Amnesty International and the Idea of Muslim Women's Human Rights

Author(s): Nancy Gallagher

Source: Journal of Middle East Women's Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Fall, 2005), pp. 96-107
Published by: Duke University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40326873
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BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS
co
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

JMEWSand AMEWS wouldliketo thankUNESCO for

itsgenerousgrantthatallowsus to subsidizejournalpostage
subscribers.
forourinternational

and theIdea ofMuslim

AmnestyInternational
Women'sHumanRights
Nancy Gallagher
International
ofAmnesty
(AI),
nphe deathofPeterBenenson,thefounder
X on February25, 2005,calls foran assessmentof Als contributions
to
theinternational
forwomen'shumanrights.Formanyyears,AI
movement
was behindotherhumanrightsorganizations
in advancingwomen'srights
as humanrights,but thischangeddramatically
in the 1990s.How did a
smallcircleofvolunteers
whocampaignedon behalfofmostlymalepolitical prisonersbecomean international
thatcampaignedagainst
movement
female
and
honor
genderapartheid,
genitalmutilation,
killings?Thisbrief
historicalreportwilldiscusskeyeventsleadingto thistransformation
and
itssignificance
in thecreationofa newinternational
consensuson women's
humanrights.
AI based itsworkon the 1948UnitedNationsUniversalDeclaration
ofHuman Rightsbutconsidereditselfa prisoners'rightsadvocacygroup
ratherthan a human rightsorganization(Rabben2001:12-4).Although
JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES
Vol. 1,No. 3 (Fall2005). 2005

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NANCY GALLAGHER

97

lawsappliedtowomen,
theUN humanrights
theydidnotaddressrisks
were
The
1946
women.
Commission
on Huwomenfacedbecausethey
on theStatusofWomenworked
manRightsandthe1947Commission
human
in isolationfromone anotherand had littleclout.Subsequent
on the
specificto women,suchas theConvention
rightsconventions
Women
and
the
Convention
on
Consent
of
Married
(1957)
Nationality
andRegistration
ofMarriages
Minimum
toMarriage,
AgeforMarriage
intheirtraditional
rolesin society.
The
onwomen's
(1962)focused
rights
Covenanton Economic,Socialand CulturalRights
1966International
Covenanton Civiland PoliticalRightscalledfor
andtheInternational
men
and women.All theseconventions
dealtwith
of
equal protection
consensus
heldthatthefambecausetheinternational
thepublicsphere,
reach
of
the
Thissignificantly
and
out
of
the
is
government.
ily private
because
much
violence
women
occursin
women
against
disadvantaged
from
leadersarguedthatthestatusofwomenderived
thehome.Political
thatwereoutsideitspurview.
Thehuman
culturaland socialtraditions
conventions
alsotendedtoignoresocialandeconomicrights.
rights
women'smovement
In thecontextofthewideninginternational
theMexicoCityConthatledtotheUN DecadeforWomen(1975-85),
fortheElimination
ofAllForms
ference
forWomen(1975),Convention
Women
the
ofDiscrimination
(CEDAW)
(1979),
Copenhagen
against
forWomen
forWomen(1980),andtheNairobiConference
Conference
ofhumanrights
to
(1985),manywomenbegancallingfora widening
womenclaimbecausetheyarewomen.Theyarguedthat
includerights
fromdomesticviolence,femalegenital
theserightsincludedfreedom
sexualslavery,
and
andrape,and
forced
mutilation,
marriage pregnancy,
far
more
to
women
were
than
men
suffer
from
likely
pointedoutthat
both.Womenwererapedinwarorinprisonmoreofabusesthatafflict
ofrefugees
werewomenandchildren,
and
tenthanmen,eighty
percent
in theirownsocietiesbecausetheywere
womenfaceddiscrimination
inthefamily
orworkplace
women.Becausemuchoftheabuseoccurred
the
definition
of
human
nonstate
andwasperpetrated
actors,
by
rights
Forwomen's
humanrights
thestatehas the
wasbroadened.
advocates,
whether
it'scarriedoutby
toprotect
itscitizensfromtorture
obligation
a member
ofone'sfamily.
thestateorbya private
individual,
including
oftheUniversal
Declaration
ofHumanRightswas
Thisinterpretation
to AI, whichcontinuedto limititsmandateto humanrights
foreign

