CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN OF
CHEMICAL
PROCESSES

James M. Douglas
Un~rsilY

of Massodwsttts

McGraw-Hili Rook Company

New York 51 Louis San Frlnciseo !lockland 80101. Cliracu Colorado Springs
Ibmburll LISbon London Madrid Muico M,I.n Monrreal New Deihl
Oklahoma Cily P.~ rlns Sail Juan Sao Paulo Sinpporc Sydnq' Tokyo Totonlo

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES

INTERNATIONAL EOIlION 1988

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Exclusive rights by McGaw-Hili Boote Co.- Singapore

lor manufacture and export. This book cannot be
(....xported from the country to which it is consigned

by McGraw-Hill.
10 09 Of! 07
20 09 08 07 06 OS 04 OJ
PMP BJE
Copyright G1988 by McGraw-Hill, nco All rights reserved.
No part atlhis publication may be reproduced or distributed
in any form or by any means, Of 510fed In a data base or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.

This book was set in Times Roman.

The editors .....ere B.J.Oat1l: and James W.Bradley.
The production supervisors were Diane Renda and LDuise Karam.

Ubl'ary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publieation Dala

Douglas,James M.(James Merrill)
CoooeptuaJ design 01 chemical processes.

(McGraw-Hili chemical engineering series)

Bibliography:p.
Includes index.
1. O'Iemical prooesse5. I. Tille. II. Series.

TPl55.7.D67 1988
ISBN D-OHl1n627

660.2'81

87-21359

When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07100195--6

Printed In Singapore

James M. Douglas, Ph.D.. is currently a professor of chemical engineering at the

University of Massachusclls. Previously he taught at the University of Rochester
and at the University of [klaware. Before entering leaching, he spent five years at
ARea, working on reactor design and control problems. l-Ie has published
extensively in areas of reacting engineering, process control (including two books).
and conceptual process design. He won the Post-Doctoral FellowshIp Award at
ARea, the Faculty Fellowship Award at the University of Massachuselts, and the
Computing and ChemIcal EnglOeerlOg Award of AIChE.

DEDICATED TO:

The loves of my life,

My lovely wife. Mary E. (Belsy) Douglas,
My mOlher, Carolyn K., and the memory of my
falher. Merrill H. Douglas,
My two wonderful kids, Lynn and Bob,
aod to my colleagues, who have taught me so much aboul
design and control,
Mike Doherty, Mike Malone, Ka Ng, and Erik Ydstie,
and to my students, who have suffered so much.

CONTENTS

Preface

..

A Strategy for Process Synthesis and

Analysis

Part I

I-I

1-'
1-3

,-,
'-I

'-3
'-4

,-,
,-.
'-7

3
3-1
3-'
3-3
3-4
3-'

The Nature of Process Synthesis and Analysis

Creau,c Aspcc;:u of Proo:;;ess Onlg"

A IhcraKhlCal Approach to Conccplual Iks.lgn
Summary. Eac:rcue5, and Nomcnclil1urc

Engineering Economics
Cost Informalioo Requned
Estimating Capital and OpelaliDg Costs
Toral Capital 'nvestment and TOIII Produ~ Costs
Time Value of Money

Measures of Process Profitabllll)'

Simphfymg the economIC AnalysIs for Conceptual Designs
Summary, Eacrciscs. and Nomenclature

"
"
"..."
2J

32
37

Economic Decision Making: Design of a

Solvent Recovery System

72

Problem Dclimllon and General ConsideratlODS

72

Design ora Gas Absorber. FlowshcCl, Malena! and Energy

Balances, and Stream COSIS
equipment Design Conslderauons
Rules of Thumb
Summary, eXerCISeS, and Nomenclature

""

"

90

x;

xii

ro~

~.

