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abstract
Article history:
This contribution proposes the usage of Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC) for the
storage and subsequently the transport of renewable energy. It is expected that a signifi-
cant share of future energy consumption will be satisfied with the import of energy coming
11 August 2012
from regions with high potential for renewable generation, e.g. the import of solar power
from Northern Africa to Europe. In this context the transport of energy in form of chemical
Keywords:
could be transported within the infrastructure that already exists for the handling of liquid
Hydrogen storage
fossil fuels (e.g. oil tankers, tank trucks, pipelines, etc.). A detailed assessment of energy
renewable energy
consumption as well as of transport costs is conducted that confirms the feasibility of the
Energy transport
concept.
LOHC
Copyright 2012, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Feasibility study
1.
Introduction
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Daniel.Teichmann@cbi.uni-erlangen.de (D. Teichmann).
0360-3199/$ e see front matter Copyright 2012, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.08.066
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 8 1 1 8 e1 8 1 3 2
18119
reaction system. While the theoretical storage density of Nethylcarbazole e perhydro-N-ethylcarbazole would be 5.8 wt%, only 5.3 wt-% materials energy density can be achieved
following this approach.
Existing safety data sheets show that the toxicity of Nethylcarbazole is rather uncritical, see Table 1 [15].
Because of its very low vapor pressure there is no detectable vapor phase under ambient conditions which further
facilitates handling and safety issues of the carbazole LOHC
system.
Under the assumption that the return and reloading of the
unloaded carrier material is made possible, the existing, very
well established infrastructure for the distribution of mineral
oil based fuels could be used for LOHC. Because of its high
energy storage density and good handling characteristics
a variety of applications for mobility, heating, long distance
energy transport or long-term energy storage (for example for
energy coming from intermittent producing renewable energies) can be envisaged [16].
The local potential for the installation of renewable energies is geographically not evenly distributed and therefore
there often is a local mismatch between the level of energy
consumption (strongly depending on population and industrialization density) and the potential for renewable energy.
Therefore, it is foreseeable that with the transition toward
a higher share of renewable energies like wind or solar, more
and more power must be transported over long distances in
the future. The Desertec Industrial Initiative [17] for instance
planned to produce electricity on a grand scale in Northern
Africa and to import it to Europe either by HVDC-lines under
86-28-2
>5000 mg/kg non-toxic
Not irritating (OECD 404)
Not irritating (OECD 405)
<10 mg/l (Golden Orfe)
Aquatic chronic 2, H411,
no signal word
UN 3077 environmentally
hazardous substance, solid,
n.o.s., Class 9, PG III, Label 9
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the sea or through notably unstable countries on land. Similarly new power lines must be built in Germany to transport
electricity from wind plants, which are primarily installed onand off-shore in Northern Germany, to the industrial centers
in the South and West. It must be noted that an enhanced grid
increases the number of customers but does not store energy
at all. In public discussion an electric transmission of energy is
often considered as the main option. But due to their attractive handling and storage characteristics (high energy density,
negligible losses in long term storage), LOHC systems using
the existing infrastructure for liquid energy carriers (tank
ships, storage tanks, and filling stations) can be a very promising alternative.
2.
Methodology
2.1.
2.2.
Economic dimension e specific costs for hydrogen
transport
The specific costs of hydrogen transport are very important
indicators for the economic feasibility of the concept. They are
calculated per kilogram of hydrogen.
The Equivalent Annuity Method is applied in this
contribution to determine the financial impact of the capital.
Future cash flows are discounted to their Net Present Value
(NPV) to account for the differing points in time in which they
occur. The Equivalent Annuity Method calculates the annualized cash flow of an investment by dividing its net present
value by the so-called annuity factor AF. Based on depreciation period and interest rate it expresses the annual cost of
owning and using a piece of equipment or a facility. The socalled annuity factor AF is defined as follows (i being the
interest rate, n the number of years of usage):
n
AFi;n
1 i $i
n
1 i 1
The annualized capital costs are calculated by multiplication of the AF with the investment costs. All costs are
expressed in Euro. Whenever a conversion from US-Dollar is
necessary, an exchange rate of 1.30 $/V is applied.
Other types of costs:
- Operating expenses: These on-going costs incur during the
operation of a piece of equipment and include costs e.g. for
maintenance and service, labor, insurance, etc.