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98 9 JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES

violationsby stateratherthannonstateactors.
Withpressurefromthe burgeoningwomen'shuman rightsmoveAI began to conmentand its own predominatewomenmembership,
siderincorporating
women'srightsintoitsmandate,whichhad focused
on prisonersofconscience,mostofwhomweremen,
almostexclusively
and violence carriedout by the state.At its 1989 annual meeting,AI
passed a resolutioncalling forgreaterattentionto human rightsviolationsagainstwomen.At firstitkeptto itsmandateand featuredwomen
prisonersofconscienceas wellas arrestsand disappearancesofwomen's
rightsactivists.
in 1991,AI issueditsfirstreport
As partofitsthirtieth
anniversary
on women'shuman rights,Womenin theFrontLine. The introduction
statedthatthe reportwould not summarizenor surveythe manyways
in whichwomen'shuman rightsare violated.Rather,it would address
defined
"onlythosehumanrightsviolationswhichfallwithinAI's strictly
mandateto seekthereleaseofprisonersofconscience,men and women
detainedsolelyfortheirbeliefs,color,sex,ethnicorigin,language,or religionwho haveneitherused noradvocatedviolence,to workforprompt
and fairtrialsforall politicalprisoners,and to oppose thedeathpenalty,
extra-judicialexecutionsand torturewithoutreservation"(1991:1-2).It
listedthe human rightsabuses womensuffer
because theyare women:
ill treatment,
sexual
forced
threats,
torture,
humiliation,
rape,
pregnancy,
and exploitationof familyrelationships.
Otherabuses addressedby the
wider women's human rightsmovement,such as domesticviolence,
honorkillings,and femalegenitalmutilationwerenotmentionedin this
firstreport.Its sectionon "womenin peril" featuredwomenprisoners
in selectedcountries,includingthreeregionswithlargeMuslimpopulations- Iraq, Somalia,and Israeland theoccupiedPalestinianterritories.
AI had expanded its originalmandatebut not by muchbecause it still
focusedon abuses by stateactorsand because it did not focuson economic,social, or culturalrightsotherthan by mentioningthe relevant
covenants.It did notincludedomesticviolence,honorkillings,or female
genitalmutilation.
The AI Handbook for 1991 included a "Campaign forWomen's
Rights"as amongthetenissuesto be addressed(Staunton1991).In early
womenin detentionin Syria
1991,AI tookup thecases ofseventy-seven
withoutchargeor trialwho had been detainedbecause oftheirpeaceful

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NANCY GALLAGHER <*> 99

politicalactivismor forbeingrelatedto politicallyactivemen soughtby

security.AI also began to reporton violationsthatwomen experience
becausetheyarewomen,suchas rapein prisonand thedenialofprenatal
and postnatalcare.
Law School
at ColumbiaUniversity
AI USA conveneda conference
in 1992 to studythe evolutionof concepts such as "rights,""human
and "women'shumanrights"and theproblem
"women'srights,"
rights,"
customsas human rightsabuses. The issue of culof cultural/religious
was partiallyresolvedwhenlocal activistsmade clearthat
turalrelativism
customsharmfulto womenand in violationof intercultural/religious
nationalhuman rightsstandardscould changelike any othercustoms.
Women'shuman rightsactivistspointedout thatculturaland religious
customshave evolvedin everypart of the worldand insistedtheiropponentsnot use themas an excuse to justifythe oppressionof women.
ofthosedemandingthatcustoms
Regionalactivistswerein theforefront
harmfulto womenin theirsocietiesbe reformed.
With the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s,manynations,
on
includingthe US, pledgedto carryout humanitarianinterventions
behalfofoppressedgroupsin othernations,actionsthatwouldhavebeen
in theinternalaffairsofothernationsand unacconsideredinterference
beforetheend oftheCold
ofnationalsovereignty
ceptableinfringements
to
and
mandates
human
War.To expand
plan fornewinternational
rights
humanrightscooperation,the UnitedNationsbegan preparationsfora
second worldconferenceon human rights.By the timethe conference
convenedin Vienna in 1993,ithad becomeclearthatthecollapseofthe
and politiSovietUnionhad led to theemergenceofnewpowerstruggles
and
ethnic
identities.
on
often
rivalries
cal
Delegates
building religious
wereacutelyaware thatethniccleansingin the formerYugoslaviawas
ongoingonlya fewhoursaway.Human rightsleadersfearedthatexisting human rightsconventionswould have to be defendedratherthan
expanded.Women'shuman rightsgroups,however,wereveryactiveat
the conference.At a massivetribunal,women fromaround the world
gaveverypersonaland emotionaltestimoniesofwhattheyhad suffered,
and by all accountsAI was caughtoffguard. While women speakers
were inside the auditoriumtellingtheirstoriesto enormousand enthralledaudiences,AI was outsidethevenuedefendingthe rightof the
Dali Lama, a Nobel Prize winner,to speak at the conferencedespite

