fossil debris, weakly
to moderately cemented but not completely compacted and indurated; interstitial material
does not necessarily fill all interstices. Commonly applied to shell debris. For the finer
shell detritus of sand size or less, the term mesocoquina may be applied; microcoqarina
usually implies a variety of chalk.
154
Coquinite: for the most part, indurated equivalent of coquina. Coquinites are carbonates which
are nearly all fossil debris, mechanically sorted in large measure, and may have finertextured matrix together with cement. It is a compact and well-indurated, cemented rock.
Most discrete particulate fossil material is larger than 2.0 mm in size, and some fossils may
still be articulated. This carbonate is the indurated equivalent of loose shell debris. For
the finer shell detritus of sand- to silt-size, the term mesocoquinite is used, and microcoquinite applies to still smaller size fossil debris.
Coquinoid (limestone) :a distinction should be made between coquina, coquinite, and coquinoid
limestone. Coquina is loosely compact, poorly cemented, and weakly indurated (shell
debris), whereas coquinite is its indurated, firm rock equivalent. Coquinoid limestones are
autochthonous deposits consisting of coarse shelly materials which have accumulated in
place and generally have a finer grained matrix, or may be enclosed in micritic limestone.
Coquinas and coquinites experienced substantial to considerable abrasion and transit
before reaching the depositional site, but coquinoids have formed largely in situ, and under
certain conditions can build up to biostromes.
Coralgal: intergrowth of Algae (particularly coralline types) and corals, to form a firm carbonate
rock. This may result in a reef rock, a bank deposit, or a biolith which has a lesser degree
of framework. Normally, this rock is composed in large measure of frame-building organisms arranged in an interwoven to interlaced arrangement. It is an excellent sedimentbinder.
Criquina: coquina of crinoidal debris.
Criquinite: indurated equivalent of criquina. Commonly this rock is an encrinal limestone composed wholly or largely of disarticulated crinoid stems and/or plate fragments, is firmly
cemented, is compact, and is matrix-bounded.
Cryptoclastic: micritic limestone (or dolomicrite) having an aphanic clastic or microgranular
texture, discrete particles of which are less than 0.001 mm in size, and under
high-power magnification display little or no crystallinity. This is rock flour, or extremely finely comminuted carbonate dust. Cryptograined is essentially synonymous, although
this type of texture could result from chemical precipitation and/or biochemical to physicochemical precipitation or flocculation.
Cryptocrystalline: micritic limestone (or dolomicrite) having an aphanic crystalline texture, discrete subhedra and euhedra of which are less than 0.001 mm in size. Some varieties of
cryptocrystalline dolomites display a translucent sheen when broken, and may granulate
rather than flake.
Cryptograined: a size term for micritic sedimentary carbonate rocks referring to particles of cryptoclastic detritus (or flocculated, or precipitated), discrete grains of which are less than
0.001 mm in size (some workers prefer an upper limit of 0.004 mm).
Crystalline: refers to a texture characterized by interlocking crystals in a mosaic, or to discrete
crystals whether juxtaposed against each other or against grains, fossils, or matrix. It may
also refer to discrete crystals in finer grained matrix, or in niicrite.
Crust (algal): a deposit of algal dust, filamentous or bladed Algae, or clots of Algae on larger
particulate rocks or fossils, arranged due to accretion, aggregation, or flocculation. May
form biscuit-like encrustations on rocks, fossils, grains, pellets, etc. It is common to
fresh-water, lacustrine, and marine deposits, and may form large, bulbous masses or
heads, such as those formed in sediments of the Lake Bonneville Group (Pleistocene).
Dense: compact, having various parts crowded together. Its use is not restricted to aphanic and
155
finely textured rocks, and may be used for phaneric rocks as well because it defines the
degree of compactness. Micrites and dolomicrites (in particular the primary dolomicrites)
are dense.
Depocenteu: basin or other repository of sedimentation; it may be lacustrine, paludal, or fluvial,
but more commonly is marine to terrestrial-marine for carbonate sedimentary rocks.
Derrital: formed from debris of pre-existing rocks; detrital limestone is one formed from the detritus of older carbonate rocks, whether derived from an extra-depocenter or intra-depocenter source (or both). Petroclastic limestone is considered synonymous with detrital
limestone. If composed of discrete particulate fossils or of older fossil fragments, the term
skeletal-detrital may apply for the rock name.
Diagenesis: all those processes which change a fresh sediment into a stable rock of substantial
hardness, under conditions of pressure and temperature not widely removed from those
existing on the earths surface in various depocenters. Diagenesis refers primarily to the
processes and reactions which occur within a sediment between one mineral and another
or among several minerals and the interstitial fluids. It includes all those processes leading
up to final induration of the rock but just before incipient metamorphism. Syndiugenesis
occurs penecontemporaneously, at the interface in lime ooze or mud, and during early
stages of compaction, cementation, and water-expulsion, but before deep burial. Deepburial diagenesis, but still in the realm of temperature-pressure conditions normal to
the depocenter, is late diagenetic.
Diagenetic dolomite: dolomitized limestone, or dolomitized lime ooze or mud while still in an
uncompact (possibly watery) state, and prior to complete lithification. The process involves
all those changes leading up to final dolomitic limestone or dolomite (= dolostone),
with positive and negative relics still discernible.
Dolarenite: dolomite sand, and thus largely primary in the sense of being reworked and abra.
ded pre-existing rock. Some dolarenite results from clotting, coagulation, and aggregation
of dolomite mud, with concomitant and later rolling and shaping into sand-size particulate material. The rock has a sucrosic or sugary appearance. Dolurenaceous is a term
describing the texture of dolarenites, or dolomite sand derived from crystalline dolomite.
Dolocast: casts in a dolostone, dolomitic limestone, or in gypsum or anhydrite, indicating former
presence of dolorhombs.
Dolobtite: dolarenites range downward in size-grade through dolosiltites to dololutites, which
are silt-size and silty-clay to clay-size dolomitic rocks, respectively. Dolosiltites and dololutites are common in evaporitic sequences and may be interlayered with dense primary
dolomites.
Dolomicvite: aphanic to finely crystalline and grained micritic dolomite, resulting from induration
of magnesium-rich mud, or diagenetic dolomitization of micritic limestone. Dolomicrites
are common to evaporitic sequences.
Dolomite: the hexagonal rhombohedra1 mineral, CaMg(C03)~;it may be used by some workers
to define a carbonate rock composed of more than 50 % by weight of the mineral dolomite
(other workers may prefer the term dolostone for the rock). For practical microscopic
work, areal percentages are used instead of weight percentages.
Dolomitic: where used in a rock name, dolomitic refers to those rocks that contain 5-50 % of
the mineral dolomite. Dolomitic can also be used as a general term applying to those
rocks which are dolomite-bearing.
156
Dolomolds: molds or partially filled molds in dolomite, dolomitic rock, or in gypsum and anhydrite, indicating former presence of dolorhombs.
Dolorudite: as dolarenites pass upward in size grade, they are called dolorudites. They can consist of older rock fragments, subangular to round, of mtraclasts, particularly if reworked,
and of dolomitized reef trash detritus in the fore-reef tract. Dolomite mud (ofearly diagenetic types) can be disrupted from the floor of the depocenter, reworked and indurated
to form dolorudite, such as edgewise conglomerate or flat-pebble conglomerate.
Dolosparite: see sparite.
Druse (drusy): sparry calcite (or sparry dolomite) lining or filling shells, open spaces such as
voids, pore spaces, interstices, cavities, etc. The druse is crystalline.
Drusy coating: calcarenite grains, regardless of origin, may be surrounded by a thin layer of needlelike calcite (or dolomite) crystals that grow normal to the grain surface. The coat, composed of tightly packed scalenohedral or rhombohedra1 crystals projecting outward into
the intergranular pore space, forms a rind generally not more than 100 ,LA thick.
Earthy: refers to a variety of argillaceous to slightly argillaceous carbonate (limestone or dolomite)
with earthy texture, generally closely associated with chalky deposits and commonly
showing similar porosity values. Contrasts in some respects with the term dense. It is
microtextured (0.01 mm and less in size). Some primary dolomites have an earthy texture.
Encrinal (encrinite) : containing crinoid stem and/or plate fragments in the carbonate. If the
content of crinoidal fragments is more than 10 % but less than 50 % of the bulk, the rock
is an encrinal limestone (or dolomite); whereas if there is more than 50 /o of such material,
it is an encrinite or dolomitized encrinite.
Endogenic: refers to components derived from within the depocenter.
Energy Zndex: inferred degree of water agitation in the depositional environment.
Energy level: the kinetic energy that exists in the water at the depositional interface and a few
feet above. This energy of motion may be due to either wave or current action, or to surf
surge.
Eolianite: sedimentary accumulation formed by wind action. Oolites, oopellets, pellets, and some
other particulate material that originally formed in a water environment may subsequently
be transported by wind action (such as across a tidal flat, beach area, etc.) and ultimately
heaped into dunes and other deposits. Discrete particles may be carbonates, gypsum, and
some other materials. Wind-drifted oolite sands, pelletal sands, and gyparenites adjacent
to Great Salt Lake and in the Salt Flats of Utah are such examples.
157
Epidiagenetic: lithologic changes of a rock under ground or artesian water influence. Applies
especially to topographic dolomitization (FAIRBRIDGE,
1966).
Epigenesis: this includes all processes at low temperature and pressure that affect sedimentary
rocks after diagenesis and up to metamorphism in the depocenter. This gradation may
occur: syngenesis +-diagenesis + epigenesis + metamorphism. Some geologists reserve
the term epigenesis to mineral replacements near the earths surface.
Equant: equidimensional crystalline fabric, whether aphanic or phaneric.
Equigranulur: equidimensional grained fabric, whether aphanic or phaneric.
Euhedral: refers to individual crystals with well-developed crystal boundaries or faces; these can
be equant, or inequant.
Evaporite-solution breccia: solution breccias are created when intervening soluble evaporites
(salt, anhydrite, gypsum, etc.) are dissolved away, letting the carbonate beds crush under
the weight of overlying sediments. This rock type is an extremely angular collapse breccia,
and the matrix commonly is of the same material as the rock fragments. These chaotic
breccias normally are associated with evaporites, and may also be adjacent to reef limestones, which, upon removal of the evaporites, collapse and may be healed or cemented
by calcareous and/or dolomitic material.
Exogenic: referring to components derived from outside, i.e., from either above or below, the
sedimentary formation and from an extra-depocenter provenance.
Extraclast: fragment(s) of calcareous sedimentary material produced by erosion of an older
rock outside of the depocenter in which it accumulated.
Fabric: arrangement of discrete particles (grains), crystals, and cement relative to each other in a
sedimentary carbonate rock.
Fibrous: see cement.
Fore reef: the seaward side of the reef trend. The fore-reef sediments, composed primarily of reef
detritus, interfinger with the reef and basin sediments. The terms fore reef and back reef
apply only to linear reef trends, in contrast to reef core and reefflank, which apply to all
types of reefs. The back reef is the landward side of the reef trend, and its sediments are
largely reef-derived fossil debris, calcarenite, and calcilutite, which may interfinger with
both the reef and lagoonal facies.
Fragmental: refers to broken or detached debris. Detrital fragments and those derived from the
skeletons of organisms, are included under this term. Fragmental limestone is, therefore,
a mechanically-formed rock; fossiliferous-fragmental limestone is common in stratigraphic sections, and commonly is termed bioclastic limestone.
Framework: rigid, wave- and current-resisting structures bioconstructed by sedentary organisms
capable of erecting a limestone upward and outward in a high-energy environment.
Framework-building organisms include sponges, stromatoporoids, corals, bryozoans,
Algae, and combinations (such as coralgal, bryalgal, etc.).
Fusulinal: a term denoting presence, in minor to major (and even dominating) amourlth of fusulinid
tests in a carbonate sedimentary rock. These may be in a micrite, or other iirriestone, or
may remain as relics in dolomitized rock particularly if silicified prior to dolomitization.
158
Glomeraclustic: a textural term applied to sedimentary carbonate rocks in which lumpal particles
are grouped together in clusters.
Grain growth: this process acts in monomineralic rocks of low porosity. The intergranular boundaries migrate causing some grains to grow at the expense of their neighbors. The reaction
takes place in the solid state, ions being transferred from one lattice to another without
solution. Larger grains tend to replace smaller ones, and a fine mosaic is gradually replaced
by a coarser one. As grain growth proceeds, many of the enlarged grains are themselves
replaced by their more successful neighbors. In limestones grain growth appears to affect
only the very fine mosaics with grain diameters from 0.5 to 4.0 mm. These include calcitemudstones, the walls of Foraminifera, algal frameworks, Bahamite particles, and ooliths
(BATHURST,
1958,1959).
Grain-supported: rocks in which grains are so abundant as to support one another, with little or
no interstitial mud-matrix, but with various cement types.
Grains: discrete particles larger than 0.01 mm (for most routine work), but technically particles
can be cryptograined and micrograined. They may form the rock framework, similar to
sand grains in a sandstone, or they may be subordinate to smaller particles in the rock.
Grains include detrital (lithoclastic) particles, skeletal grains (bioclastic), pellets, coated
grains, oopellets, and glomeroclastic grains (many of which may have formed by clotting,
coagulation, flocculation, aggregation, etc.).
Grainstone: mud-free carbonate rocks, which are necessarily grain-supported, are termed grainstone; some are current laid, some are the product of mud being by-passed while locally
produced grains accumulate, or of mud washed out.
Granular: applied to sedimentary rocks made up of grains, usually larger than 2.0 mm in diameter.
Grapestone: composite grains, clusters of pellets, or irregularly-shaped grains having protuberances resulting from overgrowths, aggregation, flocculation, clotting, coagulation, etc.
of lime mud. May be of silt-size, but more commonly are of sand- and granule-size.
Grumous: textural feature seen in limestones that experienced pervasive crystallization. Such
crystallization (and recrystallization) develops patches of coarsely crystalline carbonate
which invade, in an irregular way, shell debris, oolites, and matrix alike. The uncrystallized areas remain dark, dense, and finely textured, and are ultimately surrounded by waterclear coarse crystalline calcite (sparite). Such a rock has a clotted or grumous texture;
and in some respects resembles spotted dolomite. This texture is common in diagenetic
dolomites.
High-energy: the environment of lithoclastic and bioclastic carbonate working and accumulation,
mostly in a zone of turbulence created by waves, currents, and surf-surge. Has the highest
Energy Index.
Hydroclust: lithoclastic and bioclastic carbonate detritus that is transported, worked, and deposited in a water environment. Hydrolith is the resulting rock.
Impingement: a mechanism or process in dolomitization in which dolomite crystals replace
limestones, commonly skeletal particles such as crinoid ossicles and plates, but not in
optical continuity with the calcite of the original particle.
Interface: depositional boundary condition separating two different physicochemical regions.
When particles come to rest on the bottom of a depocenter, they form a solid matrix having
water-saturated pores. The water has the same composition as the medium above, but
marked changes occur once it is sealed from free circulation by confinement in the pores.
159
As deposition continues, the lamina of sediment passes from the water-sediment interface
to successively lower positions and enters a realm of greater pressure, higher temperature,
and of changed chemical and biologic conditions. These new conditions promote the
consolidation or lithification of the sediment into a sedimentary rock.
Intergranular porosity: void space between grains, whether bioclastic or Iithoclastic. In sedimentary
carbonate rocks the term granular commonly refers to the grains, whether skeletal or
nonskeletal. Some geologists, however, regard a granule as a size-grade textural term, with
discrete particles larger than 2.0 mm in diameter.
Internal sedimentation: allochthonous clastic and/or chemical sediment derived from the surface
or from within the rock framework and accumulated in cavities within the sedimentary
rock formation. It is a collective term including both mechanical and chemical internal
sediments.
Interstitial: of, pertaining to, existing in, or forming an interstice or interstices (Standard), In
sedimentary carbonate rocks, interstitial denotes the space between grains and/or crystals.
Intraclast: fragments of penecontemporaneous, generally weakly consolidated carbonate sediment that have been eroded from adjoining parts of the sea bottom and redeposited to
form a new sediment. The particles have been reworked within the area of deposition and
within the same formation.
Inversion: the process by which unstable minerals change to a more stable form of the same chemical composition (except for a possible change in content of trace elements and/or isotopes) but with a different lattice structure.
Limestone: pertains to a carbonate rock composed of more than 50 % by weight of the mineral
calcite. For practical purposes in microscopic work, area percentages are used instead of
weight percentages.
Lithocalcarenite: that variety of calcarenite in which detrital and/or intraclastic fragments predominate; these are devoid of organic structures originating from aggregation processes.
This is the lithic calcarenite, or lithoclastic variety of calcareous arenite. Lithocalcarenites
contain a predominant number of sand-size carbonate grains, angular to well rounded,
which are fine-grained to coarse-grained and are devoid of any internal structure. The name
bahumite includes deposits varying from calcisiltites to calcirudites, in which the grains are
accretionary and commonly are composite, consisting of smaller particles bound together
by precipitated material into aggregate grains.
Lithocalcilutite: fine-grained equivalent of Iithocalcarenite, and also the fine-grained equivalent
of practically all the allochthonous types of calcareous deposits, particularly of the lithocalcarenites of aggregation origin (bahamites). Many of the original lithocalcilutites appear
now entirely crystallized; they have a crystallinity coarser than 0.002 mm and consist of
a finely crystalline mosaic of interlocking anhedral to subhedral crystals of calcite or of
dolomite (dololutite).
Lithoculcirudite: composed of uniform to nonuniform, or composite nonskeletal particles of
microcrystalline calcite generated by aggregation processes (bahamites), pisolites, composite oolites, and coarse particles disrupted and torn from any pre-existing autochthonous
and allochthonous limestones. Lithodolorudite, like lithodolarenite and lithodololutite,
is of CaMg(CO& composition.
Lithocalcisiltite: companion term for silt-size carbonate lithic fragments; lithodolosiltite is the
dolomitic equivalent.
Lithoclastic: autochthonous or allochthonous carbonate detritus; mechanically formed and deposited carbonate clasts, derived from previously formed limestone and/or dolomite, within,
adjacent to, or outside the depositional site. Some linieclasts are intraclasts and were
derived from particulate material torn from the sea bottom (or lake bottom) and incorporated in the new unit.
Lithographic: pertaining to a compact carbonate rock having about the same particle size and
textural appearance as the stone used in lithography. Characterized by conchoidal fracture,
extreme smoothness of texture (aphanic), and uniformity of grains. Internally, the rock
may be entirely micro- or cryptograined, entirely micro- or cryptocrystalline, or variously
combined. Lithographic is a term to describe the appearance, fracture habit, utility in
lithography, etc. and applies (in part at least) to the micrites and dolomicrites. Sub-lithographic is a term designating a minor degree of the above features.
Lump: in recent sediments, Iumps are composite grains typically possessing superficial reentrants and believed to have formed by a process of aggregation; or lumps may result
from disruption of partially indurated lime mud or dolomite mud in the depocenter. In
ancient sediments, the composite grain character, may not be easily distinguished, but
lumpal material of larger dimensions will be readily discernible. The following criteria
are useful in recognizing lumps: ( I ) lobate outline, reflecting superficial re-entrants, (2)
grains texturally similar to the material in which they occur, and (3) rock associations.
Lumps may originate through clotting, flocculation, aggregation, and through disruption
of newly-deposited lime mud or dolomite mud. In the latter case the fragments are reworked and redeposited within the unit from which they were disrupted.
Luster-mottling: sandstones of various compositional types may become cemented with calcite
and/or dolomite which assumes crystallinity; each pore may be filled with a single crystal
or with several crystals, some of which are up to a few millimeters in size. Freshly broken
arenites so cemented by sparry calcite or dolomite display luster-mottling when turned in
the light. Many dolomitic quartz sandstones illustrate this phenomenon.
Luiite: this is mud, and is thus a combination of clay- and silt-size particles with the former
predominating; the term can carry prefixes such as calci-, dolo-, lithocalci-, biocalci-, etc.
Mad: semifriable mixtures of clay materials and carbonates. The better-indurated rocks of like
composition are marlstones or marlite, which can be considered more correctly as earthy
or impure limestones rather than shales. Marl contains 30-70 % of carbonates and a
complementary content of clay. Most commonly, the term marl has been used to denote
certain friable carbonates (usually earthy) which accumulated in Recent or present-day
fresh-water lakes. It may result from precipitation, flocculation, or physical settling out
of the water; photosynthesis of plants in lakes, shallow seas, etc. can hasten the precipitation of marl. Certain microorganisms likewise can aid in precipitating, flocculating and
settling of the sediment.
Matrix: the natural material in which any fossil, rock fragment, crystal, grain, etc. is embedded.
In a rock in which certain grains are much larger than the others, the grains of the smaller
size comprise the matrix. If the particles in a rock are of different orders of magnitude of
size, the term matrix applies to the smaller individual units that fill the interstices between
the larger grains. Sand-, silt-, and clay-sized material which is resolvable only by size and
shape analysis is included in the definition of carbonate matrix. Micritic material may also
be called matrix when it encloses grains or fills interstices between them.
Maturity (sediment) :the extent to which clastic carbonate material approaches the end product
to which it is driven by the formative processes that operate on it.
161
Mechanical: pertaining to particles of sediment brought to their place of final deposition by agents
such as water currents, wind currents, or gravity.
Megalump: most lump (= lumpal) limestones contain silt-size and sand-size clots, coagulated
irregularly-shaped grains, and aggregate grains (bahamite); some, however, contain megalumps, which are coarser-textured and lie in the granule- to boulder-size classes. These
are lithocalcibreccia- and lithodolobreccia- like masses, and may originate through
tearing up by waves, currents, and surf-surge of very high energy-index values, and possibly by turbidity currents. Partly indurated lime mud or dolomite mud could be ripped up
into fragments which are shaped to resemble rudites, and then incorporated within the
unit from which they were derived. In the early literature, these are known as penecontemporaneous intraforniational mud-pebble conglomerates or breccias.
Metusomatism (dolomitic) :diagenetic differentiation is the redistribution of the materials within
a sediment, leading to segregation of the minor constituents into nodules, concretions,
and related bodies. Diagenetic metasomatism involves introduction of materials from without, leading to replacement.
Micrite: consolidated or unconsolidated ooze or mud of either chemical or mechanical origin.
FOLK(1959) originally stated that the term should be reserved for those rocks that, under
the petrographic microscope, are seen to consist almost entirely of microcrystalhne calcite.
LEICHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962) defined the micritic material as that consisting of particles less than approximately 0.03 mm in diameter. In the present chapter, micrite is
employed for material, whether crystalline or finely grained, that is 0.05 mm or smaller
in diameter or across faces. Micrite is lime mud or its indurated equivalent, and dolomicrite
is dolomite mud or its indurated equivalent.
Micritic limestone: a limestone which consists of 90 % or more micrite. Microclastic and microcrystalline limestones are two varieties of micritic limestone (LEIOHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962), the former possessing a clastic texture and the latter a texture of microscopic size
interlocking crystals. Aphanic (aphanitic of some authors) limestone, matrix limestone,
calcilutite, and lithographic limestone are practically synonymous with micritic limestone.
Microcrystalline: usage varies (see Table IV), but it refers to crystallinity in limestones and dolomites between 0.001 and 0.01 mm across crystal faces. Some petrographers prefer the limits
of 0.004 to 0.062 mm.
Micrograined: clastic carbonate particles between 0.001 and 0.01 mm in diameter, or it may he
preferred (see LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962) to have an upper limit of 0.0625 mm and a
lower limit of 0.004 mm. They apply the terms coarsely micrograined (0.03 to 0.06 mm)
and finely micrograined (0.004 to 0.03 mm), with cryptograined particles being smaller
than 0.004 mm in diameter.
Micropelfetoid: particles of pellet nature, or possibly true pellets (faecal or otherwise), of a fine
to very fine grade size, possibly smaller than 0.01 mm in diameter. FOLK
(1962) places all
pellets in the size range of 0.03 to 0.15 mm.
Mosaic: a textural term, more applicable to dolomites than to limestones (except the non-dolomitized, but diagenetically altered varieties). Secondary overgrowth of dolomite on rhombs
produces mosaic-like texture. This destruction of original intercrystalline porosity by
continuing growth of dolomite is analogous to the cementation phenomena of wellsorted skeletal and nonskeletal limestones, such as encrinal limestones and the like.
Mud: silt-clay mixture (the latter size commonly predominant) in water without connotation as
to composition. Lime mud dolomite mud, etc. identify the variety.
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Mud aggregate: any aggregate of mud grains, commonly having the size of a sand or silt particle,
and usually mechanically deposited. Initially the aggregate may have been a faecal pellet,
or a rounded, subspherical aggregate of mud grains cemented originally by aragonite
with no signs of organic control, or a fragment of algal precipitate, or a spherical or
ovoid growth form of a calcareous alga (BATHURST,
1959).
Mud-supported: muddy carbonate rock which contains more than 10% grains, but not in sufficient amount that they support one another; such grains are floating, and thus they are
mud-supported.
Mudstone: muddy carbonate rocks containing less than 10% grains (grain/bulk ratio being 0.1);
the name is synonymous with calcilutite, except that it does not specify mineralogic composition, and does not specify that the mud is of clastic origin (DUNHAM,
1962).
Nodular limestone: a variety characterized by nodules, lumps, clots, and grapestone accumulations
within argillaceous and micritic limestones. Nodules are not necessarily concretions, but
may represent lumps, flocculated material, and round to subround aggregations, and similarly-shaped very large coated grains. Most commonly nodules are composed of the same
type of material that encloses them.
Nonclastic: having a texture showing no evidence that the sediment was deposited mechanically.
Nondetrital: minerals that are precipitated from solution by chemical, physical, physicochemical,
biochemical, or biologic means. Accumulation occurs at, or generally close to, the site
of precipitation. This group also includes the authigenic minerals formed in the sediment
after deposition.
Nonskeletal limestone: lithocalcarenites and lithocalcisiltites containing subrounded to rounded
grains devoid of internal structure, organic or otherwise. These grains have been termed
pellets, granules, false oolites, oopellets, intermediate pelletoid grains, pseudo-oolites, etc.
Olistolith: exotic blocks of older strata apparently transported by gravity sliding: calcolistoliths
are limestone exotic blocks of this type, whether transported by turbidity currents or by
gravity sliding. Olistostrome is an entire formation of slumps and exotic blocks.
Oolite (or ooid): spherical or subspherical accretionary grain generally less than 2.0 mm in diameter. In section, oolites display concentric structure, and may also exhibit radial structure. Oolite is a coated grain, and may or may not have a nucleus. Superficial oolite is a type
of oolite in which the thickness of the accretionary coating is less than the radius of the
nucleus. Some workers prefer the name oii[ith for the rock, and oolite (or ooid) for the
discrete coated grain; some petrographers use the two terms interchangeably, regardless
of whether it is a rock or a grain.
Oolitoid: similar shaped and sized bodies to oolites and ooliths, but which lack the internal structure normally found in oolites; they consist of a fine-grained aggregate of Fe-rich dolomite
(GREENSMITH,
1960).
Oopellet: spherical or subspherical grain displaying characters of both an oolite and a pellet, and
should not be confused with superficial oolite. The internal part is pelletoidal, and thus
may be ovoid in shape, but it has an accretionary coating, the thickness of all layers being
equal to or slightly greater than the diameter of the pellet which they enclose.
Open-space structures: they are structures in carbonate rocks which formed by the partial or complete occupation with internal fillings composed of internal sediments and/or cement of
one to several generations.
163
Packstone: a limestone in which the grains are arranged in a self-supporting framework, and yet
contains some matrix of lime mud. If no mud is present the rock is called grainstone;
and if grains comprise less than 10% of the rock mass, it is a mudstone.
Paragenesis: a general term for the order of formation of associated minerals, textures, and structures in time succession, one after another.
Purticulate: discrete particles, grains, fossils, fragments, skeletal material, and crystals.
faurocrystalline: lowest size-grade group of the phaneric crystalline carbonate rocks; subhedra
and euhedra lie in the size range of 0.01 to 0.1 mm. The termpaurograinedis the clastic or
grained equivalent.
Pelagosite: this is a deposit (generally white, gray, to brownish with a pearly luster) composed of
CaC03 with higher MgC03, SrC03, CaS04.HzO and SiOz contents than those found in
normal limy sediments. It is restricted to intertidal spray-formed incrustations a few millimetres thick (see REVELLE
and FAIRBRIDGE,
1957).
felite: size-grade of lutite, and is of clay- to silt-size material (the former predominant). Pelitomorphic is an all-embracive term for carbonate particles of this size; but more commonly it
connotes anhedra to subhedra.
Pellet: a grain composed normally of micritic material, lacking significant internal structure and
generally ovoid in shape; it may also be sub-ovoid. Most pellets in limestones are of siltsize to coarse sand-size (some are slightly larger). In some respects pellets are pseudooolites, for they are spherical to subspherical to oval bodies with distinct boundaries, and
resemble oolites; however, they do not possess comparable internal structure, for example,
faecal pellets. Carbonate muds are commonly pelleted, pelletal, or pelletoid, displaying
rounded or ellipsoidal aggregates of grains of matrix material. These muds are thought
to be pelleted either by faecal activity, gas bubbling, or by algal budding phenomena.
Penecontemporaneous: a term used in connection with the formation of sedimentary rocks, and
implies formed at almost the same time.
fhaneric: textural term for carbonates, particularly limestones, which are crystalline (and/or
grained), and the discrete particles of which are larger than 0.01 mm. faurograined (0.01
164
-0.1 mm), mesograined (0.1-1 .O mm), and megagrained (1 .O-10.0 mm) are the three textural
subdivisions. The term phaneritic is a term applied to texture in igneous rocks in which
individual crystals are visible to the unaided eye, and should not be used as a textural term
for carbonate rocks.
Pisolite: a grain type similar to an oolite, and generally 2.0 mm or more in diameter. The term
pisolite is restricted to crenulated, rounded or semi-rounded, commonly composite carbonate grains or bodies thought to have been formed by biochemical algal-encrustation
processes. They could, therefore, become enlarged by accretion to form algal-balls,
algal-biscuits, and the like.
Porphyroblastic: textural term to describe limestones and in particular dolomites, in which large
crystals (porphyroblasts) are scattered through a crystalline matrix of finer textured
materials. Crystallized crinoid ossicles in micrite or in fine-textured matrix would display
this texture in limestones; and sparry dolorhombs embedded in finer crystalline or dolomicrite material would be one example among dolomites.
Preferred fabric: preferential crystallinity, particularly in diagenetically altered limestones and
dolomites; and also a primary depositional fabric in mechanically deposited !ithodastic
and bioclastic sedimentary carbonate rocks. Preferred fabric is characteristic in primary
dolomites, as deduced with the universal stage and thin sections. For example, the C-axes
of crystals in primary dolomites lie parallel to the plane of bedding.
Pressure solution: a preferential solution takes place on the higher stressed parts of a grain (or
crystal) and deposition of matter 011 surfaces with lower potential energies. The pressure
is supplied by the overburden and should result in recognizable grain fabric, with the grains
flattened at right angles to the pressure. Regarded as perhaps the most important process
in closing the original pore spaces of sediment (BATHURST,
1958, 1959).
Primary dolomite: resulting from direct precipitation out of sea water or lake water. It may have a
preferred fabric, and is aphanic to finely textured (crystalline and grained). Dolomite
sand, regarded by some workers as a primary deposit of first-cycle dolarenite, is hardly
categorized as primary dolomite, but is a derived clastic carbonate.
Pseudobreccia: masses of grain growth mosaic which lie in a matrix of less altered limestone:
most of these are visible to the naked eye. The fragments are irregularly shaped lumps
of coarse calcite mosaic usually between 1.O mm and 20.0 mni in diameter, and are dark
gray in hand specimen. They lie in the finer, pale-gray, ground mass of calcite-mudstone.
In thin section, the fragments appear light and the ground mass dark. (See Bathurst,
1959.)
Pseudomorphic replacement: a diagenetic process whereby the original character of a limestone is
altered during dolomitization; skeletal material for example (and specifically crinoidal
material) is replaced in such a manner that single crystals of dolomite are in optical
continuity with the calcite of the original crinoid fragment. The process contrasts with
that of impingement, in that in the latter case there is lack of optical continuity of dolomite
crystals with the original crinoid fragment.
Pseudo-oolites: some varieties of pellets and oopellets.
Recrystallization: a term signifying a process wherein original crystals of a particular size and
morphology become converted into crystal units with different grain size or morphology,
but the mineral species remains identical before and after the process occurs. First-stage
crystallization is not to be termed recrystallization. This latter term is usually used today
loosely for a number of processes that include inversion, recrystallization sensu stricto,
and grain growth, all of which may result in textural and crystal-size changes. Recrystalli-
165
zation proper occurs when nuclei of new unstrained grains or crystals appear in or near
the boundaries of the old, strained ones. These nuclei grow until the old mosaic has been
wholly replaced by a new, relatively strain-free mosaic with a nearly uniform grain (or
crystal) size.
Recrystallization fabric: mosaic or other crystalline textural features which identify the pattern
of any sedimentary carbonate that has undergone recrystallization. This is not the fabric
of metasomatically replaced limestones (by dolorhombs). Replacement crystallization
is not recrystallization if the mineral species are no longer the same, such as dolomite after
calcite.
Reef: a structure erected by frame-building or sediment-binding organisms. At the time of deposition, the structure was a wave-resistant or potentially wave-resistant topographic feature.
Reefs and the heterogeneous reef-derived materials form the reef complex. The following
types of reefs can be recognized: (1) fringing reefs, for those veneering types that lie or
were ad,jacent to the pre-existing land; (2) barrier reefs, for sublinear structures that are or
were separated from nearby older land by a lagoon; (3) atolls, for composite structures
with ring-like outer reefs that surround or once surrounded a central lagoon devoid of
pre-existing land; ( 4 )patch reefs, for small, sub-equidimensional or irregularly shaped reefs
that are parts of reef complexes; ( 5 ) table reefs, for flat-topped, isolated, characteristically
small reef-mounds of the open ocean; (6)pinnacle reefs, which have a very small area and
grow almost vertically; ( 7 ) bank reefs, that grow over submerged highs of tectonic or other
origin-these reefs are large and have an irregular shape, and the marine bottom water
surrounding them is too deep to support growth of reef-forming organisms; and (8) shoal
reefs, that grow on the shoals of the fore-reef and back-reef areas; these are smaller in
area than the bank or platform reef types, and generally grow on the debris of a larger reef.
Reefal: this is purely a descriptive and not genetic term having reference to carbonate deposits in
and adjacent to any of the numerous varieties of reefs, and to any or all of their integral
parts.
Reef milk: matrix material of the back-reef facies, consisting of microcrystalline white and opaque
calcite ooze, and derived from abrasion of the reef core and reef flank.
Reef tufa: fibrous calcite which forms thin to thick deposits, layered or unlayered, in the myriads
of voids in reefs and other organic frame-builders; the fibrous calcite is prismatic in structure and is radial in respect to the depositional surfaces. The fibrous calcite or reef tufa
is deposited directly upon the framework of the reefs and within the various voids and
interstices, from supersaturated water. The mechanism may be largely physicochemical,
or, aided by profuse algal growth to extract CO? from the water, may also be biological
to biochemical deposition. Development of reef tufa follows and/or accompanies growth
of organic frame-builders, and precedes infilling of detritus such as lime mud, calcarenite
etc.
Relic: vestige(s) of skeletal and nonskeletal material in a sedimentary carbonate rock, commonly
dolomites. Crystallization, recrystallization, impingement, and other diagenetic alteration
has not completely obliterated these features if they are to be termed relics. There can be
two types of relics: ( I ) positive-the skeletal or nonskeletal element can be identified,
though it is altered; (2) negative (dissolved out)-it is known that there was a skeletal
or nonskeletal item present, but it cannot be identified as having been a part of an organic
or non-organic species.
Rim cement: cement which grows into interparticle voids and is optically continuous on single
crystal particles such as crinoid fragments, etc. Thus, the host is a single crystal and the
cement forms a single rim in lattice continuity with it. The overgrowth is a continuation of
this crystal, and the overgrowth can form by filling the pore space.
166
H. J. BISSELL A N D G. V. CHILINGAR
Saccharoidal: a descriptive term meaning sugary texture. More specifically it is a result of diagenetic process (or result of dolomitization) in which crystallization or recrystallization gives
rise to a new texture. It may be first-stage crystallization, but more commonly is recrystallization that occurs early in a newly-deposited carbonate mud; it does not alter gross
primary structures of the sediment such as ripple marks, thin bedded to laminated layers,
etc., but does tend to destroy minor structures such as shells of organisms. Saccharoidal
texture is recognized by the well-developed rhombs of dolomite of approximately uniform
size resting one against the other with point contact and, likewise, commonly separated by
exceptionally large as well as small pore openings. The fabric displays loose packing, and
suggests that dolomitization occurred when the grains were loose and before compaction
altered the original texture (i.e., a packing typical of loose beach and shore-line sands).
Recrystallization of the original smaller dolomite grains, or replacement crystallization of
the original calcite grains destroys the original particle-size distribution, and substitutes a
new, highly restricted, crystal-size distribution ranging from medium- to coarse-sand
dimensions.
Secondary: a general term applied to minerals and rocks formed as a consequence of alteration.
This term is too all-inclusive and ambiguous in detailed studies and should be used only
as a very general colloquial term when misinterpretation is absolutely impossible.
Ske/etal: pertaining to debris derived from organisms that secrete hard parts and hard material
around or within organic tissue. NELSON
et al. (1962) defined skeletal limestones as those
which consist of, or owe their characteristics to, virtually in-place accumulation of calcareous skeletal matter. These rocks, formed through biologic processes, are contrasted
with fragmental limestones. LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER
(1962) considered the term bioclastic to be synonymous with skeletal. The term skeletal is thus also used to indicate faunal
(or floral) fragments or wholecomponents of these organisms that are not in place of origin.
Solution transfer: this is a translation of the German Losungumsatz. It refers to the solution of
detrital particles around their points of contact where elastic strain and solubility are enhanced (pressure solution), followed by redeposition on less strained particle surfaces
(BATHURST,
1959).
Sparite: a contraction of, and therefore synonymous with, sparry calcite. Sparite is a loose descriptive term applied to any transparent or translucent crystalline calcite and aragonite.
It can occur in numerous morphologic forms, viz. granular, drusy, fibrous, and blady.
Three possible origins are recognized: ( 1 ) physicochemical precipitation, (2) recrystallization, and (3) grain growth. The first is distinguished by adding the genetic prefix ortho-,
and the latter two by adding prefix pseudo-. Sparite is larger than 0.02 mm in diameter.
Petrographers who prefer to use also the term nzicrosparite set its size limits at 0.005-0.02
mm. The prefix dolo- is used to indicate sparry dolomite crystals, i.e., dolosparite and tlolomicrosparite. Some workers prefer the prefix calc- to distinguish calcsparite from the dolo
mitic variety, but to some the term sparite is automatically understood to mean the
calcareous variety.
Sparry: refers to clear, transparent, or translucent, readily cleavable, crystalline particles generally
having an interlocking mosaic texture. FOLK
(1959) referred to sparry calcite cement which
forms grains or crystals lop or more in diameter. The name spar alludes to its relative
clarity both in thin section and in hand specimen.
Speleothem: a carbonate cave deposit of any sort (also speleal limestone).
Spergenite: a coquinite (to niicrocoquinite), and/or a biocalcarenite composed of sorted fossil
debris, including bryozoan fragments, and Foraminifera (possibly endothyroids), together
with carbonate detritus of various types, cemented by sparry calcite; a biogenic calcarenite.
167
SpheruZite: a textural term, applicable to limestones and dolomitized equivalents, in which rounded and subrounded, spherical to subspherical ooids are present. These may have either a
concentric, radial, or axiolitic structure, or a combination of all three. Spherulitic limestone
contains 50 % or more of these spherules; they range in size from about 0.5 to 2.0 mm, although some are up to 5.0 mni in diameter. No particular genetic significance is attached
because they may be (1) detrital, (2) coated grains, (3)algal spherules, and ( 4 ) authigenic.
According to some workers only a radial structure is indicated; and according to some, a
sgherulite is a small spherical or spheroidal particle composed of a thin dense calcareous
outer layer with a sparry calcite core. According to PETTIJOHN
(1957), spherulites are minute
bodies of oolitic nature in which only a radial structure is visible.
Stinkstein: stink-stone, or smelly rock; among carbonate rocks, both limestones and dolomites, stinksteins are common. Normally these are of three types, or some combination
thereof: ( I ) sweet or hydrocarbon odor; (2) fetid, or foul odor (common to most criquinites), or (3) sweet-and-sour, typical of carbonates rich in organic-phosphatic material,
particularly detectable if dilute HCl is applied to freshly-powdered rock.
Stromutuctis: these are open-space structures with horizontal flat to nearly flat bottoms, and are
filled by internal sediments and/or cement. Their genesis has been variously interpreted as
being caused by the burial of soft organisms which upon decomposition left an open space.
More recent studies, however, show that they are most likely syngenetic voids in calcareous
sediments, which are or are not changed by subsequent corrosion and corrasion. Algae are
only indirectly responsible by overgrowing surface pits and channels, and thus form an
internal cavity system. It seems that Strornaiuciis are most common to micritic limestones
formed by calcareous Algae, that left little or no evidence in most occurrences thus far
reported from Great Britain, North America, etc.
Stromutolite: laminated sediment formed by calcareous Algae, which bind fine detritus and/or
precipitate calciumcarbonatebiochemically. The deposit may form irregular accumulations
or structures that may remain fairly constant in shape, for example, Colleniu.
Subhedrul: refers t o individual crystals exhibiting a few crystal boundaries; the term unhedrul
defines those with no well-defined crystal boundaries, and the term euhedral indicates
excellent crystallinity. Subhedrul is midway between these latter two varieties.
Sucrosic: contraction of saccharoidal, thus meaning sugary texture. The term is commonly
applied to certain types of dolomites, e.g., dolarenites.
Syneresis cracks or vugs: cracks or vugs formed by a spontaneous throwing off of water by a gel
during aging. In some carbonates, precipitation evidently occurs as a colloidal gel encrusting
leaves of sea plants (photochemical removal of carbon dioxide from sea water by the plants
causes precipitation). The end-result may be the production of cryptotextured limestone
which contains syneresis cracks and associated contraction vugs.
Syngenetic: originating at about the same time; in sedimentary carbonate rocks, it refers to concretions, authigenic minerals, nodules, and other bodies which form at identically, or
approximately, the same time as the rock which encloses them. Syndiugenetic dolomitizution,
for example, refers to diagenetic dolomitization which occurs at the interface while lime
mud is accumulating.
168
calcite overgrowth in some limestones suggest that rim cementation is the dominant process, and commonly dolomitization occurs after rim cementation.
Travertine: a massive to often finely layered colloform type of chemical limestone, often with porous interlayers. In the type area, at warm carbonate springs at Tivoli near Rome, Italy, afine
type of sound-absorbing building stone is worked and exported all over the world. The
Tivoli River of Italy deposits travertine very rapidly because of agitation. Travertine
commonly forms about hot springs, faults, in caves, in soil crusts, as soil nodules, etc.
Tufa: a spongy, porous rock which forms a thin surficial deposit about springs and rivers, or may
form thick, bulbous or otherwhise swelling features in lacustrine environments, particularly around the shore. It has a reticulate structure, and is weak and semifriable. Travertine,
by contrast, is fairly dense, banded CaC03, having tan, cream, and white colors.
Turbidity limestones: some litho- and biocalcarenites display features indicating resedimentation
by turbidity currents; exotic limestones, particularly relatively large blocks (calcolistoliths), are now known to have formed by agents other than waves and currents, possibly
by gravity-sliding and turbidity currents.
Winnow: eolian sorting; should not be used to describe sorting in water, which is washing.
1 69
Chapter 5
SUMMARY
Limestones originate by three main processes: ( I ) precipitation of calcium carbonate in an initially stony condition, as in travertine and organic reefs; (2) lithification of calcium carbonate sediments, which includes various steps beginning
with changes of grain mineralogy, and includes addition of concentric coatings to
grains, selective dissolution of matrix and/or grains, precipitation of mineral
cement in pore spaces, and may end with recrystallization; and (3) replacement of
calcium sulfate or quartz by calcium carbonate. Of these, the second process is
by far the most important.
Limestones occur in most parts of the world and throughout the geologic
column, but they are notably more abundant in Cambrian and younger rocks,
reflecting the increased abundance of marine shell-secreting invertebrates during
and after the Cambrian Period. Grains of carbonate sediments mgy come from older
limestones, but chiefly they originate as first-cycleparticles within the waters of the
depositional basin, as skeletal remains of lime-secreting organisms, ooids, superficial ooids, pseudooids, aggregate grains, faecal pellets, and so forth. Carbonate
grains are deposited by various vertical and/or lateral sedimentation processes to
build up stratigraphic units, distinctive features of which are controlled by the
interplay of physiographic environment of deposition and crustal subsidence.
Pure limestones and limestones mixed variously with terrigenous sediments
from Recent environments and the geologic record are grouped broadly into three
major environmental suites: ( I ) nonmarine environments from large inland
structural basins (lakes and alluvial fans); (2) shallow-water marine and/or marginal marine environments (beaches, lagoons, bays, dunes, and so forth); and (3)
open-sea environments.
Work on this chapter commenced in the Department of Geology, Yale University, but was completed after the senior author became a Senior Research Associate, Columbia University.
Contribution No. 66-5 of the Department of Geology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
170
INTRODUCTION
171
and with noncarbonate sediments, citing examples botn from Recent calcium
carbonate sediments and ancient limestones.
Limestones have long attracted the attention of geologists, perhaps initially because
of their early use as building stones and also because of the inherent fascination
prompted by the fossils in limestones.
LYELLS
classic textbook, which appeared in 1830 and passed through numerous editions for nearly 3 decades, contains extensive descriptions of the Italian
travertine deposits and comparisons between recently elevated coral-reef limestones,
as in Sicily, with modern living reefs.
Publication of DARWINS
Journal (1845) of his voyage on H.M.S.
Beagle and other writings on coral atolls (DARWIN,
1837, 1889) emphasized the
problems connected with the origin of Indo-Pacific coral atolls. Many studies
resulted from Darwins stimulus; their culmination was in the drilling of many test
borings by the U.S. Geological Survey in the decade after World War I1 (LADD
et al., 1953).
Laboratory study of limestones by means of thin-sections and the petrographic microscope, and also field study of polished surfaces prepared with an abrasive
stone or file and then moistened before study, was inaugurated by SORBY(1879).
Sorbys Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London is one of the
most penetrating studies of limestones ever made; he applied these methods to
a study of the mineralogy and textures of limestones and Recent carbonate sediments with great success. He concluded that limestones are mainly derived from
cementation of broken up and decayed shells and corals; hence, a knowledge of the
mineralogy and structure of shells is fundamental to understanding limestones.
Sorby employed careful specific gravity measurements to distinguish aragonite
powder (s. g.=2.93) from calcite (s. g.=2.72); in addition he used optical
properties (aragonite is biaxial; calcite, uniaxial) and hardness (aragonite is
harder than calcite and will scratch Iceland spar crystals in a direction parallel to
the line of the shorter diagonal of the rhombic face, whereas calcite will not do so).
Using these techniques he determined the mineralogy of various shell groups and
set forth the principles of the different behavior of calcite and aragonite, and discussed how these factors influenced preservation of shells and textural characteristics of limestones.
Sorby examined travertine and tufa, oolites, and a suite of specimens collected systematically from the principal limestones of Great Britain. He recognized
three kinds of ooids: (1)those with concentric structure; (2) those with radial structure; and (3) those that have been recrystallized. He remarked that unoriented
172
granular matter (lime mud, etc.) occurs with the oriented crystal layers in the
first two kinds. Sorbys descriptions of the British limestones include numerous
references to sand-sized particles of lime mud and lime-mud coatings on shells and
as layers within ooids. The full significance of these mud particles and coatings was
not realized until 1954, when ILLINGS
work on the Bahamian calcareous sands was
published.
Other important contributors to the petrographic study of limestones include
CAYEUX(1897, 1935) in France; HADDING(1941, 1950, 1956, 1958) in Sweden;
and SANDER
(1936, 1951) in Austria. For the most part, these descriptive studies
concerned only ancient limestone rocks; only SORBY
(1879) made the all-important
transition between Recent carbonate sediments and ancient limestones.
Walther, one of the stalwarts of geology of the late 1800s and early part of
this century, wrote a three-volume textbook and devoted the third volume, nearly
500 pages, to Lithology of the Recent (WALTHER,
1893-1894). In this volume
considerable space is given to Recent carbonate sediments. Walther presented an
excellent review of the subject through 1893, and it is surprising how much knowledge had already accumulated by that time. He was an outstanding synthesizer and
shrewd observer who had travelled extensively on four continents (Europe, Asia,
Africa, and North America) to make geological observations. WALTHERS
study
(1888) of the Recent and Pleistocene carbonate sediments and rocks of the Red
Sea is many decades ahead of his time. It was Walther who took the term diagenesis, which he had borrowed from Von Guembel (WALTHER,
1893-1 894, p.693),
and gave it the meaning presently used by most geologists. In his book, Walther
made many suggestions for the solution of geological problems and was an early
advocate of the experimental approach to problems of carbonate diagenesis.
GRABAU
(1904, 1932) recognized most of the varieties of limestone that are
known today. His insights became obscured, however, because few geologists
bothered to penetrate beyond his elaborate genetic terminology, or to follow his
scattered discussions of limestone, which are found in eight different chapters of
his textbook (GRABAU,1932, pp.272-273, 280-285, 294-297, 331-347, 384-476,
573-578, 692-693, and 645, respectively). One major change from Grabaus
views on limestones, occasioned by subsequent research, is the recognition of the
importance of wave working of chemical deposits of calcareous material formed in
the sea. Although GRABAU
(1932, p.645) indicated that such limestones were
not known, he did remark that chemically formed marine oolites when worn
by waves may come under this head.
GRABAU(1932) divided all rocks, including limestones, into two major
categories: ( I ) endogenetic, formed by agents within the rock mass itself, such as
solidification from molten material or precipitation out of solution; and (2) exogenetic, formed by agents acting outside of already existing rock masses, as clastic
rocks.
Endogenetic limestones form in water, hence are hydrogenic; they are called
173
174
On the whole, these early pioneers in the study of carbonate rocks made
little impact on the present generation of carbonate petrologists. A breakthrough in
this field came during the last 15-25 years. The source of inspiration, energy, and
progress, which culminated in this advance, was provided by the major oil companies
of the United States. The enormous petroleum reservoirs discovered in carbonate
rocks of the Middle East, in the Devonian of western Canada, and in the Pennsylvanian of west Texas prompted the oil companies to increase their efforts in
carbonate research. In 1959, a Carbonate Rock Subcommittee was established as
a division of the American Assoication of Petroleum Geologists, and a memoir
(HAM, 1962) was published on the classification of carbonate rocks which is a
major milestone and turning point in the history of the study of carbonate rocks.
An annotated bibliography of papers on carbonates from the United States
and Canada published in 1953-1958 and referenced by subjects was prepared by
SANDERS
(1960).
ORIGIN OF LIMESTONES
Introduction
175
Caliche, nari, and calcrete are examples of limestones that originate by inorganic crystallization processes; reef rock and stony biogenic incrustations, of
limestones that originate by organic crystallization processes; and travertine, tufa,
speleothems, and so forth, of limestones that originate by a combination of inorganic and organic crystallization processes.
Caliche, nari, and calcrete
Caliche, nari, and calcrete are limestones precipitated from evaporating soil
moisture.
Caliche forms in a semiarid climate where the predominant direction of
movement of soil moisture is upward, owing to the excess of evaporation over
rainfall. As carbonate-bearing waters are evaporated from the soil, calcite is
precipitated between the soil particles.
The term nari (from the Arabic word nar which means fire, alluding to its
use in limekilns) was first introduced by BLANCKENHORN
(1905) to designate a
special variety of caliche that forms by surface, or near-surface, alteration of permeable calcareous rocks. Nari occurs in the drier parts of the Mediterranean climatic region, through the combined effects of dissolution and redeposition of
calcium carbonate, Nari is distinguished by a fine network of veins, which surround
unreplaced remnants of the original rock. The nari often contains clastic rock particles such as flint, hard limestone or dolostone and, locally, shells of sub-Recent
terrestrial gastropods.
The nari crust in Israel, which reaches a maximum thickness of at least 6 m,
develops preferentially on Cretaceous and Tertiary chalks, but is also found on the
chalky cementing material of conglomerates. It is thus widespread in Galilee, Mount
Carmel, the Shefela, and the Judean and Shomron Mountains.
i n regions of arid climate a surface soil crust may form, which is called
duricrust (WOOLNOUGH,
1928). The term calcrete has been used where this crust
consists of calcium carbonate (LAMPLUGH,
1902).
Reef rock and stony biogenic incrustations
Reef rock and stony incrustations represent deposits whose initial condition
was solid and coherent, owing to the cementing effects of the original organic
precipitation of calcium carbonate. i n modern reefs, corals, coralline Algae, and
Foraminifera are the chief organic precipitaters of solid limestones. Other organisms, such as modern oysters and serpulid worms and fossil stromatoporoids,
sponges, rudistids, and certain brachiopods, also cemented themselves to the substratum to form an initally stony mass (NEWELL,1955).
Limestones formed by organic precipitation comprise the constructional
limestones of J. H. JOHNSON
(1957), the biolithites of FOLK(1959) and WOLF
(1960), the residual organic class of R. W. POWERS(1962), and the incrustate
limestones of SCHLANGER
(1964). In addition to reef-building corals, Schlanger
176
listed the Algae Lithothamnium and Lithophyllum, and the Foraminifera Carpenteria, Homotrema, and Gypsina as important genera of incrusting organisms. As
noted by R. W. Powers, residual organic limestones are the most valuable paleoecological indicators. H. F. NELSONet al. (1962) referred to this type of limestone
as skeletal limestone, but the term skeletal has been widely used to refer to the
hard parts of organisms, whether in place or not, so that their usage. if adopted,
would generate confusion.