- Energy costs: The cost for electric energy is e unless stated
otherwise e assumed to be 0.05 V/kWh. This takes into
account that the energy-intensive processes will primarily
be carried out in times of energy overproduction from
renewable energies. It can be assumed that electricity prices
are considerably lower than average during these times. The
cost for Diesel fuel for road transport is assumed to be
1.40 V/l. Marine fuel oil is usually traded in US-$ per ton of
fuel. The prices varied heavily in a range of 200e600 $/ton
over the last years [19]. In the following a price of 350 V/ton
is assumed.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 8 1 1 8 e1 8 1 3 2
3.
Assessment of different means of
transportation for hydrogen and electricity
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The hydrogenation of LOHC is exothermic. As a consequence heat with a temperature between 150 and 170 C is
produced during the reaction. As some part of this heat might
be used in future applications this waste heat possesses
a certain economic value. In favor of a conservative evaluation
the use of this exothermic heat is not taken into account in
this publication.
The hydrogenation of the LOHC carrier material comprises
the following cost parameters:
a) Depreciation of capital costs
3.1.
Processing of hydrogen
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
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3.1.4.
Results
3.2.
Regarding a world-wide system of renewable energy production and demand, the long-distance transport of hydrogen by
ship might play an important role in the future.
While the concept of transporting liquid hydrogen per ship
has already been considered, the long-distance transport of
compressed hydrogen is not attractive due to its low energy
density and not feasible in existing ships. The Diesel-like
attributes of LOHC however make it possible to transport
this material like crude oil in existing oil tankers. As this
approach seems very promising it is evaluated in detail in the
following.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
Results
Assumptions
Results
Energy
Unit
V/kW
kWhel/kWhHyd
years
hours
% of invest p.a.
kg LOHC/kg Cat
% per cycle
V/kg hydrogen
V/kg hydrogen
V/kg hydrogen
V/kg hydrogen
V/kg hydrogen
V/kg hydrogen
kWhx/kWhHyd
LH2
CGH2
LOHC
287
0.011
20
6.00%
8.7%
8000
3%
500,000
0.1%
0.103 V
0.018 V
0.036 V
0.006 V
0.075 V
0.238 V
1.1%
797
0.21a
20
6.00%
8.7%
8000
3%
383
0.035b
20
6.00%
8.7%
8000
3%
0.287 V
0.347 V
0.099 V
0.138 V
0.058 V
0.047 V
0.732 V
21.0%
0.243 V
3.5%
a [18] and [25] give an energy consumption of 0.3 kWh of electrical energy per kWh of liquefied hydrogen with a possible improvement to 0.21
until 2030. Investment costs for a 300 MW unit (lower heating value of the hydrogen) are given to be 239 million V.
b The energy consumption for a hydrogen compression from 30 to 350 bar mainly depends on the efficiency and size of the compressors. In the
following calculations an energy consumption of 0.035 kWh of electrical energy per kWh of compressed hydrogen is used [25,31]. While [31]
gives specific investment costs of 12,500 V per kg/h compression capacity, [25] gives around 2300 V and [48] around 9000 V per kg/h
capacity. In the following capital costs of 12,600 V per kg/h are assumed.
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Table 3 e Cost and energy assessment for the sea transport of hydrogen via ship.
Description
Unit
1000 km
Cost assessment
Assum.
Results
Energy
tons
kW
million V
years
LOHC
LH2
5000 km
1050
10,540
146a
25
6.00%
7.8%
0.1%b
11,500 Vc
2
18
6.5
16.5
65
31,291 V
163
815
0.194 V
0.492 V
0.071 V
0.181 V
0.054 V
0.272 V
0.006 V
0.031 V
0.326 V
0.976 V
5.2%
26.1%
1000 km
5000 km
2400
9000
35d
25
6.00%
7.8%
e
5000 Ve
2
15
7
19
56
7501 V
167
835
0.022 V
0.059 V
0.015 V
0.040 V
0.024 V
0.122 V
0.061 V
2.3%
0.221 V
11.7%
a Capital costs were assumed to be 146 million V with the ship having 10 MW drive power at full speed (18 kn 33 km/h) [26].
b Like for all cryogenic hydrogen storage systems a minimal heat transfer is unavoidable despite complex insulation of the tanks. The boil-off
rate e the amount of hydrogen that is lost due to evaporation and consequently boiling off e is expected to be in the order of 0.1% of the cargo
per day (not on the return trip as the cargo is empty). Assuming a hydrogen price of 4 V/kg the boil-off contributes to the total cost of
transportation.
c According to [26] operating expenses are approx. 11,500 V per day.
d According to [27] the capital costs for a new ship of this type are approximately 43 million $ or 35 million V. 45,000 deadweight tonnage of
LOHC corresponds to about 2400 tons of Hydrogen cargo (storage density of 5.3%).
e The operating expenses of a tanker of this class can be assumed to be 5000 V per day [29].