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100 <*>JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES

fordamfromChina.AI hadcometo theconference

opposition
strong
human
to prevent
nationsfromrollingbackearlier
rights
age control,
attheunofficial
forum
Thewomen's
humanrights
advocates
conventions.
lobbiedfortheinclusion
theofficial
conference
effectively
accompanying
violation
ofa statement
thatviolenceagainstwomenwasa humanrights
humanrights
Forwomen's
inthefinalversion
oftheViennaDeclaration.
it
theViennaconference
wasa triumph,
thoughmanyreflected
groups,
is mucheasierto condemnviolenceagainstwomenthanto guarantee
ForAI, theconference
women'seconomic,social,and culturalrights.
itsmandateand resolvedto
was a turningpoint.It beganto rethink
andmoreflexible
andresponsive
maketheorganization
lesshierarchical
totheviewsofitsgrassroots
membership.
HumanRights
AI,alongwithotherhumanrights
including
groups,
nowdefined
WatchandPhysicians
forHumanRights,
rapeas a formof
that
AI alsotookup thecauseofwomenrefugees
torture.
bydemanding
the
difficulties
interviewers
trained
to
provide
recognize
governments
thatmayincluderapeand sexual
facedbywomenrelating
experiences
nine
Action1993:10).AftertheViennaconference,
abuse (Amnesty
toevaluateAI'sworkforwomwomenactivists
metattheAI USAoffice
international
en'shumanrights.
AI'supcoming
campaign
Theydiscussed
a
to
and
and
develop
againstdisappearances politicalkillings agreed
of
these
thegendered
women's
actionguidethatwouldhighlight
aspects
which
Interact,
phenomena.
Theyalso decidedtopublishthenewsletter
of
creation
in
1994.
The
articles
called
"for
the
beganappearing spring
in
London
to
be
a teamofexpertswithintheInternational
Secretariat
in all
concerns
for
the
of
women's
human
responsible
rights
integration
areasofAI's work"(1994).AI wouldalso address"casesofwomendethat
tainedunderdiscriminatory
trialproceedings,
lawsor procedures
where
arebydesignor application
and
on
cases
governgender-biased
mentsfailto prevent
honorkillings,
violenceagainstwomenincluding
and thenon-prosecution
ofdomestic
violence"(1994).
bride-burnings
Fromthispoint,AI beganto feature
Muslimwomen'shumanrights
violations.1
On March8, 1995,International
Women'sDay,AI launchedits
to
the
human
of
women
on thepublicagendainadcampaign put
rights
vanceoftheUnitedNationsFourthWorldConference
on Womentobe
heldin Beijingin September
1995.Volunteers
research
beganpreparing

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NANCY GALLAGHER o

101

and AI issued its

and documentationin preparationforthe conference,
on
women's
human
"It's
secondmajorreport
rights, aboutTime,Human
are
Women's
The
(1995).
report
Rights"
urgedtheUN Conference
Rights
on Women to recognizegovernmentresponsibilityforhuman rights
violationsagainstwomen committedby governmentforcesand to achumanrightsstandardsapplyto women.
knowledgethatall international
on
the
state
butwitha widerdefinition
ofwomen's
Theemphasiswas still
human rightsand the inclusionof new categoriesof people. While the
focuswas stillon stateactorsand politicalprisoners,themandatewould
now includethe rightsofwomenrefugees,womenasylumseekers,and
displacedwomen,and AI would conducteducationalprogramsspecificallyon women'shumanrights.
In 1995, a year beforethe Taliban takeover,AI also publisheda
major report,"Womenin Afghanistana Human RightsCatastrophe."
Now AI called all womenin Taliban-controlled
Afghanistan"prisoners
of conscience,"an astonishingexpansionof its originalmandate.With
thisreasoning,all womenlivingunderversionsof SharFa law thatviohumanrightsstandardscouldbe consideredprisoners
latedinternational
ofconscience.Alongwithotherorganizations,AI also extended"apartheid,"a South Africantermwith internationalresonance,to women
livingin segregatedsocietiessuch as Afghanistan.In March 1995,AI
issued a reporton the statusof Sudanese women.2The reportcriticized
ofIslamiclaw notonly
theimpositionofthegovernment's
interpretation
most of whom were not Muslim,but also northerners
on southerners,
who were Muslim but did not wish to live under such laws. AI made
it clear thatit did not take a positionon any systemof law,Islamic or
butexpressedconcernaboutgovernment
otherwise,
policiesresultingin
human rights
punishmentsthatwereunacceptableunderinternational
standards.
AI was highlyvisibleat the FourthUnitedNationsWorldConference on Women in Beijingin September1995 and stronglyendorsed
the BeijingPlatformforAction,which wentfurtherthan the Vienna
Declaration'sstand on violence againstwomen. Followingthe Beijing
councilmeetingin Slovenia
at theAI biennialinternational
conference,
human
voted
to
in fall 1995,delegates
expand
rightseducationon the
issue of femalegenitalmutilation(FGM). Delegates decided thatAI's
promotionalworkwould include informationon the harmfuleffects