Part II
4

.-,

'-1

'-J

5
'-1
~,

'-J
'4

Developing a Conceptual Design and

Finding the Best Flowsheet
Input Infonnation and Batch versus Continuous
Input (nfonnabon
u'"el! DecIsion 8atdl venus Continuous
Summary, Elercues., and Nomenclature

99
99
107
111

Input-Output Structure of the Flowsheet

116

Decisions for lhe Input-OulPUI Siructure

Deslgn Variables, Overall Malerial Balaooes. and Su"am Costs
Process Altc:malives
Summary, EJ.erriscs" and Nomc:oclaturc

116
123
IJ2
IJ2

Recycle Structure of the Flowsheet

.. 1

DeCIsions that l)etermme the Recycle Structure

Recycle Material Balances
RuetOf Hut Etreeu
EA:juilibnum L!mltalJOns
Compressor Design and Costs
Reaelor DesIgn
Recycle F.oonomlC EvaluatIOn
Summary. berClSeS,. and NOOlCnclature

..,
.....,
.-.
.. 3

'-7
"8

7
7-1
7-'
7-J
14
7-'
7-'

8
8-1
8-'
8-J
84
8-'
8-'
8-1
8-8
8-'
8-10
8-11

9
97

137
137

14'
14'
14.
13J
13.
138
13.

Separation System

16J

General Slructure or the SeparatIon Syslem

Vapor Reoovery System
Uquid Separalion SYSlem
AZC'olroptC Systems
Rigorous Material BaJances
SummaI"}'. ElerCJSCS. and Nomenclature

16J
168
172
189
204

Heat-Exchanger Networks

21'
21'

Minimum Heating and Cooling Requirements

MInimum Number of ElchangeD
Area Estlm.ates
Design of Mlnrmum-Enerl)" Heat-EJ.cbanger Networks
Loops and Paths
Reducing the Number of Elchan~D
A More Complele Design Algorithm Stream Splilting
Heal and Power Integration
Ileal and DIstillatIOn
HDA Proass
SummaI"}'. EJlerasc::s, and Nomendature:

'-1
'-2
'-3
'4

.-,

Cost Diagrams and the Qujck Screening of

Process Alternatives
Cost Diagrams
CQ5t Diagraml for Complex Processes
QUl<:k Screenmg of Process Ahemalh"es
HDA Process
Summary, uerasc. and Nomenclature

Part 1\1 Other Design Tools and Applications

10
10-1
10-2
Io-J
104
10-'

II
II-!
112

11-3

12
121
12-2
12]
124

13

211

13-1
1]-2
1]-]

xiii

28.
28.

'"
JOJ
J08

Jll

317

Preliminary Process Optimization

JI9

DesIgn Vanabla and Economic Trade-oll"s

Cost Models ror Prooess Units
A Cost Model ror a SImple Process
Approlimate Optlmiution Analysis
Summar). Exercises. and Nomenclature

J20

Process Retrofits
A Systematic Plocedure for Process PeHofilS
HDA Process
Summary and ExerCIses

Computer-Aided Design Programs

(FLOWTRAN)

J27

J40

".
m

".
Jl8
368

J69

General Struclure of Computer-AIded Design Programs

Malenal 8alaoo: CalculatiOns
Comp1ele Planl Simulation
Summary and Exercises

'04

Summary or the Conceptual Design Procedure

and Extensions of the Method

40'

A RevlC"" 01 the HIerarchICal Decision Proa:dure for

Pelrochemical Processes
Design of Solids Processes and Batch Processes
Olher SignifICant Aspe<:ls or lhe Design Problem

406
408
412

J70

J7l
J97

'30
2JJ

'36
248
231
231
261

'64
27J
'84

Part IV Appendixes
A
A-I
A-'
A-J
A4

42J

Shortcut Procedures for Equipment Design

42l

Number of Trays ror a Gas Absorber

Dist.illation Columns" Number or TraY$
Design of Gas AbsorbeD and Dlslillauon Columns
DIstillation Column Sequencing

."

4]'

."
461

xit'

CONTEP'lT$

...
...
A'
A7

A'
A,IO
A-II

Complex Distillalion Columns

Energy Integralion of DiSllllalion Columns
Heal_Exchanger Design
Gas Compressors
Design of Refrigeration SySlems
Reactors
Summary of Shortcut Equipment Design GUldel.tncs and
Nomenclalure for Appendix A

466

.18

.86
.90
.90
S07
S07

HDA Case Study

'"

Design Data

543

Hydrocarbon Vapor-Liquid Equilibria

Temperature Ranges for some Materials

543
547

FLOWTRAN Input forms

548
548

CI
C,

D
DI
D'
D3
D4
D'
D6
D7
D8
D'
D-IO
Dll

E
EI
E'