- The capital investment for the LH2 ship is very high due to
the technologically complex insulation of the cryogenic LH2
containers. That results in high annual depreciation.
3.3.
3.3.3.
Hydrogen delivery via road is comparably expensive. Nevertheless, the last mile of transportation to the end user is
often conducted by a truck. There already exist cryogenic
trailers for LH2 and cylinder bundle trailers for CGH2 transportation. For the delivery of LOHC standard road tankers
could be used.
In this assessment, distances of 20 km and 50 km were
considered for road transportation of hydrogen. These are
typical distances for the distribution of fuel from a central
storage facility to the consumer (e.g. gasoline station, home
heating systems).
3.3.1.
It is assumed that road tankers, which qualify for the transport of liquid, flammable substances (class 3, GHS e Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals) can also be used for the transport of LOHC [23,32]. These
road tankers usually consist of several separated compartments and could therefore even carry loaded and unloaded
LOHC material at the same time if necessary.
Regarding the maximum cargo the gross vehicle weight is
the limiting factor for the transport of LOHC. Subtracting the
weight of the truck, the maximum net load is 28.5 tons. Based
on a storage density of 5.3 wt-%, a LOHC trailer could carry
1500 kg of hydrogen. While the maximum cargo for liquid
hydrogen LH2 is mainly determined by volume constraints,
the net load capacity is the limiting factor for LOHC transport.
Unlike a gasoline tanker, the LOHC trailer would always be
filled as the unloaded carrier has to be returned in exchange to
fresh material. It has to be considered that this return journey
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Table 4 e Cost assessment for the truck and the trailers used for hydrogen transport.
Trucka
Purchasing costs
Depreciation period
Interest rate
Annuity factor
Maintenance per year
Operating time
Truck/trailer costs
Euro
years
% of capital cost
hours per year
per hour
LH2-trailer
160,000 V
8
6.00%
0.16
12%
3500
12.85 V
450,000 V
12
6.00%
0.12
2%
3500
17.91 V
CGH2-trailer
250,000 V
12
6.00%
0.12
2%
3500
9.95 V
LOHC-trailer
80,000 Vd
12
6.00%
0.12
2%
3500
3.18 V
a It is assumed that special trailers for CGH2, LH2 and LOHC transportation are towed by a Mercedes Benz Actros truck. According to [26] the
average fuel consumption is 35 l/100 km, the capital costs approx. 160,000 V with a depreciation period of 8 years.
b Capital costs are assumed to be in the order of 450,000 V (500,000 V in [26], according [31] 770,000 V at the year of the publication and 435,000 V
as future potential). The depreciation period is assumed to be 12 years. Hydrogen Boil-off during transport and especially during loading/
unloading operations is assumed to be 0.5% of the transported hydrogen [26].
c The capital costs for the trailer are 190,000 V [30] or according to [31] 360,000 at present and 250,000 V in the future. The latter value is assumed
in this assessment.
d The capital costs for the described liquid fuel trailer are assumed to be 80,000 V [23] with a depreciation period of 12 years.
e back to the fuel silo e is also necessary for the empty CGH2
or LH2 trailers. The additional energy consumption (as
a consequence of the higher vehicle weight) is comparably
small.
3.3.4.
Results
As a first step, the costs for the truck and for the different
trailers per hour of operation were calculated according to the
assumptions (Table 4).
Using these results Table 5 shows the total costs and
energy consumption for different means of hydrogen transport via truck.
The costs and energy consumptions for the road transport
of LH2 and LOHC are similar. Apparently the higher cargo of
LH2 compensates for the higher capital investment. CGH2
trailers can only carry a small amount of hydrogen which
makes this way of transportation rather inefficient and very
costly.
3.4.
Release of hydrogen
Table 5 e Cost and energy assessment for the land transport of hydrogen via truck.
Description
Unit
LH2
20 km
Cost assessment
Assum.