177
GROUT
(1940, p.170), on the other hand, defined travertine as the precipitates from waters on plants. He used Mexican onyx to designate the layered type
of calcium carbonate precipitate in which the crystallization took place on flat
surfaces.
PIRSSON
and KNOPF(1947, p.265) defined travertine as the rock formed by
precipitation of calcium carbonate at the orifices of springs. They mentioned
that deposition of carbonate was increased by the action of Algae.
Classic localities for such calcareous deposits include Karlsbad, Czechoslovakia, where the famous Sprudelstein includes aragonite pisolites (COHN,1862);
Tivoli, Italy; Vichy, France; Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.
(WEED,1889);Pleistocene Lake Lahonton, Nevada (1. C . Russell, 1885); and Searles
Lake, California (I. C. RUSSELL,1887; SCHOLL,1960). These and other deposits
were reviewed by PIA(1933), whose work also includes an extensive bibliography.
Dripstone and flowstone refer to speleothems made by dripping and flowing
water, respectively. The deposits made by flowing and dripping are texturally
distinct and can be easily recognized. Dripstone is limited to the central zones of
stalactites; it is characterized by crystals oriented with their long axes parallel
to the long axis of the stalactite. Flowstone surrounds the dripstone cores of
stalactites and forms the entire mass of stalagmites; it consists of concentric layers
of variable thickness in which the long axes of crystals are radially arranged with
respect to the long axis of the stalactite or stalagmite (G. W. MOORE,1962).
Where the dripping occurs into shallow pools, cave pearls are formed, analogous
to ooids (BAKERand FROSTICK,
1947). Most speleothems consist of calcite, but
aragonite does occur in warmer climates.
Lithijkation of calcium carbonate sediments
Lithification of calcium carbonate sediments is by far the most important factor in
the origin of limestones. Conversion of the calcium carbonate sediments into limestone rock involves a large number of reactions and processes, which may leave
original depositional textures essentially unaltered, on the one hand, or which may
so completely rearrange the constituents that original depositional textures are completely obscured or obliterated, on the other. The subject of lithification, which is
onlypart of the broader topic of diagenesis, has been much studied recently, both from
the point of view of the chemical reactions involved (TAFT,1966b) and of changes
in porosity and permeability (HARBAUGH,
1966). Both these contributions are
found in the present two-volume work on carbonate rocks.
The following discussion traces some of these changes in a sequence that
proceeds from the stage of imperceptible alteration of original features of the sediment to the stage of complete obliteration of original features. The subject is
conveniently, even if somewhat arbitrarily, subdivided into two parts: (I)
changes of individual grains, and (2) changes within the grain mass.
178
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
ARAGONITE
HIGH-Mg
CALCITE
REEF SEDIMENTS
SKELETAL SANDS
179
ARAGONITE
HIGH-Mg
CALCITE
SUBMERGED IN SEA WATER
Fig.2. Mineralogy of Pleistocene skeletal sands from Bermuda. Note that Pleistocene carbonate
sands submerged in sea water or exposed to marine spray contain high-magnesian calcite and
that those beyond the reach of the sea water are, with one exception, devoid of magnesium. The
absence of magnesium is due to removal by fresh-water leaching at a post-depositional stage of
subaerial exposure. (After FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.782; by permission of Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology.)
180
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
limestones with original texture preserved (Plate IB, C ) ; but after diagenesis, in
limestones, these grains consist of low-magnesian calcite.
The changes in grain mineralogy, as shown by FRIEDMAN
(1964), are well
illustrated by comparing Recent reef sediments and skeletal, and oolitic sands
from Bermuda, the Bahamas, Red Sea, and other areas, with nearby Pleistocene
limestones that consist of the lithified equivalents of these sediments.
Recent reef sediments consist of aragonite in greater abundance than highinagnesian calcite (Fig. 1), indicating a preponderance of coral material. With only
one exception, low-niagnesian calcite is absent in the Bermuda samples studied by
FRIEDMAN
(1964).
The Recent skeletal sands from Bermuda contain these same minerals, but
also include a variable amount of low-magnesian calcite, ranging from 10 to I5 %,
the variation being due to the presence of terrigenous carbonate grains from Pleistocene limestones on the island (Fig. 1). The mineralogy of Pleistocene limestones
formed by lithification of skeletal sands varies according to whether their postdepositional history involved complete subaerial exposure or partial subaerial
exposure and partial exposure to sea water (Fig.2). Specimens of limestone that
have been partially exposed to sea water contain variable amounts of high-magnesian calcite.
Recent oolitic sands from the Bahamas contain abundant aragonite and
small quantities of low-magnesian calcite, whereas in Pleistocene oolitic limestones,
the abundance of aragonite decreases and that of low-magnesian calcite increases
PLATE I
Photomicrographs of Pleistocene limestones from Bermuda, which originated by modification
and cementation of skeletal sands. (After FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.785; by permission of Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology).
A. Lime-mud envelopes outline former tests of organisms originally composed of aragonite,
such as pelecypod shells or Halimeda, which were subsequently dissolved and the resulting void
(mold) was later filled with a mosaic of drusy calcite. Original interparticle porosity has been
completely occluded by drusy calcite mosaic. Pleistocene eolianite, Ferry Road, St. Georges
Island, Bermuda.
B. Skeletal fragments, which were originally composed of aragonite, are outlined by lime-mud
envelope. The interior of these organisms has been lime-mud infilled by a mosaic of drusy calcite.
Organism in extreme upper left of photograph is Halimedu. Note micritic lining of the internal
tubes of Halimedu. Fossils which were originally made up of high-magnesian calcite, as the
coralline algal fragment in upper left of photograph, have retained their original texture even
though magnesium has been removed from this rock. The original interparticle porosity has been
occluded by drusy calcite mosaic. Pleistocene eolianite, Ferry Road, St. Georges Island, Bermuda. Notice difference in texture between rim cement on exterior of lime-mud envelope
and coarser mosaic of the cement.
C. Molds with infilled drusy calcite mosaic in upper left of photograph are probably those of
Halimeda. Note the well-preserved textural details of the coralline algal fragment (in right center
of photograph) which was originally composed of high-magnesian calcite. Removal of magnesium
from this rock has not changed the textural characteristics of this fragment. The original interparticle porosity has been occluded by drusy calcite mosaic. Pleistocene eolianite, Ferry Road,
St. Georges Island, Bermuda. Notice difference in texture between rim cement on exterior
of micritic envelope and coarser cement mosaic.
PLATE I
181
182
(Fig.3, 4). These and other mineralogic changes associated with lithification are
discussed by FRIEDMAN
(1964).
Paramorphic replacement of aragonite by low-magnesian calcite commonly
occurs where the aragonite exists in the form of structureless lime mud, cryptocrystalline grains, or ooids (FRIEDMAN,
1964). Presumably this replacement of
aragonite by low-magnesian calcite occurs with an intervening solution-deposition
stage on a micro-scale. The result is a complete change of mineralogy of the
grains but a retention of their original depositional texture. Thus, for example,
ooids and aggregate grains of non-skeletal sand-size particles, which are deposited
originally as aragonite in Recent calcium carbonate sediments (ILLING,1954;
NEWELLet al., 1960; RUSNAK,1960b), almost always consist of low-magnesian
calcite in limestone (LINCK,1903; FRIEDMAN,
1964). This paramorphic replacement contrasts markedly with the large-scale dissolution of aragonite skeletal debris and subsequent deposition of low-magnesian calcite in the empty space formerly occupied by the shells. (See section on Changes within the sediment mass.)
The mineralogic composition of calcium carbonate in Recent deep-sea
sediments differs from that of nearshore carbonate sediments in containing abunLOW-Mg CALCITE
Fig.3. Mineralogy of Recent ooids from Browns Cay, South Cat Cay, Joulters Cay, and Bird
Cay (Berry Islands), Great Bahama Bank. (After FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.790; by permission of Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology.)
183
Mg CALCITE
Fig.4. Mineralogy of Pleistocene oolites from New Providence Island, Hog Island (near New
Providence Island), Andros Island, Long Rock Island (near Andros Island), and North Bimini
Island, Great Bahama Bank. (After FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.790; by permission of Journal of Sedimentary Petrology.)
184
water depth and grain size, may be an important diagenetic effect. Under deep-sea
conditions low-magnesian calcite is the most stable of these carbonate minerals and
high-magnesian calcite appears to be more stable than aragonite (FRIEDMAN,
1965b).
185
definition than the one thought to be the original (as pseudo-ooliths) and which
referred to clastic or worn calcite grains or shell fragments that resemble ooliths
(GRABAU,1932, p.284, after J. G. Bornemann, reference not cited, but possibly
BORNEMANN,
1885).
B. Clear layers of oriented aragonite crystals with concentric or radial structure. Grains that have acquired a coating of clear aragonite crystals with
concentric or radial structure in the arrangement of the crystals have been called
superficial ooids or normal ooids (or true ooids, or simply ooids, which is the term
preferred to oolith; oolite is the rock composed of cemented ooids), depending on
the number of coating layers. SuperJicial ooids contain only one shell (of variable
thickness) with concentric or radial structure, and normal oiiids contain two or more
shells (of variable thickness) having concentric or radial structure (CAROZZI,
1957).
This definition of superficial ooid is preferred to those based on thickness of the
shells, such as only thin external oolitic coating (ILLING,1954, p.36) or thickness
of the coating envelope being less than the radius of the nucleus (LEIGHTON
and
PENDEXTER,
1962, p.38). Though originally composed of aragonite, these coatings
nearly always consist of calcite in limestones.
Inasmuch as more than one coating may be present and one or more of the
different types may alternate on the same grain, great variation is possible. A
central nucleus of foreign material may be surrounded by alternating envelopes
of structureless lime mud and clear layers of oriented aragonite crystals with either
concentric or radial structure. In other grains, a foreign nucleus may be lacking and
the entire grain may consist of material that otherwise forms coatings.
The different types of texture of the aragonite have been attributed to the
rate of precipitation of aragonite and degree of agitation (RUSNAK,1960b). According to this explanation, rapid precipitation produces envelopes of unoriented
cryptocrystalline aragonite; slower precipitation combined with weak agitation
produces radially arranged crystal aggregates; and very slow precipitation in
combination with vigorous agitation produces a preponderance of mechanical
attrition that re-orientates the aragonite crystals from an initial radial attachment
to a tangential (concentric) growth position.
Whatever their origin, the sequence of coating and particle types may be of
great paleogeographic significance in defining ancient shorelines. In Great Salt
Lake, Utah, U.S.A., pseudooids form a continuous belt just offshore from the
zone of breaking waves. In the breaker zone the particles may consist entirely of
normal ooids; if so, then a belt of mixed ooids (and superficial ooids, not separately recognized) and pseudooids intervenes between the normal ooids and pseudooids offshore. In other localities where normal ooids occur in the breaker zone,
a narrow landward belt of mixed ooids and pseudooids exists. In still other localities, there is no belt of pure ooids, but only a shoreline zone of mixed ooids and
pseudooids (CAROZZI,1957).
186
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
187
presence of the lime mud inhibited precipitation of clear calcite, which cemented
nearby originally mud-free sediments into a non-porous rock (LUCIA,1962).
Selective dissolution may also affect the lime-mud matrix of a mixture of
lime-sand and lime-mud particles after the growth of a framework of dolomite
crystals (R. W. POWERS,
1962, p.185).
Soft algal tissue may be removed after initial cementation of the framework
grains, leaving empty spaces that may later be filled by mineral cement or internally
sedimented clasts (WOLF,1965b).
Precipitation of mineral cement in pore spaces. Precipitation of mineral cement in
the pore spaces within a mass of calcium carbonate sediments is the most important
single lithification process. The pore space may have existed originally between the
essentially unaltered grains of the sediment, or it may have been created by selective
dissolution of the lime-mud matrix between grains or of the soluble centers of
grains within lime-mud envelopes, as previously discussed. The cement commonly
begins as clear crystals that grow radially outward from the grains (or inward
toward the center of pore spaces) (ILLING,1954; GINSBURG,
1957; R. W. POWERS,
1962; and others). Where crystal growth does not occupy all the available space,
the cementation is incomplete and the cement resembles a grain coating; it has been
called drusy coating (R. W. POWERS,
1962) or rim cement (GINSBURG,
1957).
Recrystallization of a lime-mud coating, or of original lime-mud matrix between
grains, may produce an end product the appearance of which is similar to mineral
cement.
The cementing minerals closely reflect the chemical environment within the
interstitial waters, the composition of which may range from fresh to supersaline.
Mineral cements generally have been interpreted in terms of exposure of aragonitic
marine sediments to meteoric ground water, but marginally evaporating sea water
may diffuse upward through porous intertidal and supratidal sediments and precipitate evaporitic cements. Through-flowing connate waters of varying salinity
and commonly having high pH, which are released during compaction, may also
introduce cements of varying composition.
If aragonite grains come in contact with meteoric water, they dissolve forming calcium bicarbonate, according to the reaction:
CaC03
PLATE 11
189
that are composed almost exclusively of calcite, has remained uncemented where aragonite was initially absent. In the so-called hard chalks, which
include larger proportions of organisms with originally aragonitic skeletal debris,
however, the aragonite has been dissolved so that only molds remain and a calcite
cement is present (HATCHet al., 1938, p.168).
Aragonite, or the evaporite minerals, such as dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum,
barite, celestite, or halite, have also been found as the mineral cement between
grains of calcium carbonate deposits; in addition, the cement may replace the
grains. Such cements may be a great deal more common than is generally realized;
they generally do not persist on the outcrop and are preserved in bore-hole samples
only where saline drilling fluids are used. One explanation for the presence of these
minerals has recently been provided by KINSMAN(1965), who studied the minerals
found in the intergranular spaces of calcium carbonate sediments exposed on
marginal supratidal flats along the Persian Gulf. Owing to extreme aridity, sea
water transpires upward through these porous sediments. With evaporation, the
concentration of dissolved salts progressively increases in the interstitial waters,
and eventually evaporite minerals precipitate. Kinsman has found that a systematic
sequence of evaporite cements exists in a landward direction from aragonite,
which precipitates at lower salinity, to halite, which precipitates at higher salinity.
This may be visualized as a kind of marine caliche process, for the mechanism of upward-moving pore water is exactly the same as that of meteoric
ground water, which is the pore water where caliche forms. The difference is that
the pore water in the sediments on the supratidal flats is sea water. Deposition of
evaporite minerals within the sediment pores may occur even in the absence of
associated bedded evaporites, indicating that the salinity of the adjacent body of
sea water did not reach extremely high values.
An absence of halite from most beach rocks and many littoral flat deposits
suggests tidal flushing, a process which involves deposition of halite at low tide
and its removal (owing to high solubility) during the next high cycle or seasonal
high-water stage.
There is a difference in cements within beach rock reported from different
localities; this may be explained by considerations of the type of water present
within the pores of the beach sediment prior to deposition of the cement. Aragonite
has been found to be the cement in many beach rocks (GINSBURG,
1953, 1957;
REVELLE
and FAIRBRIDGE,
1957; STODDART
and CANN,1965), whereas calcite has
been claimed as the original cement in others (R. J. RUSSELL,1963a, b). Both
aragonite and calcite have been found in Bahamian beach rock (ILLING,1954,
p.70). As with other types of aragonite precipitates, however, initial aragonite
cement in beach rocks changes eventually to calcite when exposed to meteoric
ground water, so that calcite may be the final product even if the initial material
was aragonite.
Gypsum is found as a beach rock cement in Somaliland today (R. W.
190
191
192
2CaS04
2Ca0
0 2
This process is thought to have been responsible for the production of limestone
cap rocks atop salt plugs, as in the Gulf Coast region of the United States (FEELY
and KULP,1957). It may also have caused the replacement of the Castile Anhydrite
(Permian) along faults in the Delaware Basin, west Texas, which has given rise
to local limestones that form topographically resistant landforms called castiles
(ADAMS,1944, pp.1606-1607). Replacement of Castile Anhydrite resulted in a
laminated limestone; where massive Castile Anhydrite has been replaced, a massive
limestone has resulted (G. W. MOORE,1960). In addition, bacterial processes may
have been responsible for the calcite-rich layers in the calcite-aragonite couplets in
Recent sediments of the Dead Sea (NEEV,
1963, 1964; see also section on Calcium
carbonate lake sediments).
A similar bacterial replacement origin has been proposed as an explanation
for the thick-bedded, sparsely fossiliferous parts of the Capitan Limestone (Permian) of southeastern New Mexico (G. W. MOORE,1960). According to this
interpretation, the main body of the Capitan Limestone is the lateral equivalent
of the upper massive Castile Anhydrite, and is not entirely an older barrier reef,
as is generally supposed (NEWELLet al., 1953). The massive, unfossiliferous parts
of the Capitan Limestone have been explained as the product of recrystallization
of the reef rock, but it retains no vestiges of organic remains; rather, it is indistinguishable petrographically from the massive limestone formed on the castiles
in the Delaware Basin, where massive anhydrite has been replaced.
I93
OCCURRENCE OF LIMESTONES
Introduction
Limestone occurs in all parts of the world and at all levels in the stratigraphic
column, though probably it is less common in ancient Precambrian strata. Limestones have been estimated to comprise 19-22% of available measured stratigraphic sections (LEITHand MEAD, 1915; SCHUCHERT, 1931; PETTIJOHN,
1957).
Slightly lower values for total limestone abundance in the continental crust have
been calculated from geochemical material balance analyses, ranging from 5 to
14% according to MEAD(1907), CLARKE
(1924), or HOLMES
(1937). Although
outranked by shales (44-58 % of measured sections, whereas geochemically
calculated values range from 70 to 82 %) and sandstones (22-37 % of measured
sections and 12-1 6 % based on geochemical calculations), limestones perhaps have
received proportionately more than their share of geologic study from the earlier
generations of paleontologically-oriented stratigraphers, who were particularly
concerned with the great abundance of marine fossils in limestones. Figures for
limestone in the deep-sea crust are not yet available.
In more recent times, the interest in limestones has continued to expand
partly for their fossil content, partly because many limestones are petroleum
194
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
reservoirs (HARBAUGH,
1967), and partly because it is possible to make rather
exact environmental comparisons between limestones which preserve information
about original calcium carbonate sediments and their Recent analogues (TAFT,
1967a); both of these contributions are found in the present volume.
The occurrence of limestones may be considered from many points of view.
One view, which became particularly common in the United States in the first half
of the 20th century, was to assign all calcium carbonate rocks to the single group,
limestones, and to contrast them with various kinds of noncarbonate deposits.
Thus, limestone tended to denote a chemical rock, in contrast with terrigenous (or "elastic") rocks, which were subdivided on the basis of grain size and/
or mineralogic composition. This approach essentially ignored the variations within limestones that reflect initial variations in the calcium carbonate sediments
from which most limestones have been derived.
Another approach, which also tended to obscure the variations within the
original carbonate sediments, was to subdivide limestones according to different
gross tectono-stratigraphic facies, such as platform limestones, basin limestones, and geosynclinal limestones (SLOSS,1947). Platform limestones, for
example, typically are extensive, thin blankets of light-colored rock that commonly
contain abundant fossils and have been extensively dolomitized (especially those
of Paleozoic age). Basin limestones may resemble platform limestones lithologically, but locally they are much thicker and pass laterally into reefs and/or
the deposits of barred basins. Geosynclinal limestones are identified by their
occurrence in thick sequences, siliceous composition, dark color, and interstratification with deep-sea shales.
More recently emphasis has been placed on analysis of limestones in terms
of the different kinds of carbonate sediments from which most of them have been
derived, and to use primary lithofacies and biofacies as a basis for paleoecologic
reconstructions. This paleoecologic approach is followed and extended here.
The occurrence and distribution of limestones is considered to be a stratigraphic problem. Such sediments result from the interplay between the instantaneous lateral pattern of geographic environments of deposition and the vertical
distribution of these environments through time, which governs the build-up of
the stratigraphic record. Such an environmental-stratigraphic approach applies
generally to all sediments; not only to pure carbonate sediments, but also to noncarbonate sediments and mixtures of these two types.
Before pursuing this approach further, it is necessary to review the kinds
of particles found in calcium carbonate sediments and to explore the interplay
between the types of sedimentation processes that influence these particles and
that are responsible for creating stratigraphic units.
195
(I) recycled particles eroded from older carbonate rocks, and (2) first-cycle
particles that originate from the water in the depositional basin itself.
Recycled, or allochthonous, calcium carbonate particles belong in the category of ordinary terrigenous grains; they have been derived by erosion of older
carbonate rocks on land and delivered to the site of deposition from an external
source. Considerable confusion has grown up in connection with the nomenclature of such grains and rocks composed of them. The terms mechanical
(FERAYet al., 1962, p.41), detrital (LEIGHTON
and PENDEXTER,
1962, p.35), and
clastic have all been applied in the same sense as the term terrigenous, which is
used here; but these other terms are not recommended because they have also
been used to refer to the physical transportation of carbonate grains by currents
as opposed to the chemical deposition out of the water. All kinds of carbonate
particles, no matter what their origin, behave as quartz grains in a water current,
and this behavior has been expressed by applying the terms mechanical, detrital,
clastic, or fragmental. As pointed out by FOLK
(1959), use of the term terrigenous for recycled particles avoids this possible ambiguity. Limestones formed
of recycled grains have been called calclithites (WOLF,1960).
First-cycle, or autochthonous, calcium carbonate particles (allochemical
coiistituents of FOLK, 1959; 1962) include skeletal remains of organisms, ooids,
superficial ooids, pellets, lumps, aggregate grains, pseudooids (CAROZZI,1957)
and intraclasts (FOLK,1959, 1962), all of which owe their origin to various processes
from the water or bottom of the depositional basin. Only distinctive skeletal
remains are restricted to marine environments; the other types of first-cycle
particles may originate in lake water as well as sea water. For further details on the
kinds of particles in calcium carbonate sediments the reader is referred to TAFT
(1966a) in this volume.
In the case of first-cycle carbonate sediment particles, further complication
arises due to the fact that they may be deposited in approximate environmental
equilibrium, that is, near the place where they originated. They also may be
displaced by gravity down subaqueous slopes that typically are steep at the margins
of banks, where marine carbonate sediments are forming, and ultimately may be
deposited far from their place of origin, in the same manner as recycled terrigenous
grains.
A remarkable and unique feature of marine calcium carbonate sediments is
that first-cycle particles can be produced in enormous abundance from sea water
within a very short time. Hence, thick accumulations of pure calcium carbonate
sediments may originate even in the absence of any external source of terrigenous
grains. This permits sedimentation of calcareous material to keep pace with subsidence of the basin bottom, and this balance may produce thick piles of shallowwater carbonate sediments. For example, approximately 1,500 m of carbonate
sediments and limestones derived from calcium carbonate sediments were drilled
in hole F-1 on Elugelab Island, Eniwetok Atoll (1 l40 N 16212 E), the age of
196
which ranges from Eocene to Recent. In the Funafuti boring (8 30 S 179 E), approximately 330 m of carbonate deposits range in age from Pliocene to Recent;
and in the Kita-Daito-Jima boring (26 N 132 E), 435 m of carbonates range
in age from Miocene to Recent (SCHLANGER,
1963). In the Bahamas, the well
drilled by Superior Oil Company and others at 265237.2 N 780154.7 W,
at Stafford Creek, Andros Island, Bahamas, penetrated 5,000 m of carbonates
the age of which ranges from Late Cretaceous to Recent (Marie Spencer, in:
EARDLEY,
1951).
Depositional processes involved in accumulation of marine carbonate- and
mixed carbonate- and noncarbonate sediment units
In spite of their distinctive origins, first-cycle biological carbonate grains (or
other types) respond to various common physical processes of sedimentation just
as terrigenous (recycled) carbonate and noncarbonate particles do. Accordingly,
they follow the same principles that govern accumulation of almost all stratigraphic units. The physical depositional processes involved may be classified
according to the predominance of vertical or lateral sedimentation activities and
also on the basis of energy.
Vertical sedimentation processes. Vertical sedimentation processes involve the
more or less simultaneous vertical accumulation of particles that have been
derived ( I ) from fallout of skeletal material of planktonic organisms distributed
in the water, or suspended load carried by the water; (2) from growth of benthonic
shell beds on the bottom, scattered or in the form of in situ biostromes; or (3) from
vertical upgrowth of reefs or bioherms. Each of these vertical processes is characterized by upward accretion at the top of the growing layer of sedimentary material.
The lateral spreading out or diffusion of the materials involved is not directly
included in the depositional process; but rather takes place previously within the
water as a result of migration or spreading of living organisms or a mixing of
fine-grained sediment particles by turbulence within the water.
Lateral sedimentation processes. Lateral sedimentation processes involve the sideways shift along the bottom of sediment already present, or the change in position
of environments in which particular kinds of sediments may be restricted.
Lateral shifting of sediment along the bottom may be due to bottom currents
within the water mass; or it may be due to gravity displacement by turbidity
currents, fluidized layers of flowing grains (SANDERS,
1965), or slumps, which
cause sediment to move along the bottom independent of water currents. Gravitydisplacement processes require subaqueous slopes, and consequently their effects
are more commonly found in sediments deposited in deep rather than in
shallow water.
Change of position of environments may take place as a normal consequence
197
198
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
accumulation even where some currents are present. Examples illustrating these
various alternatives have been described from the Florida reef tract by SWINCHATT
(1965). Thus, although the energy scheme is useful, it should be applied with
great caution.
199
previously thought to be an algal deposit that formed under water, has been
shown to be the result of soil-forming processes (SWINEFORD
et al., 1958). Also,
the pisolitic limestone in the Permian of the northwestern margin of the Delaware
Basin, southeastern New Mexico, formerly thought to be a diagnostic lagoonal
or back-reef deposit, has been interpreted as the product of subaerial processes
(R. J. DUNHAM,
1965).
Calcareous dune deposits. Calcareous dunes may form wherever a source of loose
calcium carbonate grains is available. Limestones formed by cementation of these
calcareous grains comprise the anemoclastic limestones of GRABAU
(1904; 1932)
and the calcareous eolianites of SAYLES
(1929, 1931). Typically, such dunes form
along tropical coasts, where beaches consist of calcareous skeletal debris thrown
up by the waves. They are discussed more fully in a later section dealing with
sea-marginal deposits. Calcrete paleosol horizons are common in Pleistocene
calcareous eolianites. Ancient examples include the Miliolitic Formation of the
coast of the Arabian Sea (EVANS,1900) and the Junagarh Limestone of western
India, which consists of shallow-water marine organic remains. The latter have
been coated by calcium carbonate and then cemented by calcite. The Junagarh
Limestone occurs 48 km inland from the sea; it overlies the Deccan traps and its
thickness exceeds 60 m (CHAPMAN,1900; EVANS,1900).
Calcium carbonate lake deposits. Calcium carbonate lake deposits may be of local
or regional extent; they may include most of the varieties of first-cycle particle
types found in shallow-water marine environments, such as ooids, superficial ooids,
pseudooids, aggregate grains, skeletal debris, bioconstructional material, and so
forth. Indeed, calcium carbonate deposits of large lakes resemble marine calcium
carbonate deposits in many particulars. They differ chiefly in lacking the variety
of distinctive marine organic skeletal remains and in their stratigraphic relationships with surrounding or interfingering nonmarine sediments, which characteristically include coarse-grained alluvial-fan deposits that may encircle the lake sediments on all sides, and, in appropriate climatic areas, nonmarine evaporites.
Examples of both Recent calcium carbonate lake sediments and ancient
limestones which owe their origin to lithification of carbonate lake sediments are
discussed below.
A . Recent calcium carbonate lake sediments. Recent calcium carbonate lake
sediments are forming in the Dead Sea, Israel; Great Salt Lake, Utah, U.S.A.;
Salton Sea, southern California, U.S.A.; and in numerous other lakes.
( I ) Recent sediments of the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is one of the most
hypersaline bodies of water in the world; its salinity ranges from 285 to 330%,.
Carbonate minerals, including both aragonite and low-magnesian calcite, and
sulfates are forming in it at present (BODENBEIMER
and NEEV,1963; NEEV,1963,
1964; FRIEDMAN
and NEEV,1966).
200
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
The marginal zone of the Dead Sea is covered by a hard gypsum crust
(Fig.5). Sediments and objects in this zone, whether gravel, trees, boats, or rope,
for example, become encrusted with gypsum after a few months. Gypsum is
precipitated continuously from the surface waters of the Dead Sea. This precipitation is greatest at the surface but extends down to depths of 1-2 m and locally
to 3-6 m (NEEV,1964). Although gypsum crystallizes from the water, only calcite
accumulates on the bottom of this basin. This calcite is of replacement origin;
it forms as a result of the breakdown of caIcium sulfate by sulfate-reducing bacteria
(for details, see section on Replacement origin of limestone).
Aragonite, on the other hand, is a primary precipitate. Crystallization of
aragonite takes place uniformly all over the Dead Sea, causing the water periodically to turn white. Whitings occur at irregular intervals of about 5 years, at times
when the temperature of the Dead Sea water reaches its annual maximum; they
were observed in August, 1943 (BLOCHet al., 1944; SHALEM,
1949), and in August,
1959 (NEEV,1963, p.153). The high temperature has been suggested as the triggering mechanism responsible for aragonite precipitation (NEEV,1963, 1964).
Sediments from the bottom of the Dead Sea consist of rhythmically layered
white and black laminae. The white layers contain abundant aragonite and are
enriched in heavier carbon and oxygen isotopes and strontium, whereas the black
layers lack abundant aragonite, are enriched in lighter isotopes of carbon and
oxygen, and contain less strontium. The concomitant precipitation of aragonite
and enrichment in heavier isotopes of carbon and oxygen is explained by the con-
Fig.5. West shore of Dead Sea showing 1-2 m zone of gypsum crust along shoreline (white).
(Photograph by G.M. Friedman.)
20 1
202
203
is a lake which formed in 1905 during a flood and distributary diversion on the
Colorado River delta. The latitude of the center of the lake is 33 "20' N. The lake is
56 km long and 16-24 km wide; it occupies an area of approximately 1,100 km2.
The altitude of the lake surface is -71.14 m and its deepest closed contour is
-85 m. The water, which was initially fresh, has grown progressively more saline
and its salinity is now 33.68 %, nearly that of sea water (ARNAL,
1961). Temperature
of surface water ranges beween the extremes of 12C and 35.3 "C (the latter measured in August, 1954), and does not change much with depth. On July 10, 1954,
the surface water temperature was 32"C, and the bottom water temperature at
a depth of 13.2 m was 29C.
The lake sediments include mostly terrigenous types low in carbonate content, particularly around the lake margins; but where lime-secreting barnacles
(Balanus amphitrite saltonensis) are abundant, the carbonate content increases
to 40-60%. Carbonate content also increases offshore and is high in the area of
clay deposition at the north end of the lake. Calcareous Foraminifera are the other
main lime-secreting organisms in addition to the barnacles; their tests have been
corroded slightly in places where the p H of the water drops below 7.2, and have
been etched extensively where the p H reaches 7.0-6.8. The average p H of the
surface water is 8.1-8.4 in the central parts of the lake, but reaches a maximum of
8.93 where plants are abundant in the shallow water. The minimum pH of the
bottom waters is 7.34, and that of the sediments is generally 0.5-1.0 pH units
lower than the p H of the bottom water.
The carbonate budget can be calculated from measurements made on lake
sediments and lake water, and by comparing these with the amount of carbonates
supplied. The carbonates are derived chiefly from the Colorado River, both as
dissolved and suspended sediment load, and secondarily from the drainage within
the Salton Basin. An estimated 71.43 . lo6 tons of calcium carbonate are present
in the lake sediments deposited in a period of 50 years (1905-1955). In 1955,
1.874 . 106 tons of CaC03 were still in solution in the water, making the total
amount of calcium carbonate equal to 73.304 106 tons. This total compares
with a total of 71.617 106 tons supplied, which is calculated from the following
figures: 29.21 . 106 tons carried in solution in Colorado River water; 30.86 . lo6
tons delivered as suspended load (based on 10 % carbonate content in the suspended fraction); and 11.547 106 tons estimated as the supply from Salton Basin
sources (ARNAL,1961).
B. Ancient calcium carbonate lake sediments. Ancient limestones formed
by the lithification of carbonate lake sediments include the Neogene-Pleistocene
formations of the Jordan Valley-Dead Sea graben; Wasatch-Green River-Uinta
Formations (Early Cenozoic) of the central Rocky Mountains, U.S.A. ; Horse
Springs Formation (Early Cenozoic?) of southern Nevada, U.S.A.; Flagstaff
Limestone (Paleocene) of south-central Utah, U.S.A.; Upper Jurassic deposits of
Jura Mountains, Switzerland; Triassic deposits of the Connecticut Valley and
1
204
J. E. SANDERS AND G.
M. FRIEDMAN
205
* Area of 23,000 km2 refers to area of Uinta Basin; lake areas varied in size up to this maximum.
206
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
207
occur locally near former lake margins. The sediments and hydrocarbons are
uniform through many hundreds of meters of section, indicating persistence of
uniform depositional environment within the lake. Pyrite is common; other
minerals include calcite, dolomite, and nahcolite. The size of the Green River lake
reached a maximum at this time, as the climate evidently had become humid again
and the outlet was reactivated. The overlying Evacuation Creek member is 180-260
m thick (DANE,1954), and consists of more terrigenous sediments, such as bedded
shale, mudstone, marlstone, siltstone, and sandstone; oil shale is rare. The intensity
of volcanic activity increased during the later Green River time.
The lacustrine deposits of the Uinta Formation were formerly considered
to belong in the Green River Formation; but on the basis of their lateral relationships and position above prominent tuff beds, they have been reassigned to the
Uinta Formation (DANE,1954). These distinctive lake beds, called the saline
facies (DANE,1954), pass laterally into typical fluvial beds of the Uinta Formation
east of the Green River. The carbonate content of the saline facies is higher than
that in the underlying beds. In addition, there are calcium, magnesium, and sodium
carbonates; the magnesium silicate, sepiolite; numerous crystal cavities; and abundant silica. Hydrocarbons change from aromatic types to the more naphthenic type,
wurtzilite, which is high in sulfur and nitrogen contents (HuNr et al., 1954).
Evidently the lake shrank again and became progressively more stagnant and saline;
it eventually disappeared altogether.
(3) Horse Spring Formation of southern Nevada. The Horse Spring Formation
(Early Cenozoic?) of southern Nevada is a complex of lake deposits 320-830 m
thick that includes limestone, dolostone, magnesite, clay, silt, sandstone, and volcanic ash (LONGWELL,
1928). The light-colored limestone is a conspicuous part of
this formation. Near Logan Wash it is 155 m thick and consists of beds that are
60 cm to 18 m thick. Thicker porous varieties, which are medium-grained, alternate
with thin layers having banded structure; bedding surfaces are gnarly and hummocky. The limestone is almost pure calcium carbonate; and analysis showed only
a trace of magnesium. In White Basin, the limestone is 185 m thick. It is underlain
by 90 m of gypsum-bearing beds, and overlain by 185 m of rocks that include white
sandstone, thin-bedded magnesite, volcanic tuff, and calcareous clay containing
colemanite.
( 4 ) Flagstaf Limestone of south-central Utah. The Flagstaff Limestone
(Paleocene) forms the cap rock of the Wasatch Plateau, south-central Utah,
U.S.A. At its type locality, Flagstaff Peak, the preserved thickness is 60 m (SPIEKER
and REESIDE,1925). The formation is 150 m thick at Ferron Mountain and Sage
Flat nearby, and reaches a maximum of 450 m in other parts of the Wasatch
Plateau. Its maximum thickness in the Gunnison Plateau to the west is 285 m
(LAROCQUE,
1960). The Flagstaff lies nearly horizontal over very large areas of
the Wasatch Plateau; it has been extensively dissected and is well exposed in steep
cliffs at the crest of the plateau. Along the west side of the plateau, however, it
208
dips to the west in the Wasatch monocline, and the overlying Green River Formation is exposed along the western margin of Sanpete Valley (SPIEKER,1946).
In the Wasatch Plateau, two units are recognized: a lower unit composed of
blue-gray shale and some thin limestones, and an upper unit consisting of massive
white limestone, minor shale and channel sandstones, abundant gypsum, and local
chert (LAROCQUE,
1960). In the Gunnison Plateau, as many as five units have been
recognized (GILLILAND,1951).
The minimum area of the lake in which the Flagstaff Limestone was deposited amounts to at least 7,158 km2, and the maximum was probably on the order
of 10,240 km2. Three phases in the history of the lake have been recognized; the
maximum expansion took place during phase 2. In phase 3, the lake was shallow,
and it remained shallow until its final extinction (LAROCQUE,
1960).
( 5 ) Upper Jurassic deposits qf Jura Mountains, Switzerland. The Purbeckian
strata (uppermost Jurassic) of the Jura Mountains, Switzerland, include lacustrine
limestones that typically are fine-grained, compact, and contain abundant remains
of ostracodes and/or charophytes (CAROZZI,1948). A characteristic cyclic sequence is produced by alternations of ostracode-bearing limestones and limestones
with charophytes. Terrigenous quartz grains are present in most lacustrine limestone beds. The thickness of the entire Purbeckian rarely exceeds 20 m and in many
localities is only 5-10 m. The basal part consists of gypsiferous marls on the northwest and dolostones on the southeast, indicating that the marine shoreline lay to the
northwest at that time (see FRIEDMAN
and SANDERS,
1967). The middle part consists of two lacustrine limestone tongues which are separated by a thin (1-2 m)
unit of marine deposits. An upper unit of marine limestones generally overlies
the upper lacustrine limestones, except where the upper marine limestones have
been removed by pre-Cretaceous erosion. These Jurassic lacustrine limestones
are not deposits from lakes of large inland structural basins, as are the examples
previously described, but must have been deposited in shallow lakes that occupied
a low-lying coastal plain. Their topographic setting, therefore, more closely resembles that of the lacustrine limestones interbedded with the Coal Measures than
that of limestones deposited in large lakes of inland structural basins.
(6) Triassic of the Connecticut Valley and Virginia. The thick Triassic strata
of central and southern Connecticut, which are predominantly sandstones and
conglomerates with three interbedded basaltic lava-flow complexes, include thin
lacustrine limestones that are only locally exposed in four places. The extent and
stratigraphic relationships of these limestones to each other are not definitely
known. They occur in the middle of the succession; those at three localities are interbedded within the lower lava-flow complex, whereas that of the fourth locality
overlies the middle lava flow. At two localities, the limestone is only 30-60 cm
thick; it is 4 m thick at another locality and its greatest thickness is approximately
8 m. The carbonate rocks contain 7-17 % terrigenous insoluble residue consisting
of quartz and feldspar grains, and locally include algal bioherms (KRYNINE,
1950).
209
The rock at one locality includes a few layers that preserve small-scale wave ripple marks (5. E. Sanders, personal observations); here also are found many small
cavities, that are either empty or filled with white or yellowish calcite crystals or
reddish iron-oxide masses (KRYNINE,1950, p.107).
No oolite has been reported from the lacustrine limestones of the Triassic in
Connecticut, but oolite does occur in the Triassic of Virginia (YOUNGand EDMUNDSON, 1954).
(7) Mabou Group (Carboniferous), eastern Nova Scotia, Canada. The Canso
and Emery Brook Formations, the fine-grained gray facies of the Mabou Group
(Middle Carboniferous), of Cape Breton Island, eastern Nova Scotia, Canada,
contain limestones formed by lithification of calcium carbonate lake sediments
(BELT,1962, 1964). The maximum thickness of the Canso Formation is 430-770 m.
Carbonate rocks represent only a minor proportion of the unit. They consist of
(a) thin beds of oolitic limestone, found in the Broad Cove, Ainslie Point, and Cape
Douphin sections; (b) coquina, in which the skeletal debris consists of the freshwater mussel, Carbonicola, at the Bay St. Lawrence section; and (c) tan-weathering
dolostone with local algal structures, exposed at many sections. The Emery Brook
Formation includes only thin beds of calcilutite.
According to BELT(1962), the algal colonies and crusts indicate that the
maximum depth of water in the Canso lake was 10 m, whereas the encrusting algal
colonies indicate a depth of about 15 m.
These Middle Carboniferous lake deposits pass laterally into fine-grained
terrigenous fluvial facies and these, in turn, into coarse-grained basin-margin
fanglomerates. The pattern is identical to that of the Cenozoic deposits of the
Jordan Valley-Dead Sea Graben; Green River Formation of the Rocky Mountains
U.S.A.; and Triassic deposits of eastern United States.
(8) Coal Measures (Pennsylvanian and Permian) in Pennsylvania and West
Virginia. Lacustrine limestones appear in the Pennsylvanian cyclothems of northcentral United States. Marine limestones occur with them in Illinois and only a
few localities in Pennsylvania; marine limestones are absent in most Pennsylvania
localities. Lacustrine limestones (underclay limestone) occur in member 3 of the
original ten-member cyclothem (WELLER,1930), whereas the marine limestone is
member 7. The lacustrine limestones occur as scattered nodules in the clay or as
separate beds; they are generally unfossiliferous in Illinois, except for Algae
(WANLESS
et al., 1963).
Lacustrine limestones occur in the two uppermost divisions of the Allegheny
Series (Pennsylvanian) of western Pennsylvania, the Kittanning (below) and Freeport (above). They are most widespread in the upper division of the Kittanning
(K4 of FERM
and WILLIAMS,
1960) and in the middle division of the Freeport (F2),
where they occupy the position of the marine limestone found in the analogous
Kittanning unit (K2). The most common rock type is nodular calcilutite; insoluble
residues vary from 5 to 50%, and average 30%. Fossils include fresh-water
210
21 1
212
progressively into inland floodplain, lagoonal, littoral marine, and finally, offshore
marine deposits (YOUNG,1955). Petrographic study by Friedman of samples of the
conglomerate indicates that the fragments consist of limestone, 65 %; quartz grains,
20 %; chert, 10 %; and metaquartzite, 5 %. The content of limestone particles
diminishes rapidly to the east and chert content increases proportionately. Carbonate grains are sporadic to absent in the deposits of the inland floodplain environment.
(4) The Triassic of South Devon, England. This includes local limestone scree
deposits in which the limestone clasts have been derived from the Plymouth Limestone (Middle Devonian). Good exposures are present in the coastal cliffs at Teignmouth and Petit Tor, northeast of Torquay. The fanglomerates consist of lightcolored clasts of carbonate rocks set in a fine-grained matrix of red mud (shown to
J. E. Sanders by D. Laming, on a field trip in July, 1954).
( 5 ) The Triassic conglomerates along the northwestern side of the Newark
Basin outcrop belt, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. These
conglomerates include accumulations of limestone pebbles and boulders (KUMMEL,
1897, 1898; CARLSTON,
1946). Recycled limestone and dolostone clasts derived
from nearby Lower Paleozoic (Cambrian and Ordovician) carbonates comprise
a variable proportion of the marginal fanglomerates. The latter were deposited
on alluvial fans by short, steep streams that drained southeastward from the intermittently uplifted marginal fault block into the subsiding Newark Basin. Recycled
carbonate rocks may exceed 95 % of the clasts in some deposits, whereas they may
be absent in nearby deposits.
According to the descriptions and map of CARLSTON
(1946), the clasts of
carbonate rocks are less well rounded than the associated clasts of quartzites and
sandstones. Coarse-grained deposits, which include carbonate rock clasts, extend
shorter distances into the basin from its margin than do those with quartzite clasts.
Carbonate rock conglomerates and breccias, all of them of the Potomac
marble type, are found along the northwest margin of the Newark Basin from the
Hudson River, on the northeast, to the Potomac River, on the southwest. The
northeasternmost exposure is just north of Stony Point, New York. A breccia containing almost entirely angular cobbles and boulders of carbonate rocks up to
1.25 m in diameter crops out between Ladentown and Wesley Chapel, Rockland
County, New York, 6.4-12.8 km southwest of Stony Point (CARLSTON,
1946,
p.1015, p1.2, fig.1).
By contrast, pebbles of carbonate rocks are almost unknown in the Connecticut Valley Triassic outcrop belt. Most of the pebbles in this belt were derived from
the east, from a terrane where carbonate rocks are rare. An exception occurs in a
conglomerate bed near the top of the Shuttle Meadow Formation that is exposed in
Saltonstall Ridge, East Haven, Connecticut, where Route 1 cuts through the ridge.
Almost all of the pebbles in this bed are noncalcareous: quartzite, granite, and large
feldspar crystals constitute 90 % of the pebbles. Carbonate rocks of unknown pro-
21 3
214
215
216
217
cussed in the preceding section, but differ in that they include marginal reefs instead of beaches or shoals. The general pattern of sediments remains the same, but
a greater variety of skeletal debris will occur in and near the reefs. In addition,
in situ organic skeletal frameworks and a variety of initially stony deposits formed
by encrusting lime-secreting organisms will be present.
Reefs act as sediment source for material shed both landward and seaward,
and also as sediment traps for terrigenous material coming from any nearby land;
accordingly, they tend to produce nearly pure calcium carbonate deposits even if
a source of terrigenous sediment lies close by. The absence of associated terrigenous sediment from the outer parts of a reef tract, therefore, does not necessarily
mean the absence of a nearby landmass. The presence of terrigenous sediment, on
the other hand, is definitive. The reefs on the north coast of Jamaica (GOREAU,
1959; ZANS,1962), south coast of Cuba (DAETWYLER
and KIDWELL,
1959), and
east coast of British Honduras (PURDYand MATTHEWS,
1965) are examples of
reefs that lie near land masses, but whose seaward sides locally contain only pure
carbonate sediments.
One of the most extensively developed barrier reefs in the Atlantic Ocean lines
the eastern margin of the Great Bahama Bank (NEWELL
and RIGBY,1957); it separates the deep water of the Tongue of the Ocean, a branch of the Atlantic Ocean, from
the shallow Windward Lagoon on the bankward side of the reef (Fig.9). The barrier
is 0.4-0.8 km wide and is discontinuous along its length; it contains gaps opposite
the larger creeks and tidal channels that flow east from Andros Island, the largest
island on the Great Bahama Bank. In these places, minor differences in salinity,
turbidity, and nutrients evidently are responsible for preventing coral growth. Submerged shelves and terraces of Pleistocene bedrock form the foundation of the reef.
The upper part of the barrier reef contains branching corals that project
upward and oceanward, such as the wave-resistant elkhorn coral (Acroporapalmata)
or moosehorn coral ( A . cervicornis), and also other large, massive boulder-shaped
corals and coralline Algae. The elkhorn coral is the main frame-builder; it grows to
within 1 m or less of the water surface. Seaward, the elkhorn coral is replaced by the
staghorn coral and finger coral (Porites). The deeper and outer parts of the reef
are dominated by massive heads of star coral (Montastrea), starlet coral (Siderastrea), and brain coral (Diploria); the lower part of the reef consists for the most
part of massive corals, interstitial coralline Algae, and reef detritus.
The Windward Lagoon behind the reef is about 2.4 km wide. Much of the
lagoon floor is swept free of sediment, but is inhabited by attached alcyonarians
(sea whips and sea fans), sponges, and green Algae; numerous patch reefs exist
along the outer margin of the lagoon close to the barrier reef. The current-swept
areas of the lagoon floor constitute a living disconformity or diastem. In relatively
protected areas of the lagoon, however, skeletal sand accumulates; here grass and
green Algae are common and the fauna consists mostly of burrowifig or mobile
organisms.
218
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
Reefs are absent along the western margin of the Great Bahama Bank on the
side that faces the Florida Straits. This asymmetrical distribution of reefs (reefs
present on the eastern margin, but absent along the western margin) is explained by
the predominant wind direction from the east, which is responsible for bringing
nutrients to the reef. Hermatypic corals are not present on the shallow interior of
the Bahama Bank and their presence along the Bank margin depends on the local
topography, where such features as the Windward Lagoon protect them from ebbing bank water (NEWELL
et al., 1959, p.212).
The south Florida reef tract does not represent a typical marine bank margin
in the same sense as the Bahama Banks, in that it does not occupy an isolated
position with open sea all around; instead, it is bounded on the north by Florida
Bay with low-lying Florida peninsula farther to the north. The carbonate sediments
in Florida Bay and the reef tract, however, are inferred to be similar to those that
characterize a bank. In addition, the detailed studies of these sediments by GINSBURG (1956) provide a convenient basis for comparison with sediments from the
Bahamas and in the geologic record. In Florida Bay, the sediments contain more
fine-grained (smaller than 0.125 mm) than coarser-grained particles and the
coarser grains consist almost exclusively of skeletal remains of mollusks and
Foraminifera; in the reef tract, fines are less abundant and the coarser fractions
consist of abundant Algae and corals. Three sub-environments and intervening
transitional zones were recognized in the reef belt: back-reef, outer reef-arc, and
fore-reef (proceeding from Florida Bay seaward). Halimeda occurs in the back-reef
and outer reef-arc; it is rare to absent in the fore-reef zone at depths greater than
about 60 m. Coralline Algae are most abundant in the outer reef-arc and are
scarce in the back-reef zone, except near shore. They may increase in abundance
with depth in the fore-reef zone. Coral debris is most abundant in the outer reefarc and in adjacent transition zones; it decreases more rapidly in fore-reef than in
back-reef areas. Foraminifera increase seaward of the lower transition zone, and
mollusks are more abundant in the back-reef and fore-reef areas than in the outer
reef-arc. An important conclusion reached by GINSBURG
(1956, p.2419) is that
particles larger than 0.125 mm generally accumulate in the sub-environment where
they are produced and do not move far away; hence, the reef tract is not a major
source of sand-size skeletal particles for adjacent areas.
C. Combinations of lagoon, pinging reef, and ofshore marine deposits.
Combinations of lagoon, fringing reef, and offshore marine deposits contrast
with the preceding group in that the central body of water enclosed by the reefs is
not a relatively flat shoal area where evaporation may cause increased salinity,
but a deeper lagoon, where normal salinity typically prevails and the organisms may
be zoned bathymetrically. The reefs themselves and their flanking deposits on the
seaward side, however, may be alike in the two cases.
The best-known Recent examples come from the Indo-Pacific region; their
general distribution has been summarized by CLOUD(1958). General discussions
219
220
tests of the Foraminifera are set in a matrix of fine lime mud, which may fill the
interiors of the tests.
D. Ancient biohermal suites in general. Geologists dealing with ancient
limestones commonly are not able to make the various distinctions suggested here
and deal with reef and associated rocks in more general terms. The term biohermal suite is a useful general title for them (FAIRBRIDGE,
1955). Great interest has
arisen over these rocks since the discovery of large petroleum reserves in some of
them (LAYER,1949; LINK,1950). General surveys of the occurrence of reef rucks
in the geologic record have been made by DUNCAN
(1870), GRABAU
(1 903), SMITH
(1950), LE(1912), UMBGROVE (1947), LEVET(1950), PUGH (1950), TWENHOFEL
COMPTE (1958), and STUBBLEFIELD
(1960). A recent summary of bioconstructional
limestones (discussed under the title of skeletal limestones) is presented by
NELSONet al. (1962).
An extremely voluminous literature describes the various reef and/or biohermal (CUMINGS,1932) limestones from the geologic record. The accompanying
list, though large, is far from complete. Examples are known from the Precambrian
of Montana, U.S.A. (FENTONand FENTON,
1933); Lower Cambrian from various
parts of the world (summarized in CLOUD,1961); Chazyan (Middle Ordovician) of
Champlain Valley, New York and Vermont, U.S.A. (RAYMOND,
1924; OXLEY,
1951; and OXLEYand KAY,1959); Silurian of Gotland (HADDING,1941,1950; Jux,
1957); Silurian of the Great Lakes region, U.S.A. (CUMINGS
and SHROCK,1928a, b;
SHROCK,1939; LOWENSTAM,
1950, 1957; CAROZZI
and HUNT,1960; TEXTORIS
and
CAROZZI,1964), James Bay lowland, Canada (Gussow, 1953);Devonian ofhlberta,
Canada (ANDRICHUK,
1958a, b; BELYEA,1958; and CAROZZI,1961a), New York,
U.S.A. (OLIVER,1956), Belgium (LECOMPTE,1954, 1959; reviewed in RUTTEN,
1956) and New South Wales, Australia (WOLF,1965a); Mississippian of Indiana,
U.S.A. (CAROZZIand SODERMAN,
1962), southwest Missouri and northwest Arkansas (TROELL,1962), Oklahoma, U.S.A. (HARBAUGH,
1957), northern England
(TIDDEMAN,
1889; SHIRLEYand HORSFIELD,
1940; BOND,1950; PARKINSON,
1947,
1953, 1957; W. W. BLACK,1954; and WOLFENDEN,
1958), and northern Ireland
(OSWALD,1955; GEORGEand OSWALD,1957; SCHWARZACHER,
1961 ; and CALDWELL and CHARLESWORTH,
1962); Pennsylvanian of Midland Basin, Texas, U.S.A.
(ELLIOTTand KIM, 1952; MYERSet al., 1956; and RALLand RALL, 1958); San
Juan Canyon, Utah, U.S.A. (WENGERD,1951), Sacramento Mountains, New
Mexico, U.S.A. (PLUMLEYand GRAVES,1953); Late Pennsylvanian and Early
Permian of New Mexico, U.S.A. (OTTEand PARKS,1963), Permian Scurry reef,
1953), Permian reef
Scurry County, Texas U.S.A. (BERGENBACK
and TERRIERE,
complexes of west Texas basins, U.S.A. (NEWELLet al., 1953); Triassic of Tyrolean
VON MOJSVAR,1879); Upper Jurassic of the Grand-Salkve
Alps (MOJSISOVICS
(Haute Savoie, France), and south of Geneva, Switzerland (CAROZZI,1954;
1955a,b).