Component List
IFLSH
AFLSH
SEPR
ADD
SPLIT
PUMP
GCOMP
SCVW
DSTWU

""
'"
,,.
'"
SSl

'54

'"
",
'6'

Operating Costs
Summary of Cost Correlallons

""
,.,
'"

Conversion Factors

S78

Indexes
Author Index
Subject Index

"I

REACT

Cost Data

PREFACE

S6S

"3

so,

llLis book describes a systematic procedure for the conccptual design of a limned
class of chemical processes. The goal of a conceptual design is to find the best
process f1.owsheet (i.e., to select the process units and the interconnections among
these: units) and estimate the optimum design conditions. The problem is difficult because very many process alternatives could be considered. In additIOn,
experience indicates that less than I % of ideas for new designs ever become
commercialized. Thus, there are many possibilities to consider with only a small
chance of sUCGCss.
In man} cases the processing costs associated with the various process
alternalives differ by an order of magnitude or man:, so that we can use shortcut
calculations to screc:n the alternatives. However, we must be certain that we are in
the neighborhood of the optimum design condilions for each alternative, 10 prevent
discarding an alternative because of a poor choice of design variables. Hence, we
use cost studies as an initial screc:ning to eliminate ideas for designs that are
unprofitable. If a process appears to be profitable, then we must consider other
factors, including safelY, environmental constraints, conlrollability, ele.
We approach the synthesis and analysis problem by c:stablisWng a hierarchy
of design decisions. With this approach, we decompose: a very large and complex
problem into a number of smaller problems that are much simpler to handle. By
focusing on the decisions that must be made at each level in the hierarchy (e.g.. Do
we want to add a solvent recovery system?), we can identify the existing
technologies that could be used to solve the problem (e.g., absorption, adsorption.
condensation) without precluding the possibility that some new technology (e.g., a
membrane process) might provide a better solution. Moreover, by 'listing the
ahemative solutions we can propose: for each decision, we can systematically
generate a lisl of process alternatives.
In some cases it is possible to use: design guidelines (rules of thumb or
heurislics) 10 make some deciSIOns about the structure of the flowshect and/or to
set the values of some of the design variables. We use order-of-magnitude

"

arguments to denve many of these heunsucs, and we use a simple analys15 of this
type to identify the limllatlOns of the heuristics. In many cases. no heuristics are
available, and therefore we develop shortcut design methods that can be used as a
baSIS for making decislons_
B) follOWing this hierarchical decision pr()(X(Jure. a bt=ginmng designer can
substitute the e\'aIUalion of a number of exIra calculations for experience dunng
the dC\'elopment of a conceptual desIgn Since shortcut calculatIOns are used.
however. the penalty paid in the lime required to screen more alternallves is nol
'cry high Of course, as a designer gaUlS experience, she or he will be able to
recognize what alternatl\es do not need to be conSidered for a particular type of
process and thereby obtalO an increase m effiCiency, Note also that expenence
normally IS required for assessing lhe operability of a design. and lherefore a
begmner should always get an experienced designer to review the resulls of the
design study
Or~anization of

Ihe Text

The text is meant to be used in a onesemester, seDlor-levei course in process design

for chemical engineenng students. We present the material as a Iccture course. A
single case study is carried throughout the te.:l.l 10 illustrate the ideas, and the
homework assignments mclude lhe evaluation of alternatIves for the oc:ntral case
study, as \lIell as sevcral other case studies. The purpose of these Olher case studies
is to Iw':lp the student undcrstand the similarities and differences betwttn \'arious
t)pes of processes (e.g. smgle reactIOns 'ersus product distnbutlon problems. cases
where gasregcle costs domlOate. cases where liquid separation costs dominate.
the choice between recychng or removlOg by-products formed by reverSible
reactions, the economic trade-offs encountered when a gas recycle and a purge
stream is used, etc.). The focus is on scrttning calculations, although a computer~
aided design program is eventually used to verify the apprOllim3liQos
Part I discusses a slrategy Qfsynthesis and analysis.. In Chap. I it is nQled lhat
only about I % of ideas for new designs ever become commercialized, SQ thai we
need an efficient procedure for eliminating poor projects Similarly. sinoc: design
problems arc always underdetined and we can orten generate 10- to 10' alternati'e
processes even for a single product plant. we oeed an efficient way of screening
process alternatives. These discussions provide the motivation for the use of
shortcut calculations. Also, a procedure for decomposing process nowshecls into a
hierarchical sct of simpler problems is presented.
Otapter 2 presents an mtroduction to engineering economics, including a
discussion of various measures of profitability. In addltioo. a simple economic
model thaI is useful for conceptual designs IS de\'e1opcd
Chapter 3 presents a very simple design problem (actually a subsystem of
what could be a larger dC"ign problcm) This example illu~trates how simple it i~ lQ
generate proocss alternatives. the need for design heunstlcs. the: origll' of dcslgn
heuristics, the IImltallOnS of design heUristiCS, the IOleractiolls among prQOCSSlOg
units, the need for a systems Viewpoint in place of a unit operatIOns viewpolOt. and
ho~t shorlcut design melhods can be developed