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102 <*>JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES

of FGM and thatAI would urgegovernments

to upholdhuman rights
It
standardsbytakingstepsto abolishit. based thisdecisionon theUN
to
Conventionon the Rightsofthe Child,whichrequiredgovernments
abolishtraditionalpracticesharmfulto the healthof children.In 1996,
as partofitseducationalprogramto supporteradicationofthepractice,
AI broughttogetheranti-FGMactivistsand delegatesfromits sections
in eightAfricancountries,and in cooperationwithlocal womenbegan
sponsoringnationalseminarson eradicatingFGM.
Respondingto much criticismforits relativelack of interestin
broaderwomen'sissues, AI announced in its 1998 annual reportthat
it would devotemore attentionto women'shuman rightsand address
itspastneglectofsocial and economicrightsand theabusesofglobalization.The reportstatedthatAI leaderswerestudyingnew conceptssuch
as FGM as a human rightsviolationand thattheywereworkingclosely
with women's grassrootsgroups in West Africaon this issue (Clark
2001).
AI also began to collectinformation
and campaignagainsthonor
had issueda dekillings.Interactnotedthatin 1990theIraqi government
creegivingmenthelegalrightto act as judge and executionerbykilling
femalerelativesforfamilyhonor.While thedecreewas rescindedwithin
two months,the implicitmessagewas thatwomen'shuman rightswere
notprotected.The newsletter
also observedthatin Egyptmen could be
excusedforkillingtheirwivesiftheyfoundthemin theact ofadultery,
whileEgyptianwomenkillingadulteroushusbandscould facethedeath
of Pakistan,which
penalty.In 1997,Interactcriticizedthe government
had ratified
theCEDAW in March 1996,becauseithad notabolishedthe
Zina Ordinance,whichcalls forthe imprisonment
ofwomen"solelyon
of
grounds gender,prescribescruel inhumanpunishmentsforwomen,
discriminatesagainstgirlsand can lead to womenvictimsof rape unjustlybeingimprisoned."
On September1, 1999,AI publishedthe landmarkreport"Pakistan:Honor KillingsofGirlsand Women."Thisreportwentfarbeyond
individual cases to studythe weak judiciary,tribal customs, status
of women,and economic limitationsin Pakistan.It was also the first
majorAI reportto focuson human rightsviolationsnot committedby
governmentagents.It noted thatPakistanigovernmentofficialsrarely
or prosecutedmurdersof women.In April 1999,whilethe
investigated