22 1
222
correct basis for their correct paleogeographic interpretation has been established
(see also SUGDEN,1963). According to the interpretation advocated here, a sequence from base upward that consists of green shale, oolite, dolostone, and gypsum, for example, indicates an approach of the shore zone to an originally offshore
zone (or regression); whereas the reverse of this sequence (from base upward:
gypsum, dolostone, oolite, green shale) represents a retreat of the shoreline
(transgression). If the transgression is rapid, the sequence may be incomplete and
the offshore green shale may rest directly on the marginal red shale, for example.
The Mississippian Banff, Pekisko, and Shunda Formations of southern
Alberta, Canada, include mixed carbonates, evaporites, and terrigenous materials.
ILLING
(1 959) has interpreted these on the basis of eight environments parallelling
the ancient shoreline, ranging from an offshore site of deposition of argillaceous
pasty sediment, to nearshore and surf-zone environments where skeletal sands,
ooids, and pseudooids accumulated; and to lagoonal environments in which finegrained lime mud, silty fine-grained dolostone, and anhydrite were deposited. The
basal Banff Formation consists of the offshore argillaceous and cherty limestone;
the overlying Pekisko Formation includes the transition to the surf-zone skeletal
sands and oolites; and the lower part of the next higher Shunda Formation consists
of silty dolostone and, in the subsurface, anhydrite. Distinctive brecciated rocks
found on the outcrop have been interpreted as the products of collapse of overlying
materials where solution of an underlying evaporite deposit has occurred (STEARN,
1956, and MIDDLETON,
1961).
A nearly comparable sequence, lacking only the anhydrite and including
more varieties of nearshore terrigenous sediments, has been observed in the
Mississippian rocks of the southeastern part of the Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee, U.S.A. (SANDERS,
1953; and unpublished observations).
The Permian stratigraphic sequence exposed around the margins of the
Delaware Basin, west Texas and southeastern New Mexico, U.S.A., consists of
alternating terrigenous redbeds, halite, gypsum, dolostone, and various limestones,
including oolitic, pseudoolitic, grapestone, pisolitic, and skeletal varieties, some
of which have been dolomitized (P. B. KING, 1942, 1948; NEWELLet al., 1953;
BOYD,1958; and MOTTS,1962) The ancient environments produced the following
deposits from northwest (side of former land) toward the southeast (former open
sea): red mud, halite, gypsum, fine-grained dolostone, pisolites, and dolomitized
coquina and calcarenite. The pisolites have recently been shown to be of subaerial
origin (R. J. DUNHAM,1965). These deposits accumulated on a broad shallow
basin-marginal shoal area (shelf or lagoon or backreef area of different
authors), in which the salinity of the water increased in a landward direction. At
times near the submerged edge of the marginal shoal the salinity evidently approached that of normal sea water, because lime-secreting organisms flourished
and locally formed bioherms and reefs. As in the Mississippian of Alberta, surface
outcrops show distinctive collapse breccias at places in the stratigraphic succession
223
where significant solution loss has taken place in evaporite beds that appear in
the subsurface; the breccias do not occur in the subsurface where the evaporites
are intact (G. W. MOORE,1960). The correct diagnosis of these collapse breccias
and their lateral persistence and relationships to surrounding units, as proved by
G. W. Moores detailed mapping, indicate that several important evaporite beds,
now no longer present on the outcrop, formerly extended across the seaward edge
of the basin-marginal shoal, and across the places where reefs grew at times when
the evaporites were restricted to the more landward parts of the marginal shoal
area.
The Permian evaporites of southeastern Oklahoma (HAM, 1960), which
include only minor carbonate rocks, are cyclic, including an offshore green shale,
pellet-ooliticlimestone (now dolomitized), fine-grained, presumably evaporitic, dolostone, gypsum, and red shale. Though in general agreement with Hams interpretation that the cyclic arrangement reflects changes of sea level, the senior author
here suggests slightly different boundaries of the cycles and different conclusions
concerning the relationships of the different units to sea-level movements. Ham
used the base of the persistent dolostones to limit the lower boundary of the cycles
and supposed that these dolostones are the initial deposits of marine transgressions.
An additional interpretation proposed by Ham is that the change from transgression to regression occurs within the gypsum beds. The alternative preferred by the
(1953) paper is that the green shales mark
senior author in light of SCRUTONS
rapid transgressions, and that the green shale-carbonate rocks-gypsum-red shale
upward sequence represents a single regression, and not a transgression (dolostone
and lower part of the gypsum) and a regression (upper part of the gypsum and
overlying red shale), as supposed by HAM(1960). Dolostone is considered to be
transgressive only where it overlies gypsum. According to this alternative interpretation, the cycles begin with green shale and end with red shale. Most of the section,
therefore, consists of regressive deposits; only minor transgressive sediments occur.
The Upper Jurassic Arab Formation includes interbedded carbonate rocks
and anhydrites, but lacks terrigenous sediment admixtures (R. W. POWERS,
1962).
Combinations of carbonates with terrigenous sediments (without evaporites). All of
the previously discussed kinds of carbonates may be found mixed with various
proportions of terrigenous sediment. The terrigenous material may be present as
a disseminated admixture within an impure limestone bed, or it may be confined
to discrete interbeds of shale, siltstone, mudstone, or sandstong intercalated between beds of pure carbonate rocks. The carbonates present in1these mixed sequences may vary in proportion from nearly pure limestone with scattered grains
of quartz, to isolated lenses or patches of calcareous shell debris in the midst of
essentially noncalcareous terrigenous sediments.
Examples of such admixtures include: ( A ) admixed quartz and carbonate
nearshore sands; ( B ) in situ buildups of carbonate bioherms surrounded by terri-
224
22s
genous fine-grained sediments that have been supplied from a relatively distant
source, or which have by-passed the carbonates and have spread out laterally
along the shore.
Examples of such nearshore carbonates and offshore terrigenous sediments
are not known to the authors from the Recent sediments. Examples from the
stratigraphic record include the Mississippian of Alberta and southern Saskatchewan, Canada, and Tennessee, U.S.A. ; cyclic Helderbergian limestones of the
Hudson Valley, New York, U.S.A.; and Black River-Trenton sequence (Middle
Ordovician) of southern Ontario, Canada.
The Mississippian deposits of Alberta and southern Saskatchewan, Canada
(ILLING,1959) include nearshore pure carbonate deposits, such as calcarenites and
oolites, which grade into finer-grained limestones containing admixed quartz silt.
Comparable sediments occur in the Mississippian of the southern Cumberland
Plateau, Tennessee, U.S.A. ; in addition, fine-grained sandstones occur as discrete
interbeds (SANDERS,
1953, and unpublished observations; PETERSON,
1962).
The Helderbergian limestones of the Hudson Valley, New York, U.S.A.,
include cyclically interbedded pure calcarenites, calcarenitic cherty limestones, and
shaly-silty limestones with disseminated quartz. They evidently represent nearshore
pure carbonate sands that graded seaward into muddy carbonate sands, and further
out, into admixed carbonate mud and quartz silt (RICKARD,
1962). The succession
from base upward of Coeymans-Kalkberg-New Scotland (or Catskill shaly of
earlier workers) and Becraft-Alsen-Port Ewen Formations represents two full
cycles, each cycle having been deposited during a gradual submergence. Each cycle
begins with a calcarenite (Coeymans, Becraft) and ends with silty limestone (New
Scotland and Port Ewen). The Alsen Formation is highly prized, because its
mixture of calcite and quartz is extremely valuable for the manufacture of cement.
The Black River-Trenton sequence (Middle Ordovician) of southern Ontario, Canada, has been interpreted as the product of a single onlap, with the Black
River limestones representing nearshore pure carbonates and the Trenton limestones, offshore mixed carbonate and terrigenous sediments (WINDER,1960). The
Black River deposits include four formations about SO m thick: basal clastics of
varying thickness (Shadow Lake Formation) overlain by lime mudstones and magnesian limestones (Gull River and Moore Hill Formations) representing lagoon
sediments, and upper calcarenites and coquinites (Coboconk Formation) deposited in the ancient surf zone. The overlying Trenton consists of the offshore marine
deposits: the basal unit (Kirkfield) comprises interbedded pure limestones and
shales from just seaward of the surf zone; and the upper two units (Sherman Fall and
Cobourg) contain interbedded argillaceous limestones and shale, from farther
offshore. The thickness of the Trenton is 140 m. These units were deposited over
an irregular topography carved on Precambrian basement rocks. Some of the
former highs project through the limestone today and form hills in the modern
topography. The facies patterns around such highs offer excellent opportunities
226
to determine the exact depth of water at time of deposition of the various facies.
B. In situ carbonate bioherms surrounded by,fine-grained terrigenous sediments.
In situ buildups of carbonate bioherms in the midst of fine-grained terrigenous
sediments occur in the quiet brackish waters of bays or lagoons, on tidal mud
flats, and in deeper offshore waters of normal salinity. Examples from the Recent
nearshore sediments include the oyster mounds of the central Texas bays (HEDGPETH,
1953; NORRIS,1953; SHEPARD and MOORE,1955,1960; andLADD et a]., 1957), North
Carolina coast (GRAVE,
1901), and Chesapeake Bay (J. E. Sanders, personal observations); Serpula bioherms in Laguna Madre, Texas (G. M. Friedman, personal
observations); Mytilus banks of the Dutch Wadden Sea tidal flats (VANSTRAATEN,
1951, 1952); and barnacle bioherms of the Gulf of Maine (K. 0. Emery, personal
communication, 1964; HATHAWAY
et al., 1965). Deep-water examples include the
coral banks of the North Atlantic Ocean (TEICHERT,
1958); crinoid colonies in
parts of the Mediterranean Sea (J. Cousteau, personal communication, 1958, and
sea-floor movie shown in 1958 at International Oceanographic Congress, New
York); and the coral bioherms on the Blake Plateau and shelf edge, northeastern
Gulf of Mexico.
On the Blake Plateau, living deep-water corals cover an extensive area of
3,100-3,900 km2 (STETSON
et al., 1962). In addition to known coral bioherms,
other topographic highs with the same morphology as the coral mounds probably
also represent accumulations of coral skeletal debris. The deep-water corals occur
as scattered colonies or groups of colonies; they contain a great abundance of
corals and, in addition, the diversity and numbers of individuals in almost all other
groups increases, indicating that the area is the locus of high-density marine populations (STETSON
et al., 1962, p.3). The Gulf of Mexico coral structures (LUDWICK
and WALTON,1957) are smaller, differently shaped, and contain a different fauna
from those of the Blake Plateau. The principal contributors to the Gulf of Mexico
coral accumulations are calcareous Algae, Bryozoa, corals, carbonate-precipitating
worms, mollusks, and Foraminifera. The absence in them of hermatypic reef-building corals is considered to be evidence of unfavorable temperature and salinity
conditions. Such structures are considered to represent a form of marine carbonate deposit that is intermediate between present-day tropical reefs formed by
hermatypic corals and the deeper-water coral banks formed by ahermatypic corals
(STETSON
et al., 1962, p.3).
These deep-water coral bioherms are of importance to the geologist who
deals with the stratigraphic record, for they indicate that not all fossil reefs and
bioherms prove tropical shallow-water conditions, as has been generally supposed
(TEICHERT,
1958). DUNCAN
(1870) has made the only systematic attempt to apply
knowledge of different living coral types to the interpretation of the Cenozoic and
Mesozoic formations of Europe.
Numerous examplesFof bioherms surrounded by fine-grained terrigenous
deposits are known from the geologic record. Some of the most carefully studied
227
228
for them. The coarse debris accumulated at feeding depth after falling down the
intake funnel (VAN STRAATEN,
1952).
The cheniers of southwestern Louisiana and northeastern Texas consist of
linear beach ridges, some of which are composed of transported calcareous skeletal
debris of nearshore benthonic invertebrates. These shell beaches lie against the
mainland or are separated from it as spits or barriers; on their landward side they
are adjacent to swales composed of fine-grained terrigenous muds or marsh peat
and they grade offshore into nearshore fine-grained terrigenous sediments. The
shell beaches originated when the offshore terrigenous sediment derived from the
Mississippi delta was scarce or absent. Under such conditions, the waves scoured
the nearshore bottom and washed up on the beach the calcareous shells of dead
invertebrates, which lived in or on the nearshore bottom, along with any available
quartz sand and silt particles. When the supply of terrigenous sediment from the
river was large in the nearshore zone, the shore prograded and built out a mud flat;
during such times, no shell beach forms. The various stages of growth of the chenier
area and directions of discharge of the Mississippi distributaries have been correlated by means of radiocarbon dates (BYRNEet al., 1959; COULD
and MCFAP.L.AN,
1959; KANE, 1959).
Little Chenier, southwestern Louisiana, is a good example of a chenier
composed almost entirely of shells; it consists predominantly of the mollusks
Cuassostrea, Rangia, and Mulinia, with lesser amounts of Anadam, Busycon, Polinices, Crassinella, Cerithidae, Corbula, and Turbonilla, and minor amounts of
quartz sand and silt. Little Chenier is approximately 19 km long and its width ranges from less than 30 m t o more than 500 m; its average crestal altitude is 1-1.3 m.
This chenier formed about 2,800 years ago and marks a former position of the shoreline with the sea standing at its present level. Oak Grove Ridge is another chenier
which lies about 8 km south of Little Chenier and consists of both quartz sand and
shells. It is capped by a thin soil zone and is overlapped on both the steep seaward
slope and the gentle landward slope by marsh peat, organic silt, and clay (BYRNE
et al., 1959). The sand and shell fragments are coarsest along the front slope and
crest of the ridge where shells are most abundant. The diverse fauna includes the
Pelecypoda Mulinia, Anadara, Dinocaudium, Crassostvea, Donax, Nuculana, and
Rangia; Gastropoda Natica, Polinices, Busycon, and Anachis; and Foraminifera
Streblus, Elphidium, and Quinqueloculina.
A geologic example of transported carbonate skeletal detritus surrounded
by fine-grained terrigenous sediments occurs in the Newberrian Sandstone
in the railway cut about 1 km south of Gummersbach station, Germany (1. E.
Sanders, personal observations during a field trip conducted by Dr. R. Thienhaus
in April, 1954). Several lenses consisting of large disarticulated crinoid stem plates
are surrounded by terrigenous siltstone and fine-grained sandstone, in which fossils
are rare.
D. Alternations of nearshore andlor ofshore carbonates with various terri-
229
230
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
stones which contain rudistids, other mollusks, corals, echinoids, and large Foraminifera. At least twelve cycles are present; each cycle typically begins with conglomerate at the base, includes a middle unit of tufTaceous shales (which becomes
the basal unit in the absence of the conglomerate), and ends at the top with limestone. One such cycle is well exposed in the Sunderland inlier, which includes the
outcrops on the south flank of an east-west-trending anticline that passes tkrough
Johns Hall, 9.6 km southeast of Montego Bay. Johns Hall Conglomerate (at the
base) is overlain by the Sunderland and Newman Hall Shales, which are 1,370 m
thick; at the top is the Barrettia Limestone, only 7.5 m thick (CHUBS,1962).
The Upper Mississippian of the Eastern Interior Basin, Illinois, U. S.A.,
which is about 500 m thick, includes twelve to fifteen major cyclic dternations
consisting of shale (50 %), sandstone (25 %) and limestone (25 %; percentages based
on thickness measurements). Some limestones thin out to the north and northeast
and grade into terrigenous sediments within the limits of preserved rocks; others
are truncated at the edge of preserved rock and originally extended beyond this
limit. The limestones are coarser, lighter-colored, and more oolitic along the east
and west flanks of the basin than they are in the basin center. The Haney Limestone,
a typical example, averages 15 m in thickness, but reaches a maximum of 28 m
(SWANN,1964). Swann has presented a strongly documented case for his interpretation that migration of delta lobes controlled the influx of terrigenous sediments,
and hence is the basic cause of the cyclic patterns.
The Pennsylvanian cyclothems of western Illinois, U.S.A., include the fol1930):
lowing typical sequence (WELLER,
Top
23 1
Herrin (No.6) coal; this limestone was deposited from a sea that transgressed
eastward as much as 1,120 km over the former coal swamp.
The Pennsylvanian cyclothems become more marine and include a larger
proportion of limestone and marine shale to the west (R. C. MOORE,1950), but
are more nonmarine to the east of Illinois (CROSS and SCHEMEL,
1956; BEERBOWER,
1961).
The cyclic Carboniferous strata of northern England resemble cyclothems
(MILLER, 1887; HUDSON,1924; ROBERTSON,
1948; K. C. DUNHAM,
1950; RAYNER,
1953; D. MOORE,1958, 1959; G. A. L. JOHNSON, 1960). The suggested standard
cyclothem for the Carboniferous of the northern Pennines is as follows (K. C.
DUNHAM,
1950):
Top
(7) Coal.
(6) Ganister or underclay.
(5) Sandstone.
(4) Sandy shale, shaly sandstone or grey beds; interbedded sandstone,
siltstone, shale.
(3) Unfossiliferous (nonmarine?) ferruginous shale.
(2) Marine shale.
Bottom ( I ) Marine limestone.
A much simpler of alternation, involving only nearshore-offshore marine carbonates and nearshore terrigenous sediments, is found in the Banff Formation (Mississippian) of Alberta (SPRENG,1953).
Marginal marine eolian carbonate deposits. Wind-blown accumulations of
calcareous grains, typically found in coastal dune fields where the calcareous
sediment comes from marine organisms thrown up on the beach by the waves,
may occur in pure carbonate sequences or locally may be surrounded by noncalcareous terrigenous sediments. Although strictly speaking such dunes are nonmarine sediments, they are included here with the discussion of the complex of
sea-marginal environments.
The term eolianite (sometimes spelled aeolianite), coined by SAYLES
(1929) and defined by him as all consolidated sedimentary rocks which have been
deposited by the wind (SAYLES,1931, p.390), has been applied most commonly to
Pleistocene windblown calcareous sands, and less commonly, to quartzose sands.
Pleistocene calcareous eolianites typically contain land snails and show welldeveloped large-scale angle-of-repose cross beds (Fig.6,7); their composition is
governed by the characteristics of the calcareous debris on nearby beaches.
Sayles term grew out of his studies in Bermuda, where calcareous dune
sands, first diagnosed by NELSON
(1840), consist of the skeletal remains of such
lime-secreting organisms as large benthonic perforate Foraminifera; miliolids
and hyaline Foraminifera; fragments of crustose and articulate coralline Algae,
232
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
Fig.6. Typical eolianite cross-bedding in three dimensions. Pleistocene eolianite. Skeletal sand, S t .
Georges Island, Bermuda. (Photography by G. M. Friedman; in: HAM,
in preparation; by
permission of American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Okla.)
Fig.7. Truncated cross-beds typical of Bermuda eolianites. Pleistocene eolianite. Skeletal sand,
south shore of Bermuda, near Coral Beach. (Photograph by G. M. Friedman; in: HAM,in preparation; by permission of American Association of Petroleum Geologists Tulsa, Okla.)
233
Fig.8. Island (cay) composed of eolianite, west edge of Great Bahama Bank. Pleistocene eolianite.
(Photograph from approximately 300 m by G. M. Friedman; in: HAM,in preparation; by permission of American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Okla.)
234
J. E. SANDERS A N D G. M. FRIEDMAN
235
236
237
of sedimentation, therefore, is a function of the frequency and volume of each displacement; the average rate may be in excess of 1,000 cm/1,000 years.
The volume of fine-grained gravity-displaced sediment that travels in
suspension in a turbidity current may exceed that of thecoarse-grainedsediment
that is usually associated with this sedimentary mechanism. Every effort should
be made to distinguish between fine-grained gravity-displaced (lateral) sediment
and fine-grained pelagic (vertical) sediment. Faunal criteria are most useful in this
case.
Examples of combined pelagic and gravity-displaced pure carbonate sediments include the Recent sediments of the Bermuda Apron; Tongue of the Ocean,
Bahamas; and southern part of Hatteras abyssal plain. Ancient examples from the
stratigraphic record include parts of the Tertiary deposits of Italy, and the calcareous Jurassic flysch of the Polish Carpathians and Swiss Alps.
The Bermuda Apron refers to the steep submarine slopes that surround the
Bermuda Islands and lead into the surrounding deep water from the shallowwater platform on which the islands are located. Carbonate sediments of Recent
and Pleistocene age sampled by Lamont Geological Observatory have been studied
by FRIEDMAN
(1 964). These sediments from the apron are essentially identical
to the nearshore sediments, but show well-developed graded bedding. The lower
part of each graded bed consists of sands containing typical nearshore skeletal
debris; mineralogically they consist of aragonite and high-magnesian and low-magnesian calcite. The tops of the graded beds consist of silt or mud size grains that
are composed entirely of low-magnesian calcite. Whether this low-magnesian calcite
reflects environmental, grain-size, or diagenetic control is not known. The graded
beds have been attributed to the action of turbidity currents (ERICSON
et al., 1961).
Some of the deep-sea sediments from the Bermuda Apron contain Globigerina or
Orbulina, which have been derived, in part, from the flanks of the Bermuda rise
as turbidity currents swept the sediments downslope; and, in part, from vertical
settling during periods of quiescencebefore the next graded bed was deposited (FRIEDMAN,1964, p.781). The origin of the deep-sea carbonate sediments of the Bermuda
Apron, therefore, is readily understood by these two contrasting depositional
processes: ( I ) lateral gravity displacement by turbidity currents; and (2) vertical
pelagic sedimentation.
The Tongue of the Ocean, a narrow channel more than 2,000 m deep, is
surrounded on three sides by the Great Bahama Bank (Fig.9). The contiguous
Northeast and Northwest Providence Channel and Tongue of the Ocean form a
network of submarine canyons (Ess,1933). The very steep rocky walls of the
channel are composed of Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks (HEEZEN
et al.,
1959, pp.35-36). The Tongue of the Ocean is underlain for the most part by
carbonate sediments with well-developed graded beds that contain displaced shallowwater organisms. In this respect it is similar to many other deep-sea areas that are
adjacent to steep slopes and contiguous shallow-water zones.
23 8
J. E. SANDERS A N D G . M. FRIEDMAN
/--
A T .
,/ISAAC
I
II
26'
i
I
IMlNl
LAND,'
:AT
I
I
\\
i ,ORA~
I
I
I\
24'
\\
G R E A T BAHAMA BANK
\i
\
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10
20
NAUTICAL
MiLEl
.
_
1
The nearshore carbonate debris was originally deposited along the marginal
escarpment of the Bahamas and was later displaced laterally by gravity, probably
by turbidity currents. The sediments contain ooids along with the biogenic carbonate material; the particles are less well sorted and the grading is less obvious
than in terrigenous turbidites found in abyssal plains of other oceanic areas
239
(RUSNAK
and NESTEROFF,
1964). This characteristic has been related to the small
size of the Tongue of the Ocean, which limits the distance over which sorting due
to lateral transportation can occur; and to the great diversity of biogenic debris,
such as Halimeda plates, pteropods, and Foraminifera, which differ widely in shape
and hence also in hydraulic behavior. Moreover, especially in the upper level of
the sequence, these sediments are coarser-grained than terrigenous turbidites.
Sediments from the Tongue of the Ocean, kindly provided to G. M. Friedman by G. A. Rusnak, were fine-grained, poorly-sorted skeletal sands, some of
which contain interstitial lime mud. The fine-grained tops of the graded beds commonly contain a deep-water marine fauna, such as pteropods and Globigerina.
The age of the carbonate sediments studied ranges from Late Pleistocene to Recent
(25,000 to 800 years; RUSNAK
et al., 1963). Turbidity currents probably were active
throughout this interval. The sediments contain 30-60 % high-magnesian calcite,
a larger amount than in comparable shallow-water sediments of the Bahamas
(FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.796).
The upper 80 cm of core A 167-49 (collection of Lamont Geological Observatory) from the Tongue of the Ocean consists of lime mud with thin sandy interbeds, and is underlain by 30 cm of sand and 260 cm of lime mud (ERICSON
et al.,
1961). In this, and other cores from the Northeast Providence channel, the lime
mud consists of silt- and clay-sized calcareous particles, planktonic Foraminifera,
coccoliths and minute calcareous plates secreted by Protista. The lime muds contain marcasite and hydrotroilite and vary in color from light tan to greenish-gray.
The sandy sediments are composed largely of tests of planktonic Foraminifera or
shallow-water biogenic particles.
On the southern part of the Hatteras abyssal plain, calcareous turbidites
derived from the Bahama Banks, are interbedded with deep-sea calcareous ooze
(SCHNEIDER
and HEEZEN,1965).
Parts of the Tertiary section of Italy contain graded limestones. The Eocene
calcare alberese north of the Apuane Alps (TENHAAF,1959, p.71), Miocene limestone on highway 80 north of the Gran Sasso massif (KUENENand TEN HAAF,
1956), and early Oligocene brecciole nummulitiche of Tuscany (TENHAAF,1959,
p. 91) are examples.
The Upper Jurassic (Malm) of the Nappe de Morcles and autochthonous
chains, Haute Savoie, France, includes dark pyritiferous limestone 100-1 50 m
thick with nine interbeds of calcareous microbreccias composed of reef and nearshore calcareous organic remains (KUENEN
and CAROZZI,1953; CAROZZI,1955b).
The contemporaneous reefs are exposed around the Aiguilles-Rouges massif;
although the reef debris was shed southward into deep water, later thrusting has
moved the deep-water deposits to a present position north of the reefs.
The Cieszyn Limestone (Lowest Cretaceous of Silesian nappe sequence)
of southwestern Poland represents a relatively pure limestone succession of mixed
turbidite and pelagic deposits. A single graded bed 3 m thick is exposed in a small
240
quarry south of Goleszow, about 10 km east of Cieszyn (J. E. Sanders, observations on field trip with M. Ksiazkiewicz and S. Dzulynski, Sept., 1960).
24 1
range widely. A great variety of sediments may arise from the interplay of these
processes and materials.
Examples of mixed carbonate and non-carbonate Recent deep-water opensea deposits occur on the northern part of the Hatteras abyssal plain, Puerto Rico
Trench, and in the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba), Red Sea. Examples from the geologic
record include the brecciolus (Upper Cretaceous-Eocene) of northern Apennines
Italy; Plattin Flysh (Upper Cretaceous) of Switzerland; Upper Cretaceous of
Westphalia, Germany; Lower Cretaceous of central Carpathians, Poland; Jurassic
breccias of Haute Savoie, France; Permian deposits of Delaware Basin, Texas,
U.S.A.; Silurian of central Nevada, U.S.A.; Ordovician flysch of the Gasp6 Peninsula, Quebec, Canada; and Cambro-Ordovician brecciolus at Troy, New York,
U.S.A. In addition, the striking deposits known as wildflysck may contain abundant
limestone boulders. Examples of these include the Paleocene-Eocene shales, northwestern Venezuela; Mississippian of the Ouachitas, Oklahoma and Arkansas,
U.S.A.; and Cambrian and Ordovician deposits of the northern Appalachians in
Newfoundland and Quebec, Canada, and in Vermont and New York, U.S.A.
The northern part of the Hatteras abyssal plain is the site of sedimentation
of quartzose terrigenous sediments, that have been displaced laterally by turbidity
currents, and pelagic calcareous ooze that has accumulated between arrivals of
the quartzose material (SCHNEIDER
and HEEZEN,
1965).
The sediments from the floor of the Puerto Rico trench include mixed carbonates and terrigenous grains. Algae, sponge spicules, mollusk debris and Bahamian-type grains probably come from the Bahamas and ooids, from the Puerto
242
J. E. SANDERS AND G.
M. FRIEDMAN
Rico shelf. The terrigenous grains are composed of volcanic materials, quartz,
feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine, all probably originating from the
Puerto Rico shelf (CONOLLY
and EWING,1965).
The Gulf of Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba), one of the northern branches of the Red
Sea, is a narrow, steep-sided tectonic valley the average width of which ranges
from 10 to 20 km, with a maximum of 26 km. The Gulf forms part of the Great
Rift Valley that extends from Turkey to the Red Sea and beyond through East
Africa. This trench is so narrow and steep-sided that Leopold von Buch (in:
ROBINSON,
1841, p.673, quoted by GREGORY,
1921, p.17) described it as a crevasse in the earths crust. The submarine slopes of the Gulf are fault surfaces;
they are virtual precipices with a normal gradient of 60-70 %. The shore cliffs are
for the most part equally precipitous. The Gulf sediments sampled in core V
14-126 (collection of Lamont Geological Observatory) reveal diagnostic characteristics of the action of turbidity currents. Graded beds occur, but the grading is less
apparent than in most deep-sea terrigenous sediments. The content of carbonate
materials ranges from 20 to 75 % of the total. Aragonite is sporadic or absent and
the unusual combination of high-magnesian and low-magnesian calcite is present
reflecting the mineralogy of the faunal assemblage (FRIEDMAN,
1965a). The sediments of the Gulf of Eilat resemble graded sediments from other deep-sea areas.
They differ from the carbonate sediments of the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas,
mentioned earlier, in that they contain in addition to their carbonate materials
terrigenous sediments derived from the Precambrian crystalline rocks of the AraboNubian Shield, which forms the shores of the Gulf (FRIEDMAN,
1965a; and in
preparation).
The term brecciolas refers to graded limestone breccia beds that alternate
with dark-colored shales in the upper part of the scugliu, a formation of Late
Cretaceous to Eocene age in the northern Apennines, Italy. The brecciolas have
been interpreted as the deposits of turbidity currents, whereas the dark-colored
shales have been considered to be offshore deep-water marine sediments (KUENEN
and MIGLIORINI,
1950, pp.111-112).
The Plattin Flysch (Upper Cretaceous, Maastrichtian) of Switzerland consists of interbedded calcilutites and fine-grained terrigenous sandstones that show
large current ripples on their upper surfaces, and current cross-laminae and convoluted laminae within almost every sandstone bed. A particularly good exposure
is in the road cut at Jaun Pass, Switzerland. The limestones are interpreted as pelagic deposits; and the terrigenous sandstones, as probable turbidity-current
deposits. The currents which last influenced the sand traveled from southeast to
northwest (shown to J. E. Sanders by Prof. J. Tercier, on a field trip, 14June, 1954).
The Upper Cretaceous of Westphalia includes interbedded graded carbonate
beds, some of which contain glauconite, and marls. Their environment has been
considered to be neritic (VOIGTand HANTZSCHEL,
1964).
The lower 10 rn of the Flysch-Aalenian (Lower Cretaceous) of the Pieniny
243
Klippen zone in the central Carpathians, Poland, include alternations of shale and
sandy graded crinoidal limestones 2-20 cm thick and sideritic marly limestone.
The crinoidal limestone includes clasts resembling the Middle Triassic limestones
and dolostones; some single beds consist of a graded crinoidal limestone in the
lower part and the marly sideritic limestone in the upper part, suggesting that both
owe their origin to lateral sedimentation in spite of the fine grain size of the sideritic marly limestone. The remainder of this flysch formation consists of mostly
noncalcareous terrigenous sediments (BIRKENMAJER,
1957).
The stratigraphic sequence of the Nappe de la Br&che,Haute Savoie, France,
includes a lower (Middle Jurassic) and upper (Upper Jurassic) unit, in which are
intercalated calcareous breccias composed of gravity-displaced material and finegrained pelagic limestones. The two breccia units are separated by 250-300 m
of fine-grained terrigenous sediments, presumably of heinipelagic origin. At Pic
Marcelly, France, the lower breccia unit is 1,300 m thick and contains blocks of
Triassic and Lower Jurassic limestones as large as 8 m long and 2 m thick. Toward
the east the thickness of this unit decreases by one-third, to 300400 m, and the
maximum particle size, to 20 cm. The upper breccia unit is 200 m thick and its
maximum particle size does not exceed 1 m. These breccia beds pass laterally into
open-sea limestones, calcareous shales, and silexites (KUENEN
and CAROZZI,1953).
The Permian rocks in the Delaware Basin, west Texas and southeastern
New Mexico, U.S.A., include interbedded sandstones, coarse-grained calcarenites,
and calcirudites. These rocks are considered here because of the more widely held
view that they are ancient deep-water deposits, the position supported by G. M.
Friedman. The senior author of this chapter, however, does not agree with this
bathymetric interpretation, according to which the water depth in the Ddaware
Basin ranged from 250-300 m when the Goat Seep reefs were active at the northwestern basin margin, and from 360-550 m during the time of the Capitan reef(s).
Reefs grew along the seaward margin of an extensive shelf that lay northwest of the
basin (based on available outcrops; subsurface data indicate that the shelf extended
to the north, northeast, and east, as well). Along the Guadalupe Mountain front
two reefs crop out: an older, Goat Seep reef, and a younger, Capitan reef (LLOYD,
1929; LANG,1935, 1937; HILLS,1942; KING, 1942; 1948; NEWELLet al., 1953;
NEWELL,1957). Debris from these reefs was shed into the deeper water of the
Delaware Basin. The reefs grew rapidly to keep pace with subsidence; detritus from
them cascaded down steep submarine slopes and spread out into the basin as fans.
The so-called fore-reef beds were deposited on the steep submarine slopes; their
dip of 30" is inferred to be an initialone. As a result of storms, earthquakes, or
other catastrophic events, the oversteepened unstable sediment mass that built up
along the basinward side of the reefs was moved basinward by submarine slides and
turbidity currents. Well-developed graded beds, some of them with very coarse
pebble-sized debris at their base, are interbedded with the finer-grained, thinlybedded and commonly finely laminated sediments that formed on the bottom of
244
J.
E.
the Delaware Basin. Graded beds increase in abundance toward the edge of the
basin, but locally, beds of coarse carbonate debris are found even near the center
of the basin. In addition to the graded beds, many slump features and indications
of intrastratal flow along limestone beds resulted from the unstable detrital load
on the steep gradients. Some of these penecontemporaneous slump features include overturned folds and thrust faults.
J. E. Sanders, on the other hand, supports many of the arguments advanced
by G. W. MOORE(1959, 1960) based on mapping of collapse breccias in the basinmargin areas, characteristics of the unfossiliferous parts of the massive Capitan
Limestone, and sedimentary structures in the basinal terrigenous sediments;
which, if correct, cast doubt on many important aspects of the foregoing reef interpretation. The subject cannot be resolved in this brief summary, and will require
additional critical appraisal of the outcrop, subsurface, and petrographic data by
a new generation of observers who are not involved with the older interpretations.
The Roberts Mountain Formation (Silurian) of central Nevada, U.S.A.,
consists of interbedded graded calcarenites ranging in thickness from a few centimeters to 60 cm (with an average of 15 cm), and fine-grained impure limestones,
siltstones, shales, and cherts. The graded calcarenites consist of material derived
from the reefs, as in the Upper Jurassic breccias of Haute Savoie, France, previously discussed. The graded beds can be followed for about 0.8 km along strike
in some localities. Near the sites of the former reefs, the thickness of individual
graded beds increases by an average of 50 %. The fine-grained rocks are considered
to be deposits of deep water (WINTERER
and MURPHY,1960).
The Ordovician flysch of the Gasp6 peninsula, Quebec, consists of an interbedded complex that includes five types of graywackes, two types of calcisiltites,
calcareous wackes, silty shales, dolomitic silty shales, dolostones, fine-grained
black limestones, and traces of volcanic ash. Carbonate rock clasts appear in only
one type of the graywackes, in which their content ranges from 30 to 90 %. Carbonate content in type 1 calcisiltites ranges from 45 to 82% and consists of about
equal parts of calcite and dolomite; in type 2 calcisiltites, the carbonate content
ranges from 27 to 64% and is mostly dolomite. Carbonate material constitutes
84% of the fine-grained black limestones, 14% of the dolomitic silty shales, and
93 % of the dolostones. The noncalcareous silty shale is the dominant rock type;
its abundance ranges from 40 to 85% of the total in the various members of the
succession. The dolostone and fine-grained black limestone are considered to be
pelagic sediments and the other rock types, except for volcanic ash, are interpreted
as products of lateral displacement by gravity (ENOS,1964).
Deposits within the West Castleton (Schodack) Formation (Lower Cambrian) that are identical with the Italian Tertiary brecciolas are well exposed on the
campus of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, U.S.A. Individual
beds 3-7 m thick and containing abundant calcareous fragments, local coarse
round quartz grains and, more rarely, small clay blebs about 5 cm across, fine-
245
grained light gray limestone fragments, and a few sandy fragments, occur in a
brownish-purple, fine-grained sandstone or siltstone matrix (LOWMAN,1961).
The shape of fragments in the brecciola beds ranges from irregular to round to
tabular. Their average size is 5-12.5 cm with some reaching 45 cm; in addition,
a few large slabs are present, the largest of which is 60 cm thick and 240 cm long.
The general orientation of fragments is subparallel to the brecciola bed boundaries.
Lower Cambrian trilobites (Ellipsocephala asaphoides) were collected by C. D.
Walcott (cited in LOWMAN,
1961) in these brecciolas. Brecciolas belonging to the
Deepkill Formation (Lower and Middle Ordovician) are also found near Troy.
A curious kind of deposit of particular interest in ancient geosynclinal tracts
is the so-called wildflysch. Wildflysch consists of clasts of varying size, some of
them enormous, set in a matrix of fine-grained, typically dark-colored marine shale,
siltstone, or mudstone; they are typical examples of diamictites (FLINTet al., 1960).
Wildflysch clasts include almost any kind of rocks; only those in which carbonate
rocks predominate are discussed here. Characteristically, wildflysch limestonebouldery mudstones are interbedded with terrigenous sequences that lack abundant
carbonates and which show other indications of deposition in deep water, such
as fauna or repeated intercalations of graded beds. Wildflysch diamictites may be
regarded as the marine equivalents of the nonmarine fanglomerates with limestone
boulders discussed in a previous section. Three examples include the PaleoceneEocene shales of northwestern Venezuela; Johns Valley Shale (Mississippian) of
the Ouachitas in Oklahoma and Arkansas, U.S.A.; and the Cambro-Ordovician
of the northern Appalachians in Newfoundland and Quebec, Canada, and
Champlain-Hudson Valleys, Vermont and New York, U.S.A.
The Paleocene-Eocene marine shales of Lara, northwest Venezuela, about
100 km east of Lake Maracaibo, contain Iarge clasts of pre-Cretaceous, Cretaceous,
and Paleocene rocks, including both noncarbonates and limestones. Graded calcareous sandstones are interbedded with the boulder-bearing shales. Blocks of
Cretaceous limestone are very large; one measured 100 m long and 30 m thick,
whereas another is 1 km long and 100 m thick. The Eocene part of the shale includes boulders of crystalline rocks, Cretaceous limestone, and Paleocene Lithothamnium limestone. The Paraguito boulder bed can be followed for 40 km along strike.
These exotic blocks are inferred t o be the deposits of submarine slides in the Barquisimeto trough; some of the blocks were derived from the Maracaibo shelf
(RENZet al., 1955).
The Johns Valley Shale includes limestone exotic pebbles and boulders in
a zone 200 km long and 40-48 km wide that extends from near Atoka, Oklahoma,
eastward to Boles, Arkansas (KRAMER,
1933; R. C. MOORE,1934; CLINE,1960). The
shale is 130-250 m thick; it contains two zones of exotics, a lower and an upper,
each including several beds of boulders. In size, the exotics range from pebbles to
boulders, and some angular limestone blocks are up to 12 m long. The limestones
were derived from the contemporaneous and older Arbuckle facies. The latter
246
includes carbonate rocks of Cambro-Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Mississippian age, which are restricted to localities north and west of the boulderbearing shales; they also occur tectonically below the shales (CLINE,1960)
Cambro-Ordovician marine limestone-pebble diamictites and conglomerates
occur in western Newfoundland and near Quebec City, Canada, and in the Champlain Valley, Vermont, and upper Hudson Valley, New York, U.S.A.
The spectacular Cow Head Limestone Breccia of western Newfoundland
includes blocks up to 30 m in diameter and one that measures 120 x 108 x 6 m
(SCHUCHERT
and DUNBAR,
1934; DUNBAR
and RODGERS,
1957; KINDLEand WHITTINGTON,1958). This unit was formerly thought to be a single layer of Middle
Ordovician age at the base of a shale sequence (SCHUCHERT
and DUNBAR,
1934);
but more recent fossil collections (KINDLEand WHITTINGTON,
1958) indicate that
similar breccias are scattered through about 300 m of strata, the age of which
ranges from Middle Cambrian to Middle Ordovician, and are not limited to a single
horizon. A characteristic feature is that the clasts tend to be flat. They lie in a
muddy, rarely sandy matrix, and include mostly different varieties of limestone.
Minor amount of clasts are composed of shale and chert; igneous or metamorphic
rocks are lacking. Only a limited stratigraphic range is represented by the clasts
in any given layer; for example, the upper Cow Head conglomerates include limestone clasts from the Middle Ordovician Table Head Formation (WHITTINGTON
and KINDLE,1963). If the clasts were derived from a submarine fault scarp, the
relief along it was low (KINDLEand WHITTINGTON,
1958).
Somewhat similar rocks are found near Quebec City and LCvis, Quebec, in
the Sillery and LCvis Formations (Lower Ordovician) and Quebec City beds
(Middle Ordovician) (RAYMOND,
1913; CLARK,1924, 1926; BAILEYet al., 1928;
OSBORNE,
1956). As in Newfoundland, the pebbles in each layer are of the same age
as (or slightly older than) the formation in which the conglomerates are enclosed.
The Sillery conglomerates contain mostly clasts of Lower Cambrian limestone.
Those in the LBvis Formation include abundant Upper Cambrian and Lower
Ordovician limestones, with a few pieces of gneiss, igneous rock, quartzite, and
Sillery sandstones; and clasts in the Quebec City beds include only Middle Ordovician (Black River and Lower Trenton) limestone fragments.
In the zone of interfingering of western carbonate rocks and eastern terrigenous rocks in northwestern Vermont, limestone-pebble conglomerates occur in at
least ten different formations the age of which ranges from Early Cambrian to
Middle Ordovician (M. H. Ross, 1949; SHAW,1958; CADY,1960). Almost all of
these conglomerates, however, are local deposits with calcareous or dolomitic
matrix, and with pebbles of the same age as the enclosing beds. None of them
includes debris from formations with very large age spans, so that they are intraformational conglomerates (WALCOTT,
1894).
By contrast, the younger Hathaway Formation (Middle Ordovician) of
the Champlain Valley, Vermont, includes large clasts of carbonate rocks, quartz
247
sandstone, and coarse-grained graywacke, and small grains that include debris
from igneous and metamorphic rocks. These have been interpreted as submarine
slide breccias formed along a fault scarp the relief of which was at least 600 m,
based on the evidence at the north end of Butler Island (HAWLEY,1957).
Ordovician marine limestone-pebble diamictites occur in several scattered
localities in the upper Hudson Valley, New York. The rock at Bald Mountain,
New York contains rounded and subangular pebbles 60-90 cm in diameter of
carbonate rocks from Lower Cambrian to Middle Ordovician formations floating
in a black mud matrix. It has been assigned to the Rysedorph Hill Conglomerate on
faunal grounds (RUEDEMANN,
1914,1933), even though the matrix of the conglomerate at Rysedorph Hill and other nearby localities is calcareous (RUEDEMANN,
1901, 1930). Some of the limestone-pebble diamictites located near thrusts have
not been assigned to the Rysedorph Hill unit, even though they resemble it closely,
because they have been interpreted as friction breccias (RUEDEMANN,
1914, 1930,
1933).
From this short discussion it should be obvious that limestone conglomerates of many types, ages, and origins are present in the northern Appalachians.
Each should undergo careful study in light of newer stratigraphic evidence and
recent ideas on sedimentology.
The origin of limestone-boulder marine diamictites has been much debated.
They have been attributed to glacial action or the results of ice-rafting (particularly
in the Ouachitas, U.S.A., by TAFF, 1910; WOODWORTH,
1912; ULRICH,1927; S.
POWERS,1928: and others; see summaries by KRAMER,
1933; MISER,1934; R. C.
MOORE,1934; and CLINE,1960; and by DAWSON,1888, and COLEMAN,
1926, for
the conglomerates near Quebec City); and interpreted as thrust conglomerates
(RUEDEMANN,
1914, for the Ordovician of the Hudson Valley, New York; SCHUCHERT and DUNBAR,
1934, for the Cow Head breccia of Newfoundland; and VAN
WATERSCHOOT
VAN DER GRACHT,1931, for the Johns Valley Shale of the Ouachitas). The glacial theories have lost ground in view of the evidence for warm, tropical seas provided by the limestones, but the thrust-conglomerate interpretation
gained many adherents, possibly because of the close spatial association of the
deposits in question with particular thrust traces. The major and fatal deficiency
of this idea, at least as applied to the Rysedorph Hill Conglomerate of New York,
however, was pointed out by KAY(1937): the advancing thrust sheet, which was
supposed to have shed the exotic blocks ahead of itself, does not include the kinds
of carbonate rocks found in the pebbles; in fact, it scarcely includes any carbonate
rocks at all. (See previous discussion of Overton Fanglomerate for a description
of a true thrust conglomerate.)
The presently accepted idea is that the blocks were displaced laterally by
gravity down submarine slopes, as suggested by BAILEYet al. (1928) and OSBORNE
(1956) for the Quebec conglomerates; by SCHUCHERT
and DUNBAR
(1943). DUNBAR
and RODGERS
(1957), and KINDLEand WHITTINGTON
(1958) for the Newfoundland
248
conglomerates; by DIXON
(1931), KRAMER
(1933), MISER(1934), R. C . MOORE
(1934), and CLINE(1960) for the Johns Valley Shale; and by RENZet al. (1955) for
the Paleocene-Eocene of Venezuela.
The fault scarps with which these limestone-boulder diamictites presumably
were related probably were normal faults. The association of the deposits with
thrust faults is thought to be fortuitous and due to later movements, during which
the diamictons were passively transported back upslope toward the shallow-water
area from which the carbonate rocks were derived. In fact, they may have been
transported considerably beyond the steep slope where they originated. This
tectonic history closely resembles that of the Upper Jurassic reef breccias of the
Nappe de Morcles and autochthonous chains, Haute Savoie, France, described
previously.
If the submarine sliding and fault-scarp ideas are correct, then such limestoneboulder diamictites are extremely significant for paleogeographic reconstructions:
they mark the former bathymetric boundary between the shallow-water banks on
which the limestones formed and the deep-water troughs in which the terrigenous
sediments accumulated. This boundary may in fact represent ancient steep continental slopes.
Analogous Recent marine deposits have not yet been reported; they may
exist, but would be extremely difficult to sample by means of existing apparatus.
CONCLUSION
This chapter summarizes the classic literature on the origin and occurrence of
limestones. The chief emphasis has been placed on limestones as products of the
lithification of calcium carbonate sediments, and upon the environmental approach to these sediments as a key to understanding both the distinctive features of
limestones themselves and also their manifold associations with non-carbonate
sediments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their thanks to L. V. Rickard for assistance in locating several
references, and to George V. Chilingar and Rhodes W. Fairbridge (Editors) for
helpful suggestions.
249
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Chapter 6
This chapter begins with a historical review of the dolomite literature and traces
progressive advances in the search for a solution of the dolomite problem. The
dolomite question defied solution until the recent advent of the X-ray revolution,
when dolomite identification became simple, fast, and efficient. The general framework of the question now appears t o have been largely resolved as a result of
intensive field studies of Quaternary carbonate sediments and the application of
X-ray and stable isotope (carbon and oxygen) analysis to both Quaternary carbonate sediments and ancient limestones and dolostones.
Many problems, however, are still outstanding, but they are on a different
level.
In the opinion of the authors, most dolostone deposits in the geologic record
owe their origin to hypersaline brines. They must, therefore, be considered as
evaporite deposits. Exceptions are uncommon and include those that are related
t o soil-forming and bacterial processes or have resulted from recycling of pre-existinp
dolomite. Hypersaline brines are formed by capillary concentration or by refluxion in the depositional environment in areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation plus run-off and by as yet unexplained processes in the subsurface. In
capillary concentration, interstitial waters in the sediments transpire upward
through porous sea-marginal sediments and evaporate at the sediment-air interface,
a process similar to that which is responsible for caliche formation. This process
leads to dolomite formation in supratidal and intertidal environments on broad
shallow shelves with interfingering gypsum and/or anhydrite (landward) and
marine carbonates (seaward). Under conditions of humid climate, however, anhydrite and gypsum may not develop. Supratidal to intertidal dolostones display
many or most of the following structures: mud cracks, birdseye structures,
burrow mottles, boundinage-like structures, scour-and-fill structures, channels,
ripple marks, cross-stratification, and algal structures; these dolostones are commonly unfossiliferous and laminated and are texturally structLI-I;SS or pellet
Contribution No.66-6 of the Department of Geology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Work on this chapter commenced in the Department of Geology, Yale University, but was completed after the junior author became Senior Research Associate, Columbia University.
268
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
269
INTRODUCTION
The origin and occurrence of dolostones present many of the same problems which
were considered in the previous chapter on the origin and occurrence of limestones.
The subject of dolostones, however, is more complex than that of limestones, because in addition to almost all of the intricate problems of limestones, it also embraces a large array of additional complications that are associated with the process
of replacement of calcium carbonate sediments by the mineral dolomite.
Dolostones are abundant in the geologic record; they are most commonly
associated with limestones, but also occur with evaporites and terrigenous sediments, both with and without limestones. Volumetrically, Paleozoic dolostones
far outrank those from other parts of the geologic column, but dolostones also
formed during Precambrian, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic times.
Dolostones are important economically, both as sources of magnesium and
because many of them are vast petroleum reservoir rocks. The development of
porosity in these rocks is closely related to the sequence of diagenetic changes,
which also include dolomitization of carbonate sediments, so that these subjects
have come under close scrutiny by the research laboratories of the petroleum companies.
The dolomite question or dolomite problem long defied solution by
geologists, largely because it could not be resolved by either of the two favored
approaches: the experimental, and the comparative, based on conditions under
which the material occurs in Recent sediments. No attempts at laboratory synthesis
of the mineral dolomite were successful under conditions which could be considered
reasonably comparable with those which prevail in nature, and no dolomite had
been found among Recent sediments. In fact, most discussions of the subject
began with remark that dolomite does not exist in Recent sediments. Most geologists were content with the overwhelming evidence that most dolostones had
formed as replacements of calcium carbonate materials, and many of them supposed
that, having established this conclusion, nothing further needed to be explained.
The level of our knowledge of dolomite occurrence reached a plateau, and most
discussions of the subject did little more than add a few new descriptive details
and rehash older conclusions.
All of this was abruptly changed by the development of X-ray diffraction
270
techniques. This development brought about revolutionary changes in understanding of many fields of geology, but nowhere was more dramatic progress made
than in the field of dolomite mineralogy and origin. Diagnostic crystal structures of
the different carbonate minerals were revealed by X-ray studies; these indicated
that mere chemical tests for magnesium, a common basis for the classification of
limestones and dolostones, were insufficient to prove the existence of the mineral
dolomite. High-magnesian calcite was discovered, in which the magnesium carbonate content was as much as 30%.
When Recent carbonate sediments were examined by X-ray diffraction,
dolomite was soon discovered. It typically occurs as such fine grains that it would
not have been detected by staining techniques. Discovery of dolomite in Recent
carbonate sediments opens the way to a full understanding of its origin and occurrence in the geologic record. The importance of discoveries of Recent dolomite is
so great that this subject will be discussed as a separate heading under the origin
section of this chapter. This treatment contrasts with the attempt of the writers to
follow the parallel arrangement used in the foregoing limestone chapter, where
examples of Recent calcium carbonate sediments are discussed in the occurrence
section alongside examples from the geologic record.
This chapter is organized as follows: (1) review of the literature; (2) origin
and destruction of dolomite and dolostones, including subsections on (u) lithification of doIomite grains and crystals, (b) Recent and Pleistocene dolomite, (c) replacement of calcium carbonate by dolomite, (d) dedolomitization, (e) description
of microscopic textures and fabrics of dolostones, and ( f ) experimental synthesis
of dolomite; and (3) occurrence of dolostone, including many types based on mode
of origin and associated sediments.
27 1
No attempt is made here to review the entire literature concerned with dolomite nor even to cite all of the papers that have reviewed or tried to resolve the
dolomite problem; instead, the literature survey is limited to a selection of basic
papers. The bibliographies that are included in these basic papers, however, will
guide the reader to the world literature on this topic.
Any review of the literature of dolomite and dolostone rightfully begins with
the monograph of VANTUYL(1916). In this classic paper Van Tuyl assembled all
the available literature and examined all possible aspects of the subject.
An important early petrographic study that emphasized the replacement
origin of most dolostones was made by STEIDTMANN
(1917).
Shorter summaries of the status of the dolomite question appeared in the
Treatise on Sedimentation (VANTWL and STEIDTMANN,
1926; STEIDTMANN,
1926).
A particularly good account, emphasizing examples from Great Britain, appeared
in the book of HATCHet al. (1938).
An excellent summary of the dolomite problem was presented by FAIRBRIDGE
(1957) who summarized an extensive literature through 1956. Earlier reviews on this
topic are found in papers by LINCK(1909, 1937), and for an almost complete index
of the early literature, reference can be made to the article by CLEE(1950).
Although the mechanisms of dolomite formation were unknown, the geologic evidence for penecontemporaneous replacement of calcium carbonate
sediments by dolomite was sufficiently strong to establish this viewpoint as the leading hypothesis. Primary formation in the original depositional environment was
cautiously admitted as a possibility, but most geologists did not accept it as being
widely applicable.