Part II presents the details of the hierarchical decision procedure for the
synthesis and analySIS of conceptual designs. Chapter 4 describes the infonnation
needed to get started, and lhe decision of designing a balch versus a continuous
process is discussed Chapter 5 presents the important decisions for the input and
output structure, the identification of the important design variables at this level of
complexity, and shortcut procedures 10 calculate the stream cosls and the costs of a
feed compressor (if one IS reqUired). Chapter 6 introduces the additional deciSIOns
required to fix the overall recycle structure of the f1owsheel. i.e., the interaction of
the reactor system(s) with the remainder of the process The reactor cost and any
gas-recyck compressor costs are evalualed in terms of the design variables This
discussion is limlled to single-product plants.
At present. lhe systematic preliminary design procedure is also limited to
vaporliquid processes. For this class of processes. the structure of the separation
system (i.e. the general structure. vapor recovery system alternatives, and the
decisions fQr the liquid separation system) is described in Chap. 7. Chapter g then
presents a synthesis procedure for the heat-exchanger network. At this point, a
base-case design and an estimate of the oplimum design conditions arc available
Our basic design strategy is to develop a base-case design as rapidly as
possible. simply listing the process alternativcs as we go along. to determine
...hether there is SQmething about the process that will make all Ihe alternatives
unprofitable. Provided that our base-case design appcan to bt= promising. ~'C u~
the methods in Chap 9 to screen the process allernativcs. Thus. at this POlOt we
allempt to identify the best process flowsheet.
Part III presents some other desIgn tools and apphcations. In the procedure
presented in Chaps 4 through 9. we used casc:~study cakulations to estimate the
oplimum design conditions because we were contlOually changing the structure of
the ftowshtt\,.. Once we have identified the best flowshect, we can use more
sophisticated optimization procedures. However, to assess the degree of sophistication that is desirable, we present an approlfimate oplimizatiQn analysis in Chap. 10.
This approllimate optimization procedure helps 10 identify the dominant econQmic
trade-offs for each design variable, the dominant design variables, and an indication of how far a design variable IS a.....ay from the optimum without knowing thc
exact value of the optimum This approll:imale optimization analysis is also very
useful for retrofit studies and for oplimum sleady-state control calculations.
In Chap. II we use the same techniques for process retrofits thai we used to
develop a design for a new plant. A systematic procedure is presented for
retrofilting processcs, mcluding completely replacing the ell:isting plant wilh either
the same or a beller process alternative. The approximate optimization procedure
is used to help idenlify the dominant opcratlOg variables and the equipment
constraints that pre\'ent the opcratmg costs from being minimi7.ed. Then, based on
these results, additional equipmenl capacity is added until the incremental,
annualized equipment coS! balances the incremental decrease in operating