Results
Energy
kg
hours
km/h
hours
hours
V/kg hyd
V/kg hyd
V/kg hyd
V/kg hyd
V/kg hyd
V/kg hyd
kWhx/kWhHyd
50 km
3500
3
30
45
1.33
2.22
5.2b
4.3b
0.016
0.019
0.022
0.027
0.043
0.052
0.006
0.014
0.025
0.025
0.112
0.137
0.62%
0.80%
CGH2
20 km
30
1.33
3.3
0.086
0.066
0.163
0.039
e
0.355
0.83%
50 km
500
2
45
2.22
4.2
0.108
0.084
0.226
0.098
e
0.516
2.08%
LOHC
20 km
50 km
1500
2
30
45
1.33
2.22
2.8
3.7
0.024
0.032
0.006
0.008
0.066
0.087
0.013
0.033
e
e
0.109
0.159
0.28%
0.69%
a Labor costs for the driver are assumed to be 35 V/h. Note that the driver also executes the charging operations so that no further personnel is
required.
b According to [31] and [26] the LH2 charging operation lasts between 5 and 8 h today with a potential decrease to 1.5 h in the future, when there
exist more standardized operation protocols and technologies. In the following, a total time demand of 3 h is assumed for both charging and
discharging of the trailer.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 8 1 1 8 e1 8 1 3 2
Results
Capital costs
Depreciation
period
Interest rate
Annuity factor
Operating hours
per year
Indirect costs
Depreciation
Indirect costs
Total costs for H2
release from
LOHC
Unit
Stationary
HRU
V/kW
years
40
20
hours
6.00%
8.72%
8000
% of capital
V/kg H2
V/kg H2
V/kg H2
20%
0.014 V
0.003 V
0.017 V
18125
3.5.
Electric transmission of energy via High Voltage
Direct Current Transmission (HVDC)
In comparison to HVAC (alternating current), HVDC technology allows for energy transport over long distances with
only little losses. A good overview over this technology is
given in the Trans-CSP study by DLR [33]. Table 7 shows costs
and energy consumption for the transmission of electric
energy via HVDC over a distance of 3100 km. Thereby the costs
for electricity lost during transmission is also accounted for.
4.
Scenarios for the long-distance transport
of energy
Having evaluated energy consumption and costs for several
means of transportation, this section uses the gathered
information to comprehensively evaluate relevant scenarios
for the transport of energy.
4.1.
Transportation of solar power from Northern Africa
to Europe
The annual energy demand of the whole world could theoretically be satisfied by the solar irradiation on a comparably
small fraction of the Sahara desert in Northern Africa [17]. The
Desertec Industrial Initiative, which was founded in 2009,
therefore strives for the installment of huge CSP (Concentrated Solar Power) plants. Part of the produced energy could
be exported to Europe via HVDC (high voltage direct current)
transmission which allows for lower energy losses than
conventional high voltage AC power lines.
Several publications have discussed the alternatives of
energy transport, namely via electrical transmission versus
the transformation into a chemical carrier like hydrogen
[34e36]. For the evaluation of the relative competitiveness it is
a crucial assumption whether the energy is demanded as
electrical energy or as hydrogen at the destination of the
transport. In the case that an electricity-to-electricity transmission of energy is realized via hydrogen as energy carrier,
the total efficiency is limited to a maximum of about 40% just
by the efficiency of the electricity to hydrogen and
hydrogen to electricity processes. In contrast, HVDC transmission allows for total efficiencies of up to 90%. However, it is
important to note that this HVDC efficiency value only takes
into account the transport losses in the long-distance transfer
of electric energy and does not take into account the huge
investment into the HVDC infrastructure.
The future share of energy that is needed in the world in
form of hydrogen depends on many factors and cannot be
determined per se. It can be concluded however that an allelectric energy system (consequently with no demand for
chemical energy carriers like hydrogen) appears rather
unrealistic at this date due to the difficulties in storing large
amounts of electric energy. In the contrary, the need for
energy storage is increasing as a consequence of the
increasing share of the unsteady production of renewable
energies from wind or solar. Massive additional capacities in
both wind and solar energy production are currently being
installed in parts of Europe. Hydrogen in the form of LOHC
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Table 7 e Costs for transmission of electrical energy via High Voltage Direct Current Transmission (HVDC).
Description
Cost assessment
Assumptions
Results
Energy
Cable length
HVDC overhead line cost
HVDC sea cable costs
Share of overhead lines
Terminal costs
Depreciation period
Interest rate
Annuity factor
Capacity factor
Energy losses
Terminal transformation losses
Transported energy
Energy losses
Total investment
Depreciation cost
Value of energy losses
Total costs
Energy consumption
Unit
km
MV/1000 km
MV/1000 km
of total length
MV
Years
% per 1000 km
TWh per year
TWh per year
MV
V/kWh/1000 km
V/kWh
V/kWh
kWhx/kWh
HVDC
3100
400
2100
80%
650
30
6.0%
7.3%
50%
2.5%
0.7%
21.9
1.85
2.944
0.0098 V
0.0042 V
0.014 V
8.5%
Fig. 2 e Options for energy transfer from Northern Africa to Europe for the purpose of hydrogen production.