A major departure from this standard American position occurred as a
result of the extremely detailed petrographic study of the Triassic dolostones of the
Austrian Alps carried out by SANDER
(1936, 1951).
Sander attempted to classify the carbonate minerals according to their
position in the fabric history of the rock. He differentiated between external
growth on the upper free surface of the sediment, and internaI growth on the
bounding surface of cavities within the sediment mass. Three types of mechanisms
of deposition were pointed out by Sander: ( I ) mechanical deposits, including terrigenous detritus (recycled carbonates), crystals, ooids, and so forth, that are moved
by currents and finally deposited by them; (2) chemical precipitates, on a free
surface, such as sparry crystals growing normal to the surface, bladed crystals or
colloform growths (radial fibrous aggregates with rounded, lustrous upper surface), and gels (?) or precipitates not on a free surface, but within the fabric of the
enclosing material; and (3)biogenic deposits, such as cheeselike, cavernous crusts
without organic patterns, or organic incrustations formed by encrusting organisms.
Sander restricted the term biogenic to these organic crusts; he did not use it to refer
to mechanical deposits consisting of organic skeletal remains.
Sander concluded that dolomite can be ( I ) biogenically deposited; ( 2 )
272
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
273
274
G . M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
CHILINGAR
(1956b) showed the importance of high Mg/Ca ratio of depositional medium for
dolomite formation,
275
dolomitization in the south of France; and ( 3 ) experimental research and the role
of physicochemical factors in the synthesis of dolomite. In part 1 they showed
that dolomite in the Parentis reservoir is both stratigraphically and tectonically
controlled; the tectonic type is related to the major fracture system. In part 2 they
examined the relationship between fractures and dolomitization in Jurassic limestones in the south of France. This interesting treatment recalls the work of HEWETT
(1921, 1928) and G. M. Friedman (unpublished) in the United States (see section
in this chapter on epigenetic dolostone). In part 3 they described experimental
studies in which dolomite was synthesized by using solutions of calcium chloride
and magnesium chloride and adding C O i - ions. They also explained in detail the
role of temperature, partial pressure of COZ,and other factors in the synthesis of
dolomite.
INGERSON
(1962, pp.830-837) concluded that the problems of dolomite formation centered chiefly around the questions of primary vs. secondary dolomite:
the conditions under which primary dolomite is precipitated, the possible sources
of solutions that caused formation of secondary (replacement) dolomite, the conditions of replacement, and the time at which replacement took place. He reviewed
the literature on primary dolomite and noted the association of dolomite-bearing
sediments with shallow water, plant growth, and elevated pH, but he suggested that
direct precipitation may not necessarily have occurred. He also suggested that even
dolomite in its original depositional environment may have been derived by replacement of calcite and/or aragonite. Ingerson discussed dolostone in geologic
time and raised many questions why dolostones are much more prevalent in Precambrian and Paleozoic than in later rocks. Despite many literature citations and
quotations of opinions voiced by previous authors no solution was in sight, according to Ingerson. His coverage of the topic was concluded with suggestions for
further investigations taken from TWENHOFEL
(1932), FAIRBRIDGE
(1957), and
CLOUD(1962), together with a plea for work on bacterial precipitation of dolomite
and on laboratory experiments.
Rapid progress in environmental interpretation of dolomite was closely linked
with the X-ray revolution which made dolomite identification simple, fast, and
efficient. CHAVE(1952, 1954) and SPOTTS(1952) observed a correlation between
chemical analyses and X-ray diffraction patterns, which indicated beyond a doubt
that the calcite structure can accommodate a large amount of magnesium in solid
solution. GOLDSMITH
et al. (1955) carried this correlation further and presented
diagrams correlating X-ray spacing and magnesium substitution in calcite based
on spectrochemical analysis and powder diffraction data. GRAFand GOLDSMITH
(1956) noted that a perfectly ordered dolomite is formed experimentally within a
reasonable time at somewhat elevated temperatures ( ~ 2 0 "C).
0 At lower temperatures the onIy reaction product the structure of which resembles that of dolomite is
protodolomite. Protodolomites are dolomite-like materials which contain up to
about 10 mole % excess of CaC03 (GOLDSMITH
and GRAP,1958). GOLDSMITH
and
276
GRAF(1958) noted that compositional and structural features of dolomite of sedimentary rocks, the age of which ranges from Ordovician to Eocene, are similar to
those of synthetic protodolomites. Such dolomites frequently contain about 5 mole
% excess of CaC03 and their order reflections are weakened relative to those with
a 1 /l CaCOS/MgCOs molar ratio. These structural and compositional features
were not observed in metamorphic or hydrothermal dolomites, nor in most samples of evaporite sequences. The CaCOs-rich dolomites lose CaC03 and approach
equilibrium conditions if held at high temperature in the presence of a flux.
The determination of calcite/doloinite ratios by X-ray diffraction methods is
now routine procedure (TENNANT
and BERGER, 1957; WEBERand SMITH,1961,
DIEBOLD
et al., 1963; and GRAFand GOLDSMITH, 1963), as is the determination of
ratios of calcite and high magnesium calcite (FRIEDMAN,
1964, p.778).
The literature describing dolomite in Recent and Pleistocene sediments is
included in the section on Origin and destruction of dolomite and dolostones.
The topic of the origin of dolomite and dolostones provides many comparisons and
contrasts with that of the origin of limestones discussed in the previous chapter.
Before continuing with the dolomite discussion, however, it is necessary to define
some terms that appear on the ensuing pages.
Particle is used as a general term to designate single grains or crystals. The
term grain is used for individual particles, which (a) may be single crystals or crystal aggregates, (b) were once part of a larger object, such as a shell, or aggregate,
such as a rock, and (c) have become individuals as a result of the breakdown of
this larger object or aggregate. Crystal refers to individual particles with regular
internal atomic arrangement, which have grown from a smaller nucleus, either
in the environment of deposition or later within the host sediment. These definitions are intended only as first approximations; complications immediately arise.
Many grains consist of single crystals; for example, plates of echinoderms. If the
echinoderm test disaggregates, the individual plates become the grains of the present usage, even though they consist of single crystals. Also, small individual
recycled grains from older dolostones may consist of single crystal particles, which
are indistinguishable from first-cycle crystals that have grown in the depositional
environment or diagenetically (AMSBURY,
1962). When doubt exists about the
origin of the grain, or where both grains and crystals are intended, the term particle is used.
The particles (grains or crystals) comprise the framework fabric of a sediment;
these may be cemented into a rock by addition of a new mineral in the interstices
or by overgrowths of the same mineral which forms the framework. Both framework particles and/or cement may be replaced by the growth of crystals.
277
278
279
secondary where the evidence for such origin may be lacking. Furthermore, the
distinction between primary and secondary, once thought to be the fundamental
problem of dolomite formation, has assumed much less significance in light of the
newer discoveries of Recent dolomite (see section of Recent and Pleistocene
dolomite).
Recycled dolomite grains. Previously deposited coarse-grained dolostones commonly break down into grains which consist of individual dolomite crystals, whereas
fine-grained dolostones form dolostone rock fragments. The dolomite grains thus
formed are exactly analogous to recycled limestone particles; their grain-size may
vary from boulders to silt and they may come to rest in any environment of deposition. Fine-grained recycled dolomite rhombs may be indistinguishable from
first-cycle dolomite rhombs.
The Ellenburger (Ordovician) dolostone in the Llano area, Texas, U.S.A.,
contributes loose dolomite grains, fragments of microcrystalline dolostone, limestone rock fragments, and chert to modern river sands. Likewise, the Upper Glen
Rose Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of south-central Texas contributes fine-grained
dolostone rock fragments to the silt fraction of modern rivers in the area (AMSBURY,
1962).
Residual sands consisting of dolomite grains also occur over Tertiary dolostone in the Paris Basin and over the Carboniferous and Permian dolostones in
England (HATCHet al., 1938, p.185).
Dolomite sands are also found on the shores of Mingan Island, Gulf of
St. Lawrence, Canada, where an older dolostone formation is being eroded in the
coastal bluffs (STEIDTMANN,
1926, p.264).
The Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba), one of the northern arms of the Red Sea, is one
of the most saline bodies of marine water in the world, hence a likely site for primary dolomite deposition. The Recent sediments from the floor of this gulf were
examined with this idea in mind, and dolomite was found. The particles were
separated, however, and proved not to be primary, but to consist of recycled grains
which may have come from Cretaceous rocks (FRIEDMAN,
1965b).
Origin of cement
The cement which converts a mass of dolomite particles into a dolostone may or
may not consist of dolomite. Where the cement consists of dolomite, it may have
been precipitated in open spaces with a radial arrangement in which long axes of
crystals project inward from the walls toward the center of the cavity; or it may
have grown in optical continuity on the outer surfaces of a nucleus dolomite particle. Such dolomite cement is a primary precipitate, even though it may serve
to bind together secondary dolomite particles.
Where the cement does not consist of dolomite, it may be composed of aragonite, calcite, anhydrite, halite, or other minerals. The texture of these cements is
280
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
controlled by patterns of crystal growth within the internal spaces of the sediment.
More than one generation of cement may be present.
The mechanism of upward transpiration and concentration by evaporation
of sea water through the pore spaces of sea-marginal sediments provides a previously unrecognized basis for understanding the mineralogic variety of cements of
dolostones (and also other sediments). In a reasonably porous mass of dolomite
(or other) particles around the edge of a sea, where evaporation is taking place on
marginal flats, a lateral change in cements may be found across the marginal
flats which repeats the classical evaporite sequence: halite, gypsum (or anhydrite),
dolomite, and aragonite. The halite will occur at the most distant point of upward
transpiration of the sea water and the aragonite, on the side nearest the sea. In
addition, any return flow of brine toward the sea may be extremely enriched in
magnesium, so that it becomes an active agent of dolomitization in the sediments
through which it passes (see the following section on Recent and Pleistocene dolomite).
Needless to add, cements may form under numerous other circumstances,
which are controlled by fluid movements through the sediments; the fluids may be
ground water, sea water, or connate waters, and they may be driven by various
forces.
Recent and Pleistocene dolomite
The discovery of dolomite in Recent sediments and study of the conditions under
which it occurs has led to a breakthrough in the understanding of dolomite, which
extensive study of ancient dolostones failed to accomplish. Because Recent dolomite is treated only briefly in the chapter on Recent carbonate sediments, no repetition is involved by including an expanded discussion of this subject as a separate
section of this chapter, where it can serve as a basis for interpreting examples of
ancient dolostones from the geologic record. Included here also are Pleistocene
examples which fall within the range of the radiocarbon dating technique.
Recent dolomite has been found in the sediments, an waters of hypersaline
lakes, in both sediments and waters of hypersaline lagoons, and on tidal and supratidal flats. Both primary and peneconteniporaneous replacement types
of dolomite have been found in the same environments, an association which
tends to de-emphasize the importance formerly placed on this distinction. Whether
the dolomite occurs as the primary framework of a deposit, as a cement of primary
framework grains, or as a replacement of primary framework grains and/or cement is still an important topic to establish in textural analysis, but this distinction
can no longer be considered as an end in itself.
Penecontemporaneous replacement dolomite has been formed where capillary upward movement of sea water, initially of normal or near-normal salinity,
flows through sediments on marginal supratidal flats and becomes concentrated
281
282
G.
M. FRIEDMAN
AND J. E. SANDERS
TABLE I
A MINERALOGICAL ZONATION ACCORDING TO INCREASING AGE
MglCa ratio
Sediment
Younger
Older
+
+
+
aragonite
Mg calcite
Mg calcite
Mg calcite
Ca dolomite
ordered dolomite
dolomite
magnesite
hydromagiiesite
6
8
10
16
20
283
Mineral
Sediment
Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)z
Calcite, aragonite, CaC03
Thenardite, NazS04
Halite, NaCl
Gaylussite, NazCa(CO3)z . 5Hz0
Burkeite, N ~ ~ ( S O ~ ) Z C O ~
Aphthitalite, NazK(S04)~
Trona, NasH(C03)z. 2Hz0
Pirssonite, NazCa(CO3)z .2H20
Nahcolite, NaHC03
Thermonatrite, NazC03. HzO
Glauberite, NazCa(S04)~
Sylvite, KC1
Bloedite, NazMg(SO&
Mud
Mud
Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
Mud
Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
Saline crust, efflorescence
Saline crust, efflorescence
Efflorescence
Mud
Efflorescence
Saline crust, efflorescence
Saline crust, efflorescence
Saline crust
284
and burkeite. Only aragonite and gaylussite do not extend from the outer limits to
the center of the lake (JONES,1961). Radiocarbon age determinations indicate
that this dolomite is virtually of Recent age. Assuming different models of crystal
growth, average rates of growth of individual dolomite crystals were calculated to
be of the order of hundreds of angstroms/1000 years (PETERSON
and BIEN,1963).
According to JONES(1961), the distribution suggests that dolomite has formed by
precipitation directly from solution. The highest content of dolomite in the mud
is found within areas of relatively frequent flooding.
Recent dolomite has been found on supratidal flats along the southern shore
of the Persian Gulf, in the Bahamas, and in the southern part of Florida. Doubtless,
it will soon be found in many other low-latitude localities where evaporation is
intense and calcium carbonate sediments predominate.
Net evaporation takes place during all seasons of the year in the Persian
Gulf, so that increased salinity is typical and values as high as 70 % above that of
normal sea water have been recorded in one bay (SUGDEN,1963). Although the
hydrology of the Persian Gulf teaches important lessons for the understanding of
evaporites, no evaporite deposition occurs directly from the Gulf waters; instead,
deposition takes place within the sediments of Gulf marginal areas. Recent dolomite has been found in large areas extending from the west side of the Qatar Peninsula
4 5"
50'
55O
60'
30'
25'
::
Oman
b B t I i 0KM
20
Fig.1. Trucial coast of the Persian Gulf showing location of Qatar Peninsula, Abu Dhabi, and
Oman. Recent dolomite has been found in large areas between the west side of Qatar Peninsula
and the Oman Peninsula at the entrance to the Gulf.
285
along the Trucial coast to the Oman Peninsula at the entrance to the Gulf, a shoreline distance of about 900 km (Fig.1). High-salinity water is common in lagoons
along the shallow margins of the Gulf; still higher salinities have been found in
interstitial waters of marginal sediments. Lagoons and embayments on the west
side of the Qatar Peninsula are separated from the main mass of Gulf water by a
shallow shelf that is many kilometers long and less than 4 m deep.The tidal range
here is about 1 m (WELLS,1962; ILLING,1963; ILLING
and WELLS,1964). Salinity of
lagoon water ranged from 4.5-5.5 %; it measured 10.0 % just below ths level of
diurnal high tide (WELLS,1962). Chlorinity was 30-35 g/l (ILLINGand WELLS,1964).
Comparable coastal lagoons and tidal flats extend eastward along the Trucial coast
for about 400 km towards Oman. Lagoon waters of this area have a pH of 8.0
(CURTISet al., 1963). In a landward direction the margins of the lagoons consist
of an intertidal zone, an algal flat, and supratidal flats, known as sebkhas, the
width of which may range up to 11 km. Interstitial waters in the sediments of the
algal flats and sebkhas are hot, highly saline, and slightly acid. Measured values
from different areas are summarized in Table 111.
Minerals from the tidal flats, algal flats, and sebkhas include aragonite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, and halite; their proportions and distribution
vary in different areas. Aragonite predominates in the pelletal muds and sands of
the lower tidal flats at Qatar (WELLS,1962); it becomes more abundant on the upper
tidal flats. Dolomite appears on the uppermost parts of these tidal flats, between the
levels of diurnal and spring high tides, and its abundance increases landward.
Landward across the sebkhas, more evaporitic minerals appear with the dolomite,
and, still farther landward, these supplant dolomite altogether. These other more
evaporitic minerals include gypsum at Qatar (WELLS,1962); anhydrite and halite
with no gypsum in one short core from the sebkha at Abu Dhabi (CURTISet al.,
1963); and gypsum, anhydrite, and halite in other samples from Abu Dhabi
(SHEARMAN,
1963).
At Qatar, the consistency of dolomite-bearing sediment is that of stiff mud.
In the upper 30-60 cm of sebkha sediments microcrystalline dolomite in rhombs
1-5p in diameter has replaced aragonite, and large (up to 12.7 cm in diameter)
gypsum crystals occur. From depths of 60 cm to 1 m, aragonite muds and pelletal
sediments lack dolomite and gypsum. Radiocarbon dating of two dolomite samples gave ages of 2,670 and 3,310 years B.P. (ILLING,1963).
Dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum, and halite occur above the water table (which
is located at a depth of 1.3 m below the sebkha surface) at Abu Dhabi. Anhydrite
OCCUTS in bands, lenses, and as layers of nodules in sediments above high tide level;
it has not been found in any of the lagoons nor in sediments from the intertidal
zone. Some anhydrite bands cut across the foreset beds of the host sediment, indicating that these bands are of diagenetic origin (SHEARMAN,
1963). Gypsum of more
than one generation also is abundant at Abu Dhabi; some of it occurs on the sebkha,
whereas the rest lies beneath algal mats of the higher tidal flats. Many gypsum
TABLE I11
GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATERS AND MIMERALQGY OF SEDIMENTS OF GULF-MARGINAL AREAS, QATAR PENINSULA AND ABU DHABI, PERSIAN GULF
Locality
Water properties
salinity
( %)
chlorinity
(gll)
pH
temperature
("C)
Trucial coast
Abu Dhabi sebkha
30-35
50-130
>I50
3
6.7
6.0
6.2
up to 8.0
>40
(summer)
35 average
(Oct., 1962)
>40
(Jan., 1964)
49
(Apr., 1964)
Reference
80 % aragonite
95 % aragonite
Dolomite and aragonite
WELLS(1962)
WELLS(1962)
WELLS(1962)
WELLS(1962)
MgICa
ratio
Minerals in sediments
Core: dolomite
overlying aragonite
10
Protodolomite (Ca54Mg46)
Core: dolomite, anhydrite,
aragonite, calcite and halite;
no gypsum, in one, but
abundant in others
Dolomite, anhydrite,
and gypsum
ILLING
(1963)
ILLING
and WELLS(1964)
ILLING
and WELLS(1963)
ILLING
and WELLS(1961)
CURTISet a]. (1963)
8z
2:
tt7i
5E
287
288
previously overlooked mechanism for understanding how salinity of sea water may
be increased in the absence of typical evaporite concentrations in the open water
mass. The interstitial water in the sediments begins as sea water of normal or
near-normal salinity. Owing to the high temperature and excess of evaporation
over rainfall, however, the interstitial waters transpire upward through the porous
marginal sediments and evaporate at the sediment-air interface, thus increasing
the concentration of salts in unevaporated water. The circulation is identical to
that which forms caliche in soils. Dolomite may be the only evaporite mineral
present, as in the Bahamas and Florida, or more evaporitic minerals such as
anhydrite, gypsum, or halite, may occur with or near the dolomite, as on the
sebkhas of the Persian Gulf. Such caliche-like dolomite requires only a porous
marginal sediment framework, which need not necessarily consist of calcium carbonate particles, predominantly upward transpiration of sea water through the
sediment, and continued access of the sea water to the porous marginal framework.
The discovery of dolomite caliche in West Texas (FRIEDMAN,
1966) confirms that
this process may also form dolomite in a nonmarine setting. The same principle,
called capillary concentration, was earlier discussed by MUELLER(1 960) and
applied by him as an explanation for the nitrate deposits of northern Chile.
Muellers experiments showed how precipitates from solutions that moved upward
as a result of capillary action may be zoned according to solubility. Although he
was particularly concerned with nonmarine evaporites and the influence of slopes,
the mechanism proposed by Mueller seems to have operated in sea-marginal
settings of flat topography. Interesting results might be obtained by repeating
Muellers experiments using sea water and lower slopes at the sediment-air interface.
Different stratigraphic patterns of units will be produced, depending upon
the relationships between submergence, local sediment supply, and rate of dolomite
formation. During submergence with counterbalanced local sediment supply, and
rate of dolomite formation, the marginal deposits simply thicken by additions at
the top and their inner edge encroaches landward, forming a basal transgressive
supratidal dolostone. If submergence becomes slightly excessive, the basal transgressive supratidal dolostone will be buried and overlain by non-dolomitic,
nearshore, shallow-water marine carbonates. Such basal dolostones should be
common where carbonate-depositing seas have submerged adjoining land areas;
they may not be conglomeratic, as initial deposits of transgressing seas are supposed to be.
The seaward side of an algal flat-supratidal flat complex, however, may expand laterally toward the sea, so that sediments from these environments overlie
deposits from tidal flats and lagoons, as at Qatar (TLLINGand WELLS,1964). Here,
a stratigraphic succession consists of basal lagoonal carbonate sediments, which are
overlain by intertidal skeletal lime muds and lime sands. These, in turn, are covered
by stromatolitic algal laminae, and the topmost layer consists of dolomite which
289
originated on the supratidal flats. If slow submergence occurs during such lateral
seaward expansion of the marginal sediment zones, then the resulting stratigraphic
units will overlap each other in a seaward direction, opposite to that of the transgressing landward side of the sebkha. Not only will the width of the sebkha increase
under such circumstances, but the thickness of the distinctive deposits formed on
it will thicken by additions at the top.
Tiny crystals (about 2,u in size) of Recent dolomite (radiocarbon ages of 1480f
140 and 2190 & 150 years B.P.) have formed by replacement of calcium carbonate sediments on sea-marginal flats on the south end of the island of Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. Dolomite occurs in most sediments here and comprises as much as
95% of some crusts (DEFFEYES
et al., 1964). Although the question of origin of
these crusts by capillary concentration of supratidal flats was not discussed, the
descriptive data suggest that this process may have operated. Evaporation in isolated lakes and pools enclosed within a ridge of coral rubble has raised the salinity
and caused precipitation of aragonite and gypsum; the Mg/Ca ratio of these isolated
lakes has also been raised to 30/1 by depletion of calcium. Calculations of the water
and material budget of the Pekelmeer, the largest of these lakes, suggest that dense
brine escapes downward by seepage through the underlying sediment. The effects
of this supposed downward seepage of Mg-rich brine were not directly investigated
by Deffeyes et a]., so that this mechanism has not yet been shown to have produced
Recent dolomite. Instead, their argument on behalf of this process is based on the:
(u)association of Recent dolomite on the south side of the island (which possibly is
of supratidal origin); (b) measurements and calculations of the brines in Recent
pools on the south side of the island and inferences on downward seepage of the
brine from these pools; and (c) application of the downward seepage concept to the
older Pleistocene dolostone found along a stratigraphic discontinuity on the north
side of the island.
Such downward percolation of brines was envisaged as the seepage refluxion process by ADAMSand RHODES(1960). Although the belief in feasibility
of this process has been greatly strengthened by the work on sediments off the island
of Bonaire, the facts are that Recent dolomite formed by it has not yet been
demonstrated. It is easy to predict that this demonstration will be made shortly.
Adams and Rhodes postulated that evaporation in the overlying water mass produces dense brine, which flows outward along the bottom. If the return flow along
the bottom (reflux) of this brine is prevented, then its only route of escape is
downward interstitial flow through porous underlying carbonate sediments. The
brine is inferred to have been an active agent of dolomitization.
The distribution and origin of Pleistocene dolomite in Salt Flat Graben,
which extends along the Hudspeth and Culberson County lines, West Texas,
U.S.A., for a distance of about 80 km from the Apache Mountains in the south
to beyond the Texas-New Mexico state line in the north, have been studied by
FRIEDMAN
(1966). The graben was formed in the Late Tertiary and has been filled
290
with Pleistocene and Recent sediments. Its average width is 17.6 km; the thickness
of its fill is incompletely known. Wells in the graben center which are 404 m and
375 m deep do not fully penetrate the Pleistocene sediments; other wells, however,
nearer to the margin of the graben, indicate that the thickness of the fill there
ranges from 1.5 to 36 m. The surface sediments of this fill are composed of gypsum,
halite, calcite, and dolomite, with subordinate amounts of aragonite and native
sulfur. Cores of the upper meter of the fill taken along a transect across the graben
reveal that dolomite occurs at stratigraphically persistent levels. One prominent
traceable dolomite zone occurs near Highway 62 at a depth of 40.8-51 cm below
the surface in the center of the basin; its depth below the surface increases toward
the margins of the basin. Other dolomite layers are found at depths of about
61-71.2 cm and 86-91.5 cm.
The color of the sediments in the upper 37 cm or so is brown, indicating
oxidizing conditions. The color below this depth alternates between gray to black,
indicating reducing conditions. The sediments are finely interlayered with laminae
of tan and gray colors. These couplets are due to different mineral composition.
The finely laminated units, with thicknesses ranging from 4-1 6 cm, consist
predominantly of gypsum and halite, with locally abundant calcite, aragonite, or
dolomite, and minor amounts of terrigenous quartz and feldspar, arranged in
laminae with thicknesses varying from a millimeter to a few centimeters. The
grayish-black interbeds, 4-5 cm thick, consist of dolomite and laterally discontinuous sulfur lenses with minor calcite. The distinctive black color of these layers
with dolomite facilitates their use as stratigraphic markers. The black color,
however, disappears within a month as a result of oxidation if left exposed to the
atmosphere.
A radiocarbon date of 5,840 f 400 years B.P. was determined for a sample
of calcite and aragonite from the surface layer of the old lake-bottom sediments;
and a date of 20,300 ,J, 825 years B.P., for a sample of pure dolomite from a
depth of 89 cm in the core.
The dolomite-bearing layers form hardpans; when these were pierced in
coring or trenching, HzS escaped with a swishing sound. Although the black color
suggested that the carbon content of these layers is higher than that of the other
layers, measurements of organic carbon reveal a range of values from 0.1 1 to 0.37 %
and that the dark layers do not contain more abundant carbon than the others.
Accordingly, the dark color must be due to iron sulfide. This association of dolomite, H B S ,iron sulfide, and native sulfur suggests that decomposition of gypsum was
involved in the history of these layers. A comparison is suggested with Dead Sea
sediments in which gypsum has been transformed into calcite by bacterial reduction
of the sulfate, with evolution of HBS,some of which reacted with iron in solution
to form iron sulfide, the black pigment (NEEV,
1963; see also Chapter 5). The native
sulfur of salt domes has been attributed to bacterial reduction of gypsum or
anhydrite (BASTINet al., 1926; THODE
et al., 1951; JONES et al., 1956).
29 1
TABLE IV
ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF DOLOMITE FROM SALT FLAT GRABEN, WEST TEXAS,
6 13C
'80
Corrected to PDB
Corrected to PDB
-6.4 to -13.8
-4.1 to 0.0
-3.6 to -9.1
-2.0 to + 3 . 3
Regression analysis of the mineralogical data from Salt Flat Graben indicates
that a positive relationship exists between increased dolomite and decreased gypsum,
halite, and calcite contents.
Compared with layers in which dolomite is less abundant or absent, the
dolomite layers at Salt Flat Graben are enriched in heavier isotopes; the results are
shown in Table IV.
Other isotopic studies have shown that carbonate minerals in nonmarine
environments where evaporation has not occurred tend to be enriched in the lighter isotopes of carbon ( I T ) and oxygen (160). The process of evaporation, however,
tends to concentrate the heavier isotopes, I3C and l*O, because the lighter isotopes
are preferentially removed in C02. The enrichment of the heavier isotopes found
in the dolomite-rich layers, therefore, indicates intense evaporation.
Similar isotopic studies on Dead Sea sediments (FRIEDMAN
and NEEV,1966)
indicated that aragonite contains heavier isotopes, and calcite, lighter isotopes.
These results suggest that the aragonite formed during intense evaporation,
whereas the calcite originated as a by-product of the bacterial decomposition of
gypsum (NEEV,1963, 1964; see also Limestone Chapter). The calcitic layers, both
a t Salt Flat Graben and in the Dead Sea, are related to the activity of bacteria which
use lighter isotopes from their carbon source (FEELEY
and KULP, 1957, p.1844).
Hence isotopically heavy dolomite reflects concentration of brines and the lighter
calcite, bacterial fractionation.
The sediment couplets of the sediments deposited in the Pleistocene lake in
Salt Flat Graben, as in the Dead Sea sediments, probably represent alternations of
climate. An important difference between the sediments from these two areas,
however, should be pointed out. In the Dead Sea sediments, one half of the couplet, the calcite, formed at the expense of original gypsum. In the Salt Flat Graben
lake sediments, on the other hand, the laminated member of the couplet contains
gypsum which has not been converted to calcite, although calcite of unknown
origin (precipitated or bacterial) is also abundant. The black member contains
dolomite and the products of bacterial reduction of gypsum: native sulfur, iron
sulfide, and HzS, and some calcite which may or may not be the result of bacterial
292
G. M. FRIEDMAN AND J.
E.
SANDERS
293
GAR, 1962) showed no significant differences between the light and dark sediment
layers and between the coexisting dolomite and calcite. This is surprising in view
of the clear-cut differences found between the dark and light layers at Salt Flat
Graben and between the aragonite and calcite layers in the Dead Sea sediments.
Pure, well-ordered, stoichiometric dolomite, ranging in age from 17,400 i600 to 37,000 years B.P., gypsum, and celestite, occur in lacustrine sediments from
pluvial lakes in West Texas (REEVESand PARRY,1965). These sediments antedate
the maximum advance of Wisconsin glaciers. The well-ordered dolomite contrasts
with the protodolomites that characterize most of the other Recent and Pleistocene
dolomites, except some of those from Australia.
Pleistocene dolomite occurs in the sediments of Lake Eyre, which is situated
in a tectonic basin known as the Lake Eyre Basin that forms the lowest point on the
1963; WOPFNERand
Australian Continent (KING, 1956; JOHNSand LUDBROOK,
TWIDALE,1966). The basin is surrounded by various positive structures; it originated by faulting in the Late Cenozoic. The climate of the basin area is the driest in
Australia, but river systems with watershed areas in excess of 1,300,000km2 drain
into it, so that innumerable playas occur. During the Pleistocene, gypsite, a sediment composed for the most part of crystalline gypsum, was deposited across the
entire basin. Gypsite interfingers with extensive fresh-water limestones which contain dolomite. The limestones vary from dark greenish-gray, microcrystalline, and
slightly dolomitic rocks south of Lake Eyre, to yellow-brown, coarsely crystalline,
vuggy dolomitic limestones containing abundant casts of reeds and grass near a
locality called Coward Springs (WOPFNER
and TWIDALE,
1966). Pliocene and Miocene dolomite and dolomitic clay have been found in the center of the basin. No
detailed mineralogical studies of Lake Eyre Basin sediments have yet been reported,
but the pattern of sediment types is similar to that of other dolomite-bearing
carbonate lake deposits.
Pleistocene dolomite also occurs in sediments of the Northern Tiberias Basin
of the Jordan Valley-Dead Sea Graben of Israel (see previous chapter). The drainage into this basin is internal, as in Salt Flat Graben, Lake Eyre, and other intermontane basins.
The absence of dolomite in typical Recent marine carbonate sediments is a
question which puzzled geologists for many years. Inasmuch as dolomite is less
soluble than either calcite or aragonite, it was naturally expected that dolomite
would precipitate readily from sea water of normal composition. Magnesium ions,
however, tend to become hydrated, that is, to surround themselves with an envelope of water molecules, in which condition they do not easily enter into crystals.
The solution must, therefore, become supersaturated before magnesium crystals
precipitate. Dolomite precipitates only when hydration is impeded, such as under
conditions of high salinity, high temperature, and high magnesium-ion concentration. When these conditions are realized, whether in nature, or in the laboratory,
dolomite originates,
294
295
features of the substance which they replace. The case for the supposed instantaneous replacement of aragonite by dolomite, therefore, would be greatly strengthened if the dolomite rhombs were found to contain relicts of the outline of needlelike aragonite crystals.
Many problems concerning the details of replacement remain unsolved. It
is not understood whether the results take place by simultaneous solution of the
host mineral and deposition of the replacing mineral, or by ionic exchange, or the
extent to which or how magnesium is introduced. In the case of dolomite replacement of either aragonite or calcite, crystallographic changes are involved, which
are more extensive than simple exchange of ions.
Replacement may take place either on a volume-for-volume basis, in which
case no single chemical equation is applicable; or on a molecule-for-molecule basis,
in which case the theoretical chemical equation is applicable. The molecule-formolecule transformation from calcite to dolomite involves a 12.1 % volume shrinkage, which would be accompanied by an increase in porosity and/or brecciation
in the replaced rocks. Such changes do not occur if the replacement occurs on a
volume-for-volume basis, which is thought by many geologists to be the commonest
type of dolomite replacement.
Proof of replacement origin of dolomite consists of: (a) Skeletal remains
now composed of dolomite, which were originally secreted as aragonite or calcite;
(b) Dolomite crystals which preserve relicts of distinctive calcium carbonate sediments, such as ooids, pseudooids, pellets, coated particles, aggregate particles and
so forth; (c) Dolomite patches in limestones; ( d )Preservation in chert of distinctive
fabrics of calcium carbonate sediments, where the surrounding dolomite shows
only crystal fabrics and lacks vestiges of fabrics from calcium carbonate sediments.
The term replacement is descriptive; it indicates that mineral a is now
in the position originally occupied by b without stating the process which brought
about this change. By contrast the German word Verdrangung, has a more active
meaning. Verdrangung implies that a has placed itself in the position of b by
the application of force, and has taken the place of b immediately following the
application of this force. Strictly speaking, therefore, the meaning of replacement
dolomite is not precisely synonymous with the German word Verdrangungdolomit. The term metasomatism is commonly used if replacement is accompanied by
introduction of new material from outside.
Skeletal remains which were originally secreted as high-magnesian or lowmagnesian calcite or aragonite that now consist of dolomite, are convincing proof
of a replacement origin of the dolomite. Not all skeletal materials respond equally
to dolomitization. Sometimes the original mineralogical composition of the skeletal material determines the sequence of dolomitization, and in many cases dolomitization is guided by the diagenetic history. Wigh-magnesian calcite skeletal materials, such as found in calcareous red Algae, may be dolomitized first, as at Eniwetok Atoll (SCHLANGER,
1957) or Plantagenet Bank near Bermuda (GROSS,1965).
296
Yet at Mallorca, one of the Balearic Islands of the western Mediterranean, and at
Funafuti and Kita-daito-jima in the Pacific these same fossils resisted dolomitization (FRIEDMAN,
1964, pp.798-799; SCHLANGER,
1963, p.1011). At Mallorca, in
Pleistocene limestones, dolomite crystals preferentially replaced drusy calcite
mosaics, which originated as void fillings where an original coated aragonite
grain had been dissolved (see Chapter 5). Coralline Algae have not been replaced
by dolomite crystals in these rocks. A possible explanation is that high-magnesian
calcite had been replaced by low-magnesian calcite before dolomitization (FRIEDMAN, 1964, p.799). Shells secreted as aragonite, as in gastropods, cephalopods, and
corals, generally are replaced by dolomite before the low-magnesian calcite
skeletal remains of brachiopods, ostracods, trilobites, and echinoderms (DIXON,
1907; SANDO,1957). The order just enumerated is based on original mineralogic
composition; if thz aragonite shells are first converted to low-magnesian calcite,
however, the replaced shells generally are more resistant to dolomitization than
skeletal material composed originally of low-magnesian calcite (DIXON,1907).
The same is true of the minerals in lime mud and ooids; aragonitic lime mud and
ooids are readily dolomitized, but they become more resistant to dolomitization
once the aragonite has been replaced by calcite. Dolomite replacement, therefore,
may be minutely influenced by the original distribution of aragonite in the calcareous sediments (HATCHet al., 1938; CLOUDand BARNES,
1948).
Reefs tend to be dolomitized as a result of one or more of the following
three processes: ( I ) the calcareous Algae commonly associated with them consist
of high-magnesian calcite that is readily converted to dolomite; (2) reefs and associated sediments are initially porous, so that they become paths of fluid migration;
and (3)many (but not all) reefs grew in shallow tropical seas, where the climate commonly promotes increased salinity of the sea water owing to evaporation, both in
the main water mass and in the interstitial waters. Such highly saline waters are
active agents in dolomitization.
The last of the three processes listed, namely strong evaporation of the sea
water with resultant formation of hypersaline brines, seems to be on the basis of
the evidence presently available, the most logical explanation. The approach
shown for the determination of the origin of dolomite in Salt Flat Graben, West
Texas (FRIEDMAN,
1966) and for aragonite in the Dead Sea (FRIEDMAN
and NEEV,
1966) using carbon and oxygen isotopes has been applied to dolomitization of reefs,
Oxygen isotope measurements on dolomite from beneath the atolls of Funafuti,
Kita-daito-jima, and Eniwetok in the Pacific Ocean show enrichment in the heavier oxygen isotope (BERNER,
1965). This enrichment can be explained by the reaction
of hypersaline brines with the reef material. Dolomitization could have occurred
in shallow, restricted backreef lagoons and tidal Aats or below the surface by
reflux action. On Plantagenet Bank near Bermuda, poorly ordered Ca-rich dolomite has formed at the expense of skeletal carbonate sands which have the same
297
298
299
water on supratidal flats, so that all dolomite formed under the influence of original
permeability need not be secondary in the sense of Illing. i n the Ellenburger rocks
of central Texas, penecontemporaneous dolomite has been closely controlled
by what were thought to have been former zones of greater permeability, even
though many of these are no longer permeable as a result of subsequent reactions
(CLOUDand BARNES,
1948). Where the dolomite of the Lone Mountain Dolostone
interfingers with limestone of the Roberts Mountains Formation (Silurian) in the
Pete Hanson Creek area, central Nevada, initially coarser-grained materials have
been dolomitized farther from the general facies interface than finer-grained materials (WINTERER
and MURPHY,1960).
Dolomite occurs in both fine-grained and coarser-grained materials in the
Madison Limestone (Mississippian) in the Beaver Lodge oil field, Williams County,
North Dakota (TOWSE,1957). Dolomite here is more common along the borders
of larger grains and in the matrix next to large grain boundaries, and also in what
were streaks of originally coarser-grained sediment. On the other hand, it does
occur in very fine-grained material that was initially less permeable. In one wellsorted limestone that consists of alternating layers of very fine-grained sediment
and medium-grained sediment, the dolomite has replaced only the very finegrained layers and not the coarser ones. Towse suggested that dolomite replaces
fine-grained sediments first where this material lies near coarser and more permeable parts of the sediment.
As noted previously, the mineralogical composition of the calcium carbonate
may be as important or even more important than grain size per se in controlling
selective dolomitization. i n fact, the mineral composition of the calcium carbonate
sediments may be related to the grain size, so that both factors may produce the
same or opposite tendencies, depending on local conditions. Mineralogy, in turn,
in many if not most carbonate sediments depends on the distribution of organisms.
The latter reflects environment. Hence, dolomitization is commonly controlled
directly or indirectly by depositional environment. In many areas, however, this
environmental control of dolomitization is obscured by the introduction of dolomitizing solutions from faults or fractures, a topic discussed in the section on Epigenetic dolomite.
Many porous dolostones have formed by replacement of lime muds; lime
muds with abundant floating sand-size particles are especially susceptible to dolomitization. An idiotopic fabric (FRIEDMAN,
1965a)is formed by growth of randomly
oriented,uniformly-sized dolomite crystals, and the unreplaced calcite is commonly
removed by dissolution. Hence, porosity is not formed by dolomitization, as has
sometimes been claimed, but by dissolution of calcium carbonate (R. C. MURRAY,
1960; POWERS,1962). This porosity may be obliterated later by precipitation of
additional dolomite, forming a xenotopic fabric, or of a calcite cement.
Great variation is possible owing to the many mineralogic changes that
take place in calcium carbonate sediments and to the influences of mineralogic
300
Not only does dolomite replace calcite or aragonite, but calcite may replace dolomite; no examples are known to the writers where aragonite has replaced dolomite.
Calcitization of dolomite is called dedolomitization, a term introduced by VON
301
+ CaS04
--f
2CaC03
+ MgS04
302
MAKHLAEV,
1957); from the northern Alps (SANDER,1936, 1951); French Jura
(SHEARMAN
et al., 1961); and Jurassic rocks of the Negev, Israel (Amitai Katz,
personal communication to G. M. Friedman).
Microscopic crystal textures and ,fabrics of dolostones
General statement
The original textures and fabrics of calcium carbonate deposits may be preserved
by selective dolomitization, but commonly these are obscured or obliterated by
dolomitization, and new textures and fabrics originate. The latter bear little or
no relationship to the original ones. These new dolostone textures and fabrics are
analogous to those of igneous and metamorphic rocks; in both groups of rocks
they have formed by crystal-growth processes. Distinctive dolostone textures and
fabrics typically form by replacement of nondolomitic carbonate deposits, but
dolomite can also grow by replacement of earlier dolomite deposits. In addition,
dolomite may be replaced by calcite, a process known as dedolomitization.
In this section the typical textures and fabrics of dolostone are defined, classified, and, where necessary, illustrated, essentially following FRIEDMANS
classification (1965a). The textural terms used are the same as those applied to igneous
rocks by Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington (C.I.P.W.). The fabric terms are
modifications of the Rohrbach and Rosenbusch terms based on a -topic suffix
as applied to dolostone fabrics by FRIEDMAN
(1965a).
Most dolomites and such evaporite minerals as gypsum and anhydrite are
formed by crystallization or recrystallization. This process results in crystals. In the
publication referred to (FRIEDMAN,
1965a), the terms crystallization textures and
fabrics were introduced. The terms were taken from the process rather than the
product. The reason for preference of the longer process than the shorter product
term was to retain consistency with metamorphic nomenclature which describes
analogous textures and fabrics as crystalloblastic. For the sake of brevity and to
make the definitions and classification descriptive rather than genetic, a slight
modification is introduced here and the terms are renamed crystal textures and
fabrics.
DeJinitions and classification
Crystal texture refers to the shape of mineral crystals. The terms euhedral, subhedral, and anhedral describe the shapes of individual crystals and are used exactly
as defined for igneous rocks, so that it is unnecessary to repeat the definitions here.
Idiotopic, hypidiotopic, and xenotopic designate dolostones in which the shapes of
the majority of crystals present are euhedral, subhedral, and anhedral, respectively.
Crystal fabric refers to the size and mutual relationships between crystals.
In equigranular fabrics the crystals are more or less of the same size; whereas
inequigranular fabrics are those in which the size of crystals varies. Porphyrotopic
303
TABLE V
DOLOSTONE TEXTURES AND FABRICS
Crystal textures
(I) Individual crystals
(a)euhedral
(b) subhedral
(c) anhedral
Crystal fabrics
(I) Equigranular
(2)Inequigranular
(a)porphyrotopic
(b) poikilotopic
304
PLATE I
305
306
PLATE I (continued)
B.
C.
D.
E.
307
308
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
OCCURRENCE OF DOLOSTONE
Classijication
Dolostones may be classified into four major groups: ( I ) syngenetic dolostone;
(2) detrital dolostone; (3) diagenetic dolostone; and ( 4 ) epigenetic dolostone.
( I ) Syngenetic dolostone: (a) Dolostone which interfingers with evaporites,
both marine and non-marine, with or without associated terrigenous sediments.
(6) Dolostone which interfingers with limestones, both marine and non-marine,
with or without terrigenous sediments. ( c ) Dolostone which is interbedded with
terrigenous sediments. (d) Dolomite crystals which are disseminated in terrigenous sediments. (e) Dolomite formed by biological agents. ( f ) Miscellaneous nonmarine dolomite.
(2) Detrital dolostone and detrital dolomite in limestone.
(3) Diagenetic dolostone. Dolostone formed by stratigraphic types of
replacement of calcium carbonate sediments, within individual beds and along
surfaces of stratigraphic discontinuities.
( 4 ) Epigenetic (structurally-controlled) dolostone.
Syngenetic dolostone
General statement
Syngenetic dolostone is here defined as dolostone that has formed penecontemporaneously in its environment of deposition as a micrite or as fine-grained crystals. This type of dolostone is contrasted with diagenetic dolostone, which formed
by replacement of pre-existing calcium carbonate sediments during or following
consolidation of the sediments. Diagenetic dolostone also may form penecontemporaneously by replacement of grains and cement of calci um carbonate sediments,
hence also in the depositional environment. In borderline cases the distinction
between syngenetic and diagenetic dolostone becomes difficult or impossible. If
dolomite had formed penecontemporaneously by replacement of grains or the
tests of organisms, it would be considered diagenetic; but, if dolomite had replaced
an aragonitic matrix between the grains or tests, criteria for recognition would be
nonexistent, and the distinction between the two classes of dolomite breaks down.
This limitation in border-line cases should not detract from the merits of this
309
Interjngering qf syngenetic dolostone with evaporites, both marine and nonmarim, with or without associated terrigenous sediments
i n the section on Origin and destruction of dolostone it had been demonstrated
that dolomite is an evaporite mineral which is commonly formed with other
evaporite minerals, such as gypsum or anhydrite, as for instance at the present time
in the Persian Gulf or during Early Recent and Late Pleistocene times at Salt Flat
Graben, West Texas. At Salt Flat Graben it was demonstrated (FRIEDMAN,
1966)
that dolomite formed during periods of intense evaporation from hypersaline
brines and that high temperatures were the triggering mechanism that served to
bring about formation of dolomite. In ancient environments, therefore, syngenetic
dolomite is commonly associated with other evaporite minerals, such as gypsum,
anhydrite, and halite. Examples and descriptions of ancient syngenetic dolomite
occurrences with evaporite minerals follow.
Dolostones interbedded with gypsum, anhydrite, or salt. typically are very
fine-grained, show uniform texture, and lack obvious textural features that indicate
origin by replacement of calcium carbonate sediments. Such dolostones have been
admitted as possible primary precipitates by many, but not by all observers (TARR,
1919; CLOUDand BARNES,
1948; COOPER,1956; EDIE,1956; DUNBAR
and RODGERS,
1957; KRYNINE,
1957; ILLING,1959; andHAM, 1960,amongothers, areproponentsof
primary origin; NEWELL
et al., 1953, and ADAMSand RHODES,
1960, are dissenters).
Almost every statement about primary precipitation of dolomite admitted its
existence as a theoretical possibility, but at least before 1962, contained a disclaimer that proof of this origin was lacking. As noted on previous pages, however,
the missing proof that syngenetic dolomite does form in its depositional environment has now been found, but whether it formed by precipitation or replacement
of aragonite is still being disputed.
The lack of association with ordinary limestone has been emphasized as a
characteristic of evaporitic dolostone (STEIDTMANN,
1926, p.260; DUNBARand
RODGERS,
1957,p . 2 4 2 ) . A ~ A ~
and
s RHODES
(1960, p. 1916), however, considered that
the calcite laminae in the Castile Anhydrite (Permian of West Texas Basin) resulted from direct chemical precipitation; they cited these laminae as the basis for
the conclusion that . . .some, probably all, chemically precipitated carbonates
were originally non-dolomitic. An alternative explanation for the origin of these
calcite laminae, however, is, as indicated in the discussion of the Salt Flat Graben
and analogous Dead Sea carbcnates, that they formed as a result of the decomposition of gypsum. Adams and Rhodes, however, did associate the origin of dolostone with restricted water circulation, even though they doubted the mechanism
of primary precipitation of dolomite; they argued that the fine-grained dolostones
resulted from replacement of originally fine-grained calcium carbonate sediments,
310
G.
M.
as did NEWELL
et al. (1953).
Although CLOUDand BARNES
(1 948, p.94) admitted that primary dolostone
might exist in association with evaporites, they remarked that this type resulted
from a special type of sedimentation and that it does not apply generally to
most dolostones.
Examination of dolostones associated with evaporites indicates that both
syngenetic and diagenetic types may occur. Chief emphasis here is on the syngenetic
type.
Examples associated with marine evaporites include the Triassic and Permian of Germany; Permian of West Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma; Mississippian and Devonian of western Canada; Silurian of the New York-Michigan Basin;
Mississippian of Indiana; Carboniferous of the Russian Platform; and the Permian
of Yorkshire (Great Britain). An example associated with nonmarine evaporites
is the Horse Spring Formation (Tertiary) of southern Nevada.
The Permian succession of the evaporite basin in north Germany consists of
limestones, dolostones, anhydrite, halite, alkali salts, and interbedded clays,
shales, and siltstones (BRINKMANN,
1960). This succession is known as the Zechstein; its four main subdivisions, from base upward, are the Werra, Stassfurt, Leine
and Aller beds. The Werra beds begin with a basal conglomerate 1 m thick, which
is overlain by a thin (0.25-0.3 m) black shale containing copper, the Kupferschiefer.
Next follows a skeletal limestone containing brachiopods, clams, and snails, 5-7 m
thick, which passes laterally into algal and bryozoan reefs on submarine ridges or
in former coastal zones. In north Hanover this limestone (Zechsteinkalk)
is overlain in ascending order, by a lower anhydrite 30 ni thick, 5 m of salt, and
an upper anhydrite 20 m thick. To the southeast, in Thuringia, these Werra anhydrite and salt beds pass laterally into 15 m of dolostone (Hauptdolomit) and
elsewhere in Thuringia, this whole sequence is represented by 40 m of reef limestone.
The overlying Stassfurt beds include 10 ni of shale at the base; then follow upward
2 m of anhydrite, 500 m of salt, and 30 m of covering beds composed of terrigenous
sediments. The overlying Leine beds include 5 in of basal gray clay with salt, 30 m
of anhydrite (Hauptanhydrit), which in Thuringia is represented by 10 m of
dolostone (Plattendolomit).
The middle part of the German Triassic (Muschelkalk) also includes limestones, dolostones, anhydrite, and marls, which have been subdivided into three
groups; the lower carbonate rocks (Wellenkalk or Wellendolomit), middle
evaporite (anhydrite and halite) and marl unit, and an upper unit (Haupt Muschelkalk), which in south Germany (Black Forest and Swabian region) consists of a
basal limestone (Trochitenkalk), 12-25 m thick, middle shales, 70-80 m thick
and an upper dolostone 10 m thick (Trigomdux Dolomit). Triassic limestones
occur nearer the center of the former marine basin, whereas the dolostones are
found nearer the ancient coastal areas, where the salinity of the sea water is thought
to have been greater (BRINKMANN,
1960, p.73).
311
The cyclic Lower and Middle Permian strata of western Oklahoma (HAM,
1960) are examples of limestone associated with evaporites. Attention here is
centered on the presumed syngenetic dolostones. From the base upward, the Permian includes Wellington, Cimarron-Hennessey, Blaine-Dog Creek, and Cloud
Chief Formations; the thickness of these sediments is 1,000 m, but only the last two
are found as outcrops. The Blaine has been studied in most detail; it is 80 ni thick
and consists of 60-70 % gypsum, 17-30 % shale, and 7-15 % dolostone. The anhydrite, gypsum, dolostone, and shale predominate in the northwest, whereas terrigenous sediments predominate in the southeast. The four named gypsum subdivisions of the Blaine from base upward are: Haystack, Cedartop, Collingsworth, and
Van Vacter. Very fine-grained, presumably evaporitic dolostones occur in the
Mangum Dolostone at the base of the Van Vacter Gypsum. The Mangum Dolostone also includes coarser-grained dolostones formed by replacement of oolitic
and pelletoidal calcium carbonate sediments. The Jester Dolostone, which underlies the Cedartop Gypsum, is a persistent bed only 0.3 m thick. It is microgranular
and laminated toward the west, but coarser-grained toward the south and east,
where it is clearly secondary after pelletoidal calcium carbonates sediments.
The Devonian and Mississippian complex of reefs, various limestones,
dolostones, anhydrites, and shales of Alberta and southern Saskatchewan locally
includes interbedded anhydrite and syngenetic dolostone. Anhydrite is limited to the
subsurface; its place on the outcrop is taken by distinctive collapse breccias (ILLING,
1959). Interbedded anhydrite and dolostone occur in the upper part of the Methy
Formation (GREINER,1956), and also in the Wabamun (Upper Devonian),
Shunda (lower part of the Mississippian) and Mount Head (upper part of Mississippian) Formations (ILLING,1959). Dolostone formed by replacement of finegrained calcium carbonate sediments is also present with the primary type.
One of the best-exposed and well-documented examples of dolostones associated with evaporites and minor terrigenous sediments is the Permian succession
of the northwestern margin of the Delaware Basin, southeastern New Mexico and
western Texas, U.S.A. The basin-marginal area has been termed the shelf; the
shoreline in this area trended northeast-southwest, and the facies boundaries are
parallel to it. The stratigraphic units have been named Carlsbad Limestone and
Queen, Seven Rivers, Yates, and Tansill Formations (KING, 1948; HAYES,1964).
Numerous facies belts of variable width and development are present; the general
order from southeast (side of normal sea water) to northwest (toward land) is as
follows: (1) dolomitized coquina and calcarenite; (2) dolomitic pisolites; (3) finegrained syngenetic dolostones; ( 4 ) sulfates and halite evaporites; and (5) terrigenous sandstones and redbeds.
Evidently a very shallow sea spread over the marginal area (shelf) of the basin.
Where the water was of normal marine salinity or was slightly hypersaline, both
reef- and nonreef organisms flourished. The hypersalinity of the water increased
northwestward toward the land; evaporites become the predominant materials in
3 12
G.
this direction. Still farther toward the northwest, quartz sandstones and redbeds
were deposited along the edge of a low-lying coastal plain, the surface of which
was composed of older Permian strata.
This Permian example and others considered previously, both in this chapter
and in the preceding chapter on limestones, illustrate a systematic sequence of
halite-sulfate-carbonate evaporites, which grade from halite (or most evaporitic
mineral) at the edge of the sea, to sulfates and carbonates in the direction of sea
water of normal salinity, as diagnosed by SCRUTON
(1953) and others. In a circular
gulf, therefore, the stratigraphic pattern becomes a marginal halo of halite, with
sulfates and carbonates in successive zones arranged concentrically inward toward the center of the basin and also toward the source of inflow of normal sea
water.