""" In Chap

12 ~e diSCUSS Ihe use of a compuler-alded design program 10

Improve lhe accuracy of the shQrteul calculations Chapler 13 presents a summar)'
of the design procedure, brief outlines of hierarchical decision procedures for solid~

x"iii

HUAU

and balch processes. and a brief dIscussIOn of what remams to be done after a
conceptual design has been completed
The appendixes present some auxlhary information. The shortcut mOt.lels for
equipment design are dISCussed in AppendIx A, and the complete details of a case
study aregnen in AppendIX B Some samples of design data and cost data are gIven
in Appendixes C and E.
AcknoMledgmenls
I am \'ery appreciative of the etrorls of A Ene Anderson (formerly with ARCO).
Duncan Woodcock of Imperial ChemIcal Indusllies, Edward C. Haun of UOP
Inc., JetrKantor. University of Notre Dame; Carl F. King from duPont, E. L Sherk
from Euon, R. Hoch (formerly with Hakon International), John Scinfeld,
California Institute of Ta;hnology and J. J Sirola from Tennessee Eastman Co. for
their careful review of the texl. Similarly. I am grateful to the chemical enginccnng
students at the University of Massachusetts and to tbe students from Imperial
Chemical Industries (United Kingdom), Rohm and Haas, Monsanto, Union
CarbIde and Celanese, for many valuable comments concerning the course
material. In addition, I must acknowledge the numerous conlfibutions that my
colleague Mike Malone made to the text, and I want to thank my other colleagues
Mike Doherty, Erik Ydstic, and Ka Ng for their feedback when they taught the
material. The contributions of my graduate students, particularly Wayne Fisher
and Bob Kirkwood. also need to be ackno.... ledged.
Of course, I am especially grateful to 01) lovely .....ife. Betsy, to my children.
Lynn and Bob, and to my mOl her, Carolyn K.. Douglas, for [hel! support dunng
the preparation of the text. SImilarly, Pat Le..... IS. my admmistrative assistant. and
Pat 8arscheoski. who did the typmg, pro\ldcd mucb oeeded support.
James M. Douglas

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF
CHEMICAL PROCESSES

PART

I
THE
STRATEGY
OF PROCESS
SYNTHESIS
AND ANALYSIS

CHAPTER

1
THE
NATURE
OF PROCESS
SYNTHESIS
AND A ALYSIS

J.I CREATIVE ASI'ECfS OF PROCESS

DESIGN
The purpose of engmeenng is 10 create new malenal wealth We auempt to
accomplish this goal in chemical engmeering via the chemical (or bIological)
transfonnation and/or separation of malcrials.. Process and plant design is the
creative activity whereby we generate ideas and then translate them inlO equipment
aDd processes for producing new malerials or for significantly upgradmg the value
of cJ:isling materials..

In any panicular company. we might Iry 10 generate ncw Ideas.

To produce a purchased ra..... malenal
To can\trt a waste by-product 10 a valuable product
To create a completely new malenal (synthetic fibers, food. bioproccsmg)
To lind a lIew way of producing an cxlsting product (a new catalyst. a
bioprocessing allernative)
To exploH a new technology (genetic engmeenng. expert systems)
To exploit a new material or construction (hlgh.tcm~rature or hlghprc:ssure-operalion, Specialty polymers)

SCTION ' I

As an indIcatIon of the I~cmendous sucss of the engineering effort, we note Ihal

over 50~ oflhe products sold by mosl chemical companies we~e developed during
the last decade or Iwo_
SUCCe<iS

Rat~

Despite thiS ucdlcnt record of SUct%S5..... e should realize that very few ne.... ideas.
either fljr Improvmg Clllsting processes or fordevdoping new prOttSs.lead 10 new
....-eahh In fact, lhe chano:::s of commercialization at the research stage for a new
process arc only about I to J~.. at thede\e1opment stage they arc about 10 to 2S~_
and al the pilot plant stage lhey arc about 40 to 60% Of course, we expect that
the success rale for process modifications Will be higher than that for completel)
new proocsscs. but the economic rewards associated with these safer projects will
have a Significantly lower potential
It is not surprising that so few ideas 10 engrneering ever prove to be fruitful:
the same paltern holds for any type of creative activilY. Sincc experience mdicates
lhat only a small number of ideas e,,'er will ha ve a payout, we see that et'olUalion IS
one of the most slgmficant components of any design methodology. In fact. process
synlhesis. i.e.. the selection of equipment and the interconnections belween that
equipment which will achieve a certain goal, is really a combination of a synthesis
and analysis activity.
S)nthesi.. and Anallsis
Perhaps the major feature thai dlStlllgulshcs dcslgn problems from olher t)pes of
engmeenng problems 15 that they are underdefined: i_c.. only a very small fraction
of the mformatlon needed to define a design problem is available from the problem
statemenl_ For example. a chemISt might discover a new reaction to make an
eKistmg product or a new catalyst for an existing, com~rcial reaction. and we
want to translate these discoveries to a new process. Thus, we slart with only a
knowledge of the reaction conditions that ....-c: obtain from the chemist, as well as
some infonnation about available raw materials and products that we obtain from
our marketing organization, and then we need to supply all the other information
that we need to define a design problem.
To supply this missing information. we must make assumptions about what
types of process units should be used, how those procc:ss unils will be inter~n
nected, and what temperatures., pressures. and process flow rates will be required.
This is the synthesis activity. Synthesis is difficult because there arc a vcry large
number (10 to 10') of ways that we might consider to accomplish the same goal
1-leIlCC. design problems arc very open~ndcd