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Table 8 e Cost and energy assessment for the production of hydrogen via electrolysis.
Description
Cost assessment
Assumptions
Results
Energy
Unit
Capital costs
Electricity price
Depreciation period
Interest rate
Annuity factor
Operating hours per year
Operating expenses
Energy consumption
Depreciation cost
Electricity costs
Operating expenses
Total costs
Energy consumption
V/kW
V/kWh
Years
Hours
% of capital cost
kWhel/kgHyd
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
kWhx/kWhHyd
Electrolysis
800
0.02
0.05
20
6.00%
8.72%
6000
3%
47
0.55
0.94
0.19
1.67 V
29.79%
0.55
2.35
0.19
3.08 V
29.79%
Table 9 e Cost and energy assessment for the transmission of energy from Northern Africa to Europe.
Process steps
Location
Electr. Transm.
Export power
HVDC transm. (3100 km)
Electrolysis
Final hydr delivery
Total energy/costs
LH2
Export power
Electrolysis
LH2 liquefaction
LH2 transport
Final hydr delivery
Total energy/costs
LOHC
Export power
Electrolysis
LOHC conditioning
LOHC transport
Final hydr release
Total energy/costs
North Africa
Europe
Europe
51.3
51.3
47
Hydrogen
million tons
1
1
Energy consumption
TWh
Costs
million V
4.3
14
658
3080
North Africa
North Africa
North Africa
48.2
48.2
Europe
North Africa
North Africa
North Africa
Europe
47.14
47
1.03
1.03
1.03
1
1
1
1
1
14.4
7.1
7.6
3157
750
1081
14
0.363
3.5
0
17.9 0.54 kWhx/kWh
3080
238
495
17
3830 3.83 V/kg
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Table 10 e Cost and energy assessment for the production of hydrogen in Iceland and transport to Germany (2000 km
scenario).
Process steps
LOHC
Export power
Electrolysis
LOHC conditioning
LOHC Transport
Final hydr release
Energy consumption per kWhHyd
Costs per kg Hydrogen
10.00
10.00
4.2.
4.2.1.
Assessment of
Hydrogen
million tons
Energy
TWh
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
14.2
0.1
0.5
0
5.8%
Costs
million tons
506
72
32
5
2.03 V
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Table 11 e Cost assessment for the production of hydrogen via steam methane reforming.
Description
Cost assessment
Assumptions
Results
Hydrogen output
Capital costs
Depreciation period
Interest rate
Annuity factor
Natural gas price
Natural gas consumption
CO2 certificate price
Operating hours per year
Operating expenses
Electric energy consumption
Depreciation cost
Natural gas purchasing costs
Electricity costs
CO2 emission cost
Operating expenses
Total costs
4.3.
Unit
Nm /h
million V
years
V/kWh
kWhNG/kWhHyd
V/tons CO2
Hours
% of capital cost
kWhel/kgHyd
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
V/kg
67,000
86
20
6.00%
8.72%
0.0325
0.08
1.35
15
8000
3%
0.005
0.16
1.45
3.56
0.01
0.14
0.05
1.80 V
3.92 V
5.
Discussion of results
50
185
70%
11
203
MW
GWh
tons
tons
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Table 13 e Overview over costs and energy consumption of the described storage and transport processes.
Conditioning
Costs
Energy consumption
Transport e Ship
Cargo H2
1000 km
5000 km
Transport e Truck
Cargo H2
20 km
50 km
CGH2
LH2
LOHC
Compression
Liquefaction
Hydrogenation
[Ct./kg]
[kWhx/kWhHyd]
24
3.5%
73
21.0%
24
1.1%
[tons]
Costs [Ct./(ton km)]
Energy [kWhx/kWhHyd]
Costs [Ct./(ton km)]
Energy [kWhx/kWhHyd]
Not considered
1050
32.6
5.2%
19.5
26.1%
2400
6.1
2.3%
4.4
11.7%
[kg]
Costs [V/(ton km)]
Energy [kWhx/kWhHyd]
Costs [V/(ton km)]
Energy [kWhx/kWhHyd]
500
17.7
0.8%
10.3
2.1%
3500
5.6
0.6%
2.7
0.8%
1500
5.5
0.3%
3.2
0.7%
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 8 1 1 8 e1 8 1 3 2
18131
6.
Conclusion
references
18132
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 8 1 1 8 e1 8 1 3 2