An exactly reverse arrangement, namely halite in the center with successively
outward zones of sulfates and carbonates surrounding it, has been inferred from
geologic study of some evaporite basins (STRAKHOV,
1958; SLOSS,1953; RONOV,
1956; BRIGGS,1958). The reasons for these supposedly opposite evaporite zonations
are not known; a few examples are considered in the following paragraphs.
The theoretical basis for the basin-center halite arangement was proposed
by BRIGGS(1958). The inlet wedge of the Briggs model agrees with the entire
water mass of the Scruton model; taken alone, this inlet (or influx) wedge
produces an evaporite mineral succession from halite at the margins of the wedge
to carbonates in the central part of the wedge. The resulting pattern of evaporites
is arcuate and concave toward the inlet (BRIGGS,1958, fig.2), not convex toward the
inlet as stated by BRIGGS(1958, p.49). The Briggs model, however, includes an
additional feature whose importance has not been established, namely, a basinmarginal zone of water of normal salinity, which grades into saline water at the
center of the basin. This additional feature of basin hydrology would seem to
require a great influx of fresh water, which at first sight seems incompatible with
the conditions of evaporation that produce the high salinity of the influx wedge.
One possible explanation is that a major river system discharges into the basin,
but derives its water from a distant humid area, so that its continued flow is independent of the arid conditions over the sea water.
The Salina Formation (Upper Silurian) of the Michigan Basin and OhioNew York Basin seems to contain a basin-center halite zone with basin marginal
carbonate zone, of which dolostone is the predominant carbonate except near the
supposed former connections to the open sea, where limestones occur (BRIGGS,
1958).
Dolostone of the Russian Platform occurs at the center of the basin and grades
laterally outward into partially dolomitized rocks, and beyond these, into limestones
(RONOV,1956).
The Middle Carboniferous of the Russian Platform, U.S.S.R., consists of
interbedded terrigenous deposits and carbonate rocks including limestones and
313
dolostones. The dolostones are of two types: (I) primary syngenetic dolostones,
which contain distinctive brachiopods, and (2) secondary diagenetic dolostones.
Locally the dolostones include anhydrite interbeds and disseminated crystals of
gypsum, fluorite, celestite, and other (unspecified) sulfates. The origin of the
dolostones is not clear; they are inferred to have been deposited in a basin whose
waters were highly saline (STRAKHOV,
1948). The environment of deposition is
thought to have included extremely shallow water and extensive partly emergent
shoals, with associated closed lagoons. During hot, dry times, brine is thought to
have formed in the lagoons and to have deposited dolomite, fluorite, celestite, and
gypsum. In spite of this environmental reconstruction the stratigraphic pattern is
presumed to indicate that the high-salinity facies occupied the center of the basin,
and the deposits of more normal salinity, the basin-marginal areas (compare with
RONOV,1956).
The St. Louis Limestone (Mississippian) of southwestern Indiana locally
contains dolomitic units that are succeeded by gypsum and anhydrite. A correlation
exists between increasingly saline units and increasing segregation into recognizable
tectonic units, such as shelves, basins, and hinge lines (MCGREGOR,
1954).
Dolomite and anhydrite layers occur in the halite-anhydrite zone of the Permian evaporites of northeast Yorkshire, England. Dolomite is usually subordinate,
but in places comprises 70% of the deposit. Petrographic evidence suggests that
the magnesite and anhydrite present may have formed at the expense of original
dolomite (F. H. STEWART,
1951).
Other examples and a review of the literature on limestones and dolostones
from evaporite sequences in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and U.S.S.R.
are contained in a paper by GRAF(1960). This paper reviews limestone and dolostone sequences both with and without other evaporite minerals. The limestones
are products of deposition in shallow marine waters, and contain abundant fossils
which disappear or decrease in abundance as the dolostone is approached; this
change in abundance suggests a salinity control on the formation of the dolostone
(STRAKHOV,1956; IMBRIE,1957; FOLK,1958).
The Horse Spring Formation (Tertiary) of southern Nevada (LONGWELL,
1928) includes variws lake deposits such as limestone, compact clay, sandstone,
volcanic tuff, gypsum, dolostone, and magnesite. The dolostone occurs as thin
interbeds in soft white magnesium carbonate; other interbeds include pink calcareous sandstone. The thickness of the Horse Spring Formation ranges up to
200 m or more. A diagnostic nonmarine evaporite mineral is colemanite, a source
of borax.
Interjngering of syngenetic dolostone with limestones, both marine and nonmarine, with or without terrigenous sediments
Dolostones most commonly are associated with limestones, either as dolostone
interbeds in a predominantly limestone succession, or as dolostone formations
314
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
that are lateral equivalents of limestone units. Both syngenetic and replacement
diagenetic types of dolostones are associated with limestones; the primary types are
identical with those found associated with evaporites. The primary dolostones
occupy a distinctive position with respect to evaporite and limestone associations.
In evaporite successions that also include limestones, dolostone occurs between the
limestones and the evaporites; in evaporite sequences which include no limestones
the dolostones represent deposits that formed further from the shoreline. In general,
these same remarks apply to most of the associated dolostone that i s of the stratigraphic-replacement type.
Syngenetic dolostone is formed by inorganic processes on broad shelves
landward from marine carbonates, usually in an environment hostile to most
marine organisms. As discussed in an earlier section, this type of dolostone is
formed under supratidal or intratidal conditions and, as in the Persian Gulf of the
present day, it interfingers landward with evaporites, such as gypsum and/or anhydrite, and seaward with normal marine carbonates. Typically, syngenetic dolostone which is formed by inorganic agencies is deposited under intense evaporation
conditions and genetically must be considered as an evaporite mineral. In the geologic column, it commonly interfingers with gypsum, anhydrite, or both, but this
is not always so. Even in the Recent environment of the Bahamas, where dolostone
is formed, gypsum or anhydrite are absent. The presence or absence of anhydrite
or gypsum is related to climaticconditions. In an arid environment like the presentday Persian Gulf, these evaporite minerals are formed in abundance, whereas under the more humid conditions of the Bahamas they do not develop. Syngenetic
dolostone in many areas interfingers with marine or nonmarine terrigenous
sediments, and evaporites, such as gypsum or anhydrite, may or may not be
present. Numerous examples of syngenetic dolostone can be cited, with an age
range from Early Paleozoic to Recent. In this section, only a few selected examples
are discussed to demonstrate the depositional environment of syngenetic dolostone,
which lacks evaporite association.
The Manlius Formation (Lower Devonian of RICKARD, 1962; Upper Silurian
of others) in New York State, U.S.A., consists of three distinct sedimentary facies
based on grain composition, texture, fossils, and primary structures (LAPORTE,
1964a,b). These facies are time-transgressive and become progressively younger
toward the west, indicating a westward migration of environments during submergence. Facies I consists of medium- to thick-bedded pelletal lime mudstone with
locally abundant stromatoporoids, which form a compact rock of encrusting and
hemispherical colonies. These stromatoporoids appear to have been waveresistant structures composed of framework-building and sediment-binding organisms; many large stroniatoporoid heads have been overturned and abraded, indicating that the water was intermittently strongly agitated. Other fossils include
rugose and tabulate corals, gastropods, brachiopods, ostracodes, and codiacean
Algae, which are presumed to be green calcareous Algae like the modern Halimeda
315
that occurs in subtidal areas of the Bahamas and Florida. Facies 1 is inferred to
represent subtidal deposits; it compares with Recent subtidal sediments of the
Bahamas and Florida.
Facies 2 is composed of thin- to medium-bedded, poorly fossiliferous, pelletal
lime mudstones, which locally alternate with pelletal skeletal sands. Scour-andfill structures, ripple-marks, cross-stratification, and lime-pebble conglomerates
characterize this facies; ooids are present in minor amounts. Fossils include ostracodes, molluscs, brachiopods, bryozoa, and serpulid worms. The lowest part
of this facies commonly contains well-developed algal stromatolites and oncolites
(LAPORTE,1963). These algal structures, which make up thin, irregular laminae,
encrust free-lying grains (oncolites) on the substrate, where they form heads of
various shapes and sizes (stromatolites). Facies 2 compares with sediments
et al. (1964) in the Recent environments of western Australia,
described by LOGAN
where encrusting mats of filamentous blue-green Algae trap and bind mud and fine
sand, at and somewhat below the low-tide level, and form similar stromatolite
structures. Facies 2 also compares with the Recent intertidal facies in Florida and
the Bahamas, which have been described by GINSBURG
(1960) and BAARS(1 963).
Facies 3 consists of essentially unfossiliferous laminated dolomitic limestone
or dolostone. Individual laminae 1/4-1/2 mm thick, are composed of dolomite
spar and rhombs, which grade into calcitic peletal mudstone. The top of the laminae is made up of a very thin bituminous layer which may be the remains of an algal mat. Mud cracks, birdseye structures, and burrows are common, but skeletal
debris is rare. Facies 3 compares with the Recent supratidal dolomite in the Florida
Keys and Bahamas described by SHINNand GINSBURC
(1964) and with that from the
pellet mud environment of Wide Opening, on the west side of Andros Island, Baha(1964, p.797).
mas, described by FRIEDMAN
The Lower Ordovician (Canadian) of the Mohawk Valley, New York,
U.S.A., consists of similar facies. The Lower Ordovician strata were first examined
by EATON(1824), pioneer geologist of the Mohawk Valley and founder and first
professor of geology at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. These beds have been
seen by many other geologists since then; a recent detailed description of them by
FISHER
(1 954) provides an excellent stratigraphic framework for environmental
studies being undertaken by M. Braun at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. M.
Braun and G.M. Friedman (unpublished) have tentatively recognized two or three
distinct facies, which are considered to be deposits of environments similar to those
inferred for the Manlius Formation by LAPORTE(1964a,b). These include fossiliferous calcarenite which locally contains: ( I ) worn and abraded pebbles of lime
or dolomite mud, thought to be a subtidal deposit; (2) flat-pebble conglomerate
in which the pebbles are angular and elongated lime or dolomite mud fragments
which locally grade into desiccation cracks, inferred to be of intertidal origin; and
(3) aphanitic dolostone, with locally well-developed polygonal mud or desiccation
cracks, flat-pebble conglomerate, and abundantly burrowed rock, which are inter-
316
317
Lowville Formation by F. B. Young (1943). These slits resemble those which are
common in the aphanitic dolostones of the Upper Silurian of Ohio, New York,
and Michigan (EHLERS,
1945; SUMMERSON,
1966; and others, summarized in
SUMMERSON,
1966); and Devonian dolostones of Indiana (PERKINS,
1963). These
slits or gashes have been interpreted as molds of gypsum crystals which have been
dissolved away after leaving their impression in the soft carbonate sediments. The
layers containing the gash-like gypsum molds in the Silurian rocks of Ohio are
unfossiliferous, but stromatolites occur in associated layers. These have been
compared with sediments of Recent tidal and supratidal flats of the lower Florida
Keys and Bahamas (SUMMERSON,
1966). The gypsum is thought by Summerson to
have been precipitated from a brine under conditions of intense evaporation and
then to have been dissolved later by successive floods of less saline water. The
Lowville association of aphanitic dolostone, linguoid current ripples, cross-beds,
desiccation cracks, lime-mud and dolostone pebble conglomerates, worm burrows
and gypsum molds is a diagnostic tidal-flat assemblage. These Lowville tidal
flats may have been criss-crossed by tidal channels. Intense evaporation evidently
occurred from time to time.
The sediment-water interface in all of these Paleozoic environments must
have sloped gently from the supratidal flats to the submerged subtidal zones, so
that extensive areas must have been alternately flooded and drained by the tidal
oscillations. In analogous Recent flats, such as those in the Bahamas, or along the
Texas Gulf Coast (EMERYand STEVENSON,
1957), tidal waters cut channels and
creeks across the flats. At a locality called Greens Corner, approximately 4 miles
northeast of Amsterdam, New York, and at a quarry 2 miles north of Tribes Hill,
New York, channels, probably tidal channels, occur at or near the top of the Wolfs
Hollow Member of the Tribes Hill Formation (Lower Ordovician). The channels
cut into a white-weathering lime mud (micrite); they themselves have been filled by
gray-weathering skeletal sand (biosparite). The micrite contains abundant dolomitefilled burrows. These burrows are horizontal rather than vertical and many gastropods, especially Oplzileta and Ecculiomphalous(FISHER,1954), are found in this
zone suggesting that these burrows were made by gastropods rather than by worms.
The channels are filled with skeletal debris as well as with lime mud pebbles and
big blocks of lime mud, some of which are over one meter in diameter. These channels
must have been high-energy streams that dissected the tidal flats.
The Jurassic carbonate rocks of the so-called Makhtesh-Katan, an erosion cirque or cove in southern Israel, consist of limestones derived by cementation of pelletal lime sands and both syngenetic and replacement dolostones (GILL,
1966). Composition, texture, and stratigraphy indicate that these materials accumulated in shallow bank environments, parts of which were periodically exposed
to subaerial conditions. In the upper part of the dolostone beds erosion channels
are found in which Jurassic sediments disconformably overlie the dolostone
(M. Goldberg, quoted by GILL, 1966). These minor disconformities were formed
PLATE I1
319
320
Formation of New York State, U.S.A., or the Black River Group, southern Ontario, Canada. Marginal marine dolostones may also form as a result of gradual
emergence or of seaward progradation of the shore. In such circumstances the
dolostone overlies nearshore marine limestones, as in the Jurassic rocks from Israel
described previously. An additional stratigraphic characteristic of such sea-marginal dolostones is that they grade seaward into normal marine limestones. Numerous examples of this pattern of distribution have been described from the
stratigraphic record; some of these have been mentioned previously.
Where dolostone formations pass laterally into limestone units, field relationships suggest that the dolostone formed closer to the ancient shoreline than
did the laterally equivalent limestone (DIXON, 1907; VAN TUYL,1918; MCKEE,
1938; HATCHet al., 1938; CLOUDand BARNES,1948; RITTENHOUSE,
1949; FAIRBRIDGE, 1957; BRINKMANN,
1960, among others). This interpretation is further
corroborated by the relationship between increased amounts of terrigenous inso-
Fig.2. Stratigraphic diagram across southern Appalachians, showing facies relationships between
Cambrian and Lower Ordovician strata. Restored diagram, showing inferred relationships prior
and RODGERS,
1957.)
to deformation. (After DUNBAR
Notice lateral passage from dolostone to limestone in a southeast-northwest direction during
deposition of Canasauga Group (Cambrian), but opposite direction of transition (northwest to
southeast) in Knox Group (Cambrian and Ordovician).
If dolostone represents the deposit formed closer to shore, then a major paleogeographic
change took place between the time of deposition of the Conasauga and Knox Groups. The shore
line must have lain to the southeast during Conasauga time, but to the northwest, during Knox
time. If correct, then the shale of the Conasauga Group represents an offshore accumulation and
not a nearshore deposit,
321
luble residue and high magnesium content found for the Cambro-Ordovician carbonate rocks in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., by LESLEY
(1 879; see
also FAIRBRIDGE,
1957), and by the chemical data assembled for the Lower Ordovician carbonate rocks of the central Appalachians in Virginia, U.S.A., by COOPER
(1945, 1956).
The stratigraphic relationships of the Knox dolostone group, which includes in ascending order Copper Ridge, Chepultepec, Longview, and Mascot
Dolostones, found in the northwestern outcrop belts, and ConococheagueJonesboro Limestones, of the southeastern outcrop belts, which illustrate this
principle very well, are shown in Fig.2 from DUNBAR
and RODGERS
(1957, fig.113,
p.239). The figure also portrays the distribution of marine shale, limestone, and dolostone in the underlying Conasauga Group (Middle and Upper Cambrian), which
is exactly the reverse of that found in the Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician
rocks just described. The limestones (Rutledge, Maryville, Maynardville) lie
northwest of the dolostones (Honaker, Elbrook). Dunbar and Rodgers emphasized
that the mud in Conasauga time and non-fragmental silica in Knox time indicate
a northwestern source during the entire interval represented by these two groups of
strata. If the generalization that dolostone forms closer to ancient shorelines than
contemporary limestones is valid, however, then the position of the nearest shoreline must have reversed itself in the area of the diagram: during Conasauga time
it lay to the southeast, whereas in Knox time it lay to the northwest. If this analysis
is correct, then the shale of the Conasauga Group is an offshore terrigenous deposit flanking a nearshore dolostone deposit, not nearshore terrigenous deposit,
as inferred by DUNBAR
and RODGERS
(1957) and others. If the offshore terrigenous
origin is correct, then the Conasauga Group may be added to the other examples
of nearshore carbonates and offshore terrigenous sediments discussed in the
previous chapter.
The Ordovician rocks of the northern Appalachians of western Vermont also
provide an example of nearshore dolostone that grades into limestone in the former seaward direction. The Bridgport Dolostone of the Champlain-Richelieu foreland grades eastward into the Beldens Formation of the Highgate Spring-St.
Dominique thrust slice, which consists of limestone and dolostone, and this thrust
slice grades into the Armand and Corey Limestones of the Phillipsburg thrust slice
(CADY,1960).
Another example is the Simonson Dolostone (Middle Devonian) of eastern
Nevada which grades westward into the Nevada Limestone, in the direction away
from the ancient shoreline (OSMOND,
1954).
Syngenetic dolostone interbedded with terrigenous sediments
In previous sections, syngenetic dolostones associated with evaporites and with
limestones have been considered. In both of these associations terrigenous sediments may be present in variable amounts or be absent altogether. A further
322
323
formations in this succession, so that it would appear to offer a fertile field for
petrographic and mineralogic research into the subject of dolomitization.
Somewhat similar suites of dolostones and terrigenous sediments with minor
limestones and limestone-pebble conglomerates occur in the eastern outcrop belts
of the Lower Cambrian in the central and southern Appalachians (RODGERS,
1956).
These dolostones (Vintage-Tomstown-Shady) and related rocks constitute the
earliest carbonate deposits in the Appalachian geosyncline. The environment of
origin of these early dolostones in the Appalachians has not been determined.
It is clear from the associations of dolostone with evaporites, limestone or
terrigenous sediments, or from their association in different combinations of complex sequences of these rock types, that all dolostone associations are but variations of a single theme: restricted circulation of sea water, evaporation and resultant increased salinity, or highly saline interstitial waters. The question of primary
(syngenetic) or secondary (diagenetic or replacement) is important, but fades
into the background; either or both types of dolomite may be present, but they
are minor variants in the identical general setting. If dolostone were generally
admitted into the ranks of evaporites, its connotations would become much
more widely appreciated. If this were done, the unifying principle that is evidently
responsible for all of these various stratigraphic associations would be emphasized
and the geologist would be armed with a powerful tool in attempting to predict
stratigraphic patterns. Dolostones interbedded with redbeds or dolostones interbedded with anhydrite, gypsum, halite or alkali salts, are extremes of the various
expressions of the evaporitic processes. In the first case, dolostone is the only
evaporite present and it indicates a rather low increase of salinity. In the second
case, dolomite represents the least evaporitic mineral in a sequence where the
extreme increase of salinity produced halite or alkali salts. Increased salinity is
apparently essential for the origin of dolomite replacements; this increase may take
place only within the interstitial waters, however, so that no evaporite precipitation
occurs from the mass of sea water, the salinity of which may be normal. Saline
interstitial solutions may move up or down; they may be in contact only with the
upper layers of the sediment mass o r may migrate widely through permeable
avenues at greater depths in the sediment mass.
Syngenetic dolomite crystals disseminated in terrigenous sediments
Syngenetic dolomite crystals have been reported in association with both finegrained and coarse-grained terrigenous sediments.
Minute dolomite crystals were first found in the Triassic marls of Gloucestershire and Worcestershire, England (CULLIS,1908,p.506). These dolomite crystals
are thought to be primary precipitates from the saline waters in which the marls
are known to have been deposited. The precipitated dolomite crystals sank to the
bottom and were deposited along with the red mud that had been transported in
turbulent suspension.
3 24
G. M. FRIEDMAN A N D J. E. SANDERS
325
326
G.
M. FRIDEMAN A N D J . E. SANDERS
Origin part of this chapter, because they are thought to be unrelated to the major
dolomite deposits, which are associated with marine sediments.
Dolomite was first discovered in Recent soils by investigations carried out
in the northwest coastal area of Wales, Great Britain (HARDY, 1921).
Coarse-grained or silty calcite and magnesite occur in saline soils in the
Zeravshan Valley, U.S.S.R. Calcium carbonate content increases, and magnesium
carbonate content decreases with depth (KUGOCHKOV,
1960). Dolomite is formed
when these soils are eroded and redeposited.
Dolomite has been found within the zone of water fluctuations in the soil
profiles formed on silt and very fine-grained sand of glacial lake beds in the Red
River Valley, Minnesota, U.S.A. The carbonate in the soils was converted to dolomite by reaction with magnesium-rich waters (SHERMAN
et al., 1962).
When dolomite was found to comprise 35-79 % of the carbonate in soils
developed on glacial till, the process of dolomite origin in calcareous soils was
suggested (ALWAYand ZETTERBERG, 1935). Dolomite comprises 90 % of the
carbonates in the soils of the fields of the University Schools of Agriculture at
Crookstown, Minnesota (HIDE,1935). The identification of dolomite in the subsoils was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis (SHERMAN
and THIEL,1939).
More recently these soils have been studied very extensively; 205 chemical
analyses for COa, CaO, and MgO have been made and samples have been analyzed
by differential thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction. The proportion of carbonates in the form of dolomite and the CaC03/MgC03 molecular ratios were calculated from the chemical data. The average Fe content of the carbonates was found
to be 0.1 % and the average Mn content, 0.03 %. The dolomite in these soils is
thought to have formed by the alteration of calcitic carbonates of the original lacusstrine deposits (SHERMAN
et al., 1962).
Dolomite is abundant as caliche in many parts of the Guadalupe Mountains,
West Texas, U.S.A., particularly in and near Salt Flat Graben. This caliche is
probably of Pleistocene age; particular care was taken in the study of this deposit
to make sure that it was not recycled dolomite, which may have been derived from
Permian dolostones in the area (FRIEDMAN,
1966).
Dolomite has been reported from caliche in South Africa (T. W. Gevers,
personal communication to DEGENS, 1965, p.119).
Detrital dolostone atzd detrital dolomite in limestone
Dolostones may be derived from cementation of dolomite grains that have been
laterally displaced by gravity and resedimented in deep water in an environment
foreign to their site of origin. Such dolostones resemble comparable limestones;
in fact, the point might be raised that they are nothing more than replacements of
gravity-displaced calcium carbonate sediments. Whereas this may be perfectly
possible, the evidence within the rock itself should provide the basis for assigning
327
one origin or the other. The presence of terrigenous (recycled) dolostone rock fragments and abraded dolomite crystals is indicative of re-sedimentation; indications
of replacement of calcium carbonate sediments by dolomite are inconclusive,
because such replacement might well have occurred prior to gravity displacement.
Post-displacement replacement would be indicated by dolomite that post-dates
both grains and any earlier cement. Replacement in the deep marine environment,
where most gravity-displaced materials have been found, seems unlikely in light of
indications that replacement occurs in shallow areas and on supratidal flats
(FAIRBRIDGE,
1957; confirmed by recent works previously cited).
No examples of Recent gravity-displaced dolomite sediments are known,
possibly because of a lack of study of Recent deep-sea sediments by X-ray diffraction, but dolomite grains presumably derived from Cretaceous rocks have been
found in the deep-sea sediments of the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba) (FRIEDMAN,
1966).
Two examples can be cited from the geologic record: the Lower Cambrian of the
Hudson Valley, New York, U.S.A., and the Middle Ordovician of the Gasp6
Peninsula, Canada.
Various amounts of detrital dolomite and dolostone fragments occur in
various subdivisions of the Trinity Group (Lower Cretaceous) in central Texas,
but dolomite is not abundant enough to form a true dolostone composed of recycled dolomite; rather it is found in the nonmarine sandstones and locally in the
middle marine limestone. The amount of detrital dolomite decreases seaward;
once the grains become silt-sized, they cannot be distinguished petrographically
from silt-sized authigenic dolomite (AMSBURY,
1962).
Diugenetic dolostone
General statement
Diagenetic dolostone is here defined as dolostone that has formed by replacement of
calcium carbonate during or after consolidation of the sediment; or it may have
formed penecontemporaneously by replacement of grains and cement of calcium
carbonate sediments. This type of dolostone is contrasted with syngenetic dolostone
that has formed penecontemporaneously in its environment of deposition as a dolomicrite or as fine-grained crystals. The reference to the fine grain size of syngenetic
dolostone is important in this definition. Under occurrence of syngenetic dolostone and in the section on Recent and Pleistocene dolomite it was shown that this
class of dolostone is formed in the depositional environment as fine mud or crystals. By contrast diagenetic dolomite is a replacement product and can normally
(1964) have shown that Recent gasbe identified as such. SHINNand GINSBURG
tropod shells and pellets have undergone penecontemporaneous dolomitization in
their environment of deposition; they noted that the concentration of dolomite increases as the sediments are progressively lithified. The penecontemporaneous
replacement dolomite described by SHINNand GINSBURG
(1964) is considered as
328
G.
M. FRIEDMAN AND J.
E. SANDERS
329
330
a flat surface, in contrast with the irregularity found both at top and bottom of a
capping-type dolostone that extends downward from a discontinuity.
Epigenetic dolostone
Epigenetic dolostone is here defined as dolostone that has formed by replacement
of limestone with the dolomite being localized by post-depositional structural
elements. It is closely related to faults and fractures in carbonate rocks. The term
epigenetic is synonymous with such terms as structurally-controlled dolostone,
tectonic dolostone, or T-dolostone (DUNBAR
and RODGERS,1957). It is consistent
with the terms syngenetic and diagenetic which have been introduced earlier in this
chapter; the term epigenetic has been adopted for characterizing this genetic class
of dolostone to make a consistent classification. The terms syngenetic, diagenetic,
and epigenetic imply a genetic sequence and have been used as the basis of classification of dolostone.
Many, but not all, epigenetic dolostones are genetically associated with
metallic ore deposits, notably of lead and zinc minerals.
Examples of epigenetic dolostone related to fractures but unrelated to ore
deposit are found in: ( I ) Cool Creek Limestone in Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma; (2) Helderberg Group in Hudson Valley, New York; (3) Cambrian and
Ordovician limestones of southwestern Ohio; and ( 4 ) Mississippian Limestone
along Keystone thrust, southern Nevada.
The Cool Creek Limestone (Ordovician) has been extensively dolomitized
near Pennsylvanian fault zones, 12 km southwest of Mill Creek, in the Arbuckle
Mountains of southern Oklahoma. This area has been mapped by W. E. Ham
(unpublished), who provided his manuscript map and pertinent aerial photographs for a study by G. M. Friedman (unpublished). The Cool Creek limestone is
a pelletal calcilutite which lacks dolomite; but it has been completely dolomitized
and shows typical crystallization or crystal fabric where it is contiguous with the
fault zone. The change from limestone to dolostone is abrupt. Thin-section study
reveals that the limestone, even in close proximity to the dolomitized zones, retains original depositional textures; nothing in the thin section suggests the possibility of nearby dolomite. The dolostone, on the other hand, invariably shows a
completely crystalline fabric, without any traces of original depositional textures
of calcium carbonate sediments. The extreme sharpness of the lateral contact
between the two rock types and absence of a transition zone between them was
confirmed by mineralogical and various geochemical studies. Magnesium and
manganese contents increase, strontium decreases, and iron shows no consistent
trend on approaching the faults (G. M. Friedman, unpublished). The limestone is
of Ordovician age and the faults are of Pennsylvanian age; therefore, dolomitization must have occurred during Pennsylvanian time (HAM,1951). Studies of oxygen
and carbon isotopes give a clue to the composition of the fluids that caused dolo-
331
mitization. Isotopic analysis of limestone and epigenetic dolostone from the Cool
Creek Formation has shown that the dolomite has been enriched in the heavier
isotopes (180 and 13C) (G. M. Friedman, unpublished; isotope analyses by W. M.
Sackett). The range for 60ls, corrected to PDB, was -7.1 to -7.8 for limestone
and -2.7 to -4.6 for dolostone from major fault zones. In dolostone from minor
breaks in limestone, the
values were closer to those of limestone than to those
of dolostone (-6.2 to -7.6). For 6I3C, corrected to PDB, the difference in values
between the two lithologies was not as pronounced; S13C for limestone showed a
range from -1.4 to -3.9 and that of dolostone from -0.9 to -2.8. Thus, an
overlap for 613C between the two lithologies exists; however, of ten limestone
samples six have values between -2.6 and -3.9, and of thirteen dolostone samples studied eight show a range between -0.9 and - 1.9, indicating that enrichment in the heavier carbon isotopes has taken place. Enrichment of dolostone in
heavy oxygen and carbon isotopes suggests that it formed with the aid of waters
having high d18O and 6l3C values, particularly high P O . This enrichment of the
original water in heavier isotopes that was responsible for dolomitization must
have resulted from strong evaporative processes with the lighter isotopes preferentially removed as part of COz. This isotopically-heavy water was a hypersaline
brine. It recalls the observations which were made in the case of the Salt Flat Graben
dolomite (FRIEDMAN,
1966), mid-Pacific atoll dolomite (BERNER,
1965), and dolomitized skeletal fragments of Bermuda (GROSS,1965), for all of which a reaction
with isotopically-heavy water was inferred. In the opinion of the writers, these observations now permit the generalization that all dolomites, whether syngenetic,
diagenetic or epigenetic owe their origin to hypersaline brines.
The Helderberg Group and base of the overlying Ulster Group (Lower
Devonian) in the Ravena area, New York, 24 km south of Troy, have been cut
by a thrust fault, along which extensive dolomitization of limestones has occurred
(J. R. Dunn, personal communication). A transition zone 3-6 m wide is present;
the dolostone itself may extend up to 10 m away from the fault zone. The Becraft
Limestone, studied by Dunn, shows an increase in MgO content towards the fault
zone from 0.9-6.2 % in a distance of 3 m. Quarry operators in this area have made
many chemical analyses of the carbonate rocks, which show a significant increase
in magnesium content near the thrust, reflecting the presence of the mineral dolomite. The transitional contact between dolostone and limestone here contrasts
with the abrupt contact between these two rocks in the Mill Creek area of Oklahoma, described above.
Replacement dolostones in the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones of the
Cincinnati Arch province in Ohio, U.S.A., are locally related to fractures, faults,
and solution channels (CALVERT,1964). These dolostones typically are fine to
coarsely crystalline and are thought to have been formed by circulation of magnesium-rich waters through the limestones. The magnesium-rich waters are presumed
to have moved vertically via deep-seated joints and faults, and then to have spread
332
laterally along porous zones and bedding planes. The upward migration of the
magnesian waters was arrested by thick overlying shales. The source of the magnesium was probably subsurface water, which was derived from the underlying
Cambrian strata (CALVERT,
1964, p.187).
Epigenetic dolostones are related to many lead-zinc deposits in carbonate
rocks; such associations are known from widely scattered localities from many
parts of the world. These occurrences have been summarized by HEWETT
(1928).
Examples included here are from: ( I ) Bromide, Oklahoma; (2) Goodsprings,
Nevada; and (3) east Tennessee, in U.S.A.; ( 4 ) northern England and southern
Wales; and (5) the Eifel, western Germany.
The Ordovician and Silurian limestones at Bromide, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,have
been-extensively dolomitized along persistent faults (HEWETT, 1921 ; 1928). A progressive increase in magnesium, iron, and manganese contents takes place in the wallrocks going toward the faults. Manganiferous carbonates and hausmannite occur
with the dolomite, indicating presence of low concentrations of manganese. The Bromide area is near the Mill Creek district studied by Friedman and mentioned here
in a previous paragraph, but contrasts with it in showing a gradual transition rather
than an abrupt change from dolostone to limestone. HEWETT
(1928) remarked on
the existence of abrupt changes from dolostone to limestone, but also noted that
in places like Bromide, Oklahoma, and Raible, Italy, a transition zone as much as
15-30 m thick may be present.
Near fractures in the Goodsprings quadrangle, Nevada, the limestones
have been converted into epigenetic dolostone by destructive replacement. Original
depositional textures of calcium carbonate sediments and such fossils as Foraminifera, corals, brachiopods, and gastropods exist in the unreplaced limestone, but
have been progressively destroyed in the epigenetic dolostone (HEWETT,
193 1).
In the east Tennessee zinc district the ore bodies are located in a coarsegrained tectonic type of dolostone, known locally as recrystalline rock. This
TABLE VI
SUMMARY OF PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS TN ROCKS OF MASCOT-JEFFERSON CITY DISTRICT,
EAST TENNESSEE (MEASUREMENTS FROM
Rock
_____
Kingsport Limestone
Mascot S-dolostone
T-dolostone formed by
replacement of Kingsport Limestone
No. of
samples
OHLE,1951)
Average
permeability
(millidarcys X lo-@)
11
17
21
81
18
4900
Range of
permeability
(millidarcys X
160580-
0.25
3.1
39,000450
333
type of dolostone has been formed under two controls: ( I ) faults, particularly
small tear faults, which have caused extensive brecciation of the nearby rocks; and
(2) stratigraphic level in the Knox Group, the preferred horizon of replacement
being the Kingsport Limestone. The Kingsport Limestone is a fine-grained pelletal
rock which is similar to the Cool Creek Limestone (Ordovician) of Mill Creek,
Oklahoma, mentioned previously. The Kingsport Limestone underlies the Mascot
Dolostone, an S-type of dolostone (DUNBAR
and RODGERS,
1957),that comprises
the uppermost member of the Knox Group (Cambro-Ordovician). A representative
example is found in the Mascot-Jefferson City district (ODERand MILLER,1945;
BRIDGE,1956; OHLE, 1951). Laboratory measurements have indicated that the
coarse-grained epigenetic dolostone formed by replacement of Kingsport Limestone, the host rock for the ore bodies, is the most permeable rock in the fault
zones (OHLE,1951). Results of these measurements are summarized in Table VL
The average increase in permeability as a result of conversion of Kingsport
Limestone to coarse-grained epigenetic dolostone is 18,000%; the extreme range
is 2,000,000%. The dolostone has formed in permeable zones outward from the
fractures, such as along stylolite seams. Photomicrographs of unaltered Kingsport
Limestone, partly replaced limestone, and coarse-grained dolostone are found in
the book by DUNBAR
and RODGERS
(1957).
Epigenetic dolostone has formed by replacement of the Carboniferous
Limestone in northern England and southern Wales, where it has been cut by
faults. In the Pennine chain these faults are part of the Craven fault system. The
dolostone borders the faults and extends outward in varying distance into the
adjacent limestone along joints and bedding planes. Dolomite crystals also occur
along irregular cracks which cut the limestone (HATCHet al., 1938, p.193).
The epigenetic dolostones of South Wales and red dolostones of Breedon,
Leicestershire, England, include euhedral dolomite rhombs zoned with hematite.
This hematite-rich dolomite is believed to have formed during Permian and Triassic time, when redbeds were deposited on a large scale (PARSONS,
1918, pp.255-257).
This explanation, however, does not seem very compelling in light of the summary
of HEWETT(1928; see below), which reveals a common association of increased
iron content with epigenetic dolomite.
Local epigenetic dolostones occur with lead-zinc ores along Jurassic faults,
which cut the Bunter sandstones (Triassic) in the Eifel district, western Germany
(PICARD,1954). The dolostone has not formed at the expense of original limestone
here, but occurs in sandstone.
In his summary of fault-related dolostone, HEWETT
(1928, p.849) also noted
that in many areas the dolomitized rocks contain a higher iron content, and locally
a higher manganese content than the original limestone. This is not surprising in
view of the geochemical similarities between magnesium, iron, and manganese;
iron and manganese tend to occur with magnesium under a wide variety of circumstances. The depletion of strontium in the dolostones of Mill Creek, Oklahoma
334
(G. M. Friedman, unpublished), is analogously understood in terms of the geochemical similarity between calcium and strontium in such crystal structures as
calcite. Where sulfide minerals are associated with epigenetic dolomite, dolomitization of the limestones seems to have preceded precipitation of the sulfides.
HEWETT
(1928, p.861) concluded that little, if any, of the magnesium which was
added during the process of dolomitization of limestone, is of direct magmatic
origin. The isotopic data cited for the Cool Creek Limestone of Oklahoma
(G. M. Friedman, unpublished) support an origin by hypersaline brines.
CONCLUSION: A UNIFYING MODEL FOR DOLOMITIZATION
Three classes of dolostone have been recognized, which have been termed syngenetic, diagenetic, and epigenetic. The purpose of this classification has been for the
orderly discussion of the subject and to facilitate descriptive study and genetic
interpretation. Yet, it must be recognized that nature transcends these man-made
barriers and that in regional studies of dolostones all three classes may occur together
and may in fact be genetically related. This is especially true for syngenetic and diagenetic dolostones. The different classes of dolostone are mere variations on a
theme: dolomite owes its origin to hypersaline brines, Dolomites, which are
related to bacterial origin, are uncommon exceptions indicating that dolomite
may form by other processes; however, it seems safe to conclude that all dolostone
deposits found in the geologic record, other than those that are recycled, formed
under evaporitic conditions.
Hence all dolostones, whether syngenetic, diagenetic, or epigenetic, are the
result of the action or reaction of hypersaline brines. Thus genetically it makes very
little difference whether dolostones are formed in the depositional environment,
such as those described in one of the preceding sections (syngenetic dolostone interfingering with limestone) for the Ordovician of New York State, U.S.A., or
whether Late Pennsylvanian faults are responsible for dolomitization in earlier,
Ordovician, limestones as described in the section on epigenetic dolostone. The
solutions to which both of these divergent types of deposits owe their origin are
hypersaline brines.
Hypersalinity may result from ( I ) the concentration by evaporation of sea
water, either in sea-marginal porous sediments or in the water mass itselF; (2)
concentration of fresh water by evaporation, as in intermontane basins; and (3)
subsurface processes not altogether understood, by which waters are concentrated
by diffusion, membrane filtering, or other processes. The salinity (or chlorinity)
values of the brines from which syngenetic dolomite is formed in the Persian Gulf
(see Table 111),fall within the range of salinity (or chlorinity) values of subsurface
waters which have not been diluted by fresh meteoric water (CHAVE,
1960). Hence,
brines are available in the subsurface for the formation of both diagenetic and
epigenetic dolostone.
335
336
Mgaqz+
337
continuously. Analogously, at Salt Flat Graben, gypsum must have been continuously precipitated. Although gypsum is precipitated all over the Dead Sea, it is
preserved mainly along shore where an ample supply of oxygen exists. Below the
wave-influenced zone, it is for the most part decomposed by bacteria; the H2S released reduces the Fez03 in the sediments and in suspension, thus blackening the
sediment and producing dark laminae (NEEV,1964). Other workers (MOOREand
HAYES,1958) have shown that gypsum develops along the margin, and black sediment derived from sulfate is found in the deeper part of the basin. Hence, the dolomite at Salt Flat Graben, with its black coloration due to iron sulfide and reduction
products of gypsum must have formed at times when the lake was deeper and
gypsum was reduced by bacterial degradation. This combination of inferences
shows that lake level fluctuated with a periodic heavy influx of water, which is
common in arid regions. Gypsum was formed by continuous precipitation, as in
the Dead Sea, and when lake level was low it was deposited at the bottom of the
lake. When the lake deepened by influx of water, rapid evaporation around the
margin of the lake increased the concentration and specific gravity of the brine.
This heavier brine sank to the deeper level of the lake where isotopically-heavy
dolomite was formed and gypsum was reduced by bacterial processes.
This process, involving dolomite formation from heavy brines and the reduction and partial or complete elimination of gypsum, must be common in areas
where dolomite is formed in deeper water. Gypsum is involved in dolomite formation but it decomposes; hence, BERNERS
(1965) model for dolomitization in
Pacific atolls, which requires that gypsum should be dissolved once it is buried
below the zone of brine reflux, must be modified. In the Pacific atolls, the sulfate
must have been reduced by baLteria1 processes within the zone of brine reflux.
At Salt Flat Graben in West Texas, as already pointed out, both processes,
capillary concentration and refluxion, were responsible for dolomite formation,
the former along the margin of the basin and the latter in the center of the basin.
It is interesting to speculate why dolomite was formed at Salt Flat Graben
and aragonite in the Dead Sea. The data on the Dead Sea suggest that calcium
which is removed by continuous gypsum precipitation must be replenished.
NEEV(1964) has shown that the brine is progressively enriched in magnesium
content. During the 1959 Dead Sea whiting, the calcium level of the sea fell, but
three months later it was back to normal. Yet, the Mg/Ca ratio at any time during
the two-year interval that measurements were made by Neev did not deviate significantly from that of sea water. At Salt Flat Graben the formation of dolomite
suggests that the ratio was drastically increased. Whether aragonite was an intermediate product or not is not known. The evidence presented in the section on
Recent and Pleistocene dolomite indicates that in some areas aragonite forms as
an intermediate product, but no certainty exists whether this is always so or not.
Epigenetic dolomitization is considered to be analogous to the process
proposed for the formation of dolostone at Salt Flat Graben. Subsurface formation
338
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Chapter 7
SUMMARY
Half or more of the worlds petroleum is produced from carbonate reservoir rocks.
The oil-reservoir characteristics of carbonate rocks are largely functions of porosity and relative permeability, which, in turn, have been affected by initial composition of the rocks and their subsequent history.
Porosity of carbonate rocks may be arbitrarily divided into ( I ) primary
porosity (formed during deposition), (2) secondary porosity (formed by solution,
fracturing or other changes after deposition), and ( 3 ) sucrose dolomite porosity
(resulting from replacement of calcite by dolomite). Primary porosity may in turn
be subdivided into (a) framework porosity resulting from pores that remained
as a result of the sheltering effect of rigid or loosely-aggregated frameworks,
(b) mud porosity, consisting mostly of minute pores that remained in partly compacted carbonate mud that was subsequently lithified, and (c) sand porosity consisting of voids between sorted sand and gravel-sized carbonate particles. Most
primary pores have been modified by solution (and cementation). Consequently,
there is no sharp dividing line between primary porosity and secondary porosity
resulting from solution.
Sucrose dolomite porosity is important in many oil reservoirs. In these rocks,
porosity and permeability have been strongly influenced by composition of the
original carbonate sediment and the degree to which the rock has been replaced
by sucrose dolomite. For example, in certain Devonian rocks in west Texas,
which originally consisted of varying proportions of lime mud and of crinoid-stem
fragments, the greatest porosity occurs in rocks that have been most highly dolomitized. Here, the percentage of dolomite tends to be greatest in rocks which
originally contained about 45 % lime mud and 55 % crinoid-stem fragments.
The performance of carbonate reservoirs depends to a substantial degree on
shapes and dimensions of pores and their geometric arrangement with respect to
each other. Under oil-reservoir conditions, pores in rocks are generally occupied
by either water or oil. Ordinarily, the reservoir rock is water wet, that is, each
rock grain is surrounded by a thin film of water, and oil is generally the non-wetting
phase. Isolated oil globules ordinarily will not migrate through the rock because
the interfacial tension between water and oil is so high that the globules will not
350
J. W. HARBAUGH
pass through the throats of pore interconnections. Before the oil can move as a
separate phase, the displacement pressure between the oil-water interface must exceed the entry pressure of the pore interconnections. The displacement pressure is
influenced principally by buoyancy, whereas entry pressure depends on the interfacial tension between water and oil, and on pore geometry. The minimum height
of an oil column necessary for buoyant rise through a water-wet carbonate rock
thus partly depends on the diameters of throats of pores and diameters of the
interiors of pores.
The reservoir performance of carbonate rocks may be predicted by injecting
mercury into cores from reservoirs. Mercury, a non-wetting fluid, is forced into
the core sample under increasing pressure. A graph of the data, showing injection
pressure, versus cumulative volume of mercury injected, is an effective guide to the
conditions required for oil to move in the rock.
Ancient depositional environments exert strong influence on carbonate deposits formed in them, and, in turn, have subsequent effect on oil-reservoir
conditions in carbonate rocks. Many examples could be cited.
In Mississippian carbonate reservoirs in southeastern Saskatchewan, oolitic
and pseudo-oolitic limestones interpreted to have been formed through chemical
precipitation in a barrier bank environment, serve Iocally as excellent, highly
permeable oil reservoirs. In west Texas, the Pennsylvanian-Permian Horseshoe
atoll is a horseshoe-shaped mass of limestone about 90miles across in an eastwest direction and 70 miles from north to south. It is interpreted to be analogous
to modern reef atolls of the East Indies. In the Paradox Basin of southeastern
Utah, limestone lenses composed largely of leaflike calcareous Algae serve as oil
reservoirs. In Alberta, much oil is produced from Devonian rocks in which favorable reservoir conditions are closely associated with stromatoporoids and calcareous Algae. The geographic outlines of certain oil fields in Alberta, such as Redwater field, are essentially parallel to the trends of ancient organism communities.
Thus, there is strong incentive to interpret ancient carbonate environments and
organism communities, and to understand their effects on oil-reservoir properties.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of carbonate reservoir rocks is underscored by the fact that half
or more of the worlds petroleum is produced from carbonate reservoir rocks. The
greatest concentration of large oil fields in the world is in the Middle East, where
most of the oil is produced from Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonate reservoir rocks.
Prolific oil production is obtained from Cretaceous limestones in western Venezuela
and in many of the large oil fields in Mexico. In the United States, Cretaceous and
Jurassic carbonates yield oil in parts of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Elsewhere in the
United States, Paleozoic carbonate rocks yield oil in west Texas, in the Midcon-
351
tinent fields of Kansas, Oklahoma, and north Texas, in parts of the Rocky Mountain region, and in many small fields in Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois and
Kentucky. I n western Canada, dolomitized Devonian reefs contain much oil and
gas, and Mississippian limestones in Saskatchewan and adjacent North Dakota
also form prolific reservoir rocks. Obviously, oil in carbonate reservoir rocks has
great economic significance and there is stimulus to understand the properties of
carbonate rocks in their role as oil reservoirs.
Porosity
An essential feature of any petroleum reservoir rock is porosiry. The rock must not
only possess pores to contain the oil or gas, but the pores must also be large enough
and sufficiently interconnected to permit oil or gas to move through them. In
other words, the rock must be sufficiently permeable with respect to petroleum if
it is to serve as a reservoir rock. Porosity is defined as the ratio of pore space to total
volume, and is commonly expressed in percent:
percent porosity
pore volume
bulk volume
100
The ratio of total volume of pores in rock to bulk volume is absolute porosity,
whereas porosity as ordinarily used in reservoir studies is the ratio of interconnected
pore spaces to total bulk volume, and is termed eaective porosity. Effective porosity
may be calculated by measuring the proportion of mercury or a gas entering
the rock at a specified pressure, as for example, at 1,000 lb./square inch. Effective
porosity depends in part on the conditions under which it is determined.
Permeability
352
J. W. HARBAUGH
Percent
25
Percent
oil s a t u r a t i o n
50
water
75
saturotion
I00
Fig.l. Curves showing generalized relative permeability to oil and to water of typical permeable
and CHILINGAR,
1961, p.119.)
carbonate reservoir rocks. (After SINNOKROT
of the rock to conduct a particular fluid in the presence of other fluids is termed its
effective permeability to that fluid. The ratio of the effective permeability to a given
fluid at partial saturation to the permeability at 100 % saturation is termed relative
permeability. Examples of porosity and permeability values in carbonate rocks are
given by MCCOMAS
(1963), and generalized curves showing relative permeability
to water and to oil in carbonate rocks are shown in Fig.1.
PRIMARY POROSITY
Fig.2. Example of primary pores occurring within rigid framework of Fuvosites coral. Although
skeleton of coral has been completely dolomitized, original voids have been preserved. Length of
specimen is about 2.5 inches. (After MURRAY,
1964, p.391.) Reproduced with permission from
Approaches to Paleoecology.
353
354
J. W. HARBAUGH
( I ) primary porosity, (2) secondary porosity, and (3) sucrose dolomite porosity.
Primary porosity consists of those pore spaces formed during deposition and which
have been modified only slightly by subsequent changes, such as compaction, solution and precipitation. There is no sharp distinction between primary porosity and
secondary porosity; however, carbonate reservoir rocks generally possess both
types. Primary pores may occur within and between fossils and fragments of
fossils, between pellets, pisolites and ooIites, between crystals, and at places where
shrinkage of unconsolidated carbonate mud occurred during or shortly after deposition.
Oil reservoirs whose porosity is mainly of primary origin include oolitic (or
Fig.3. Example of limestone containing both priniery porosity and secondary porosity. Many
pores (dark) are closely associated with fragments of leaflike Algae which probably served as
miniature umbrellas, allowing primary voids to persist adjacent to their sheltered lower surfaces.
Selective leaching by solution has enlarged primary pores and created new pores. Reflected light,
polished core. From Pennsylvanian Ismay zone, Paradox Formation, Ismay field, southeastern
Utah and southwestern Colorado. Width of that part of specimen shown in photograph is 6 mrn.
(After CHOQUETTE
and TRAUT,1963, p.171.)
355
Fig.4. Primary and secondary pores (light) associated with leaflike calcareous Algae, Ismay zone,
Ismay field. Transmitted, unpolarized light, thin section. Width of that part of specimen shown
in photomicrograph is 5.5 mrn. (After CHOQUETTE
and TRAUT,1963, p.171.)
pellet) limestones and limestone coquinas. Examples are provided by the southern
oil fields of Mexico, which yield oil contained in pores in shell fragments, corals,
and rudistids, and by Magnolia field and certain other fields in southern Arkansas
that produce from the oolitic Jurassic Smackover Limestone, which is exceptionally porous and permeable. It is convenient to classify primary porosity according
to three subtypes: (a) framework porosity, (b) porosity in lithified carbonate mud,
and (c) porosity in carbonate sand.
Framework porosity
Framework porosity is formed when open (water-filled) spaces are left in a depositional framework. Frameworks may be rigid, or may be more or less loosely aggregated when formed. Rigid frameworks are provided by corals (Fig.2), hydrocorallines, some sponges, some calcareous Algae, oysters, and perhaps some bryozoans.
More or less loose frameworks are provided by aggregations of loose shells and
other skeletal material. Excellent oil reservoirs, for example, occur in some regions
in limestones consisting largely of fragments of leaflike calcareous Algae (Fig.3, 4)
that formed a loose framework initially (MURRAY,1960, p.66; CHOQUETTE
and
TRAUT,1963; IRWIN,1963, p.145).
Fig.5. Primary pores (dark) in sorted, calcareous sand. Pores occur between the rock particles. Calcite cement has filled
much of original pore space. Porosity is 16.5 % and permeability is 136 millidarcys. Length of part of specimen shown in
1960,
photomicrograph is about 3.5 mm. Mississippian Charles Formation, Midale field, Saskatchewan. (After MURRAY,
p.64.) Reproduced by permission of J. Sediment. Petrol.
357
Mud porosity
Some primary porosity occurs in carbonate rocks that were deposited as carbonate
muds. The pores are generally so small as to be imperceptible at ordinary magnifications. The pores were, of course, initially water filled, and presumably remained
so as consolidation of the mud took place. The pores are generally so small and
permeability so low that the rock is excluded from serving as a commercial oil
reservoir rock. Larger pores and vugs produced by shrinkage of partly consolidated
lime mud may be important locally, however.
Sand porosity
Carbonate sediments consisting of sorted sand- or gravel-sized particles may contain appreciable primary porosity. Carbonate sands consisting of oolites or pellets,
and sorted skeletal fragments provide good examples (Fig.5). Carbonate sands may
be formed by current transport of sand-sized particles, and by competitive sedimentation in which sand-sized particles are formed in situ with silt- and mud-sized
particles. The relative rates of formation of the different particle sizes affect the
porosity of the sediment, because the porosity is more or less inversely related to
the proportions of carbonate mud present in the matrix. The proportion of mud
is partly a function of how fast sand-sized material was deposited as compared
with the rate of mud deposition. Slow sedimentation of mud relative to sand probably has generally resulted in initially high intergranular porosity. Alternatively,
lime mud may be removed from coarser material by current action (DUNHAM,
1962).
Cementation
Primary pore spaces tend to be filled by cementation, or by cementation in association with replacement. Cementing and replacing materials in ancient carbonate
rocks include calcite, quartz, and anhydrite. Originally much of the calcite cement,
however, was probably aragonite that subsequently was transformed to calcite.
The extent to which primary pores are filled by cement has a large effect on the
porosity that remains.
SECONDARY POROSITY
358
J . W. HARBAUGH
Solution
Percolating ground waters of meteoric origin contain dissolved carbon dioxide
which forms carbonic acid. In addition, weak organic acids are present. These
acids tend to dissolve calcareous rocks if the movement of the water is sufficient
Fig.6. Pelletoid limestone in which primary pores have been modified by subsequent solution.
Porosity is 15.1 % and permeability is 63 millidarcys. Pores are dark. Mississippian Mission
Canyon Formation, North Dakota. Thin section; crossed nicols. Width of that part of specimen
shown in photomicrograph is 10 mm. (After STOUT,1964, p.335.) Reproduced by permission
of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
359
Fig.7. Secondary porosity produced by solution of fragments of leaflike Algae and other skeletal
material. Pores are dark. From Ismay zone, Ismay field. Thin section; crossed nicols. Width of
that part of specimen shown in photomicrograph is 15 mni. (After CHOQUETTE
and TRAUT,1963,
p. 179.)
to keep the water undersaturated. Much of the solution is presumed to take place
above the water table, where ground water tends to be slightly acid. Below the
water table, on the other hand, solutions are commonly weakly alkaline. Under
normal conditions they are saturated with respect to calcium carbonate and are
capable of precipitating rather than dissolving.