Thes<: values rerrest.nr the a~.a~ of CSl"nalei supplied by

evalua!r('ln I'ours of maJO' chemrcal and I"'I,olwm OOm",,"1tS

Sl~

r.>n><b worl I'll In Konom,c

CIlUTIVI!

ASl'fCTll

O~

I'llocas

~SIGN

5
0

Nonnally......e wanl 10 find the process alternative (OUI of the 10 to 10

possibilities) that has Ihe lowest cost, but .....e must also ensure that the process IS
safe. will satisfy environmental const~aints. is easy to start up and operate. etc. In
sotnC cases, we can usc: rules of thumb (heuristics) 10 eliminate certain process
alternatives from further conSIderation., bUI in many cases it is ne:ttSsary to design
V.lnous altemati\'es and Ihen 10 compare their costs Experienced designers can
mmlmlze the effort rtquircd for thIS type of evaluation because they can often guess
the costs of a parhcular unit. or group of units. by analogy 10 another pr~
However, beginmng desIgners normally must design and evaluate more altematu-es in order to find the best altemati\-e_
When experienced designers coDSider new types of problems, where they lack
experiencc and where they cannot idenlify analogies. they try to use shortcut (backof.the-envelope) design procedures as the basis for comparing altemati\cs. These
back-of-the-envelope calculations are used only to screen alternatives.. Then if the
process appears to be profitable, more rigorous design calculations an: used to
develop a final design for the best alternative. or the best few alternatives.
Because of the underdefined and open-ended nature of design problems, and
because of the low success rates. it is useful to develop a strategy for solving design
problems. We expeet that the strategy that a beginnmg designer would use fOI
synthesis and analysis would be different from that of an experienced designer.
because a beginner must evaluate many more process alteroatives. However. b}
usmg shortcut design procedures .....e can minimize the effort required to undertake
lhese additional calculations

Engineering Mefhod
If we reflect on the nature of process synthesis and analysis. as discussed above, '..e
recognize that process design aClually is an art., ie., a creatn'C process. There~ore.
\l..e might try to approach design problems in much the same way as a pamter
de\-c:lops a painting. In other words. our original design procedures should
oorrespond to the development of a pencil sketch, where we want to suppress all
but the most significant details of the design; i.e., we want to disco..-c:.r the most
expensh'c parts of a prooess and the significant economic trade-offs. An artist next
c\-.aluates thc preliminar} painting and makes modifications. using only gross
outlines of the subjects SImilarly. we want to evaluate our first guess at a design
and generatc a number of process alternatives that might lead to imprO'o'emcnts. In
this way, we hope to ger...::ratc a "reasonable-looking," rough process d~ign before
we Slart adding much detail.
Then lhe artist adds colo~. shading, and the details of various objocts in the
painting and reevaluales the results. Major modifications ~ay be introduce~ if the}'
soem to be wflrranted. In an analogous manner, the engmecr uses more rigorous
design and costing procedures for the most expensive e(luipment items, improves
the accuracy of the approximate-material and energy-balance calculations, and
adds detail in terms of the small. inexpensive equipment items that are necessary for