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NANCY GALLAGHER <*> 1O3

reportwas beingprepared,Samia Sarwar,a marriedmotheroftwowho

was seekinga divorceagainsther prominentfamily'swishes,was shot
dead in the officeof Hina Jilani,a notedwomen'shuman rightslawyer
and activist.Sarwar'smotherhad accompaniedthe murderer,
who had
cause clbre
beenhiredbythefamily.The case became an international
and drewglobal attentionto the international
campaignagainsthonor
in
and
other
women'shumanrights
in
Pakistan
which
Pakistani
killings
groupsparticipated.AI now statedunequivocallythatif a government
is negligentin prosecutingprivateindividualswho abuse womenor in
womenfromsuch abuse,it is complicitin thoseabuses. This
protecting
conceptcould be appliedto anyvulnerablesectorsof society,including
and thosepersecutedforsexualorientation.
ethnicor religiousminorities
Thiswas thekeydevelopmentin AI's transformation.
AI began to campaignagainstwhat it called genderapartheidin
Saudi Arabia and in a seriesof reportsdeclaredthatwomen in Saudi
fromarbitraryarrest,vague or unwrittenlaws, unfair
Arabia suffered
trials,torture,degradingpunishment,and the death penalty(2000);
becausetheywere
womendomesticworkersfaceddoublediscrimination
both foreignnationalsand women.AI observedthatin Saudi Arabia,
fromhumanrightsviolationssuch
whilemen and womenbothsuffered
arrestand the rightto a fairtrial,womenweremoreapt to
as arbitrary
sufferfromkhilwa(being alone witha male who is not an immediate
limited
relative),unequal personalstatuslaws and educationalfacilities,
and travel,
access to workopportunities,public space, transportation,
and otherabuses.3
AI issued an informationpacket on FGM in 1999 that clarified
its newlyexpanded mandate.The packetexplainedthatwhile AI had
been concernedwith FGM since the 1979 WorldHealth Organization
conferencein Khartoum,it had remainedfocusedon "a closelydefined
rangeof repressiveacts carriedout directlyby stateforces,acts which
were in breach of states'legal obligationsunder internationalhuman
rightsstandards."AI had expandeditsmandateto includestateor nonof abuses because the laws
statearmedpoliticalgroupsas perpetrators
of armed conflictunder internationalhumanitarianlaw applied to all
armedpoliticalgroups.Now,however,AI had decidedthatabuses such
as FGM, domesticviolence, and slaverywere equally severe human
and nondiscriminarightsviolationsof the rightto physicalintegrity

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104 <*>JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES

tion. HithertoAI had campaignedagainstsuch abuses onlywhenthey

it
werecommittedby agentsof the stateor withtheirdirectcomplicity,
now would considerthegovernment's
failureto preventor punishsuch
abusesbyprivateindividualsto be a breachofinternational
legalobligations.In thisway,thedistinctionbetweenthepublicand privatespheres
collapsed.AI acknowledgedthataddressingthe problemof FGM was a
challengebecause thepracticewas rootedin culturaltraditionsand the
againstwomenand girls.AI had longfocusedon
systemicdiscrimination
itstechniquesby
but
lobbyinggovernments, nowitwouldhaveto reorient
carryingout educationalprogramsand workingcloselywithgrassroots
groups.It wouldhaveto followthelead ofothergroupsalreadyworking
to learnwhat
at nationaland international
levelsand studypast efforts
workedand whatdid notin variouscontextsand countries.It wouldalso
assess theviewsof local educators,healthworkers,and religiousleaders
on FGM, and at the international
levelwould lobbyintergovernmental
to
and implementthe relevantinternamonitor,
organizations develop,
tional conventionsand treaties.Because of its size and experience,AI
effective
as a catalystforcoalitionbuildthoughtitmightbe particularly
bothlocallyand internathe
various
ingamong
organizations,
grassroots
AI
of wouldbe itsabilityto
tionally.It hoped theparticularcontribution
and mobilizekeyactorsand organizations(1998).
lobbygovernments
The information
pack statedthata nationalplan ofactionon FGM
should take into account the government's
obligationsunder internationalhuman rightstreaties,includingthe UN BeijingDeclarationand
PlatformforActionof 1995.AI would coordinateitslobbyingand outitselfintoan
reachactivitieswithlocal actions- AI had nowtransformed
in
on
human
women's
advocacyorganizationfocusing
rights theindivisiblepublic/private
on SouthAsia,
sphere.AngelikaPathak,AI researcher
commentedthatthistransformation
the
to newissues.
opened
floodgates
that
abused
women's
human
be
held
could
Companies
responsible.
rights
Statesthatknew of women'sbonded labor but did nothingto stop it
could be held responsible.Judgeswho did not implementhuman rights
laws could be heldresponsible.Issuessuchas forcedmarriageand forced
ofdomesticviolencecould
pregnancycould be addressed.The definition
be expandedto a formon torture.AI now recognizedthatthe home is
oftena place ofterrorforwomen,and launchedcampaignsagainstforced
marriages,theabuse ofdomesticworkers,honorkillings,thetrafficking