Many carbonate rocks show evidence of both solution and precipitation.
It is possible that solution and precipitation may take place simultaneously, the
water being slightly undersaturated at one moment, with power to dissolve, and
slightly oversaturated at another moment, resulting in precipitation. If the water is
undersaturated, the process of solution goes on as long as the water moves through
the rock. Certain crystal grains are preferentially dissolved, forming new channels and exposing additional mineral grains to the dissolving solutions. Other
conditions being equal, calcite tends to dissolve about 24 times more readily than
dolomite.
WEYL(1958) pointed out that the rate at which solutions become saturated
with respect to calcium carbonate is critical. As fresh water enters the rock, it
will dissolve calcium carbonate until the water is saturated, and the amount of
alteration by solution will depend on how far the water enters the rock before it is
saturated. Once saturation is reached, the rock can still be altered as changes in
360
J. W. HARBAUGH
Multiple generations
Many carbonate rocks have experienced a complex history in which intervals of
pore development alternate with those of pore filling. The history of the Mississippian Fredonia oolite, an important oil-reservoir rock in southern Illinois, provides
an example of the sequence of events that some carbonate rocks have undergone.
Petrographic study by GRAFand LAMAR (1950) indicated that six generations of
calcite precipitation and two intervals of calcite solution have taken place. The
first interval of solution is interpreted to have come after precipitation of three
generations of calcite, but only the third generation of calcite was attacked by
solution during this first interval of solution. Two more generations of calcite were
formed after the first interval of solution. In the second solution interval, all five
previously formed generations of calcite were attacked by solution. The sixth generation of calcite, consisting of veinlets, postdates the second interval of solution
and the other calcite generations.
Fractures, bedding planes and unconforniities
361
2 CaC03
Thus, if replacement of calcite by dolomite occurs strictly on a molecule-by-molecule basis in a rock, and assuming no compaction, a substantial increase in porosity
must result. There is, however, considerable evidence that replacement is, in some
cases, on a volume-by-volume basis (LINDGREN, 1912) rather than molecular basis.
Fig.8. Microcrystalline dolomite displaying very favorable reservoir characteristics. See Fig.20
for estimate of reservoir performance based on mercury capillary pressure curve. Pores are dark.
Reservoir rock in Mississippian Mission Canyon Formation, North Dakota. Porosity is 25.6 %
and permeability is 53 millidarcys. Thin section; crossed nicols. Width of the part of specimen
shown in photomicrograph is 7 mm. (After STOUT,1964, p.334.) Reproduced by permission
of Bull. A m . Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
Fig.9. Sucrose dolomite containing euhedral dolomite crystals that are 50-75jl in dimensions. Pore spaces (dark) occur
between the crystals. Porosity is 11.0% and permeability is 16.5 millidarcys. Length of the part of specimen shown in
photomicrograph is about 1.6 mm. Ordovician Red River Formation, Gas City field, Montana. (After MURRAY,1960,
P . 70.) Reproduced by permission of J . Serlinieiit. Petrol.
363
100
80
60
I I
25
c
a
L
20
.1
T r a n s i t ion
zone
&
15
.-c
L1
20
I
Dolomite
F?
0
40
10
t
a,
u
L
20
Percent
40
60
80
I 0
o r i g i n a l lime mud
364
J. W. HARBAUGH
crinoidal material. The dolomitized sediments may be interpreted as being initially mud supported, whereas the limestones were crinoid-grain supported.
In the Devonian sediments that are limestones, the best porosity is developed
in those rocks that originally contained between 5-20 7; lime mud (left side of Fig.
10). Rocks that originally contained these proportions of lime mud are interpreted
to have had a supportingframework of crinoid fragments. The presence of moderate
amounts of lime mud is interpreted by LUCIA(1962) to have inhibited the growth
of rim cement around the crinoid particles. Where lime mud was originally present
in only very small proportions, primary pores were largely filled by rim cement.
As the proportion of original lime mud increased past 20 %, the porosity decreased.
This decrease probably reflects compaction of the lime mud, inasmuch as the mud
was called upon to support more and more of the weight of overlying sediment
while the meshwork ofcrinoid particles provided progressively less and less support.
Fig.11. Dolomite interpreted to have originally consisted of 50-60% of crinoid material. Lightappearing patches identify remnants of crinoid fragments. Specimen from Andrcws South
Devonian field, Andrews County, Texas. Porosity is 28 % and pcrmeability is 200 millidarcys.
Thin section viewed under plane polarized light. Length of the part of spccimcn shown in photomicrograph is 12 mm. (After LUCIA, 1962.) Reproduced by permission of J . S e d h e n t .
Petrol.
365
In general, porosity varies with the intensity of dolomitization. For example, this
is shown by MURRAY
(1960, pp.67-76) who determined the porosity and dolomite
content in cores of the Midale beds in the Mississippian Charles Formation in
the Midale field, Saskatchewan. Here dolomite forms 3-90% of the solid part of
the rock. Where the dolomite percentage is low, dolomite occurs as scattered,
perfect rhombs that replace pre-existing material. As the proportion of dolomite
increases, the original material is increasingly obscured, until at 50 % dolomite,
only small hazy patches of the original material remain.
A plot of porosity versus dolomite content of the Midale beds (Fig.12)
reveals only slight decrease in porosity as dolomite increases up to about 50%
dolomite. Above 50 % dolomite, however, porosity increases rapidly as dolomite
increases. MURRAY
(1960, pp.7 1-72) suggested that these dolomite-porosity relationships may be an effect of either, or both: ( I ) transportation of carbonate and
magnesium in solution from a distant source to the place where dolomite rhombs
have formed, and (2) derivation of the carbonate very locally within the rock.
Murray also suggested that if dolomite crystals have formed from material brought
in from a distant source outside the rock, the porosity should decrease because
dolomite rhombs produced in this manner occupy space that was once occupied
both by calcite grains and associated fine intergranular porosity. If, on the other
hand, carbonate used for development of dolomite was derived locally from
within the rock, addition of magnesium from outside the rock was necessary and
excess calcium ions must have been removed. Calcite must be dissolved within the
rock to provide the necessary carbonate, which results in the dolomitized rock, on
366
I. W. HARBAUGH
the whole, becoming more porous than before. Statistical studies of the relationships between calcium-magnesium ratio and porosity are needed to resolve the
problem (CHILINGAR,
1956).
The observation that dolomite generally occurs as a replacement (MURRAY,
1960, pp.73-74) suggested that a local source for carbonate is likely and that dolomite growth took place simultaneously as calcite was dissolved. Assuming a local,
within-rock origin of carbonate, the rather slight loss of porosity with increasing
dolomite in limestones with less than 50 % dolomite may reflect the effects of pore
closure by compaction. Above 50 % dolomite, however, the dolomite crystals have
been interpreted to have formed a space-supporting framework that resisted
further comraction and inhibited further loss of porosity. As a result, rocks containing more than 50 % dolomite commonly display an increase in porosity as the
proportion of dolomite rises. WEYL(1960) discussed the quantitative chemical
aspects of porosity development through dolomitization.
POWERS
(1962) showed that the proportions of dolomite in highly doloniitized Upper Jurassic carbonate reservoir rocks in Arabia also affect porosity and
permeability. Here the relationships between the proportions of dolomite and other
components are somewhat at variance with those in other regions. Powers showed
that there is an almost perfect inverse relationship between dolomite and sandand gravel-sized particles. As the percentage of sand and coarser-than-sand par! 00
2oi
00-
a,
c
.-
d o I om i t e
0
60-
40-
\fTrend
below
50 p e r c e n t dolomite
0
0
10
20
Percent
30
porosity
40
367
10000
75
85
Percent
90
95
I00
dolomite
368
J. W. HARBAUGH
are relatively uniform in size (0.1-0.2 mm). As dolomitization proceeded, all lime
mud was replaced before sand-sized particles were attacked. Replacement of fine
particles having some intergranular porosity by larger dolomite rhombs resulted in
some decrease of porosity and permeability, although oil reservoir properties are
not markedly affected. As dolomitization approached 75 %,most pores were filled,
and the result is very low porosity and permeability. When the dolomite reached
80 %, however, virtually all traces of the original sediment were obliterated and the
replacing dolomite crystals formed an open network. Following this stage, depending
on circumstances, the rock either ( I ) remained unaltered, (2) underwent solution,
resulting in an increase in porosity, or (3) received more dolomite, resulting i n a
decrease in porosity and permeability.
Fig.14. Pores consisting of molds formed by selective removal of crinoid stem fragments. Width
of specimen is 3 inches. (After MURRAY,1964, p.394.) Reproduced with permission from
Approaches to Paleoeco1og.v.
369
Fig.15. Plastic cast of pores in Arbuckle Limestone, Silica field, Kansas. Width of that part of
specimen corresponding to short dimension of photograph is 7 mm. (After IMBTand ELLISON,
1946.)
370
J. W. HARBAUGH
Fig.16. Plastic cast of pores in Arbuckle Limestone, Silica field, Kansas. Note elongate, threadlike pores in right central part and upper left part of photograph. Width of that part of speci1946.)
men corresponding to short dimension of photograph is 7 mm. (After IMBT and ELLISON,
37 1
PORE GEOMETRY
The complex and varied shapes of pores in carbonate rocks are well illustrated by
plastic casts of pores (IMBTand ELLISON,1946). Casts shown in Fig. 15 and 16 were
made by impregnating the pores in a rock specimen with liquid plastic, allowing
the plastic to become firm upon setting, and then dissolving the rock away with
acid, the plastic being unaffected by acid (Nuss and WHITING,1947).
Fig. 15 illustrates pores occurring in Cambro-Ordovician Arbuckle Limestone
in the Silica field, Kansas. The pores form a fine sponge-like complex which reflects the influence of rounded pellets. Fig.16 illustrates pores in another specimen
of Arbuckle Limestone from the Silica field. The pores form a fine honeycomblike structure, although some pores consist of elongate, threadlike tubes.
372
J. W. HARBAUGH
Measurement
The performance of carbonate reservoirs depends to a substantial degree on shapes,
dimensions, and arrangement of pores. Pores may be classified according to the
shapes and kinds of interconnections (ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER,1960).
Connections that are relatively elongate (ten or more times longer than wide) may
be termed canals (Fig. 17A), whereas connections that represent less elongate
constrictions may be termed throats (Fig. 17B).
Pore size can be defined as the diameter of the largest sphere that can be fitted inside a pore, and throat size as the diameter of the largest sphere that will pass
through the throat of a pore (SCHEIDEGGER,
1957). ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER
(1960) tabulated 100 pore size and throat size measurements in 40 thin sections of
1.00
ln
L
a,
a,
E
-
0.50
.-
C
._
.-c
n
.-
0.IC
ln
C
.-
32 0.05
Y
.0
+
ln
a,
P
O
.+
0
L
E
D
.-0
0.01
10
20 30405060 70 80
Cumulative
90 95
98 99
frequency, in percent
Fig.18. Graph showing frequency distribution of pore sizes in Paleozoic limestones in Rocky
Mountain and Williston Basin regions. Logarithmic vertical scale represents diameter of largest
circle inscribed within pore, whereas horizontal probability scale represents cumulative percent.
and ACHAUER,
1960.) Reproduced
Individual data points are not shown. (After ASCHENBRENNER
by permission o f Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
373
2
a,
a,
E
._
-
.-
.-c
c
0
._
c
a,
u
c
c
a,
.-c
E0
f
D
._
3
E,
.E
_
c
._
3 noooi
10
20 3040506070 80
Cumulative
frequency,
in
90 95
98 99
percent
Paleozoic limestones in the Rocky Mountain and Williston Basin regions, and
found that both pore sizes and throat sizes are essentially lognormally distributed.
When the logarithms of pore sizes and throat sizes were plotted as cumulative percentages, the distribution of points formed a line that is virtually straight (Fig.18,
19). It should be pointed out, however, that measurements based on two-dimensional thin sections may not always effectively portray pore systems that exist in threedimensional space. For example, definition of pore and throat sizes in terms of a
sphere that just fits in or passes through is somewhat meaningless in case the pore
has a tabular shape. Nevertheless, the quantitative approach of Aschenbrenner and
Achauer has much to commend it.
Permeability and yore geometry
ASCHENBRENNER
and CHILINGAR
(1960) brought the work on carbonate pore geometry of the Russian geologist, Teodorovich, to the attention of English-speaking
readers. TEODOROVICH
(1943, 1949) proposed that the permeability of carbonates
could be calculated by assigning numerical values to empirical coefficients and then
374
J. W. HARBAUGH
multiplying the coefficients together to obtain permeability in millidarcys. The coefficients are estimated by visual examination of thin sections, and pertain to (a)
type of pore space, (b) percent porosity, (c) size of pores, and ( d ) pore shape. In
spite of the subjectiveness of this method, permeabilities estimated in this manner
were shown to be surprisingly close to permeabilities measured by conventional
means of fluid injection in core samples, the average discrepancy between the two
methods being about 10 %. CHILINGAR
(1957) illustrated some of Teodorovichs
pore space types, as did ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER
(1960).
h=
2T (l/r-l/R)
g (@a-eo)
375
fluid, is forced into the rock sample under increasing pressure. Because the pressure required to inject mercury into a pore is greatly affected by throat diameters, the
graph of cumulative mercury volume injected, versus injection pressure, is related
to the distribution of throat sizes in the rock. The system of largest interconnecting
pores is entered at the lowest pressures, and as the pressure increases, mercury
enters progressively smaller pores. Because oil is ordinarily the non-wetting fluid
in an oil-water system, there is a close relationship between the predicted ratio of
oil to water in a reservoir rock at a particular height above the free-water level, and
the volume of mercury injected into a specimen of the reservoir rock at a pressure
equivalent to height above the free-water level (MURRAY,
1960, p.60).
Two examples of predicted reservoir performance based on mercury
capillary pressure curves of carbonate rocks (STOUT,1964) are given below. Each
graph (Fig.20, 21) represents a plot of percent water saturation (or conversely,
percent oil saturation) versus height of an oil column. The height of the oil column
is proportional to the pressure gradient due to buoyancy, and has been calculated
for the reservoir fluids under reservoir conditions. Toward the bottom of each
curve, the total porosity is 100% saturated with water. Little or no oil enters the
rock until the displacement pressure is attained, or in other words, until the critical
height of the oil column is reached. Above the displacement pressure, the percent
Percent oil saturation
100
80
60
40
20
3
0
V
.--
water saturation
L-
Displacement pressure
Total p o r o s i t y
Percent
water
-A2
a,
al
LL
saturotion
Fig.20. Mercury capillary pressure curve of crystalline dolomite forming a good reservoir rock.
Porosity is 25.6 % and permeability is 53 millidarcys. Mission Canyon Formation, North Dakota.
See Fig.8 for photomicrograph of rock. (After STOUT,1964, p.334.) Reproduced by permission
of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
376
J. W. HARBAUGH
Percent oil s a t u r o t i o n
100
80
60
40
20
512
256
128
64
t32
20
40
60
Percent
water
=S
80
100
saturotion
Fig.21. Mercury capillary pressure curve of fine-grained dolomite that would not serve as a
reservoir rock. Porosity is 17.7 /, and permeability is 0.1 millidarcys. Mission Canyon Formation,
1964, p.336 )Reproduced
North Dakota. See Fig.22 for photomicrograph of rock. (After STOUT,
by permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
of oil saturation continues to rise until the irreducible water saturation is reached.
After this, increasing pressure has no effect on the fluid saturation percentages.
Fig.20 is a mercury capillary pressure curve of a micro-crystalline dolomite
(a photomicrograph of the specimen is shown in Fig.8) that forms a good reservoir
rock (STOUT,1964, p.334). This rock has a porosity of 25.6 %, and of this porosity,
about 95 is available for saturation by oil. The height of the oil column required
to exceed the displacement pressure is low. The high effective porosity indicates
that both the pores and pore interconnections (throats) are relatively large. Fig.21,
on the other hand, pertains to rock that could not serve as a reservoir rock because a very high pressure is needed to force oil into the rock, and the irreducible
water saturation percentage is large. In other words, the majority of pores in the
rock are either, or both, too small or too poorly connected to contain and transmit
oil. A photomicrograph of a specimen of the poor reservoir rock is shown in Fig.22.
Methods of evaluating the performance of low-permeability reservoir rocks,
including carbonates and sandstones, have been discussed at length by RIECKMANN
(1963); and the relationships between pore geometry and petrophysical properties
measured by electric well logging have been presented by ARCHIE(1952).
377
L = -
h
sin 0
-~
If the critical height is fixed, a long continuous oil phase, combined with gentle
Fig.22. Fine-grained dolomite whose mercury capillary curve is shown in Fig.21. Irregular
laminae represent algal structure. Mississippian Mission Canyon Formation, North Dakota.
Thin section, crossed nicols. Width of the portion of specimen shown in photomicrograph is
6.5 mm. (After STOUT,1964, p.336.) Reproduced by permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geologists.
378
J. W. HARBAUGH
50
10
Length
of
100
continuous
500
oil
5000
1000
phase,
in
feet
Fig.23. Graph relating minimum length of continuous oil phase to minimum sIope needed for
migration of oil by buoyant rise in water-wet carbonate rocks of average pore configuration
and ACHAUER,
1960, p.240.)
(critical oil column height of about 7.5 ft). (After ASCHENBRENNER
Reproduced by permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
slope, is equivalent to a shorter continuous oil phase and steeper slope as far as oil
migration is concerned. A graph relating slope and length of continuous oil phase
for carbonate rocks of average pore configuration is shown in Fig.23. Thus, the
pore geometry of carbonate rocks affects the critical height of oil column, and in
turn, has an important influence on oil migration under hydrostatic conditions.
Under hydrodynamic conditions the pressure gradient necessary to move a
continuous oil phase, assuming a slope that is roughly uniform, is given approximately by the equation (ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER,
1960, p.240):
gradp
= _
2T
_
(l/r-l/R)&
g sin 0 (em-eo)
where gradp = pressure gradient in dynes/cm2/cm, T = interfacial tension between water and oil in dynes/cm, L = length of continuous oil phase measured in
centimeters in direction of flow, r = radius of sphere that can just pass through a
pore throat in centimeters, and R == radius of largest sphere that will fit into pore
space, in centimeters.
379
If the logarithmic mean values for pore sphere and pore throat dimensions
that were given by ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER
(1960, p.238) are used, and a
slope of less than 100 ft./mile is assumed, then the critical pressure gradient is
equal to:
gradp
44,105 dynes/cm2
L
= __
Thus, other conditions remaining unchanged, the longer the continuous oil
phase (L), the smaller the critical pressure gradient (gradp), and vice versa. The
pressure gradient is essentially a function of the rate of flow of the water within
the reservoir rock, flow rate and pressure gradient being related by the equation:
Q
gradp
__
P @
where Q = flow rate in cm/sec, gradp = pressure gradient in atm/cm, K = permeability in darcys, ,u = viscosity of water in centipoise units, and @ = porosity
expressed as a fraction (not i n percent).
For a given permeability and porosity, the minimum length of continuous
oil phase is a function of the rate of flow of the water, and vice versa. The relation500
al
100
L
a,
50
0)
a,
Y-
.-c
3- 10
0
-
.+
" - 5
0
al
+
0
[II
phase, i n
feet
Fig.24. Graph relating minimum length of continuous oil phase to minimum rate of water flow
for oil migration under hydrodynamic conditions in water-wet carbonate rocks of average pore
configuration. Sloping lines represent three different permeability/porosity ratios, where K =
permeability in darcys and @ =porosity expressed as a fraction. (Modified after ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER, 1960, p.241.) Reproduced by permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
380
J. W. HARBAUGH
ships between minimum rate of flow and minimum length of continuous oil phase,
for three different permeability/fractional porosity ratios, are shown graphically
in Fig.24. These graphs are based on the logarithmic means of pore sizes and pore
throat sizes of Paleozoic limestones in the Rocky Mountain and Williston Basin
regions measured by ASCHENBRENNER
and ACHAUER
(1960, p.238). It is obvious
that the permeability/porosity ratio greatly influences oil migration under hydrodynamic conditions. For example, if the permeability is 25 millidarcys and the
porosity is 25% (K/@=0.025/0.25 = O.lO), then a water flow rate of at least
20 ft./year is needed if the minimum length of continuous oil phase is 10 ft. For
different pore configurations, the permeability/porosity ratio curves would be
shifted from those shown.
During the past 15 years, geologists have been actively interested in the petrology
and paleoecology of carbonate oil reservoirs. This interest stems from the fact
that carbonate reservoirs commonly exhibit complex facies variations, which in
turn affect porosity, permeability and other aspects of pore geometry. These
facies variations reflect differencesin ancient depositional environments and ancient
organism communities. Consequently, exploration for oil in carbonate reservoirs
is facilitated by understanding ancient environments. Examples of oil occurrence
in specific carbonate reservoirs are described next.
N.E.
S.W.
INCREASING
BASIN
S H ALY S I L I C E O U S
L I M E STONE
SALINITY
SHELF
AN0
RG IN
"
FOSSlLlFEROUS - FRAGMENTAL L I M E S T O N E
and CHALKY LIMESTONE
(MINOR
ZAPHRENTID
CORALS and
OSTRACODES)
SHOREWARD
BAN K
LAGOON
"
PRECIPITATED
LIMESTONE
ANHYORITE, EARTHY
TEXTURED ARGILLACEOUS
DOLOMITE and CHALKY
LIME STONE
CHALKY
LIMESTONE)
381
INDEX MAP
6 Miles
Fig.26. Map showing oil fields (stippled) and contours on top of Mississippian rocks in part of
southeastern Saskatchewan. (After EDIE,1958, p.112.) Reproduced by permission of Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
382
J. W. HARBAUGH
+-S
N-t
.+
0
0
d
Oolitic, pisolitic,
or dense limestone
B i o c l o s t i c limestone
Shole a n d o r g i l l a c e o u s
si I i c e o u s I imestone
and
Fig.27. North-south subsurface section through Nottinghani oil field area, southeastern Saskatchewan. Facies variations in Mississippian rocks are shown by patterns. Note irregular
ancient upper erosion surface at top of Mississippian. (After EDIE,1958, p. 11 1 .) Reproduced
by permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
the porosity being of primary origin. Locally, the barrier-bank oolitic limestones
form good oil reservoirs, not only because of favorable porosity-permeability
characteristics, but also because these limestones are relatively resistant to weathering and formed topographic ridges when they were exposed before the overlying
Jurassic beds were laid down. In places, such as Nottingham field (Fig.26, 27), the
ancient topographic ridges form modern structural highs which serve as oil traps.
Pennsylvanian-Permian Horseslzoe atoll, west Texas
TABLE I
DETAILED ENVIRONMENT CLASSIFICATION OF MISSISSIPPIAN LJMBSTONES IN SOUTHEASTERN SASKATCHEWAN]
5
h
Basin
-_____
-_____-
Central basin
Dark gray
argillaceous
calcisiltite
containing
scattered
crinoid
fragments and
sponge spicules,
dark gray
dense siliceous
limestone
(associated
with dark gray
calcareous
shale).
Basin edge
Dark gray
calcisiltite
containing
scattered
crinoid ossicles and complete brachiopods in place
of growth
(minor associated dark gray
calcareous shale
partings).
Intershoal
Cream-white
chalky limestone
containing
scattered
crinoid ossicles,
bryozoans,
brachiopods,
and zaphrentid
corals.
Shoal
Cream-white
crinoidalbryozoan
calcarenites.
Barrier Bank
Lagoon
Shoal open
marine edge
Central shoals
Cream-white
endothyroidcalcarenites
containing
pseudooolites,
oolites, and
crinoid
debris.
Light buff
pisolitic,
oolitic,
and pseudooolitic
limestones
containing
algal structures and
few gastropods;
intraformational limestone
conglomerate.
Intershoal
lagoon edge
Light buff
microgranular
limestone containing scattered pseudooolites, and
light buff
lithographic
limestone containing scattered oolites
and pseudooolites.
C
A
E
c
EP
Cream-white
chalky
limestone
contaming
scattered
pseudo-oolites
and ostracods,
dark gray
lithographic
limestone
(associated with
anhydrite and
earthy-textured
argillaceous
dolomite).
0
n
00
384
J. W. HARBAUGH
Fig.28. Artists reconstruction of northern part of Midland basin of West Texas in late Pennsylvanian time, showing shape of Horseshoe atoll. Vertical relief is exaggerated. Length of block
is about 125 miles. (After MYERSet al., 1956, p.6.)
which is as much as 3,000 ft. thick and which was deposited during Pennsylvanian
and early Permian time in the northern part of the Midland Basin, in western
Texas.It is a horseshoe-shaped mass about 90 miles across in an east-west direction
and about 70 miles from north to south. The crest of the atoll is a series of irregular hills and depressions, and the flanks slope gently away to merge with a broad
limestone platform on which the atoll rests. Large quantities of petroleum have
been produced from reservoirs in the eastern and southern parts of the atoll.
The limestone in the Horseshoe atoll is composed mainly of nonbedded
clastic calcium carbonate debris of organic origin. It is bonded by lithified lime
mud and by calcite cement. The only lithologically distinct units that are traceable
from well to well in the atoll are thin beds of dark bituminous shale.
Porosity in the reef rocks is almost entirely secondary. Effective porosity
ranges from almost nothing to 30%. Studies of cores and well logs have shown
that the atoll contains zones of relatively high porosity (more than 4.5 %) having
little argillaceous material, alternating with zones of relatively low porosity (less
than 4.5 %) having considerable argillaceous material. Chemical analyses indicate
the limestone generally contains more than 97 % calcium carbonate. Insoluble
residues average about 1.4% of the total limestone by weight.
Pennsylvanian carbonate reservoirs, Ismay Jield, Utah and Colorado
Recent studies of the Ismay oil field of southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado form excellent examples of the application of paleoecology and carbonate
385
Producing Well
Dry Hole
16
=Pelletal
Mud Focies
lvanovia F a c i e s
Sponge F a c i e s
14
21
40
w.
35
N.
4
28
4-
23
IW
Fig.29. Map of Ismay field showing distribution of Zvanovia facies and other contemporary
facies at the end of marine transgression of cycle 1 of Ismay zone. Contour lines show thickness of
Zvunoviu facies. Dashed line XX marks trace of section shown in Fig.30. (After ELIAS,1963, p.198.)
386
J. W. HARBAUGH
Fig.30. Section XX' through eastern part of Ismay field showing distribution of facies in cycle 1
of Ismay zone. See Fig.29 for location of section. (After ELIAS,1963, p.196.)
387
They interpreted the normal marine build up cycle to be composed of the following
units:
Pelletal limestone
Foraminifera1 limestone
Algal calcarenite and calcilutite
Shelly calcilutite
Dark carbonate mudstone
Black shale
top of cycle
base of cycle
They suggested that the black shale facies represents the deepest water
phase, formed at maximum transgression of the sea. Deposition of the shelly
calcilutite facies and algal facies was accompanied by progressive, gradual shoaling. Following this, pelletal carbonate mud accumulated over the buildup,
whereas silty and sandy deposits formed between buildups. The succeeding cycle
10
Percent
15
20
25
poros i t y
388
J. W. HARBAUGH
I
I
I
I
!f i
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
I
I
L.
.!
SHELF
!
1
i.
I
I
I
I
(.
3
L-
- - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ !I
Fig.32. Map of Alberta showing location of area of Swan Hills reservoir study, and distribution
of reefs of Woodbend Age, including Redwater reef. (After BELYEA,
1960.)
began with renewed transgressions, accompanied by deposition of another blanket of black shale or dark carbonate mudstone. The reader is referred to the original papers of Elias, and of Choquette and Traut to judge the merits of the differing interpretations.
Production from the Ismay field is chiefly from porous and permeable
zones within the Zvanoviu buildups. Some of the best porosity in the buildups is
primary, stemming from incomplete filling by void-filling calcite of spaces between
Zvanoviu fragments and other skeletal material (Fig.3, 4). Much of the porosity,
however, is secondary, having been produced by solution leaching (Fig.7). Extensive leaching has been largely confined to the buildups, and especially to soluble
fossils and other carbonate particles; primary voids appear to have guided the
389
Fig.33. Isopach of Swan Hills Member carbonate rocks of Beaverhill Lake Formation, central
1962,
Alberta. See Fig.32 for general location of area. Contours are in feet. (After THOMAS,
p.201.) Reproduced by permission of Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
\D
TABLE I1
TYPICAL FACIES AND ASSOCIATED RESERVOIR PROPERTIES OF SWAN HILLS CARBONATES'
(After THOMAS,
1962)
Marginal shoal
Intermediate area
Lagoon
Effective reservoir.
Partially leached amphiporids (10%) in very
fine granular matrix (reworked stromatoporoidal material); 14 % porosity, 40 md.
Effective reservoir.
Algal-encrusted, partially leached amphiporid
material (10 %) with excellent shrinkage,
solution, and intraorganic vug porosity;
7 % porosity, 200 md.
Effective reservoir.
Tight.
Effective reservoir.
Well sorted, pellet limestone (0.17 mm) with
20 % partially leached stromatoporoids;
21 % porosity, 220 md.
Effective reservoir.
Tight.
Effective reservoir.
Well sorted, fine granular limestone. 15 %
stromatoporoids and 10% amphiporids
with intraorganic vug porosity:
18 % porosity, 60 md.
Effective reservoir.
8
P
8
E
392
J. W. HARBAUGH
sw
Swan H i l l s Formation
NE +
Slice
0
.+
0
E,
LL
Slice
Fig.34. Cross section through Beaverhill Lake Formation showing distribution of rocks with
high effective porosity (black) in Swan Hills Member. Limestone with low effective porosity in
Swan Hills Member is diagonally ruled. Shale and shaly limestone are horizontally ruled. Slices
1 and 2 are shown on slice maps (Fig.35 and 36). Trace of cross section is shown in Fig.33. (After
THOMAS, 1962, p.211.) Reproduced by permission of Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
R12W. 5MER
Effective porosity
30%+
20%
10%
+qn-
$3
!
k
"
.
cc
f
Fig.35. Slice map 1 utilizing contours to show variations in percent effective porosity. (After
THOMAS,
1962, p.218.) Reproduced by permission of Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
393
THOMAS'
(1963, p.217) classification of reservoir properties according to facies of
the Swan Hills Member is reproduced in Table 11. In this Table, porosity in percent,
permeability in millidarcys (md), and a general appraisal of reservoir performance
are listed for different lithologies.
The relationships between oil occurrence, thickness and porosity in the Swan
Hills Member are brought out in a series of maps. Fig.33 is a map of the thickness
of the Swan Hills Member, and reveals that oil occurrence is associated with intermediate thickness. A cross section and series of slice maps (Fig.34, 35, and 36)
of effective porosity in the Swan Hills Member show a close relationship between
effective porosity highs and oil occurrence.
T.68 i
E f f e c t i v e porosity
40 %+
010-40/0
'
,..'
t
394
J. W. HARBAUGH
6 MILES
Fig.37. Map showing outline of Redwater oil field, Alberta, and boundaries between major
facies distinguished by ANDRICHUK1958, p.78). See Fig.32 for index map. Reproduced by
permission of Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists.
395
+sw
NE
- 950
-
-1000
2W
.-c
-1050
0
.-+
-1100
a,
Fare-Reef
Megalodon Facies
Reef Detritus
Tabular, Strom.Facie
Reef Detritus
W/Massive Strom.
Organic R e e f
Non- Skeletal
Calcarenites
[B
-1150
3
cn
1200
FocIes
Fig.38. Composite cross section through upper part of Redwater reef complex showing lesser
facies divisions as distinguished by KLOVAN(1964, p.55). Reproduced by permission of
Bull. Can. Petrol. Geologists,
CONCLUSIONS
396
J. W. HARBAUGH
BACK REEF
P E L E CY PO0
GASTROPOO
STACHYOOES
STROY-ALGAL
CONSORTIUM
R U 0 0 S E CORAL
TABULATE CORA1
TABULAR STROY
Fig.39. Schematic cross section showing distribution of principal sediment-contributing organisms in upper part of Redwater reef complex. (After KLOVAN,1964, p.53.) Reproduced by
permission of Bull. Can. Pefvof.Geologists.
reflect the mutual controlling effect of organism communities on depositional environments, and, in turn, the effect of environments on organism communities.
It is probably safe to conclude that future exploration for carbonate oil reservoirs
will witness an expansion of studies that interrelate regional stratigraphy, paleoecology, petrography, and analysis of reservoir rocks by mercury injection and
other laboratory means.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
397
and the manuscript was typed by Mrs. C. G. Trimble and Mrs. B. Knoerle, also
of Stanford University. The manuscript was reviewed by R. C. Murray, J. Stout
and Ph. W. Choquette. The author is indebted to these people for their assistance.
REFERENCES
ANDRICHUK,
J. M., 1958. Stratigraphy and facies analysis of Upper Devonian reefs in Leduc,
Stettler and Redwater areas, Alberta. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 42: 1-93.
ARCHIE,
G. E., 1952. Classification of carbonate reservoir rocks and petrophysical considerations.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geolonists, 36: 278-298.
ARB, J. J., 1964. Engineering concepts useful in oil finding. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
48: 157-165.
ASCHENBRENNER,
B. C. and ACHAUER,
C. W., 1960. Minimum conditions for migration of oil
in water-wet carbonate rocks. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 44: 235-243.
ASCHENBRENNER,
B. C. and CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1960. Teodorovichs method for determining
permeability from pore-space characteristics of carbonate rocks. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geologists, 44: 1421-1424.
BELYEA,
H. R., 1960. Distribution of some reefs and banks of the Upper Devonian Woodbend
and Fairholm Groups in Alberta and British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, Can.,
Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., 59-15: 7 pp.
CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1956. Use of Ca/Mg ratio in porosity studies. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 40: 2489-2493.
CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1957. A short note on types of porosity in carbonate rocks. Compass, 35: 69-74.
CHILINGAR,
G. V., 1960. Ca/Mg ratios of calcareous sediments as a function of depth and
distance from shore. Compass, 37: 182-186.
CHOQUETTE,
PH. W. and TRAUT,J. D., 1963. Pennsylvanian carbonate reservoirs, Ismay field,
Utah and Colorado. In: R. 0. BASS(Editor), Shelf Carbonates of the Paradox BasinSymp. Field Con$, 4th, Four Corners Geol. Soc., pp.157-184.
DUNHAM,
R. J., 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In:
W. E. HAM(Editor), Classification of Carbonate Rocks-Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
Mem., 1: 279 pp,
EDIE,R. W., 1958. Mississippian sedimentation and oil fields in southeastern Saskatchewan.
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 42: 94-126.
ELIAS,G. K., 1963. Habitat of Pennsylvanian algal bioherms, Four Corners area. In: R. 0. BASS
(Editor), Shelf Carbonates of the Paradox Basin- Symp. Field Conf., 4th, Four Corners
Geol. Soc., pp.185-203.
GRAF,D. L. and LAMAR,
J. E., 1950. Petrology of Fredonia oolite in southern Illinois. Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 34: 2318-2336.
HARBAUGH,
J. W., 1960. Petrology of marine bank limestones of Lansing Group (Pennsylvanian),
southeast Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ., State Geol. Surv. Kansas, Bull., 142 (5): 189-234.
HOHLT,R. B., 1948. The nature and origin of limestone porosity. Quart. Colo. School Mines,
43: 1-51.
IMBT,
W. C. and ELLISON,
S. P., 1946. Porosity in limestone and dolomite petroleum reservoirs.
In: Drilling and Production Practice. Am. Petrol. Inst., New York, N.Y., pp.364-372.
IRWIN
JR., C. D., 1963. Producing carbonate reservoirs in the Four Corners area. In: R. 0. BASS
(Editor), Shelf Carbonates of the Paradox Basin-Symp. Field Conf, 4th, Four Corners
Geol. Soc., pp.144-148.
KLOVAN,
J. E., 1964. Facies analysis of the Redwater reef complex, Alberta, Canada. Bull. Can.
Petrol. Geologists, 12: 1-100.
LINDGREN,
W., 1912. The nature of replacement. Econ. Geol., 7: 521-535.
LUCIA,F. J., 1962. Diagenesis of a crinoidal sediment. J. Sediment. Petrol., 32: 848-865.
MCCOMAS,
M. R., 1963. Productive core analysis characteristics of carbonate rocks in the Four
398
J. W. HARBAUGH
Chapter 8
CARBONATE ROCKS AND PALEOCLIMATOLOGY I N THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL HISTORY OF THE PLANET
RHODES W. FAIRBRIDGE
SUMMARY
CLIMATIC INDICATORS
It has been a common rule of thumb for geologists to equate carbonates ofthe past
with warm climatic conditions; fossil corals, for example, have been particularly
400
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
40 1
similar ranges in the past. Whereas most animals are much more adaptable to
climate change than plants, it has long been a subject of surprise that interglacial
and late Tertiary deposits at about 50"N and S latitude often contain mammalian
fossils of characteristically subtropical types (Hippopotamus, Elephas, Rhinoceros,
etc.). No icecap at all is believed to have existed in Antarctica prior to the Pliocene
or possibly Miocene (FAIRBRIDGE,
1952), and the same is true for Greenland
(WAGER,1933). It has been determined by means of all available indicators that
the mid-latitudes (40-50 ") in early Tertiary times were systematically about 10"C
warmer than at present (SCHWARZBACH,
1963). In this way the mid-latitude climatic zones of the Tertiary were much more spread out than today, and the major
boundaries were displaced about 3000 km polewards of their present limits,
respectively. No suggestions of continental drift, global expansion and polar
change would satisfy this distribution. It is strictly climatic and world-wide.
It is true that along certain coastal belts in the upper middle latitudes, e.g.,
in the northwestern Pacific British Columbia, and Alaska, or in Japan, the mean
climates were only a few degrees warmer during theTertiary (BERRY,
1922; CHANEY,
1940; DORF,1959; URHAM,
1959); in these maritime areas, however, moderating
longshore currents and the normally mild nature of such climates would tend to
maintain a temperate condition, regardless of world-wide oscillations. This fact is
not given adequate recognition by the above-named authors.
As far as the tropical ocean is concerned, EMILIANI (1955, 1961) provided an
excellent series of180/160isotoperatiosdetermined from pelagic Foraminifera. These
suggest that during the Quaternary there has been an oscillation of mean ocean
surface temperatures through a range of about 7 "C (Fig. l), where the present
temperature is 5 " aboQe the glacial and about 2 O below the interglacial average.
On the basis of many different studies (palynological work, etc.), there is general
agreement that even during the Holocene (the last 10,000 years) there has been a
post-glacial thermal maximum (comparable to an interglacial) that was 2.5-3.0 "C
warmer in mid-latitudes than the present (FLINT,1961).
For the deep ocean waters, EMILIANI
(1956) has carried out oxygen isotope
studies on large benthonic Foraminifera. These show a deep bottom-water tem-
Warmer
Solar
radiation
Cooler
L
200.000
100,000
Present
Fig. I. Tropical ocean surface temperature (from oxygen isotopes) over the last 200,000 years
(EMILIANI,
1955), compared with the effective solar radiation curve of 65 "N (MILANKOVITCH,
1930).
402
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
TABLE I
CLIMATIC ZONES OF THE EARTH, DURING PRESENT, GLACIAL AND GEOLOGICALLY NORMAL (NON-
GLACIAL) TIMES
_
Present
Polar
Subarctic
Cool temperate
Warm temperate
Subtropical
Tropical
Equatorial
TC
-10
0
5
15
20
25
27
Typical
indicator
Ice-sheet
Solifluction
Podzol
Brown soil
Desert
Laterite
Rain forest
_ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _
Approximate latititde
--
present
glacial
geologically
normal
times
70-90
60-70
45-60
3045
20-30
10-20
0-10
50-90
40-50
30-40
25-30
10-25
5-10
0-5
75-90
60-75
35-60
30-35
10-30
0-10
N.B. The above table is a gross generalization; it will be modified by such factors as altitude
(mountain climates pass upwards through latitude equivalents at about 10 ]at. to 1000 in elevation), continenrality-oceanicif~(distance from and influence of the sea), and position (east or west
side of continent). The table should, therefore, be used with caution. Temperature is mean annual.
Typical indicator phenomena or soils are given, but likewise only as an example. It should be
noted that such indicators are active; laterite inherited from the Tertiary may be found two
zones poleward today and solifluction inherited from the last glacial may be found two zones
equatorward today.
perature for the mid-Tertiary periods of at least 8 C, in comparison with the present
figures of about 1-2C over most of the world (Table I).
A plot of the latitudinal shift of temperature zones between glacial and interglacial conditions (Fig.2, FAIRBRIDGE, 1964a) shows that in the equatorial zone the
temperature changes are minimal (2-4 C),whereas inside the North Polar circle they
are extremely great (20-40C). The South Pole was maintained at exceptionally
low temperatures because of the high mountainous icecap (FAIRBRIDGE, 1961b,
p.561, fig.8). The gentle equator-pole temperature gradient in ngn-glacial times is
essentially controlled by thermal balancing mechanisms, which largely become
inoperative during periods of extensive ice covers. During warin epochs, due to
positive oscillations in effective solar radiation increases, the evaporation in the
tropics and cloud cover increase. The latter will then provide a partial radiation
screen for the land surface and prevent excessive temperature rise. Decreased
evaporation from the oceans during cool epochs will make subtropical lands drier
and deserts will vastly expand. Low- to mid-latitude deserts are, therefore, inversely
related to total solar radiation influx; deserts are paradoxically smaller in area in
the hotter periods (FAIRBRIDGE,
1964b).
During the glacial periods high latitudes are covered with snow, or floating
ice. Consequently, lacking sources of evaporation, they are arid white deserts.
403
Fig.2. Equator-pole thermal gradients for glacial, present, interglacial and non-glacial periods,
based on measurements and calculations for the mean surface water temperatures. (After FAIRBRIDGE, 1964a.)
During non-glacial or interglacial times, however, open water permits normal evaporation (though far less than in mid and low latitudes) and the land will be forested with a cool temperate flora. There is really no support for the ingenious
Simpson-Ewing-Donn theory (for objections, see SCHWARZBACH,
1963; FAIRBRIDGE, 1964a). Simpson argued that with any rise of effective solar radiation
teaching the 'earth (due to planetary motions and other factors), there would be a
rise of evaporation and thus of atmospheric moisture. In high latitudes, this would
cause snow to fall, glaciers to grow and an ice age would anomalously result from
a rise of insolation. EWINGand DONN(1956, 1958) pointed out that the evaporation from the Arctic Ocean would cease as soon as it froze over, so that the ice
epoch could only persist as long as the Arctic was warm enough to remain open.
Several fallacies are involved: the freezing of the Arctic is irrelevant, because the
moisture feeding the snowfields of Canada, Greenland, Scandinavia, and Central
Asia largely comes from the warm latitudes of the North Atlantic; the Arctic Ocean
is always cold and would not furnish much moisture under any conditions. Simpson's basic assumption was wrong, as shown by glaciological surveys by AHLMANN
(1948) and his students, because glaciers mostly tend to melt when the summer
seasons are warm and long, whereas glaciers grow when summers are cool and
short and the total precipitation of snow is a relatively minor matter. Glacial and
interglacial conditions correlate very nicely with the Milankovitch calculations of
celestial mechanics and resultant variations of solar radiation (see Fig. 1). Radiogenic dating by I4C and the uranium series puts precision and a very high degree
of probability into what was formerly merely an attractive hypothesis (FAIRBRIDGE,
1961b; BROECKER,1966). The small oscillations of incident solar radiation have a
profound effect on an earth which has polar mountains, but very little on an earth
404
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
without such catchment areas for the growth of snowfields and continental ice.
To sum up the picture of geological paleoclimatic normality, one may generalize as follows: in mid-latitudes the mean ocean and air temperature was about
10Chigher than today; in equatorial latitudes it was about 3-5 O warmer than today,
whereas in polar latitudes it was over 20C warmer than today; and there were no
major continental icecaps. Ocean bottom waters were very generally 8-10 warmer
than now.
RANGE OF MARINE CARBONATES TODAY
30
0
10
20
-)50% carbonate sediments plotted as ZOO totals Ckm*x106)
Fig.3. Present-day distribution of marine carbonates; heavy lines =pelagic (deep-sea)facies; dotted
=neritic (shelf) facies. (After FAIRBRIDGE,
1964a, p.473, fig.12.)
405
406
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
tially a beach sand rapidly cemented in situ, generally seasonally. The grains are
normally composed of fragmented Foraminifera, Mollusca, corals, and calcareous
Algae. The cement is usually aragonite, although rapid inversion to calcite occurs;
rarely is it gypsum or dolomite. A similar material produced by salt water splash
and spray is known as pelagosite. Present range: 30-40 ON and S. Water temperature
indication: 15-30C. Salinity indication: normal, except in the case of gypsum and
dolomite cements.
(c) Biogenic calcavenites-cemented grains of clastic organogenic carbonate
material, formerly called calcareous sandstone, or some such term. The grains
observed microscopically in thin section or polished surface, provide the basis for
a microfacies identification, which is often very diagnostic of time, depth, and
temperature (FAIRBRIDGE,
1954). Many of the living representatives of those organisms have distinctive climatic ranges. As one goes back in time, however, such
analogies become more tenuous. There is room for considerable research in this
field, particularly in tracing recognizable types backwards, stage by stage, from
the present.
Calcareous soils
Inasmuch as continental sediments, especially soils, have relatively little chance of
being permanently preserved in the stratigraphic column, it might appear to be
futile to study their present climatic correlation as a basis for interpreting ancient
climates. The rarity of fossil soils, however, does not mean that they are nonexistent, so this is hardly a good reason for ignoring them; and careful studies of soil carbonates may be rather illuminating.
Whereas an ancient soil remains or is likely to remain some appreciable
time at the earths surface or at least in the zone of weathering, its gross features are
constantly subject to modification, so that inherited aspects of apaleosol may be increasingly difficult to identify with age. Near the margins of subsiding basins and
other diastrophically mobile areas, however, paleosols may become buried, only
to be re-exposed long after. Under these conditions a paleosol may be an exceptionally valuable climatic indicator.
Carbonates are normally mobilized in modern soils under acid conditions,
and the latter are established by the presence of rotting vegetation (COz liberation
by bacteria, humic acids, etc.); this vegetation in turn requires mild or warm
temperatures and moisture. In the absence of hot, dry seasons, and where there is
heavy almost constant precipitation as in the cool, wet latitudes as well as in the
equatorialzone, the carbonates tend to be completely leached out of the soil and removed by the ground water. If there is a reversal of water movement by means of
407
-prevailingwind
mil withtravertine
concretions
Fig.4. Pleistocene eolian calcarenites and fossil soils at Hamelin Bay, Western Australia. Length
of section ca. 300 m; height ca. 20 m. (After FAIRBRIDGE
and TEICHERT, 1953.)
408
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
Lake mark
Lacustrine carbonates are also good climatic indicators, like calcareous soils,
because they are restricted to generally dry climates where the ground waters are
not unduly acid. The lakes are often somewhat saline, and thus electrolytes
flocculate clays to give marl (a clay-lime mixture). As a result, deposits are partly
evaporitic and partly organogenic, the environment being often favorable for freshwater Algae (HUTCHINSON,
1957). Fossils are often in the form of chitinous isopods, Estheria, Chara, and minute gastropods.
MODERN GEOCHEMICAL ASPECTS
The Ca/Mg ratio should be established for the calcite component of the sediment
and should not be merely the gross ratio in the mixture, because the Mg2f is selectively adsorbed by illite clays, and so the gross ratio may only reflect the total illite
content or perhaps the degree of diagenesis. Within the calcite fraction, it has been
established that Mg2+is selectively favored by certain taxonomic groups of organisms and tends to be positively temperature dependent within any such group
(CHAVE,1954; CHILINGAR,
1962). Depending on the water temperature at any
particular season of the year, the ratio may reflect the growth period. Different parts
of the shell may thus have different ratios (LOWENSTAM,
1954, 1961).
Inasmuch as shallow, near-shore waters are systematically warmer as a
rule than deep off-shore waters, the gross Ca/Mg ratio of a mixed detrital carbonate
sediment reflects temperature-depth-distance from shore relationships (CHILINGAR,
1960; see Fig.5). Owing to the ecologic distribution of certain biotas (which may be
of the high or low Mg-secreting taxa), however, there are anomalous concentrations which should not be misinterpreted in terms of temperature, etc. (CHAVE,
1954; CLOUD,1962; see Fig.6).
10
409
- 7 - I - - 1 1
20
40
60
80
Kilometers from shore
100
Fig.5. Ca/Mg ratio in mixed detrital carbonate sediments plotted as a function of distance From
shore in the Bahamas. (Data from CHILINGAR,
1960.)
25 -
20
Om
'
g
0
u
0
+.
S
15-
10-
Ol
5 -
Barnacles
Environmental temperature
Fig.6. Response of selected members of certain taxonomic groups to thermal range; note increasing Mg content with rise in temperature. (Based on work of CHAVE,
1954.)
CalSr ratio
The Ca/Sr ratio is essentially an attribute of the aragonitic carbonates, for calcite
usually carries very little Sr. This ratio is thus a useful relationship only with respect to warm environments, which are favorable to aragonitic organisms and the
410
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
inorganic precipitation of aragonite. Further restricting its usefulness is the metastable character of aragonite. According t o KRINSLEY
(1960), nevertheless, Sr2+
tends to be more stable than Mg2+ with time. The Ca/Sr ratio of sea water seems
to be constant, regardless of temperature or salinity. On the average, marine aragonites carry 1.O-0.1 % Sr, marine calcites about 0.01 %, and fresh-water calcites
about 0.001 %. In the modern marine realm, as with the Ca/Mg ratio, the Ca/Sr
ratio partly reflects temperature-depth-distance from shore (SIEGEL, 1961);
again it partly indicates local ecologic concentrations of the aragonite-secreting
taxa (e.g., patches of the calcareous alga Halimeda).
CaIFeITi ratio
As demonstrated by ARRHENIUS
(1952, 1959), the inorganic withdrawal of iron
and titanium into ocean bottom sediments today is probably very steady and independent of temperature. Inasmuch as the calcium withdrawal by pelagic Foraminifera is essentially organic and subject to temperature and other metabolic controls,
it is highly variable, and the Ca/Fe/Ti ratio is thus a convenient tool for determining it. WISEMANand TODD(1 959) analysed a modern tropical Atlantic core in this
way, and the resultant curve matches very closely the curve of Holocene oscillations
of mean sea level. The latter are temperature dependent, i.e., glacio-eustatic
(FAIRBRIDGE, 1961b. p.556).
This equatorial indication of a positive correlation between total calcium
productivity and temperature, however, is not reflected in the subtropics and intermediate latitudes. Here taxonomic varieties may change and metabolic activity
may be partly related t o nutrients. In the mid-Pacific, ARRHENIUS
(1952, 1959)
established a circulation index, which is inversely related to temperature; that
is to say, the lower solar radiation epochs are marked by a steeper pole-equator
gradient and the rate of oceanic turnover is thus accelerated. In the intermediate
latitudes of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, therefore, the total calcium withdrawal is higher in the glacial phases (BROECKER
et al., 1958; WANGERSKY,
1962).
Such a relationship probably reflects metabolic stimulation, extra nutrients, etc.,
for the pelagic Foraminifera, and the distribution of certain species; but the
details have yet to be worked out.
41 1
.--
c-,
aoo
1'
600
200
x 106yr
Fig.7. Trace of the mean Ca/Mg ratio in carbonates through time. (Based on datafromCmLmGAR,
1956.)
half a billion years or more, will simply not suffice, when there is little conceptIof
the former dimensions of the planet, its volume of ocean water and its atmospheric
composition.
A number of geochemical indicators can, however, be used to appraise the
situation. Ca/Mg ratios for the geological past show a systematic drop prior to
the Cretaceous (when the widespread flowering of pelagic Foraminifera upset the
environmental patterns: KUENEN,1950). Studies of the Ca/Mg weight ratio
et al., 1952; CHILINGAR,
1956) show that
through time (DALY,1907; VINOGRADOV
the mean ratio was 56 in the Cretaceous, less than 10 in the mid-Paleozoic, and
only 4 in the Precambrian (see Fig.7). In contrast the Ca/Sr ratio rises as one goes
back into the Precambrian (see Fig.8; and also discussion below).
What does this mean? It is possible that it reflects the increasing chance for
the older rocks to become dolomitized (Ca/Mg ratio of dolomite = 1.65/1).
0 '
\i
K
PC
I
C
I
600
S D C P T r J
I
400
Absolute t i m e scale
200
Te
x lo6yr
Fig.8. Trace of the mean Ca/Sr ratio in sediments through time (based on VINOGRADOV
et al.,
1952); note that the mid and late Paleozoic oscillations are due to including evaporites in calculating the net average.
412
R.
W. FAIRBRIDGE
It may also reflect an increasing proportion of magnesian calcite-producing organisms going back into the past. For example,in Early Paleozoic and Late Precambrian
times, the only carbonate reef or biostromal producers were the calcareous Algae,
certain groups of which have a very low initial Ca/Mg ratio; and furthermore, by
its metastable condition, the high magnesium calcite is more susceptible to dolomitization than any other mineral.
The low Precambrian Ca/Mg ratio might, on the other hand, reflect a more
favorable climate for the calcareous Algae involved. It is observed that the richest
Mg-secreting organisms today are tropically distributed. And yet again, the localization of the samples used by DALY(1907), VINOGRADOV
et al. (1952) and
CHILINGAR
(1956) (mainly North America and Europe), may simply reflect a former equatorial belt, now displaced by polar migration, global expansion, or continental drift.
(1951, 1957, 1958), that the
A fifth possibility is that proposed by STRAKHOV
atmospheric pco2 in the Precambrian and Paleozoic times was somewhat higher
than it is today; it may be deduced that such a condition would lead to a lower
ocean p H and would favor primary, syngenetic dolomite production, more or less
regardless of temperature. Direct dolomite precipitation is favored by high pcoZ
(BARON,1960) and low p H (CHILINGAR
and BISSELL,
1963a). High alkalinity could
be obtained by means of a higher concentration of borates and SO& ions in
solution. An argument in favor of the acid ocean theory (of LANE,1906, 1945) is
that the Precambrian clay sediments are notably impoverished with respect to
CaO (only 17 % of the present mean, according to NANZ,1953). Furtheimore,
they were considerably richer in Fe, FeO, A1203, and K 2 0 than modein clays,
RANKAMA
(1955) pointed out that the FeO/FezOs ratio was lower in the middle
Precambrian than it is today.
There is, furthermore, no very clear evidence of generally warmer oceans in
the Precambrian. (An assumption of this sort has often been made in the past as a
consequence of the molten earth hypothesis.) Indeed, the feldspars in arkoses
1943), which suggests
and graywackes are often very little corroded (PETTIJOHN,
low temperature conditions. In addition, in the Late Precambrian time there is evidence of almost world-wide glaciation (SCHWARZBACH,
1963), which could not be
made exclusively polar by any amount of ingenious continental drifting or polar
shifts, The earlier Precambrian boulder beds which may also be glacial are unfortunately so altered as a rule, that it is not clear if they are really glacial or merely
orogenic (the so-called pebbly mudstone or tilloid facies; see discussion in
SCHERMERHORN
and STANTON,
1963).
(1962) and summarized
An interesting experiment performed by CHILINGAR
here in Fig.9, shows that if a sea water is made more alkaline by adding bicarbonate,
the Ca/Mg ratio in the carbonate precipitate only rises above 10 at very high temperatures (over 60C), which are hardly realistic. On the other hand, if the solution
is enriched with Na+, a high Ca/Mg ratio is obtained at quite low temperatures.
413
Why might one expect the Precambrian sea to be enriched with respect to Naf?
Today, this cation is balanced by C1- largely. Na+ would have been liberated by
the weathering of sodic feldspars (common in basalt) from the earliest history of
earth, but C1- has only been provided by a slow secular emanation from volcanic
vents and other sources of mantle volatiles through the whole geologic record. There
is no mechanism for the removal of C1- from the ocean except by: (a) granitization, and this can only involve minute fractions of the total ocean water (trapped
as connate water); (b) cyclic salt removal as minute water droplets by storm winds,
to accumulate in inland soils or return to the sea in rivers; and (c) evaporite
deposits, which are also small in relation to the total (BORCHERTand MUIR,1964).
It is concluded, therefore, that the NaCl content of the ocean (now 19%J has been
steadily increasing with time, but that the Na+ that could be balanced against
CO32- in the Precambrian may have been appreciable, thus favoring the lower
curve on Fig.9.
Returning once more to the Ca/Sr ratio, it was noted that as one goes back
to the Precambrian it progressively rises, but only if one is careful to remove certain anomalous figures. Evaporites in the mid-Paleozoic should be excluded from
100
I-Atmospheric
Fig.9
20
40
60
Temperature ( " C )
so
160
10-4
10-3
COP
10-2
10-1
Fig.10
Fig.9. Ca/Mg ratio in precipitates from sea water saturated (above) with Ca(HCO&, and (below)
with a mixture of Ca(HC03)z and Na2C03. Note how the sodium enriched sea water furnishes
1962).
a low Ca/Mg ratio at reasonable temperatures. (Data from CHILINGAR,
Fig.10. Equilibrium concentrations of bicarbonate and carbon dioxide in water in contact with
limestone as a function of the COz partial pressure in the gas phase. (After VOGELand EHHALT,
1963; from DEGENS,
1965.)
414
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
*L
c
CO, + H, CO, ( mol /I)
2 0.002
HCOj
zo
c0;-
pH
9.0
8.0
PH
'OF
0.0
9.01.o
Calcite
Aragonite
solid
15
20
25
I 10-3
3 0 molesll
Fig.12. Total COz concentration in sea water as a function of temperature and pH, at varying
levels of atmospheric COZ.Note that if the presentpco, (3.5 .
atm.) were depressed by algal
photosynthesis, precipitation would ensue; alternatively with a higher pco2, a much higher total
concentration and probably higher temperature would be needed to cause precipitation. (After
REVELLE
and FAIRBRIDGE,
1957.)
415
relatively low carbonate solubility. On Fig.10 may be seen the relations between a
bicarbonate solution and pcoZ in contact with limestone. If one takes present-day
sea water, the p H is controlled mainly by pco2 and temperature (disregarding
pressure); and on Fig. 11 one may see the equilibrium of the bicarbonate at low
p H (low temperature and high pcoZ). Finally, one may compare the effects of
higher or lower temperatures on the calcite or aragonite phases for variations in
P C O ~(Fig.12).
As WEYL(1966) has remarked, the pH of the ocean, although broadly a
measure of the alkali-bicarbonate balance, is a non-conservative measure and it
is, therefore, better to consider alkalinity and total CQz. There is a net flux of
juvenile CQ2 at 2 . 1.012 gmole/year, compared with 15 times this figure involved
in recycling through erosion, river transport and sedimentation, according to modern
estimates of the contemporary budget. A similar amount in g equiv. is involved for
the alkali flux. If one goes back in time, it is apparent that with changing climates,
changing land areas, changing desert-forest ratios, different flux rates must have
pertained. Quantitative estimates of these are still awaiting research.
416
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
ent atmcsphere. Volcanic activity gradually added C1-, SO2 and C02. As there
was no soil in this early stage of earth history, rain-water solution would be slight
(due to rapid runoff) and the supply of Ca2+and Na+ to the ocean rather meager.
Ocean water would be slightly acid and salinity (NaCI) very low. Limestone formation was improbable at first. Any OZ liberated by photo-dissociation of HzO
would immediately be withdrawn by mineral oxidation. Bacterial attack on SO$led to production of HzS. Reducing conditions permitted easily oxidized minerals
(FeS2, UOZ,etc.) to exist as detrital sediments (RAMDOHR,
1957).
Revolution II
At a certain stage, it is evident that primitive chlorophyllic organisms (probably
bacterial autotrophs) began to use COz and liberate oxygen as a by-product of sugar
synthesis. The beginning of this Revolution 11 (Eparchean) probably took place
shortly before the time of the oldest radio-isotope-dated stromatolitic limestones,
say about 2.9 & 0.2.109 years ago. This removal of COZfrom solution in sea water
would raise the pH, especially if it took place in shallow coastal lagoons, and CaC03
would be precipitated. The structures in the early carbonates, however, do not
suggest evaporites or primary precipitates; they are probably organogenic rocks.
The first carbonate fossil traces are stromatolitic algal structures, and are found all
over the world in Precambrian formations, the oldest of which are the Bulawayan
dolomites that are over 2.7 * lo9 years old by absolute dating methods. Measurements of the 12C/13C ratios in these rocks may be helpful (WICKMAN,
1956); organic carbonates tend to be enriched in the I3Cisotope. The stromatolites (Collenia,
Cryptozoon, etc.) are not skeletal material secreted by multicellular plants, but
are wrinkled mats of CaC03 precipitated against the outer surface of unicellular
green Algae colonies, just as observed today in Florida (GINSBURG,
1960) and in
Shark Bay, W. Australia (LOGAN,1961). The growth of this mat in shallow lagoons
may well have sheltered the early cyanophytes from excess UV radiation. This
revolution gradually led to the build-up of an oxygen-rich atmosphere, though
initially all the 0 2 would have been reabsorbed by mineral oxidation. RUTTEN
(1965) suggested that about 1.6 * 109 years ago the 0 2 level reached 0.01 P.A.L.
(present atmospheric level). The so-called Pasteur Level ( P O , at 1 /, of the present atmospheric level) was probably achieved only at the end of the Precambrian
(HOLLAND,
1962; BERKNER
and MARSHALL,
1964). Nevertheless, it permitted the
evolution of the ancestors of all modern animals. Rutten suggested that the first
primitive fauna began to evolve about 1.O * lo9 years ago.
The end of the Precambrian era is sometimes called the Lipalian interval
(WALCOTT,
1910) to cover an imaginary epoch, when modern shell-bearing invertebrates werempposed to have evolved. This evolution must have been fantastically rapid and. complex, for the Lower Cambrian discloses already the trilobites,
representatives of the highest phylum of the invertebrates together with many other
417
forms. Trilobites are, crudely speaking, ancestral to the modern horse-shoe crab,
and such organisms are provided with a highly developed nervous system, brain,
eyes, prehensile organs, digestive system, articulated skeletal system, complex
musculature and a sophisticated bisexual reproductive system. It has been postulated that such organisms burst out from single-celled primitives in a brief evolutionary explosion at the very close of the Precambrian time to fill a newly created
ecologic niche (CLOUDand ABELSON,1961). Modern genetics offer no support
for such a revolutionary event. In any case, the very existence of a world-wide
stratigraphic gap corresponding to the Lipalian was disproven with the discovery
of many fine, unmetamorphosed sedimentary sequences that spanned the whole
interval, e.g., the Adelaide System of South Australia (DAVIDand BROWNE,1950;
GLAESSNER,
1966).
One is forced, therefore, to conclude that the oxygen-breathing invertebrates
evolved during an extended time-span of the middle and late Precambrian, although
traces of these organisms are extremely sparse and restricted to some impressions,
tracks and worm casts. The geochemical environmental conditions appear to have
been reasonably acceptable for organisms similar to those living today with but
one exception: the sea-water composition was such that they could not secrete
carbonate skeletons (SCHINDEWOLF,
1956; CHILINGAR
and BISSELL,1963b; FAIRBRIDGE,
1964a). Examples of the fauna are known, and worm tracks are relatively
common. The Ediacara fauna of South Australia, with its hydrozoa, etc., appreciably antedates the late Precambrian Sturtian Tillite (GLAESSNER,
1962; GLAESSNER and DAILY,1959). The primitive segmented fauna, presumably arthropods,
of the Belt Series of Montana, formerly considered of very late Precambrian or
even Lower Cambrian age, is now considered to be a Middle Precambrian stage
(GILLULY,1963; PFLUG,1965a). Also about one billion years old are the probable
Foraminifera reported by PFLUG(1965b).
It would appear, therefore, that the middle and late Precambrian sea must
have been acceptable for modern invertebrate life in every way, but for this peculiar
feature about the carbonate shell secretion. Only the intertidal or lagoonal Algae
seemed to have been able to lead to such precipitation. In an acid environment
this process would be applicable. In lakes and rivers, modern fresh-water arthropods secrete chitinous shells (with only small clots of calcite) by raising the pH of
their own body fluids, regardless of the low p H (5-7) of the environment. It seems
possible, therefore, that up till the end of the Precambrian, the oceanic pH did not
exceed 7 or a little over. As a matter of interest, all lakes in acid igneous rock areas
today have a p H below 7 (HUTCHINSON,
1957); and HOUGH(1958) has demonstrated that the great silica-iron deposits that are known all over the world in the Middle
and Late Precambrian, but at IZOother time, could be readily explained by the geochemistry of a lacustrine regime. A predictable low po2 would also favor this
deposition (LEPPand GOLDICH,1964) (Fig.] 3).
There seems to be good justification for the idea of BERKNER
and MARSHALL
418
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
ZCO,,%
001%
0 1-10
1%
100%rCOL
10%
107
'-
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ & i ~ IN
- ALL
- C SEDIMENTS
0 2
--
A L P I N E OROGENY
-k
108
l o "
\o
2
c
Earliest Animals
109
IO-~
0.01%
._______
10.~
10-2
0.1%
1%
10
-'
10%
100%
LEVEL
Fig.13. Great biological revolutions of the earth's history. Tentative suggestions of the variation
in partial pressures of atmospheric oxygen (largely by photosynthesis; partly by photodissociation
of HaO) and COZ(from volcanic emanation).
(1964) that with the extremely thin 0 2 and HzO vapor atmospheric blanket in
the early Precambrian, UV-synthesized ozone would be formed directly on the land
surface. Inasmuch as ozone, rather like hydrogen peroxide, is a very strong oxidizing agent, the rate of chemical erosion would be very high and continue until
such time as the atmospheric blanket is thickened. The production of the enormous
silica-iron deposits would be greatly facilitated by such erosion. It must not be
forgotten, however, that very important mechanical, unweathered deposits also
occur during this period. Inasmuch as the iron deposits are not continuous, a
series of oscillatory ozone build-ups may have alternated with less reactive epochs.
Their world-wide distribution merely suggests a rather brackish, acid ocean. Alkalinity, however, may have been moderately high owing to the presence of borates
and sulphates, as well as limited amounts of the principal sea salt (NaC1) which
slowly increased through time. Late Precambrian gypsum and magnesite are
known but there is no trace of halite evaporites.
419
Revolution 111
Revolution 111 (Eocambrian) occurred about 6 & 0.3 lo8 years ago. The first
evaporites (halite) appeared in the Cambrian of Jordan, Iran, and India. At the
beginning of the Paleozoic, COz was being withdrawn in ever-increasing amounts
(raising the pH), adequate concentrations of Ca2+had now accumulated in sea water
salts, and unlimited formation of calcite and aragonite shells became practicable for
the invertebrates. It is possible that such shells were the inevitable consequences of
a rising p H and rising Ca2+ concentration in sea waters, a natural sequence of
events that could be predicted as the weathering and solution of silicate rocks on
the continents gradually proceeded. Erosion during the Precambrian was dominantly mechanical (cf. graywackes and arkoses), but not exclusively so; during the
Paleozoic time chemical erosion (soil development) became more important as the
vegetation cover of the land surfaces grew richer and more varied.
During Paleozoic times, limestones became very widespread in a belt extending from North America, through western Europe and the U.S.S.R., to Australia. This seems to be a former equatorial belt that persisted (through most of
that era), and it is quite unnecessary to propose the existence of climates on a worldwide basis that were warmer than, say, those of the mid-Tertiary. Indeed the mean
temperature may have been somewhat cooler; and certainly in the early Paleozoic
climates may have been somewhat more extreme, because there was no major
vegetation to conserve and transpire moisture. Previously, no doubt, through
much of the Precambrian time, there were probably soil bacteria, cyanophytic
Algae, fungi, etc. (FISCHER,
1965), but they were probably limited to swampyplaces.
Land vegetation (major plants), according to the fossil record available so far,
first evolved in Australia in Silurian times, and was widespread already in the
Devonian. By Carboniferous times these vast swamp floras were providing for the
greatest coal deposits of geologic history. In the Permian the locus of the great coal
swamps turned to the Southern Hemisphere, but after the end of the Paleozoic,
coal development in general became more restricted. The total coal preserved
today is about 6 1012 metric tons, but much has been lost by erosion.
Geochemically one may observe that during the Paleozoic, certain animals
(e.g., corals) and plants (Algae, and coal swamp flora) were responsible for withdrawing very large quantities of carbon from the atmosphere-hydrosphere, and
additional supplies of 0 2 were liberated. Both the C (coal and oil) and CaC03
(limestones) by sedimentological processes became buried on a semi-permanent
basis. Thus a new, biologically activated pattern was set up, on a scale that was
greater than that which existed during the Precambrian time. There is no reason
to imagine that volcanic supply of COZ rose to meet the demand; indeed, it may
have been reduced in comparison to the Precambrian rate. On the other hand, the
spreading of vegetation onto the land permitted the development of soils and their
associated bacteria, which provided for a much more continuous contact of HzCOs
420
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
with rock surfaces than had ever been possible under Precambrian conditions. Thus
the soil chemistry was changing to accelerate the supply of the ions of the principal silicate minerals to the sea: Ca2+, Na+, Mgz+, preferentially over K+, Fez+,
etc.
Revolution ZV
The time of Revolution IV (Permo-Carboniferous) was 2.5 & 0.3 los years ago.
In the ocean it was marked by a rising alkalinity from the supply of alkali metals
and, due to the removal of atmospheric and oceanic carbon, there may have been
a lowering of the general pcoZ. Thus there was a rise of oceanic pH, perhaps from
7 to about 8. During this transition certain marine invertebrate groups became
extinct. The end of the Permian was not a time of wholesale slaughter of Paleozoic
life, but rather marked a threshhold or end-point in a long series of geochemical
changes that proved too much for certain taxonomic classes.
Revolution V
It seems that a modern atmospheric and oceanic geochemistry had been
established early in the Mesozoic. Primitive land mammals, which require oxygen
and a low atmospheric pco2 were able to evolve. Nevertheless, in the late
Mesozoic a new revolution was developing in the ocean. This concerned principally the evolution of small floating organisms which secrete carbonate tests.
This represents, then, the last great biogeochemical event, Revolution V (Cretaceous), dated about 1.O rt 0.2 . 108 years ago. For some reason, not well understood,
small, pelagic carbonate organisms do not appear to have existed in the Paleozoic.
They only gradually emerged during the Mesozoic, and exploded in an immense
flowering all over the world oceans in the Cretaceous time. These organisms,
mainly the Coccolithophoridae and pelagic Foraminifera, are the principal components of the famous Cretaceous chalk formations. They are found from the
cliffs of Dover to Australia and from Texas to Antarctica. The high rate of CaC03
withdrawal is reflected by the mean Ca/Mg ratio of the Cretaceous carbonates of
about 56 (weight ratio) compared with 16 in the late Paleozoic. Since Cretaceous
time it has dropped to about 40. That such an event must have fundamentally
changed the earths carbonate economy was recognized by KUENEN
(1950). The
earlier limestones were neritic and epicontinental, and therefore, very liable to be
recycled, whereas the pelagic carbonates are oceanic and almost permanently
withdrawn from surface circulation (see also CHILINGAR,
1956). It should be remembered, however, that below the calcium carbonate compensation depth (now
about 4,500 m on the average), all carbonate is redissolved. This level is probably
set by a self-adjusting mechanism, related to Ca2+ and HCO3- fluxes.
42 1
Apart from biogeochemical revolutions, there must have been countless ecological
adaptations in the past to changing environments on a paleogeographic basis. With
diastrophism new geosynclines have formed; new mountain barriers and archipelagoes were created. And organisms, particularly the sessile ones, such as the corals,
became passive victims of geotectonic events.
Particular difficulties exist for the paleoecologist who would reconstruct
a former environment from the evidence of the fossil biota. That the science of
paleoecology is a relatively new one may be illustrated by the fact that the Geological Society of America published its joint treatises on Ecology and Paleoecology
(edited respectively by HEDGPETH
and LADD)as recently as 1957; and the first college textbookonpaleoecologyis the fine work of AGER,issued in 1963. Avery helpful supplement to the latter is the symposium edited by IMBRIEand NEWELL(1964).
A Russian view, with useful treatment of methods is given by HECKER
(1965).
The biogenic carbonates occupy a key place in such studies. The problem is
essentially one of understanding the present ecologic patterns and controls, which
in itself is not an easy task. Then it is necessary to shift the focus back in time, with
an endeavor to understand the multitudinous adaptations and migrations stage
by stage in the reverse sense. The wise procedure would not be to jump directly
into the Paleozoic, but to take biotas or classes backwards in fairly small steps.
Of particular interest to carbonate students are the various reef-forming
groups. One has only to study TEICHERTS
(1958) excellent review of cold-water
organic reefs to realize the exceptional difficulties that are facing us. Whereas the
herniatypic reef-building corals have certain well-marked warm habitats today, it
may be noted that the same genera may be present even in rather cool waters. The
latter, however, are in the form of small colonies, perhaps 10 cm across instead of
2-3 m. A rapid, upward change in water level and temperature, due for example
to a warm climatic swing, would transform these 10 cm pioneers to full-fledged
reef-builders. Such impoverished forms may be formed both in latitudinally marginal areas (i.e., too far polewards of the subtropical belts), and bathymetriealZy
marginal depths i.e., (too deep for vigorous growth and reproduction).
The dependence of so many of the major carbonate-secreting organisms on
the zooxanthellae, which are unicellular symbiotic green Algae that remove CO2
and waste products from interior mantle folds, means that their hosts are essentially phototropic (YONGE,1940; 1963). These large colonial organisms can nevertheless exist sometimes in an impoverished way, with greatly reduced growth of
zooxanthellae, in areas where light is restricted, such as in tropical waters made
turbid by mud, in higher latitudes, or in greater than optimum depths.
This sort of metabolic elasticity may thus aid certain groups in surviving
the storms of geotectonic or paleoclimatic changes. For the paleoecologist,
422
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC PROBLEMS
The changing shore-lines and extensive epeiric seas of the geologic past are wellknown features, but in recent years it has become possible to propose certain theoretical guidelines for such paleogeographic events as cyclic transgression and regressions. The importance of the appropriate physical setting to provide most
favorable marine environments for the accumulation of carbonates hardly requires
further emphasis. Such epicontinental shore-line changes have three main causes:
(a) geotectonic revolutions alternating with quiescence; (b) eustatic changes of sea
level; and (c) geodetic changes of sea level.
423
netism swung from north to south and back again. Deprived of the usual screen
for cosmic radiation, accelerated genetic changes could be expected for those organisms not hidden underground or deeper than about 10 m down in the ocean.
From the paleogeographic point of view such revolutionary events also involve the collapse and uplift of old geosynclines and the creation of new. Along
rather narrow, but very elongate belts, marked shore-line changes occur. In the
orthogeosynclines (the highly mobile belts of eu- and mio-gzosynclinal type),
there is a predominance of clastics and volcanic derivatives. In the meantime, far
from the sites of violent tectonism, in the cratonic basins or parageosynclines
(mainly the exo- andparalia- types of K A Y , 1945, 1947, 1951) quiet conditions are
likely to prevail and the carbonates may provide the principal lithofacies. In the
latter case, however, they must coincide with favorable paleoclimatic zones. Long
periods of quiescence on continents (in equatorial to subtropical belts) will also
lead to deep chemical weathering, the leaching of Cat+ from soils and its increased
flux to the continental shelves; such conditions correspond to ERHARTS (1956)
biostatic phases (see also TERMIER
and TERMIER,
1963, p.153).
Eustatic changes of sea level
Eustatic changes of sea level have been recognized for over a century, but are only
just beginning to be incorporated in the working philosophy of stratigraphers.
There are many causes for world-wide changes of ocean level (in the same sense),
only two of which are of real importance. The sedimento-eustasy, or rise of
water level due to the sedimentary filling of basins, which stimulated SUESS
(1904-1924) to coin the term eustatic, is amongst those causes now regarded to
be of minor importance (FAIRBRIDGE,
1961a). The two major phenomena are tectono-eustasy and glacio-eustasy.
Tectono-eustusy
This is a rise or fall of world sea level due to the geotectonic change in shape of
basins, large or small. Darwin long ago recognized that if Pacific atolls grew up
during a general downwarp of that basin, there would be a resultant drop of world
sea level which could explain raised beaches and coastal terraces from Britain to
Patagonia. Zeuner believed that the progressive lowering of the raised shorelines
through the Quaternary was not an indication that each glacial stage was more
severe than the last, but that downwarping of ocean basins was in progress. The
general block-faulting and subsidence of the quasicratonic Pacific marginal seas
and other Mediterranean seas during the Quaternary time was recently brought
1967).
out by the present writer (FAIRBRIDGE,
Glacio-eustasy
Rise and fall of world sea level due to build-up or melting of terrestrial ice sheets,
424
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
__
~~
-.
~~
~-
Control
Range
.I
/
L_
Thalassocratic condition
(oceans transgressive)
Epeirocratic condition
life but stimulating sup
(oceans r e g r e s s w e )
of terrigenous sediment
i t s bathyal distribution
HorIzOntal scale
0
Vertical scale
krn
exaggerated
1000
x 500
Fig.14. Rise and fall of sea level creates a first-order cyclic sedimentary control over neritic facies
in the geologic past. The shallow-seatransgression favors carbonates, the extreme regression does
not.
425
8C
70
~;Ordovician
transgression
6C
a-
x
,
5c
4c
30
2b 20
\4
10
0 S
P TrlJ
Te Q
Fig.15. Record of major transgressions and regressions over the last 600 million years. Note coincidence of widespread carbonates with maximal transgressions, and glaciation with maximal re
gressions. The general tendency towards a sccular retreat from the continents over this period is
interpreted by EGYED(1956, 1957) as evidence for the expansion of ocean basins. (Following
(1948) and H. TERMIER
and G.
demonstrations by EGYED(1956, 1957) using data by STRAKHOV
TERMIER
(1952); In: FAIRBRIDGE,
1964a, p.469; fig.11.) 0 = Strakhov; 0 = Termier.
426
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
The geotectonic and planetary problems are of great dimensions and their lack of
solution injects into carbonate geochemistry and paleoclimatology the greatest
uncertainties. Half a century ago, and even up till quite recently, it was convenient
in geochemical calculations t o assume: (a) a stable earth of constant dimensions;
(b)an ocean volume and salinity that has not changed much since mid-Precambrian
times; and (c) an atmosphere that was essentially the same as the present one. With
the philosophic acceptance of a dynamic earth, in a dynamic universe, these concepts of a planetary body of absolutely constant dimensions and characteristics
call for remarkable coincidences that today are very difficult to accept. The contraction theory was also widely accepted formerly in principle, though admittedly few allowances were made for it.
During the last decade, a number of revolutionary discoveries have been
made. They include the discoveries in paleomagnetism, which have led to the plotting of former poles, and the conclusions that the continental masses have shifted
apart in the course of younger geological time (say the last 0.5 billion years).
427
These migrations have been correlated with revolutionary episodes in the evolution
of postulated convection currents in the earths mantle (RUNCORN,
1962), although
powerful arguments against convection have also been raised. As a consequence of
differentiation within the mantle, there has been proposed an expansion theory
(EGYED,1956, 1957; IVANENKO
and SAGITOV,
1961; HEEZEN,1962) instead of contraction. The basic dimensions of all geochemical budgets should perhaps be reexamined in this light.
Seismic and other recent studies of ocean bottoms have suggested that much
of the ocean floor is Mesozoic or younger in age, and not of great antiquity as
previously believed. DIETZ(1961) proposed that convection currents are constantly
turning over the deep ocean floor material and its cover of sediments, so that a
renewal would be possible; but the reflection profiling results offer no support for
this idea.
CONCLUSIONS
428
R. W. FAIRBRIDGE
they constitute a vital biogeochemical group that is intimately bound up with the
nature and course of early physiologic evolution, of which scientists know little;
furthermore this evolution is set in a planetary environment, the basic dimensions
of which are not yet agreed upon.
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RUNCORN,
R. K., 1962. Convection currents in the earths mantle. Nature, 195: 1248-1249.
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R. W., 1931. Bermuda during the Ice Age. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci., 66 (2-1 1): 361-465.
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L. J. G. and STANTON,
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APPENDIX
Diagrams for visual estimation of percentages of various components in rock
1954; see also TERRY
and CHILINGAR,
1955.)
sections. (After SHVETSOV,
Fig.1
Fig.3
Fig.2
434
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
SHVETSOV,
M.S., 1954. Concerning some additional aids in studying sedimentary formations.
Byul. Mosk. Obshchestva Ispytateki Prirody, Otd. Geol., 29(1): 61-66.
TERRY,
R.D. and CHILINGAR,
G.V., 1955. Summary of Concerning some additional aids in
studying sedime:itary formations by M.S. Shvetsov. J . Sediment. Petrol., 25(3): 229-234.
REFERENCES INDEX
R. E. and TERRIERE,
R. T., 220,
BERGENBACK,
249
H. R. and COBBAN,
W. A., 227,
BERGQUIST,
249
BERKNER,
L. V. and MARSHALL,
L. C., 25,
416, 417
R. A,, 331, 336, 337, 338
BERNER,
BERRY,E. W., 401, 428
BERRY,W. B. N., 144
BERTRAND,
J. P., 14
K., 235, 243, 249
BIRKENMAJER,
BIRSE,D. J., 338
BISSELL,
H. J., 144
RISSELL,
H. J. and CHILINGAR,
G. V., 17, 27,
51, 83, 97, 98, 110, 113, 119, 120, 144, 170,
249, 292, 339
BLACK,M., 60, 83, 236
BLACK,M. and BARNES,
B., 235, 299
BLACK,W. W., 220, 250
BLACKWELDER,
E., 339
BLANCKENHORN,
M., 175, 250
BLOCH,M. R., LITMAN,
H. Z. and ELAZARIVOLCANI, B., 200, 250
BRADLEY,
W. H., 206, 250
BRAMKAMP,
R. A. and POWERS,R. W., 93,
104, 105, 109, 111, 117, 120, 144
BRAMLETTE,
M. N., 40, 47
BRANNER,
J. C., 250, 274, 296, 339
BRAUN,M., 315, 319
BRETZ,J. H., 407, 428
BRIDGE,
J., 339
BRIGGS,L. I., 312, 339
BRINKMANN,
R., 310, 320, 339
W. S., 403, 428
BROECKER,
BROECKER,
W. S . , TUREKIAN,
K. K. and HEEZEN, B. C., 234, 250,410, 428
BROWN,C. N., 198, 250,428
BODENHEIMER,
W. and NEEV,D., 199, 250
0. B., 339
BOGGILD,
BOND,G., 220, 250
BORCHERT,
H. and MUIR, R. O., 10, 27, 413,
428
J. G., 185,250
BORNEMANN,
BOUMA,
A. H., 83, 104, 144
BOUMA,
A. H. and NOTA,D. J. G., 64, 83
436
BOWEN,H. J. M., 407,417, 428
BOYD,D. W., 222, 250
BUDZINSKI,
H., 307, 339
B~JSBY,
R. F., 30, 47
BUTLER,G. P., KENDALL,C. B. ST. C.,
D. J. and
KINSMAN,D. J. J., SHEARMAN,
SKIPWITH,P. A. DE., 221, 250, 287, 339
BYRNE,J. V., LEROY,D. 0. and RILEY,C. M.,
228, 250
REFERENCES INDEX
REFERENCES INDEX
437
REFERENCES INDEX
GOREAU,
T. F., 217, 254
GDRSLINE,
D. S., 146, 224, 254
GOULD,
H. R. and MCFARLAN
JR.,E., 228,254
COULD,H. R. and STEWART,
R. H., 224, 254
GRABAU,
A. W., 88, 93, 94, 98, 99, 146, 172,
185, 199, 220, 254
GRAF,D. L., 29, 48, 64, 84, 90, 146, 226, 254,
313, 341
GRAF,D. L. and LAMAR,
J. E., 360, 397
GRAF, D. L., EARDLEY,
A, J. and SHIMP,
N. F., 7, 27, 146, 292, 341
J. R., 64,84,275,
GRAF,D. L. and GOLDSMITH,
307, 341
GREENSMITH,
J. T., 146, 162
GREGORY,
J. W., 242, 254
GREINER,
H. R., 146, 311, 341
GRESSLY,
A,, 15, 54
GRIM,R. E., KULBRICKI,
G. and CAROZZI,
A. V., 7, 27
GROSS,M. G., 42, 48, 295, 297, 341
GROUT,F. F., 177, 254
GUBLER,
Y., 14, 16, 146, 170
GUBLER,
Y. and BERTRAND,
J. F., 64, 84, 254
GUERRERO,
R. G. and KENNER,
C. T., 89, 146
Gussow, W. C., 220, 254
HENSON,
F. R. S., 219, 255
HESS,H. H., 237, 255
HEWETT,
D. F., 275, 332, 333, 334, 342
HILDE,J. C., 326, 342
HILLS,J. M., 243, 255
HOBBS
JR., C. R., 146, 297, 298, 300, 329, 342
HOHLT,R. B., 360, 397
HOLLAND,
H., 25, 416, 430
HOLLINGSWORTH,
S. E., 424, 430
HOLMES,
A., 193, 255, 422, 430
HOUBOLDT,
J. J. H. C., 65, 84
HOUGH,J. L., 417, 430
HOWARD,
W. V. and DAVID,M. W., 342
HOWE,M. A., 215, 255
HOWELL,
J. B., 101, 102, 146
HOPKINS,
R. H., 342
HUDSON,
R. G. S., 231, 255
HUNT,J. M., STEWART,
F. and DICKEY,
P. A,,
215, 216, 217, 255
HUTCHINSON, G. E., 408, 417, 430
HUXLEY,
T. A., 235, 255
ILLING,L. V., 35, 40, 44, 48, 65, 84, 96, 146,
172, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189, 202, 215, 222,
225,255,285, 298, 309, 31 1, 342
ILLING,
L. V. and WELLS,
A. J., 201, 255, 285,
288, 342
HADDING,
A., 172, 21 6, 220,254
IMBRIE,
J. and KORNICKER,
L., 298, 342
HALL,C. W. and SARDESON,
F. W., 341
IMBRIE,
J. and NEWELL,
N., 421, 430
HALLA,F. und RITTER,
F., 336, 341
IMBRIE,
J. and PURDY,E. G., 14, 34, 48, 52,
HALLA,F., CHILINGAR,
G. V. and BISSELL, 84, 96, 105, 117, 146, 313
H. J., 146
IMBT,
W. C. and ELLISON,
S. P., 369, 370, 371,
HALLAM,
A., 424, 430
397
HAM,W. E., 117, 146, 174,213,223, 232, 233, INGERSON,
E., 44, 48, 201, 255, 275, 307, 342
254, 255, 291, 298, 309, 311, 322, 329, 330,
IRWIN
JR., C. D., 355, 397
341
IVANENKO,
D. D. and SAGITOV,
M. U., 427,430
HAM,W. E. and PRAY,L. C., 255
HAMBLETON,
A. W., 146
JACOBSEN,
L., 210, 213, 255
HARBAUGH,
J. W., 21, 146, 177, 194, 220
JANSEN,
J. F. and KITANO,
Y., 39, 48
HARDMAN,
E. T., 341
JENKINS
JR., M. A., 146
HARDY,
F., 326, 342
JOHNS,R. K. and LUDBROOK,
N. H., 293, 342
HARVEY,
H. W., 414, 430
JOHNSON,
G. A. L., 231, 255
HASSACK,
C., 174, 255
JOHNSON,
J. H., 147, 175, 191, 215, 255, 256
HATCH,F. H., RASTALL,
R. H. and BLACK, JOHNSON,
J. H. and KONISHI,K., 215, 256
M., 176, 189, 204, 236, 255, 271, 278, 296, JONES,
B. F., 283, 284, 290, 342
320, 333, 342
JONES,G. E., STARKEY,
R. L., FEELEY,
H. W.
HATHAWAY,
J. C., SCHLEE,
J. S., TRUMBULL, and KULP,J. L., 342
J., 226,255
J. V. A. and HULSEMANN,
JUKES-BROWNE,
A. J., 236, 256
HAWLEY,
D., 247,255
Jux, U., 220, 256
HAYES,
P. T., 342
HECKER,
R. F., 421, 340
KAFKA,F. T. and KIRKBRIDGE,
R. K., 72, 85
HEDGPETH,
J. W., 226, 229, 255,358, 397, 421, KAHLE,
C. F., 294, 342
430
KALKOWSKY,
E., 256
HEEZEN,
B. C., 427, 430
KANE,H. E., 228, 256
HEEZEN,
B. C., THARPE,
M. and EWING,M., KATZ,A., 302
237, 255
KAY,G. M., 247, 256, 316, 342, 423, 430
REFERENCES INDEX
KHVOROVA,
I. V., 101, 147, 301, 342
KING,D., 293, 335, 342
KING,P. B., 222, 243, 256, 342
KING, R. H., 281, 342
KINDLE,C. H., 256
KINDLE,C. H. and WHITTINGTON,
H. B., 246,
247, 256
KINSMAN,
D. J. J., 189, 256, 342
KLEIN,G. D., 216, 257
KLEIN,G. D. and SANDERS,
J. E., 227, 257
KLAHN,H., 173, 256
KLOVAN,
J. E., 394, 395, 396, 397
KOLDEWIJN,
B. W., 229, 257
KORNICKER,
L. S., 147
KRAMER,
W. B., 245, 247, 248, 257
KRINSLEY,
D., 39, 48, 410, 430
KRINSLEY,
D. and BIERI,R., 39, 48
KRUMBEIN,
W. C. and SLOSS,L. L., 51, 85,
119, 147
KRYNINE,
P. D., 85, 102, 147, 208, 209, 257,
309, 342
KSIAZKIEWICZ,
M., 240
KUENEN,
PH. H., 25,26, 85, 239, 342,411,430
KUENEN,
PH. H. and CAROZZI,
A. V., 239,243,
257
KUENEN,
PH. H. and MIGLIORINI,
C. I., 242,
257
KUENEN,PH. H. and TENHAAF,E., 239,
257
KUGACHKOV,
D. M., 326, 342
KULP,J. L., 422, 430
KUMMEL,
H. R., 212, 257
LADD,H. S., 430
LADD,H. S., HEDPETH,J. W. and POST,R.,
171, 226, 257
LADD,H. S., INGERSON,
E., TOWSEND,
R. C.,
RUSSELL,M. and STEPHENSON,
H. K., 343
LADD,H. S.,TRACEY
JR.,J. I. and LILL,C. G.,
343
LADD,H. S., TRACEY
JR., J. I., WELLS,J. W.
and EMERY,
K. O., 257
LALOU,C., 64, 85, 147, 324, 343
LAMING,
D., 212
LAMPLUGH,
G. W., 175,257
LANDES,
K. K., 343
LANE,A. C., 412, 430
LANG,W. B., 243, 257, 343
LANGOZKY,
Y., 204, 257
LAPORTE,
L. F., 147, 314, 315, 343
LAROCQUE,
A,, 207, 208, 257
LAYER,D. B., 220, 257
LE BLANC,R. J. and BREEDING,
J. G., 27, 48,
49, 84, 85, 145, 146, 147, 148, 259, 341
LECOMPTE,
M., 55, 64, 85,220,226, 257
LEIGHTON,
M. W. and PENDEXTER,
C., 17, 85,
439
91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 105, 106, 109,
112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 147, 161, 166, 185,
195,257
LEITH,C. K. and MEAD,W. J., 193, 258
LEPP,H. and GOLDICH,
S. S., 417, 430
LESLEY,
J. P., 8, 27, 320, 343
LEVET,M. N., 220, 258
LINCK,G., 182, 258, 271, 343
LINDGREN,
W., 361, 397
LINK,T. A., 220, 258
LLOYD,E. R., 243, 258
LOEWENGART,
S., 233,258
LOGAN,B., 416, 430
LOGAN,
B. R., REZAK,
R. and GINSBURG,
R. N.,
315, 343
LOMBARD,
A., 55, 62, 64, 85
LONG,G., NEGLIA,
S. and FAVRETTO,
L., 80,85
LONGWELL,
C. R., 207, 211, 258, 313, 343
LOWENSTAM,
H. A,, 39, 49, 99, 147, 220, 258,
408, 430
LOWENSTAM,
H. A. and EPSTEIN,
S., 42,49,147
LOWMAN,
S. W., 245,258
LUCIA,F. J., 147, 187, 298, 301, 343, 363, 364,
397
LUCIA,F. J., WEYL,P. K. and DEFFEYES,
K. S.,
40,48
LUDWICK,
J. C. and WALTON,
W. R., 226,258
LYELL,C., 171, 176, 258
MACLAREN,
C., 424, 430
MACNEIL,F. S., 219, 258
MAGDEFRAU,
K., 343
MAKHLAEV,
V. G., 302, 343
MAMET,
B., 63, 64, 85
MARCHER,
M. V., 147
MARSHALL,
P., 25, 219, 258, 343
MATTAVELLI,
L., 14, 72
MAWSON,
D., 215, 258
MAXWELL,
W. G. H., DAY,R. W. and FLEMING, P. J. G., 34, 147
MAXWELL,
W. G. H., JELL, J. S. and McKELLAR,
R. G., 49
MAYOR,A. G., 343
MCCOMAS,
M. R., 352, 397
MCGREGOR,
D. J., 313, 343
MCGERRIGGLE,
H. W., 258
MCINTIRE,
W. G., 233, 258
MCKEE,E. D., 11, 12, 27, 219, 258, 320, 343
MCKINLEY,
M. E., 109,147
MEAD,W. J., 193, 258
MEDLIN,W. L., 307, 343
MERRILL,
G. G., 258
MIDDLETON,
G. V., 222, 258
MILANKOVICH,
M., 401, 403, 430
MILLERJR., D. N., 40, 49
MILLER JR., H., 231,258
440
REFERENCES INDEX
RAINWATER,
E. H., 229, 260
RALL,R. W. and RALL,E. P., 220, 260
RAMDOHR,
P., 416, 431
PARKINSON,
D., 148, 220, 260
PARSONS,
L. M., 333, 344
PASSEGA,
R., 14, 62, 72, 85
PERKINS,
R. D., 148, 224, 260, 317, 344
PETERSON,
M. N. A,, 225, 260
PETERSON,
M. N. A. and BIEN,G. S., 283,284,
344
PETERSON,
M. N. A,, BIEN,G. S. and BERNER,
R. A., 344
PETERSON,
M. N. A, and VON DER BORCH,
C. C., 283, 344
F. J., 89, 102, 107, 148, 167, 193,
PETTIJOHN,
260,412, 430
PFLUG,H. D., 417, 430, 431
NANZJR., R. H., 412, 430
PHILIPPI, E., 344
NEEV,D., 192, 199, 200, 201, 259, 290, 291, PIA,J., 173, 177, 215, 260
292, 336, 337, 344
PICARD,L., 204, 233, 248, 260, 333, 344
NEHRER,
J. and ROHRER,
E., 325, 344
PICARD,L. and AVNIMELECH,
M., 233, 260
NELSON,
H. F., BROWN,C. W. and BRINEMAN, PICARD,L. and SOLOMONICA,
P., 233, 260
J. H., 95, 99, 117, 147, 166, 175, 220, 259
PILKEY,
0. H., 44, 49
NELSON,R. J., 231, 259
PILKEY,0. H. and GOODELL,
H. G., 39, 49
NESTEROFF,
W., 64, 85
PILKEY,
0. H. and HOWER,J., 39, 49
NEWELL,
N. D., 99, 147, 175, 233, 243, 259
PIRSSON,
L. V. and KNOPF,A., 177, 260
NEWELL,N. D. and RIGBY,J. K., 52, 53, 60, PLUMLEY,
W. J. and GRAVES
JR., R. W., 220,
65, 85, 147, 217, 259
260
NEWELL,
N. D., IMBRIE,
J., PURDY,E. G. and PLUMLEY,
W. J., RISLEY,G. A., GRAVES
JR.,
THURBER,
D. L., 35, 49, 148, 218, 259
R. W.and KALEY,
M. E., 17, 104, 105, 116,
NEWELL,
N. D., PURDY,E. G. and IMBRIE,
J.,
148, 197, 260
182, 184, 259
POTTER,P. E. and PETTIJOHN,
F. J., 55, 85
NEWELL,N. D., RIGBY,J. K., FISHER,A. G., POWERS,
R. W., 53, 55,93, 111, 117, 120, 148,
WHITEMAN,
A. J., HICKOX,J. E. and BRAD175, 176, 186, 187, 190, 216, 223, 247, 291,
LEY,J. S., 148, 259, 343
329, 344, 366, 367, 398
NEWELL,
N. D., RIGBY,J. K., WHITEMAN,
A. J.
POWERS,
S., 260
and BRADLEY,
J. S., 148, 192, 220, 222, 298,
PRAY,L. C., 148, 227,260
309, 310, 328
PRAY,L. C. and WRAY,J. L., 94, 116, 148
NICHOLAS,
R. L., 193, 259
PUGH,W. E., 220, 227, 260
NINO,H. and EMERY,K. O., 229, 259
PURCELL,
W. R., 374, 398
NOLL,W., 49
PURDY,E. G., 34, 44, 49, 191, 260
NORRIS,R. M., 226, 259
PURDY,
E. G. and MATTHEWS,
R. K., 217,260
NOTA,D. J. G., 229,259
Nuss, W. F. and WHITING,R. I., 371, 398
QUIRING,
H., 329, 344
REFERENCES INDEX
44 1
RANKAMA,
K., 412, 431
SANDO,W. J., 296, 345
RAYMOND,
L. R., 344
SARIN,D. D., 148, 345
RAYMOND,
P. E., 220, 246, 261
SASS, E., 307, 345
RAYNER,
D. H., 231, 261
R. W., 199, 231, 262, 407
SAYLES,
REEVES
JR., C. C. and PARRY,W. T., 293, 344
SCHEIDEGGER,
A. E., 372, 398
RENZ,o.,LAKEMAN,
R. and VAN DER MEULEN, SCHERMERHORN,
W. I.,
L. J. G. and STANTON,
E., 245, 248, 261
43 1
REULING,
H. T., 273, 281, 329, 344
SCHINDEWOLF,
0. H., 417, 431
REVELLE,
R., 235, 250, 261
S. O., 148,175,186,190,191,219,
SCHLANGER,
REVELLE,
R. and FAIRBRIDGE,
R. W., 30, 49,
262, 295,296, 345
148, 163, 189,261,405,414
SCHMIDT
DI FRIEDBERG,
P., 75, 85
REVELLE,
R. and FLEMING,
R. F., 35, 49
SCHMITT,
J., 16, 60, 61, 85
RICH, M., 104, 105, 111, 117, 120, 148
SCHNEIDER, E. and HEEZEN,B. c . , 239, 241,
RICKARD,L. V., 225, 261, 314, 344
262
RICOUR,J., 325, 344
SCHOLL,
D. W., 177, 262
M., 376, 398
RIEKMANN,
SCHREIBER,
J. F., 202
F., 72, 85
RIGODE RIGHI,M. and BARBIERI,
SCHUCHERT, CH., 193, 227,262
RITTENHOUSE,
G., 320, 344
G. A,, 262
SCHUCHERT,
CH. and COOPER,
RIVI~RE,
A., 64, 85, 344, 345
SCHUCHERT,
CH. and DUNBAR,
C. O., 246,247,
RIZZINI,A., 14, 72
262
RIZZINI,A. and MATTAVELLI,
L., 75, 85
N., 204,262
SCHULMAN,
ROBERTSON,
T., 231, 261
SCHWADE,
I. T., 345
ROBINSON, E., 242, 261
SCHWARZACHER,
W., 148, 220, 262
Rocco, T., 75, 85
SCHWARZBACH,
M., 401, 403, 412, 431
J., 30, 31, 49, 53, 85, 107, 113, 148, SCRUTON,
RODGERS,
P. C., 10,27,221,223,262,312,335,
235, 261, 323, 345
345
RONOV,A. B., 312, 313, 345
SHALEM,
N., 200, 262
ROSE,G., 261
SHALER,
N. S., 224, 262
Ross, C. A., 261
SHAW,A. B., 227, 246, 262, 322, 345
Ross, C. A, and OANA,S., 148
D. J., 285,287, 345
SHEARMAN,
Ross, M. H., 246, 261
D. J., KHOURI,J. and TAHA,S.,
SHEARMAN,
ROTHPLETZ,
A,, 261
302, 345
RUBEY,
W. W., 25
SHEPARD,
F. P. and MOORE,D. G., 226, 262
RUEDEMANN,
R., 247, 261
G. D. and THIEL,G. A,, 326, 345
SHERMAN,
RUHE,R. V., CADY,J. G. and GOMEZ,R. S., SHERMAN,
G. D., SCHULTZ,F. and ALWAY,
407, 431
F. J., 301, 326, 345
RUKHIN,L. V., I , 27
SHINN,E. A. and GINSBURC,
R. N., 40, 49,
RUNCORN,
R. K., 427,431
190, 262,287, 3 15, 327, 345
RUSNAK,
G. A., 49, 148, 182, 184, 185, 229,
SHINN,E. A., GINSBURG,
R. N. and LLOYD,
R. N., 345
239, 261
E. L., 220, 263
SHIRLEY,
J. and HORSFIELD,
W. D., 30,
RUSNAK,G. A. and NESTEROFF,
239, 261
SHROCK,
R. R., 220, 263, 345
A. L. and ~ S T L U N D SHVETSOV,
,
RUSNAK,
G. A., BOWMAN,
M. S., 52,85, 118, 119, 148,433,434
H. G., 239, 261
SIEGEL,
F. R., 35, 44, 49, 50, 148, 307, 410, 431
RUSSELL,
I. C., 176, 177, 189, 261
SINNOKROT,
A. A. and CHILINGAR,
G. V., 352,
RUSSELL,
R. J., 261
398
RUTTE,E., 407, 431
E. W., 109, 148, 346
SKEATS,
RUTTEN,L. M. R., 422, 431
SKINNER,
H. C. W., 27, 50, 281, 346
RUTTEN,M. G., 25,26, 220,226,262, 416,431
SKINNER,
H. C. W., SKINNER,
B. J. and RUBIN,
M., 5, 281, 346
SABINS
JR., F. F., 5, 27, 148, 324, 345
SLOSS,
L. L., 194, 263, 346
SANDER,
B. K., 55, 59, 85, 148, 172, 262,271,
SMITH,J. P., 220, 263
278, 302, 345
SOKOLOV,
D. S., 149
SANDERS,
J. E., 15, 19, 113, 174, 196, 209, 212, SORBY,H.
C., 166,171,172,173,184,204, 215,
213, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 236, 240, 241,
235, 263
242, 244, 262, 345
SPIEKER,
E. M., 208, 263
442
REFERENCES INDEX
H. and TERMIER,
G., 423, 425, 426,
SPIEKER, E. M. and REESIDE
JR., J. B., 207,263 TERMIER,
43 1
SPOTTS,J. H., 275, 346
TEXTORIS,
D. A. and CAROZZI,
A, V., 229,264
SPRENG,A. C., 231, 263
R., 228
THIENHAUS,
STAUFPER,
K. W., 149, 346
H. and McELTHODE,H. G., KLEEREKOPER,
C. W., 222, 263
STEARN,
CHERAN, D., 290, 347
STEHLI,F. G. and HOWER,J., 35, 44, 50, 149,
G. E., 105, 149, 357, 389, 390, 391,
THOMAS,
178, 179, 183, 263
392, 398
E., 271, 276, 309, 346
STEIDTMANN,
G. E. and GLAISTER,
R. P., 149, 347
STEPHENSON,
L. W. and MONROE,
W. H., 236, THOMAS,
THOMAS,
H. D., 94, 117, 149
263
THORP,E. M., 274, 347
STERNBERG,
R. M., 86
TIDDEMAN,
R. H., 220, 264
STETSON,
H. C., 224, 263
STETSON,
T. R., SQUIRES,
D. F. and PRATT,R. TOWSE,D., 149, 297, 299, 347
TRACEYJR.,
J. I., LADD,H. S. and HOFFMEISTER,
M., 226, 263
J. E., 264
STEWART,
F. H., 313, 346
TROELL,A. R., 220, 227, 264
STILLE,H., 422, 431
TWENHOFEL,
W. H., 220, 228, 264, 347
STODDART,
D. R. and CANN,J. R., 189, 263
JR., W. W., 306
STOUT,J. L., 357, 358, 361, 375, 376, 377, 398 TYRELL
UDDEN,J. A., 347
STOUT.
W., 346
UDLUFT,H., 347
STRAHAN,
A,, 346
STRAKHOV,
N. M., 5, 27, 55, 86, 149,274, 312, ULRICH,E. O., 247, 264
UMBGROVE,
J. H. F., 220, 264, 405,431
313, 346, 412, 425, 431
N. M., BRODSKAYA,
N. C . , KNYA- UREY,H. C., 25
STRAKHOV,
H. A., EPSTEIN,
S.
ZEVA, L. M., RAZZHIVINA,
A. N., RATEEV, UREY,H. C., LOWENSTAM,
C. R., 41, 50
M. A., SAPOZHNIKOV,
D. G. and SHISHOVA, and MCKINNEY,
E. S., 23, 27
VANSTRAATEN,
L. M. J. U., 197,226,227,228,
STRUVE,
W., 346
264
STUBBLEFIELD,
C. J., 226, 263
VAN TUYL,F. M., 149,271, 297, 307, 320,341
SUESS,E., 423, 424, 431
VANTUYL,F. M. and STEIDTMANN,
E., 271,
SUFFEL,G. G., 322, 346
322, 328
SUGDEN,
W., 149, 221, 222, 263,284, 346
V A N WATERSCHOOT VAN DER GRACHT,
w. A.
SUJKOWSKI,
ZB. L.. 149, 235, 263
J. M., 247, 264
SUMMERSON,
C. H., 317, 346
VATAW,
A,, 149
SWANN,
D. H., 230, 263
VAUGHAN,
T. W., 2, 28, 40, 50, 197
SWINCHATT,
J. P., 198, 263
VERSEY,
H. R., 216, 236, 264
A., LEONARD, A. B. and FRYE,J.