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NANCY GALLAGHER

105

ofwomen,
anddebtbondageofwomen.
sexualslavery,
CONCLUSION
theWorldOrganization
TheUnitedNations,
HuagainstTorture,
andcampaigning
manRights
Watch,andmanyotherswerepublishing
on behalfofwomen'shumanrightsat leasta decadebeforeAI joined
in.Yet,becauseAI is one oftheoldestand largestoftheinternational
AI's reitsconversion
was offar-reaching
significance.
organizations,
to thecreation
ofan international
fromandcontributed
forms
resulted
violations
such
as
FGM
are
human
that
consensus
rights
stating practices
out
of
malice
orintent
customs
not
done
theyarelong-standing
although
consensus
can be seenin the
to commita crime.Thenewinternational
CriminalCourtandin US asylumlaws.
International
theRomeStatueoftheInternational
a decades-long
After
struggle,
CriminalCourtwas adoptedin 1998and on 1 July2002 enteredinto
in TheHague.WhiletheUnited
force;theCourtwas dulyestablished
ofnationsthatdidnotsignit,theestablishStateswas in theminority
in humanrights
law.Along
mentoftheICC was a majordevelopment
forthecourtandfor
AI hadcampaigned
withmanyotherorganizations,
It is nowpossibleto
humanrights
ofwomen's
theinclusion
provisions.
officials
forviolations
of
and
other
heads
state
of
the
indictment
predict
victimsofdomestic
In thefuture,
ofwomen'shumanrights.
violence,
honor
trials
and
unfair
bonded
and
FGM,
abuse,
labor,
prison
trafficking
in
willbe abletobringsuitagainstofficials
orforced
marriages
killings,
nationalor international
courts,and nationalcourtsaroundtheworld
laws.Political
humanrights
international
havebegunimplementing
asyandwomen
to includegenderdiscrimination,
lumlawshavebroadened
new
havewonmajorcasesin Europeand NorthAmerica,
establishing
on
In 2005,theUnitedNationsCommission
forthefuture.
precedents
violence
marital
HumanRightspassedresolutions
rape,
condemning
againstwomenon thebasisofdresscodes,andcallingforreproductive
thelistofgroups
andsexualhealth.DespitePakistan's
opposition,
rights
victimsof
women
which
includes
to extrajudicial
vulnerable
killings,
remained.
forsexualdiscrimination,
andkillings
honorkillings
theendoftheColdWar,
TheseriesofUnitedNationsconferences,
to womenand
views
detrimental
with
movements
rise
of
the
religious

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106 <*>JOURNAL OF MIDDLE EAST WOMEN'S STUDIES

ethnicviolencethatincludedwidespreadviolenceagainstwomen,the
end of apartheidin South Africa,and the extensionof the conceptof
apartheidto women in Afghanistanand Saudi Arabia resultedin the
globalizationof the women'shuman rightsmovement.Respondingto
thesedevelopments,
AI borrowedand adaptedexistinglegalconceptsto
its
mandate
and
and keyactorsin advancing
expand
lobbygovernments
women'shumanrightslaw.
NOTES
I wouldliketo thankDreweryDyke,Abbas Faiz, and AngelikaPathak,whowere
interviewed
at AI, International
Secretariat,
London,July6-19,2001,and Hossam
Initiative
for
Personal
Director,
Bahgat,
Egyptian
Rights,fortheirhelpwiththis
article.
1.Also in 1994,AI beganto campaignon behalfofgays,lesbians,and bisexuals and published"BreakingtheSilence:HumanRightsViolationsBasedon Sexual
Orientation."
2. A recenthistoryofAI, LikeWateron Stone:TheStoryofAmnesty
InternaPower(Northeastern
Press2001),managesto narrate
tional,byJonathan
University
itshistorywithoutmentioning
in the 1993ViennaConferwomen'sinterventions
forWomen,or AI's recentcampaignson behalf
ence,the 1995BeijingConference
ofwomen'shumanrights.
3. Respondingto international
CEDAW
publicopinion,Saudi Arabiaratified
in 2000 but withsignificant
reservations.
In 2003 the countryheld a "National
Dialogue,"whichfocusedin parton women'srights.In 2004 threewomenwereapfirst
humanrightscommittee.
In 2005a womanwaselected
pointedto thecountry's
to theBoardofDirectors
oftheJournalists
also liftedthe
Union,and thegovernment
thatwomencarryoutbusinessactivitiesthrougha wakil(representarequirement
whenthecountryhelditsfirstmunicipalelections,womenwere
tive).In contrast,
notallowedto runforoffice
or to vote.
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