SWINEFORD,
VINOGRADOV,
A. P., 86, 149
C., 199, 263, 346, 407, 431
VINOGRADOV,
A. P., RONOV,A. B. and RATYNSKIY, V. M., 411, 412, 414, 431
S. G., 108, 149
VISHNYAKOV,
TAFF,J. A., 263
TAFT,W. H., 5, 13, 28, 40, 47, 50, 62, 65, 86, VOGEL,J. C. and EHHALT,
D., 413
149, 170, 177, 178, 191, 194, 195, 215, 247, VOIGT,E. and HANTSCHEL,
W., 242,264
263,287, 346
VON DER BORCH,C., 281, 347
TAFT,W. N. and HARBAUGH,
J. W., 5, 28, 35, VON DER BORCH, C. C., RUBIN, M. and
40, 42, 44, 47, 50, 52, 119, 149
SKINNER,
B. J., 5, 28
TARR,W. A., 309, 346
VON ENGELHARDT, w., 336, 338, 347
VON GUEMBEL,
C. W., 172, 264
TATARSKIY,
V. B., 301, 346
VONMORLOT,A,, 272, 301, 347
TAYLOR,
R. E., 263
TEALL,J. J. H., 272, 346
TEICHERT,
WAGER,
L. W., 401,431
C., 216, 226, 263, 421, 431
WALCOTT,
TENHAAF,E., 239, 264
C. D., 245, 246, 264, 416, 431
TENNANT,
W. A., 347
C. B. and BERGER,R. W., 276, 346 WALDSCHMIDT,
TEODOROVICH,
G. I., 7, 17, 28, 85, 89, 92,97, WALDSCHMIDT,
W. A., FITZGERALD,
P. E.
98,107,109,110,111,119,120,149,274,281,
and LUNSFORD,
C. L., 398
346, 341, 373, 398
WALKER,
T. R., 149, 193, 264
TERCIER,J., 242
WALLACE,
R. C., 347
REFERENCES INDEX
443
WINTERER,
E. L. and MURPHY,M. A,, 244,
265, 299, 328, 348
WISEMAN,J. D. H. and TODD, I., 410, 432
WOLF, K. H., 50, 86, 95, 101, 105, 106, 149,
184, 195, 215, 220, 265
C . V. and BEALES,
WOLF,K. H., CHILINGAR,
F. W., 40, 52, 175
E. B., 220, 265
WOLFENDEN,
WOOD,A., 215, 265
WOODWORTH,
J. B., 247, 265
WOOLNOUGH,
W. G., 175, 265, 407, 432
C. R., 293, 348
WOPFNERH. and TWIDALE,
YONGE,C. M., 219, 265, 421, 432
YOUNGJR., F. B., 348
YOUNG,R. B., 316, 348
R. S., 209,
YOUNG,R. G. and EDMUNDSON,
212, 265
ZANS,V. A., CHUBB,L. J., VERSEY,H. R.,
WILLLAMS,
J. B., ROBINSON,
E. and COOK,
D. L., 217, 265
ZELENOV,
K. K., 8, 28
ZELLER,
E. J. and WRAY,J. L., 149
ZEN,E-An, 40, 50
ZIRKEL,F., 96, 149
SUBJECT INDEX1
--
The editors are greatly indebted to Herman H. Rieke 111 and Mostafa Karim for their
help in preparing the index.
SUBJECT INDEX
445
Anadiagenesis, 16
--/calcite ratio, 40
Anadiagenetic, 5, 150
-, clear coating, 185
-, definition of, 150
-, conversion to dolomite, 300, 336
- stage, 5
-, cryptocrystalline crystals, 184, 185
Andrews South Oil Field, Texas, U.S.A., 186, -, dissolution equation, 187
298, 364
-, formation of, 199, 200
Andros Island, Bahamas, 183, 217, 287, 315 -, Gulf of Eilat, 242
_ - ,Recent dolomite, 287
- in algal matter, 202
- platform, 35
_ - Bonneville Lake sediments, 292
-- chalks, 189
Anhedral, definition of, 150, 302
Anhydrite, 1, 7,9, 10, 12, 19, 80, 112, 189, 192, - _ playa sediments, 283, 284
221-223, 279, 280, 285, 288, 301, 302, 309- _ Recent sediments, 178, 286, 287
311, 313, 323, 357, 389
_ _ sebkhas, 285
- associated with syngenetic dolomite, 309
-, isotopic studies, 291
-, bacterial breakdown of, 192
-, mineralogical zonation, 282
-, Canada, 3 11
-, paramorphic replacement, 182
- cement, 189, 279, 280, 357
-, pisolites, 177
-, formation of, 302
-, precipitation of, 289
- infilling of voids, 389
-, Red Sea, 183
- in sebkhas, 285
-, removal by dissolution, 183, 184
-, pore cement, 357
-, replacement of, 294
-, Zechstein sequence, 310
-, Samra Formation, 204
Ankerite, 60, 88, 90, 193
- shell, formation of, 419
-, replacement of quartz, 193
- shells replaced by dolomite, 296
Annelida, 39
- speleothems, 177
Antarctica, icecap, 401, 402
-, stability of, 179, 186
Antillean sills, 11
-, strontium in, 410
Aphanic, 101, 150
-texture types, 185
-, definition of, 150
Arbuckle Limestone, Kans., U.S.A., 369-371
Aphanitic (see aphanic), 150
Arc0 Hills, Idaho, U.S.A., 121, 126
Aphanothece packardii, 202
Arctic Ocean, 11, 403
Aphthitalite, in sediments, 283
- transgressions, 426
Appalachian(s), 224, 320, 323, 422
Ardmore Basin, Okla., U.S.A., 213
- geosyncline, carbonate deposits in, 323
Arenicola marina, 227
- orogeny, 422
Arkose, corrosion of, 412
-, stratigraphic diagram of, 320
Armand Limestone, Appalachians, U.S.A., 321
Aptychus, 235
Avtemia gracilis, 202
- limestones, Europe, 234
Articulate, definition of, 150
Apuane Alps, Italy, 239
Asiatic Shelf, carbonate sediments on, 229
Arab Formation, Saudi Arabia, 190, 216, 223, Atlantic Ocean, 11, 4042, 226, 241, 404
298, 329
- _ , Bahamas, 4 0 4 2
_ _ , Arab-D Member, 190, 329
_ _ , Bermuda, 40-42
_ _ , dolomitization, 298, 329
_ _, deepwater coral banks, 226
- _ , interbedded carbonate rocks and an_ _, distribution of marine carbonates, 404
hydrite, 223
--, Florida Bay, 40
Arabian carbonate rocks, 104
_ _, Gibraltar Sill, 11
- reservoir rocks, 117
--,Puerto Rico Trench, 241
- Sea, 199
Aspen Range, Idaho, U.S.A., 122
Arabo-Nubian Shield, 242
Atoka, Okla., U.S.A., 245
Aragonite, 1, 13, 14, 16, 35, 39, 40, 42, 44-46,
Atoll, 6, 16, 165, 171, 196, 219, 296, 382, 384
52, 88, 90, 171, 177-179, 182-187, 189, 199, -, Bikini, 219
200, 202, 204, 242, 268, 279, 280, 282-287,
-, definition of, 165
289, 291,292, 294-296, 300, 324, 336,419
-, dolomitized core of, 6
- cement, 279, 280
-, Horseshoe, 382, 384
-, bacterial origin, 324
-, Indo-Pacific area, 171
-, basic properties, 171
-, Kapingamarangi, 219
446
Atoll (continued)
-, Kita-daito-jima, 196, 296
Australia, 29, 33, 40, 216, 274, 281, 283, 293,
401, 416, 417
-, Adelaide System, 41 7
-, Coastal Limestone, 33, 216
-, Coorong Lagoon, 281, 283
-, Coward Springs, 293
-, Ediacara fauna, 417
-, eolianites, 407
-, Great Barrier reef, 29, 274
-, Lake Eyre, 293
-, Shark Bay, 416
Authigenesis, 15
Authigenic, 93, 150
- calcite, 93
-, definition of, 150
Autochthonous, 93, 150
-, definition of, 150
Autoclastic breccia, definition of, I50
Axiolites, definition of, 96
Axiolitic, definition of, 151
Bab el Mandeb, Red Sea, 11
Bacteria, 14, 18, 20, 22, 42, 174, 192, 290, 291,
324, 325, 338, 406, 416, 419
-, decomposition of gypsum, 192
-, formation of syngenetic dolomite, 324, 325
-, hydrogen sulfide production, 416
- in Precambrian soil, 419
-, mobilizing carbonates in soils, 406
-, precipitation of calcium carbonate, 174
-, reduction of sulfates, 290, 291, 338
Bacterial conversion, 192
Baffin Sea, 11
Bahama Islands, Atlantic Ocean, 19, 29, 34,
4042,65, 117, 119, 151, 172, 179, 180, 182184, 196, 202, 218, 233, 242, 284, 314, 315,
401, 409
- -, bank, 29, 34, 42, 151, 218
_ - , calcareous sands, 172
_ - , carbonate sediments, 1 17, 119
_ - , calcium/magnesium ratio in detrital
carbonates, 409
_ _ , eolianites, 233, 407
_ _ , loss of magnesium from reef sands, 179
_ _ , mineralogy of ooids, 182, 183
_ _ , Recent dolomite, 284
_ - , - oolitic sands, 180
Bahamite, 35, 151, 159
-, definition of, 151
Baja California, Mexico, 40, 41, 119
_ - , carbonate sediments, 119
Bajadas, 152
Balanus amphitrite saltonensis, 203
Bald Mountain, N. Y . , U.S.A., 247
SUBJECT INDEX
_-
SUBJECT INDEX
447
Bird Cay, Bahamas, 182
Birds, in Green River Formation, 206
Birdseye, 62, 152, 315, 316, 391
-, definition of, 152
Bird Spring Group, Nev., U.S.A., 105
- _ Range, Nev., U.S.A., 122
Bituminous limestone, 10, I2
Blacksburg, Va., 273
Black Sea, 11
Blaine Formation, Okla., U.S.A., 31 I , 322, 329
_ _ , dolomitized sediments, 329
Black River Group, N.Y., U.S.A., 316, 320
- _ Limestone, Ont., Canada, 216, 225
Blake Plateau, coral bioherms, 226
Bloedite, in sediments, 283
Blue Diamond Mountain, Nev., U.S.A., 121,
124
- Spring Hills, Idaho, U.S.A., 121
Boles, Ark., U.S.A., 245
Bon Accord Field, Aka., Canada, 394
Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, 289, 329, 335
-, replacement of calcium carbonate by
dolomite, 289
Bonaventure Formation, Canada, 213
Borates, 412
Borax, 313
Boron, 210
Bosporus, I 1
Boundstone, 94, 1 16, 152
-, definition of, 152
Brachiopods, 12, 35, 39, 64, 94, 121, 124, 175,
296, 314, 315
-, photomicrographs of, 121
-, replacement of calcite by dolomite, 296
-, sediment contributing organisms, 396
-, stony mass, 175
Brazer Formation, Utah, U.S.A., 123, 124
Brazil Shelf, 405
Breccia, 77, 80, 81, 94, 95, 152, 157, 212, 219,
223, 228, 243, 244
-, definition of, 152
-, dolomite, 77, 80, 81
- in evaporites, 157, 223, 228
- reef, 219
Brecriola, 239, 241, 242, 245
- numrnulitirhe, Tuscany, 239
-, origin of, 242
Breedon, Leicestershire, England, epigenetic
dolostones, 333
Brereton cyclothem, Ill., U.S.A., 230
Bridal Veil Falls Member, Morrowan age,
Utah, 122, 124
Bridgport Dolomite, U.S.A., 321
Briggs model, evaporite zonation, 31 2
Brines, subsurface, 21
British Columbia, Canada, 401
448
British Honduras, reefs, 217
Bromide, Okla., U.S.A., 332
Brown Cay, Bahamas, 182
Bryalgal, 19, 152
-, definition of, 152
- limestone, 19
Bryozoa(n), 17,64,93,98,122-127,226,227,315
- bioherms, 226, 227
-, lioclemid, 125
-, photomicrographs of, 122-125
Bulawayan Dolomite, 25, 416
Bunter Sandstone, Germany, 333
Buoyant rise of oil, 374
Burbank Hills, Utah, U.S.A., 121
Bicsycoir, 228
Burkeite, 283, 284
Butler Island, Vt., U.S.A., 247
Calcare alberese, 239
Calcarenite, 12, 53, 65, 93-95, 99, 106, 128,
132, 134, 152, 225, 311, 315, 406, 407
-, biogenic, 406
-, definition of, 152
-, Delaware Basin, 311
-, eolian, 407
-, Helderbergian Limestone, 225
-, photomicrographs of, 128, 132, 134
Calcareous, 109, 173, 176, 190
- bioliths, 173
- dolomites, 109
- sinter, definition of, 176
- wackes, recrystallization, 190
Calcargillite, 99
Calcilutite, 13, 93, 99, 152
-, definition of, 152
Calcirudite, 65, 67, 93, 94, 99, 152
-, biosparitic, 67
-, definition of, 152
Calcisiltite, 12, 93, 94, 99, 135, 152, 244
-, definition of, 152
-, photomicrographs of, 135
Calcisphere, 396
Calcite, 1, 2, 13, 14, 16, 22, 40, 41, 44, 46, 52,
78, 88-90, 171, 177, 178-1809 183, 184, 187,
193, 199, 242, 270, 282, 283, 285, 287, 290,
291, 294-296, 305, 324, 357, 359, 371, 409,
410, 419
-, bacterial origin of, 324
-, basic properties of, 171
-, cement, 279, 280, 357
- conversion to dolomite, 336
-, dedolomitic, 303
- - dolomite-clay series, 89
-, Green River Formation, 206, 207
-, high magnesium, 2, 13, 40, 41, 44, 46, 52,
178-180, 183, 184,242,270,282,295,296
-, _ _ , discovery of, 270
SUBJECT INDEX
---_
---_
-_-_
SUBJECT INDEX
Calcium (continued)
-/strontium ratio (see Sr/Ca ratios), 408,409,
411, 413, 414
---, discussion of, 409
--- in Precambrian of Russian Platform,
414
_ _ _ _ sea water, 409
- - _ throughout geological time, 41 1
- sulfate, 192, 292
_ _ in Bonneville Lake sediments, 292
_ _, replacement by calcium carbonate, 192
-withdrawal, 410
Calclithite, 93, 153, 195
-, definition of, 153, 195
Calcolistoliths, definition of, 168
Calcrete, 12, 175, 198
-, origin of, 175
Calcsparite, definition of, 153
Caledonian orogeny, 422
Caliche, 12, 18, 152, 175, 189, 198,281,288,325
-, definition of, 152
-, dolomitic, 281, 288, 325
-, marine, 189, 281
-, origin of, 175
Calpionella limestone, 235
Cambrian, 7, 24, 169, 212, 213, 217, 220, 227,
244, 4 19
-, Arbuckle Group, 213
- bioherms, 227
- buecciolas, 244
-, first evaporite deposit, 419
- source of limestone and dolomiteclasts, 212
-, Vermont, U.S.A., 227
Cambro-Ordovician wildflysch diamictites,245
Camels, fossils in Green River Formation, 206
Cammarata Oil Field, Sicily, Italy, 72, 73, 75,
77, 78, 80, 81
Campeche Bank, Mexico, 214, 215
- _ , shallow-water carbonate deposits, 21 5
Canajoharie, N.Y., U.S.A., 301
Canasauga Group, Appalachians, U.S.A., 320,
321
Canso Formation, N. S., Canada, 209
Cape Breton Island, Canada, 209
- Hatteras, U.S.A., 224
Capillary concentration, 19, 267, 268, 288, 338
- -, formation of hypersaline brines, 267,
268
- _ , main process in dolomite formation, 338
- _ , zonation according to solubility, 288
- -pressure curves, mercury, 374-376
Capitan Limestone, Texas, U.S.A., 19, 192,
243, 244, 306
_ _ , origin of, 192
- _ reef, 243, 306
Caprock, origin of, 192
449
Carbonate(s), 1-3, 7, 14, 16-18, 30, 3542, 153,
178, 179, 219, 224, 234, 239, 240, 380, 381,
395, 404, 405
- age of Recent sediments, 239
-, Bikini Atoll, 219
-, Cambro-Ordovician sediments, 224
-, control of permeability, 395
-, control of porosity, 395
-, definition of, 153
-, depositional environments, 380
-, deposition of, 2
-, geochemistry, geotectonic and planetary
problems, 426
-, lagoon, 3, 7
-, marine, distribution of, 404
-, mixed, 240
- reservoirs in southeastern Saskatchewan,
Canada, 381
- rocks, 1, 14, 16-18, 87-120, 194, 308
- _ , classification of, 1, 16, 17, 18, 87-120,
194, 308
_ _ , fundamental features of, 14
- sediment association in open sea, 234
- sediments, 30, 3542, 178, 179, 199,203,405
_ _ , chemical composition of, 3 5 4 2
_ _ , diagenesis of, 42
_ - , general classification of, 30
_ - ,isotopic composition, 41, 42
_ - , lacustrine, 199, 203
_ - , mineralogical composition of, 3541,
178, 179
_ - , pelagic, deep-sea, 405
Carbondale Formation, Ill., U S A . , 230
Carbon dioxide, 52, 414, 419
_ - concentration in sea water, 414
_ - withdrawal from atmosphere during
Paleozoic time, 419
Carboniferous, 4, 26, 105, 204, 209, 216, 229,
231, 310, 312, 313
-, ancient lake sediments, 204, 209
- cyclic deposits, 229, 231
- evaporitic dolomite, 310, 312, 313
Carbon isotopes, 20,42,43,291,292, 331,403,
416
_ _, 12C, 291
_ - , I2C/l3Cratio, 416
_ - , 13C in Cool Creek Limestone, 331
_ - , 13C in dolomite, 291
_ - , 13C/12Cratio of diagenetically altered
limestones, 42
_ - , 14Cdating, 43
_ - , radiogenic dating, 403
- Ridge Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 123
Cardiurn Sandstone, Aka., Canada, quartz
replacement, 193
Caribbean Sea, 11
450
SUBJECT INDEX
350
-, Trochitenkalk, 310
-, Wellenkalk, 310
Champlain thrust fault, U.S.A., 322
- Valley, Vt., U.S.A., 247
Cham, 408
Characteristics of the dolomite group, I12
Charles Formation, Sask., Canada, 356, 365
- -, porosity variation with dolomitization,
365
SUBJECT INDEX
45 1
Corals, 13, 17, 22, 35, 64, 65, 67, 93, 98, 191,
217, 219, 226, 296, 300, 314, 315, 334, 396,
409
-, barrier reef, 217
-, bioherm, 226
-, environmental temperature, 409
- in beachrock, 406
_ _ _ eolianites, 407
- - reef detrital material, 219
- _ _ replaced limestone, 334
- madreporarian, 35
-, rugose, sediment contributing organism,
396
-, susceptible to recrystallization, 191
- tabulate, sediment contributing organism,
396
Coral Sea, 19
Corbula, 226
Corey Limestone, Appalachians, U.S.A., 321
Couvinian Limestone, Germany, 6
Coward Springs, Australia, 293
Cow Head Limestone Breccia, Nfld., Canada,
246, 247
Crassinella, 228
Crassostrea, 228
Creta Dolomite, Okla., U.S.A., dolomitized
sediments, 329
Cretaceous, 3, 19, 26, 53, 82, 175, 189, 196,
211, 227, 234-236, 241, 242
-, Carpathian Mountains, Poland, 234, 235
- chalk, 175, 189, 234-236
- Exogyra mounds, 227
-, Plattin Flysch, 242
-, Westphalia, Germany, 241, 242
Crinoidea (crinoids), 35, 64, 78, 94, 122, 126,
226, 300, 396
-, colonies of, 226
- ossicles, 122
-, photomicrographs of, 126
-, sediment-contributing organism, 396
Criquina, definition of, 154
Cristobalite, 282
Crocodiles, fossils in Green River Formation,
206
Crust, definition of, 154
Crustacean, 26, 206
Cryptoclastic, definition of, 154
Cryptocrystalline, definition of, 154
Cryptograined, definition of, 154
Cryptozoon, 41 6
Crystal, definition of, 276
Crystalline criquinite, plates of, 140
-, definition of, 154
Crystallinity, 1 1 1
Crystallization of calcium carbonate, 174
Crystalloblastic, definition of, 302
452
Cuba, reefs, 217
Cumberland County, Pa., U.S.A., 321
- Gap, Va.-Ky., U.S.A., 273
- Plateau, Tenn., U.S.A., 222, 225
Currie Hills, Nev., U.S.A., 123
Cyanophyte Algae, 25, 150,416
Cycles, normal marine, 387
Cyclothem, 12, 229-23 I
Czorsztyn series, pelagic and neritic pure
limestones, Poland, 235
Darss/Drogden Sill, North Sea, 11
Davis Sill, Labrador Sea, 11
Dead Horse Wash, Nev., U.S.A., 126
- oil, 123, 127
- Sea, 192, 199-201, 204, 291, 292, 296, 309,
336, 337
_ _ , aragonite precipitation, 336
Dead Sea Basin, 204
--, calcium carbonate lake deposits, 19920 I
- _ , dolomite in sediments, 291, 292
_ _ gypsum, precipitation of, 336, 337
- -, isotopic studies, 291
_ _, origin of aragonite, 296
- _ , salinity of, 199
Deccan traps, India, 199
Dedolomitization, 21, 272, 300-303
-, definition of, 272
Deepkill Formation, N.Y., U.S.A., 240
Deep-sea sediments, mineralogy of, 182, 183
Deep Spring Lake, Calif., U.S.A., 283
Deer Mountain Oil Field, Alta., Canada, 389
Delaware Basin, Texas, U.S.A., 192, 199, 222,
243, 244, 31 1
_ - , evaporites, 222
- _ , facies belts, 31 1
- _ , Permian rocks, 243, 244
Dense, definition of, 154
Depocenter, 104, 155
-, definition of, 155
-, energy level, 104
Depositional processes, 196-198
Deposits, 199, 213-223,234-248,271,324-327
-, bank, 215-218
-, biogenic, 271, 324, 325
-, calcareous dunes, 199
-, combinations of marginal marine types,
2 14-223
-, fan or stream, 210-213
-, first-cycle carbonate minerals, 214-223
-, lake, calcium carbonate, 199-210
-, marginal marine, 213-215, 231-233
-, mechanical, 271, 326, 327
-, mixed carbonate and non-carbonate, 240248
SUBJECT INDEX
-,
-,
-,
-,
45 3
SUBJECT INDEX
-, mineral types, 20
-, miscellaneous nonmarine, 325, 326
- particles,
277-279
454
Dolosparite, definition of, 156
SUBJECT INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
-, Africa, 407
-, algal, 231, 407
-, Australia, 407
-, Bahamas, 233, 407
-, Bermuda, 180, 181, 188, 231,407
-, corals in, 407
-, definition of, 156, 231
-, Foraminifera, 231, 407
-, leaching of, 407
-, Mauritius Island, 233
-, Pleistocene, 180, 181, 199, 231, 232, 333
Epeirocratic, definition of, 425
Epidiagenetic, 5, 6, 157
-, definition of, 157
- stage, 5, 6
Epigenesis, 15, 21, 157
-, definition of, 157
Epigenetic dolomite, 269, 330-334
Equant, definition of, 157
Equigranular, definition of, 157, 302
Equilibrium concentrations of bicarbonate and
carbon dioxide, 413
Espiritu Santo Island, Baja California, Mexico,
119
Estheria, 408
Euhedral, definition of, 157, 302
Evacuation Creek Member, Green River
Formation, 206
Evaporation, formation of hypersaline brines,
296
Evaporite, 7, 10, 12, 40, 113, 157, 189, 214,
221-223, 228, 285, 310-313, 323, 413,
41 9
- breccias, 157, 223, 228
-, Briggs model of, 312
-, Cambrian, 419
- deposits, 40, 221-223, 309-313
- dolomite, 309-3 13
- minerals, (see halite), 189, 214, 285
-, Paleozoic, 413
-, Permian, 222, 223
-, Qatar Peninsula, 221
-, Recent, 221
- solution breccia, definition of, 157
-, - Of, 223
- sequence, 113, 223
- suite, 7, 10, 12
- succession, Zechstein, Germany, 310
- zonation, 3 12
Everglade swamps, Fla., U.S.A., 42
Evolution of carbonate rocks, 2, 3
Exogenic, definition of, 157
Exogyra mounds, 227
Exotic pebbles and boulders, 245
External growth, 271
Extraclast, definition of, 157
455
Exuma Sound, Bahamas, 35, 38
Fabric, 157, 299, 302-306
-, crystal, definition of, 302
-, definition of, 157
-, hypidiotopic, 302-306
-, idiotopic, 299, 302-306
-, preservation by selective dolomitization, 302
-, xenotopic, 299, 302-306
Fan deposits, limestone particles, 210-21 3
Fanglomerates, Israel, 2 11
Favosites, 352, 353
Feldspar, 90, 184, 242, 412
-, calcium carbonate coatings, 184
-, Precambrian sediments, 41 2
Ferguson Flat, Nev., U.S.A., 127
- Mountain Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 122-
124
Ferron Mountain, Utah, U.S.A., 207
Fibrous, definition of, 157
Fish, fossils in Green River Formation, 206
Five Mile Pass area, Utah, U.S.A., 123
Fjords, 11
Flagstaff Limestone, Utah, U.S.A., ancient
lake sediments, 203, 207, 208
Florena Shale, Kans., U.S.A., dolomite
replacement, 298
Florida, 29, 37, 40, 42, 119, 218, 284, 287
- Bay, 29, 37, 40, 42
-, carbona:e sediments, I19
-, dolomite, 284, 287
- Everglades, 42
- reef tract, 218
Flowstone, origin of, 177
Fluid migration, due to compaction, 298
Fluid movement in carbonate rocks, 374
Fluorite, 1, 313
Fly River, New Guinea, 1, 405
Flysch-Aalenian, Poland, 242
Foraminifera (see Globigerina), 13, 14, 30, 32.
34, 44, 94, 96, 126, 175, 176, 191, 203, 215,
218, 219, 226, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 239:
272, 334, 399, 401, 406, 409-411, 417, 420
-, age of, 417
-, benthonic, 219
-, calcium withdrawal, 410
- encrusted skeletal grains, definition of, 96
-, environmental temperature indicators, 409
-, hyaline, 231
- in beachrock, 406
- _ chenier, 228
- _ eolianites, 231, 407
- _ Florida Bay sediments, 2 I8
- _ oozes, 235
- _ replaced limestones, 334
-, pelagic, 41 1
456
Foraminifera (continued)
-, photomicrographs of, 126
-, precipitation of limestone, 175
-, replacement of, 272
-, Revolution V, 399
-, Salton Sea sediments, 203
-, susceptibility to recrystallization, 191
Fore reef, definition of, 157
Formosa reef limestone, Ont., Canada, 297
Formation waters, origin of diagenetic and
epigenetic dolomite, 335
Fort Johnson Member, Tribes Hill Formation,
N.Y., U.S.A., 301
Fossil footprints, dinosaur, 318, 319
Fragmental, definition of, 157
- limestones, 95
Framework, definition of, 157
Freeport division of Allegheny Series, Pa.,
U.S.A., 209
Fremont Island, Utah, U.S.A., 201
Frenchman Mountain, Nev., U.S.A., 126
Fringing reef, 21 8
Frolovas classification of doloniite-magnesite-calcite series, 108
Funafuti Atoll, 196, 273, 296, 300
_ - , boring, 196, 273
- -, dolomite, 300
Fusulinal, definition of, 157
Fusulinids, 121, 122
Galilee, Israel, 175
Garden Valley Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 121,
122, 125
Garnet Railroad Siding, Nev., U.S.A., 126
Gas City Field, Mont., U.S.A., 362
Gaspe Peninsula, Canada, 190, 21 3, 324
Gastropods, 35, 210, 228, 300, 314, 317, 391,
396
-, fresh-water, 210
- in a chenier, 228
-, sediment-contributing organism, 396
Gaylor Dolomite, N.Y., U.S.A., 316
Gaylussite, 283, 284
Gela Oil Field, Sicily, Italy, 72, 73, 75-79, 81
Genetic types of dolomites, 108, 109, 268, 269
Geochemical changes, end of Paleozoic, 419
- parameters, variation of, in the past, 410415
Geochemistry of Persian Gulf water and
sediments, 286
Geomagnetic reversals, 422
Germany, 6, 206, 228, 241, 242, 310, 329, 333
-, Aller beds, 310
-, Bunter Sandstone, 333
-, Couvinian Limestone, 6
-, Eifel, 329
SUBJECT INDEX
451
SUBJECT INDEX
290, 291,
458
micrographs of, 142
High-energy, definition of, 158
Highgate Spring-St. Dominique thrust,
U.S.A., 321
Hippopotamus, 401
Hobble Creek Canyon, Utah, U.S.A., 123
Hog Island, Great Bahama Bank, 183
Holoblasts, 272
Holocene, 47, 400, 401, 410
-, oscillation of, 410
-, post-glacial thermal maximum, 401
Homotrema rubrum, 44, I76
Honaker Dolomite, Appalachians, U.S.A., 321
Honaker Trail, Utah, U.S.A., 117
Horseshoe Atoll, Texas, U.S.A., 382, 384
Horse Springs Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 203,
207, 310, 313
---, ancient lake sediments, 203, 207
Hoyt Limestone, N.Y., U.S.A., 328
Hudson Valley, N.Y., U.S.A., 225, 247, 327,
330
Humic acid, mobilizing carbonates in soils, 406
Hungerford Slate, Vt., U.S.A., 227, 322
Hydrobia, 227
Hydrocalcilytes, definition of, 173
Hydroclastic carbonates, 88
Hydroclast, definition of, I58
Hydrolith, definition of, I58
Hydromagnesite, 90, 282
Hydrothermal, 6, 15, 56
- dolomite, 6
-water, 15, 56
Hydrotroilite, 239
Hydrozoa, 41 7
Hypersaline brines, 267, 296, 331, 334
_ _, dolostone origin, 267
_ - , formation of, 296
_ _ , origin of all dolomites, 331, 334
Hypersalinity, 334, 335, 337
-, capillary concentration, 335, 337
-, causes of, 334
Hypidiotopic, definition of, 302
Ice Age, 400
Idiotopic, definition of, 302
Illite, adsorption of magnesium, 408
Impingement, definition of, I58
Impurities in carbonate rocks, 1
Incipient dolomitization of a calcarenite,
photomicrograph of, 141
Incrusting organisms, 176
India, 190, 199, 407, 419
-, Cambrian evaporites, 419
-, Deccan Traps, 199
-, eolianites, 407
-, Junagarh Limestone, 190
SUBJECT INDEX
19
459
SUBJECT INDEX
460
Lacustrine (continued)
SUBJECT INDEX
-, biohermal, 220
-,
-, crinoidal, 243
-,
cryptograined, 390
definition of, 159
detrital, 17, 128, 129, 132
endogenetic, 172, 173
environmentalclassification of, 114,380,383
exogenetic, 172, 173
fan, 210-213
geosynclinal, definition of, 194
hydroclastic, definition of, 173
hydrogenic, 172
incrustate, 175
lacustrine, Pennsylvanian cyclothems, 209
-literature on, 171-174
- lumps, 95
-, nonmarine, 198
-, oolitic, 204, 209, 222
-, origin of, 18-21
-, pebble conglomerates, 210
-, photomicrographs of, 121-143, 181
- platform, definition of, 194
-, porosity of, 367, 387
-, Precambrian, 193
-, pyritiferous, 239
- reef, 220
-, sideritic, 243
-, skeletal, 94, 132-134, 136, 176
-, -, definition of, 176
-, - -detrital, photomicrographs of, 129,
131-133, 142
-, stream deposits, 210
-, tectono-stratigraphic classification, 194
-, terrigenous, definition of, 173
-, thalassigenous, definition of, 173
Lipalian interval, 416
Lisan beds, Israel, 204
Literature on limestones, classic, 171-1 74
Lithification, 44, 47, 177, 178
Lithocalcarenite, definition of, 159
Lithocalcilutite, definition of, 159
Lithocalcirudite, definition of, 159
Lithocalcisiltite, definition of, 159
Lithoclastic, definition of, 160
Lithofacies, 15, 54
-, definition of, 54
Lithographic, definition of, 160
Lithophyllum, 176
Lithostratigraphy, 51
Lithothamnium, 176, 245
Lodgepole Limestone, Mont., U.S.A., 124
London-Paris Basin, 236
Lone Mountain Dolomite, Nev., U.S.A., 299,
328
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
46 1
SUBJECT INDEX
-, Triassic, 323
462
Midale Oil Field, Sask., Canada, 356
Middleville, N.Y ., U.S.A., 316
Miliolitic Formation, Saudi Arabia, 199
Mill Creek, Okla., 306
Mineralogical zonation, 282
Mineral thermometers, 24, 408410
Mingan Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada,
dolomite sands, 279
Miocene, 196, 206, 215
-, ancient lake beds, 206
Mission Canyon Formation, N.D., U.S.A.,
358, 361, 375-377
Mississippi Delta, U.S.A., 228
Mississippian, 123-125, 21 1, 216, 220-222,
225, 227, 229, 230, 241, 298, 299, 310, 311,
313
-, bryozoan-crinoidal bioherms, 227
-, evaporite deposits, 221, 222
-, evaporitic dolomite, 310, 3 1 1 , 3 13
-, interior basins, U.S.A., 229, 230
-, Madison Limestone, 299
-, Ouachita Mountains, 241
Mizzia, 95, 122, 125
Modern carbonate sediments, 13, 14, 29-50
Moenkopi Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 122, 211
Mohawk Valley, N.Y., U.S.A., 315
Mollazal's classification of limestones, YO, 91
Mollusks, 12, 13, 35, 39, 41, 77, 78, 94, 191,
206, 218, 219,228, 406, 407
-, comprising a chenier, 228
-, Florida Bay sediments, 21 8
-, Green River Formation, 206
- in beach rock, 406
_ _ eolianites, 407
- _ reef detrital material, 219
- susceptibility to recrystallization, 191
Monroe Dolomite, Ohio, U.S.A., 328
Montastrea, 21 I
Montpelier Limestone, Jamaica, 236
Moore Hill Formation, Ont., Canada, 225
Moorman Ranch, Nev,, U.S.A., 122
Morgan Formation, Utah, U.S.A., 121, 124
Morris Ranch, Utah, U.S.A., 127
Morrowan age, 121, 122, 124
Mosaic, definition of, 161
Mountain Limestone, England, 216
- Pass, Nev., U.S.A., 123
Mount Carmel, Israel, 175
- Head Formation, Canada, 311
Mud, 94, 116, 161, 162, 240, 299, 405
- aggregate, definition of, 162
-, definition of, 161
-, inorganic, definition of, 240
-, organic, definition of, 240
-, replacement of lime, 299
- supported, definition of, 162
SUBJECT INDEX
-, terrigenous, 405
463
SUBJECT INDEX
- in
-, sediment-contributing, 396
Organogenic, 13
Origin of dolomites, 108-109, 276-308
- _ limestones, 174-193
Orinoco Shelf, South America, 229
Orthochemical, definition of, 163
Orthogeosynclines, 2, 422
Osagia, 95
Ostracoda, 35, 210, 314, 315, 390, 391, 409
-, fresh-water, 210
-, response to environmental temperature,
409
Ouachita Mountains, 0kla.-Ark., U.S.A., 241
Overgrowth texture, 93
Overton Fanglomerate, Nev., U.S.A., 210, 21 1
Ovoid grains, definition of, 163
Oxygen isotopes, 18, 19, 4 0 4 2 , 200, 291, 292,
296, 297, 331, 401
- _ , enrichment of dolomitized sediments,
297
- -, ISO in Cool Creek Limestone, 331
_ _ , I 8 0 in dolomite, 291, 296
_ _ , 180/160
ratio, 4042, 401
_ _, -, climatic indicator, 401
_ _, - of a diagenetically altered limestone,
42
Oyster(s), 175, 226
- mounds, 226
- stony mass, 175
Ozark Mountains, Ark., U.S.A., 224
Pacific Ocean, 1 1 , 16, 39, 40, 109, 171, 186,
187, 190, 191, 195, 196, 219, 240, 273, 296,
300, 404
_ _ , Bikini Atoll, 219
- _ _ , distribution of marine carbonates, 404
_ _, Elugelab Island, 195
- _ , Eniwetok Atoll, 186, 187, 195, 296
_ _ , Fiji, 191
_ _ , Funafuti Atoll, 196, 273, 296, 300
_ _ , Guam, 190, 191, 219
_ _ , Kapingamarangi Atoll, 219
_ - , Kita-daito-jima Atoll, 196, 296
- _ , Marshall Islands, 219
- _ , organic muds, 240
_ _ , Pago-Pago, 40
- _ , Palau, 39, 40
- _ , Saipan, 191
Packstone, 94, 116, 163
-, definition of, 163
Pago-Pago, Pacific Ocean, 40
Pakoon Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 126
Palau. Pacific Ocean. 39. 40
Paleocene, 203, 205, '207, 245, 248
464
Paleocene (continued)
-, ancient lake sediments, 203, 205, 207
- -Eocene shales, Venezuela, wildflysch diamictite, 245, 248
Paleoclimatic normality, 404
Paleoecology, 52
Paleosol, 199, 406
- calcrete, 199
Paleotemperatures, isotope ratios, 42
Paleozoic, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 26, 116, 117, 120, 317
- carbonates, 2, 116
- carbonate cycles, 117
- environment, sediment-water interface, 317
Palliser Limestone, Alta., Canada, 216
Pancake Range, Nev., U.S.A., 121
Parachute Creek Member, Green River Formation, Wyo., U.S.A., 206
Paradox Formation, Utah, U.S.A., 354,355,385
_ - , Ismay zone, 354, 355
Paragenesis, definition of, 163
Parageosynclines, 423
Paragiiito boulder bed, Venezuela, 245
Paris, France, 65
Park City Formation, Utah, U.S.A., 126, 127
Parker Slate, Vt., U.S.A., 227, 322
Particle, 10, 59, 60, 102, 103, 276
-, definition of, 276
- identification, 59, 60
- size scales, 10, 102, 103
Particulate, definition of, 163
Pasteur Level, 26, 416
PaurocrystaIline, definition of, 163
Paurograined, definition of, 163
Pebble, 100, 210, 245, 316
Pekisko Formation, Alta., Canada, 222
Pelagic, 19, 183, 234, 235-237, 241, 405
- carbonate sediments, 19, 183, 234, 405
- Foraminifera, 235-237
Pelagosite, 13, 163, 406
Pelecypod(s), 35, 39, 122, 210, 228, 396
-, fresh-water, 210
- in a chenier, 228
-, sediment-contributing organism, 396
- valves in photomicrographs, 122
Pelite, definition of, 163
Pelitomorphic, 7, 163
-, definition of, 163
Pellet, 17, 22, 35, 56, 93, 95, 105, 136, 137, 163,
295
-, definition of, 95, 163
-, photomicrographs of, 136, 137
-, replacement of, 295
Pelletal rocks, photomicrographs of, 132-137
_ _ , bryalgal limestone, 133
_ - , calcarenite, 135
_ - , detrital limestone, 137
SUBJECT INDEX
Pelmicrite, 99
Pembina, Alta., Canada, 193
Pembroke Eolianite, Bermuda, I88
Penecontemporaneous, definition of, 163
Peneroplids, recrystallization of, 191
Pennsylvanian, 117, 121, 123, 124, 127, 174,
210, 213, 220
-, Collings Ranch Conglomerate, 213
-, limestone-pebble conglomerates, 210
-, Midland Basin, 220
Pequop Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 122-125
Permeability, 15, 16, 21, 56, 177, 332, 333, 351,
391, 394, 395
- associated with the Swan Hills carbonates,
391
-, definition of, 351
-, control of, in carbonate rocks, 395
- _ - , - Leduc Formation, 394
-, effective, definition of, 351
- measurements in carbonate rocks, 332
-, relative, 21, 351
- Kingsport Limestone, 332, 333
Permian, 12, 19, 26,96, 105, 121-127, 190, 192,
199, 210, 211, 220, 222, 223, 241, 298, 306,
310, 311
-, Delaware Basin, 199, 241
-, Dunkard Group, 210
- evaporites, 222
- evaporitic dolomite, 310, 31 I
-, Florena Shale, 298
-, Kaibab Limestone, 12, 124, 126, 127, 21 1
-, Scurry reef, 220
-, Tunisia, 306
Persian Gulf, 11, 20, 29, 65, 189, 221, 284, 286,
309, 314, 319, 334
_ - , geochemistry of water and sediments,
286
- _ , map of, 284
--, Recent dolomite, 284
--, - marine evaporites, 22 I
_ _,salinity of, 334
Peru, Recent marine evaporites, 221
Pete Hanson Creek, Nev., U.S.A., 299
Petrographic model of carbonate rocks, 52-64
- parameters, 65
Petrolog of a quarry, 66
Petrologic fabrics, 62-65
pH, 4, 8, 24, 26, 42, 44, 191, 325, 414, 415
-, control of mineralogy, I91
-, differences in sediments and ocean, 42, 44
- of sea water, 4, 8, 24, 26, 44
-- sediment, 44
-, origin of syngenetic dolomite, 325
- Precambrian ocean, 414, 415
Phaneric, definition of, 163
465
SUBJECT INDEX
- fracture, 360
- framework, 349, 355
- function of original sediment composition,
363
-, interalgal vug, 358
-, interlump, 358
-, interoolitic, 358
-, interparticle, 188
-, interpellet, 358
-, interskeletal vug, 358
-, moldic, definition of, 186
-, mud, 349, 357
-, pisolitic limestone, 70
-,primary, 109, 349, 352, 354, 355, 358
_ ,- , classification of, 355
_ , _ , definition of, 349
_, _, modification of, 354, 358
-, relationship to permeability, 367, 387
-, - in Zvunoviu-rich limestones, 387
-, sand, 349, 357
-, -, definition of, 349
-, secondary, 186, 349, 357, 358
-, -, definition of, 349
-, -, produced by solution, 358
_ , _ , voids, definition of, 186
-, selective solution of shells, 358
-, sucrose dolomite, 349, 361
-, types of, 349
-, variation with depth, 70
Porphyroblastic, 111, 164
-, definition of, 164
Porphyrotopic, definition of, 302, 303
Port Ewen Formation, N.Y., U.S.A.,
225
Potomac marble type, Newark Basin, U.S.A.,
212
Potomac River, U.S.A., 212
Pozzillo 1, Sicily, Italy, 72, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81
Precambrian, 2 4 , 25, 193, 220, 225, 242, 400,
410418
- Algae, 400, 412
- Arabo-Nubian shield, 242
- basement rocks, 225
- evolution of invertebrates, 417
-, geochemical variables during, 410-445
- Lipalian interval, 416
-, Montana, 220
-, occurrence of limestones, 193
- sea, 417
-, silica-iron deposition, 417, 418
Precipitates, chemical, 187, 271,
Preferred fabric, definition of, 164
Pressure solution, definition of, 164
466
Price River Formation, piedmont facies, Utah,
U.S.A., 21 I
Primary dolomicrite, photomicrographs of, 130
- dolomite, 3, 5 , 108, 109, 114
- -, definition of, 114
_ _,formation of, 3, 5
Principle of Uniformitarianism, 24, 400
Processes, 196, 197, 236-240, 267, 268
-, bacterial, dolomite origin, 267, 268
-, gravity-displacement, 236-240
-, high energy, 197
-, lateral sedimentation, 196, 197
-, low energy, 197
-, vertical sedimentation, 196
Promontory Mountains, Utah, U.S.A., 201
Protista, secreted plates, 239
Protodolomite, 275, 276, 286, 307
-, definition of, 275
- in sediments, 286
-, precipitated in laboratory, 307
Providence Limestone, U.S.A., 230
Provo Canyon, Utah, U.S.A., 122, 124
Pseudobreccia, definition of, I64
Pseudomorphic replacement, definition of, 164
Pseudo-oolites, 163, 164, 222
-, definition of, 164
Pseudo-ooliths, 185
Pseudoschwagerina, 122
Pteropods, 19, 30, 34, 235, 239
- ooze, 19, 235
Puerto Rico Trench, Atlantic Ocean, 241
Pullem Creek, Utah, U.S.A., 121
Purbeckian strata, Switzerland, 208
Pyrite, 80, 90, 207, 301
- in Green River Formation, 207
-, oxidation of, 301
Pyroxene, 242
Qatar Peninsula, 221, 286
Quarry, petrology of, 66
Quartz, 7, 90, 184, 192, 193, 208,223, 224,242,
287,292, 357
-, calcium carbonate coating of, 184
- in Bonneville Lake sediments, 292
- _ carbonate rocks, 223, 224
-, pore cement, 357
-, replacement by carbonateminerals, 192,193
-, terrigenous grains in lacustrine limestone
sediments, 208
Quartzites, associated with dolostones, 322
Quaternary, 400, 401, 423
Quebec, Canada, limestone conglomerates, 246
Queen Formation, Texas, U.S.A., 31 I
Queens Limestone, Texas, U.S.A., 190
Quinqueloculina, 228
SUBJECT INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Reef (continued)
-, milk, definition of, 165
-, Paleozoic, 117
- patch, definition of, 165
-, pinnacle, definition of, 165
-, Precambrian, 412
-, Recent sediments, 180
-, Redwater reef, 298, 388, 393-396
-, Rimbey-Leduc-Meadowbrook, 298
- rock, origin of, 175, 176
-, Scurry, 220
-, sediment-contributing organisms, 396
-, - deposits, 216-220
- shoal, definition of, 165
- table, definition of, 165
-, tufa, definition of, 165
-, Wabash, 328
-, Willingdon, 298
-, Wolayersee, 57, 58
Reefal, 93, 131, 139, 165
Refluxion, 268, 338
- process in dolomite formation, 338
Relative permeability, 21, 351, 352
Relay Creek Dolomite, Okl., U.S.A., 322
Relic, definition of, 165
- textures, I1 1
Replacement, 109, 182, 294-301, 327-330, 361
- equation, of calcite, 361
of calcium carbonate by dolomite, 294-300,
327-330
_ _ gypsum, 301
-- limestone, 109
- _ quartz, 301
-, paramorphic, 182
-, proof of, 295
Reservoir rocks, 21-24, 349-398
- -, permeability of, 351, 352, 367, 373-380,
387, 389
- _ , Petrology and paleoecology of, 380-396
_ _ , porosity of, 351-380, 387, 389
_ _ , properties, classified according to facies,
390, 391, 393
Revolution, 399, 415419, 420, 422, 423
- I , 399, 415416
- 11, 399, 416418
- 111, 399, 419
- IV, 399, 420
- V, 399, 420
-, geotectonic, effect of, 422, 423
Rhabdoliths, 30
Rhine Valley, Germany, 206
Rhinoceros, 401
Rhizomorphs, definition of, 402
Rhodesia, 4
Rhodophyta, 150
Rib Hill, Nev., U.S.A., 125
467
Riepe Spring Limestone, Nev., U.S.A., 122,
125
Rim cement, 165, 180, 187
- _ , definition of, 165, 187
Rimbey-Leduc-Meadowbrook reef chain, 298
Roberts Mountains Formation, Nev., U.S.A.,
244, 299
Rocky Mountains, U.S.A., 116, 372, 373, 380
Rogers Spring Limestone, Utah, U.S.A., 125
Rome Formation, U.S.A., 320, 322
Ruby Marshes, Nev., U.S.A., 126
Rudistids, stony mass, 175
Rugg Brook Dolomite, Vt., U.S.A., 322
Rundle Group, Alta, Canada, 216
Rush Creek Sandstone, Okla., U.S.A., 322
Russian Platform, 310, 312, 414
- _ , Ca/Sr ratio during Precambrian, 414
Rutledge Limestone, Appalachians, U.S.A.,
32 1
Rysedorph Hill Conglomerate, N.Y., U.S.A.,
247
Saccharoidal, definition of, 166
Saint Albans Hill, Vt., U.S.A., 227
- _ Slate, Vt., U.S.A., 322
- David cyclothem, U.S.A., 230
- Georges Island, Bermuda, 180, 188, 232
- Louis Limestone, Ind., U.S.A., 313
Saipan, Pacific Ocean, 191
Sakawa orogeny, 422
Salina Formation, Mich., U.S.A., 312
Saline facies, Green River Formation, Wyo.,
U.S.A., 207
- minerals, abundance of, in sediments, 283
Salinity, 24, 191, 203, 284-286, 288
-, control of mineralogy, 191
-, mechanism for increase of, 288
-, Persian Gulf, 284-286
-, Salton Sea, 203
Salt (see evaporite and halite), 7-10, 290
- deposition, 10
- domes, 290
- Flat Graben, Texas, U.S.A., 289-293, 296,
309, 331, 335-337
- _ _ , isotopic composition of dolomite,
29 I
- Flats, Utah, U.S.A., 7
Salton Sea, Calif., U.S.A., 199, 202, 203
- _ , formation of, 203
- _ sediments of, 202-203
Saltonstall Ridge, Conn., U.S.A., 212
Samra Formation, Israel, 204
San Andres Limestone, Texas, U.S.A., 190
Sand, 33, 35, 44, 179, 201, 202, 224, 225, 232,
278, 279
-, admixed carbonates and quartz, 224, 225
-, beach, 44
468
Sand (continued)
-, foraminiferal, 32, 35
SUBJECT INDEX
-,
-, reef, 216-220
- sediments, 34, 35
Shell, 227, 296, 300, 417, 419
-, aragonite, 296
-, chitinous, 417
-, dolomitization of, 300
-, formation of, in invertebrates, 419
-, Wadden Sea, beds, 227
Sherman Fall Formation, Ont., Canada, 225
Shoal, 9, 390
Shortite, 206
Shrimp, 202
Shunda Formation, Canada, 222, 298, 31 1
Shuttle Meadow Formation, Conn., U.S.A.,
212
Siderastrea, 217
Siderite, I , 52, 90, 193
-, replacement of quartz, 193
Silica (see quartz), 1,4, 14,22,90, 321,417,418
-/iron deposits, Precambrian, 417, 41 8
-, Knox Group, Appalachians, 321
- Oil Field, Kans., U.S.A., 369-371
Sillery Formation, Que., Canada, 246
Silt, in algal material, 202
Silurian, 216, 220, 241, 299, 310, 312
-, evaporitic dolomite, 310, 312
-, Gotland, Sweden, 216
Simonson Dolomite, Nev., U.S.A., 321
Skeels Corners Slate, Vt., U.S.A., 227
SUBJECT INDEX
469
Spherulite, definition of, 167
Sponges, 22, 93, 175
Spring Mountains, Nev., U.S.A., 123, 125
_ _ Formation, Nev., U.S.A., 122, 125, 126
Spruce Mountain area, Nev., U.S.A., 125
Sprudelstein, 177
Stachyodes, 396
Stafford Creek, Andros Island, Bahamas, 196
Stalactites, 177
Stalagmites, 177
Stansbury Island, Utah, U.S.A., 202
Star Range, Utah, U.S.A., 124, 125
Stinkstein, definition of, 167
Stockton, Utah, U.S.A., 127
Stony biogenic incrustations, 175, 176
- Point, N.Y., U.S.A., 212
Strait of Hormuz, 11
Strassfurt beds, Germany, 310
Stratigraphic discontinuity, diagenetic dolostone, 328, 329
- patterns, 197, 288
Stream deposits, limestone particles, 210
Streblus, 228
Streppenosa Formation, Sicily, Italy, 75-81
Strom-algal consortium, sediment contributing
organism, 396
Stromatactis, 125, 126, 167
-, definition of, 167
Stromatolites, 77, 78, 167, 315, 317, 416
-, definition of, 167, 315
-, origin of, 416
Stromatoporoids, 64, 98, 125, 175, 297, 314,
390, 391, 396
-, Manlius Formation, N.Y., U.S.A., 314
-, massive, 396
-, Redwater reef complex, Alta., Canada, 394
-, stony mass, 175
-, tabular, 396
Strontium, 24, 39, 333, 411
-/calcium ratio, 24, 39, 41 1
- depletion in dolostones, 333
Sturtian Tillite, Australia, 417
Stylolites, dolomite concentration along, 297,
298, 333
Subhedral, definition of, 167, 302
Subsidence, 10, 64, 80
Sucrose dolomite, 361-363
Sucrosic, 143, 167
-, definition of, 167
Sulfates, 11, 199, 200
Sulfides, 1, 14, 42
Sulfur, 290, 291
- in Pleistocene graben deposits, 290
Summit Springs Member, Pequop Formation,
Nev., U.S.A., 121, 126
Summum cyclothem, U.S.A., 230
470
Sunda Shelf, Indonesia, 405
Sunderland Shale, Jamaica, 230
Sunspot cycles, 424
Swan Hills Member, Alta., Canada, 388-390,
392, 393
---, cross-section of the reservoir, 392
- - -, facies of, 390
- - -, isopach map, 389
- - -, slice map, 392
- - Oil Field, Alta., Canada, 388-389
Swanswick Limestone, Jamaica, 21 6
Sylvite, 288
Syndiagenetic calcite, 93
Syndiagenetic stage, 5 , 6, 167
Syneresis cracks, definition of, 167
Syngenetic, 20, 167, 268, 308-325
-, definition of, 167
- dolomite, 20, 268, 308-325
Syntaxial rims, definition of, 167
Tablehead Formation, Nfld., Canada, 246
Taconic orogeny, 422
T-dolostone, 273, 330
Tan Dolomite, Sicily, Italy, 77, 80, 81
Tansill Formation, Texas, U.S.A., 301, 311
Taormina Formation, Sicily, Italy, 75-77, 80
Tasman Sea, 11
Tectono-eustasy, 423
Tennessee zinc district, 334
Ten Thousand Islands, Fla., U.S.A., 40
Temperature distribution in geologic time,
400403
Teodorovich's classifications, 97, 98, 107, 110,
111, 374
- _ of limestones, 97, 98
_ _ - dolomites, 107, 110, 111
_ _ _ pores, 374
Terra rossa, 407
Terrigenous sediments, 221 -231, 309-324
Tertiary, 175, 190, 191, 210, 211,219, 229, 237,
239,244, 310, 313, 400, 424
- chalk, 175
- evaporitic dolomite, 310
-, Italy, 237, 239, 244
-, Guam, 190, 191
-, Gulf Coast, U.S.A., 229
- fanglomerate, 210-21 1
-, Mediterranean transgressions, 424
- reefs in Louisiana, 219
- soils, 400
Tethyan transgressions, 426
Texture, 91-106, 110, 297, 302-306
-, classification of dolomites, 110
- of carbonates, 91-106
-, preserved after dolomitization, 297, 302
Thalassocratic conditions, 425
SUBJECT INDEX
-.
47 1
SUBJECT INDEX
Turbidites (continued)