SECTJO'II I I

CIU. TlVE ASPECTS

or

SECTION I I

TABU:

the process operations but do not ha\e a major impact on the total plant cost, e g,
pumps. ftash drums, elc,
Thus, .....e s..e thai bolh a palnllng and a process design proceed through a
scnes of successively more detailed synthesis and evaluation stages. Thatcher refen
to a solution sirategy of this type as SUCCeS!MC refinements, and he: call!> It t~
rngltli'erltlg mf'lhod otc that as .....c malc successivc refinemcnts, ""c should
always mainlalO a focus on the ol}f!rall problrm.
If wc accept thiS analogy betwccn cnglDeering design and art, then wc can
recognize some other IOterestlOg fealures of the design process. An artist never
really completes a pain ling; normally the work is termlOatcd whenever the
additional effort reaches a point of diminishing rcturns; i.e., if little added value
comes from much additional effort, the effort is DOl worthwhile. Another feature of
art is that therc is never a single solution to a problem; i.e... thcre arc a variety of
ways of painting a "great" Madoona and Child or a landscape; and in pr0ces5
engir-cering nonnally different proc:essing routes can be used to produce the same
chemICal for essentially the same cost. Slill another analogy between cngineering
design and art is thai it requires judgment to decide how much dClaii should be
included in thc various stages of painung. just as it docs in a process design.
Of course, numerous SClcntific pnnciples arc used ID the dcvdopment of a
design, bUllhc overall activity is an art In fact, it is this combinatton ofsocncc and
art in a creative activity that helps 10 make process design such a fascinatlDg
challcnge to an englOcer.

u\els of Enginei.'ring Designs

Now we sec that there arc a number of levels of engmcering designs and cost
estimalc:s that wc cxpect 10 undcrtakc. These vary from very simple and rapid, but
not very accurate, estlmatcs to very detailed calculations thai are as accuratc as we
can make. Pikuhlr. and Diazt e1assify these dcslgn estimates by the categories given
in Table 1.1-1.
They also givc the relativc costs required 10 oblain these eslimatcs. as shown
in Table 1.1-2. From tbis table we sec how rapidly cng!Decrio& costs increase as we
!Delude more detail In the calculations, Obviously, we wanl to noid Iargc dcslgn
costs unless thcy can be economically Justified.

I.t-t

Types of desiCn estim.tcs

1_ Ord,u-ol-mapuludc ,""l1m.Ile(nbOc:lilunale) based oa .m"lar preVlOUI Wsl cia.... p,obabk aocunq
uaocdJi 140~;
2. Slud, elumalc (rad""cd a.lJm.llc) bued

01

I!Cm!l

eqwpmUII. probabk

So DclaiJ.cd eltlffillc (CODtnldOI'1 csumalc) baled on compklc cnll_nnl dn"'mp. Ipco;tfiallOM.

aIld Nle .urve,s; probabl, &CQInq ",.thln J%
F,om It.. f"Ikulilr. ud H E. DIu, COll Eit..... lIDI Majol PtOCCSl Equ;pmcM, CIu-.....

bot, IotIll)

106 /1'77)

For the case o! a ncw process. whcrc prcvious cost dala are nOI availablc, it
seems as if it would Dot be possible to dcvelop an order-o!-magnitude estimate
However, an cxpcric:oced designer can o\'crcomc this difticully by drawing analogies between thc new proocss and other existing processes for which some data arc
available in the company files. Procedures for dc,eloping order-of-magnitudc
estimates have been described 10 the literature, but normally it requircs some
cxperience 10 cvaluate the results obtamed from Ihis t)'pe of calculatiOn.
For a beglOning dcslgner, with little or no experience. It would be useful to
ha'c a systcmalic approach for dc~loplOg order-of.magmtude estimates We can
usc: order-of-magnitude arguments to Simplify man)' of the design calculations, and
.....e can limn our allcntlon to Ihe major pieces of process equipment as we carr)' out
a prehmmary process design The goal of this lext IS 10 develop a systematic

J. H Ta,~, - Pr(l(;C:$$ Step-Soonn, Mclhod fOf Makln& Quick Capllal EallmalQ,- C-.J' log., P. 207,
J:l1,AuJII5I 1910 0 H AIIc:n. and II; C Pace. PRcV!Kd Tcdtn>quc for P<aiallll Cosl Eaumallo,,CM""- NJ~ 12(5) loi2 (March J, Ins).

TABU: 1.1-1
pt"~pue estim.tes

.........
.....

EttgI-wr,"'fI. Mcrrill Columbus, OhIO. 1962, chap J

I A Ptkuhk and H E. D.u., COSI &umaunl Major P,oec:ss Equlpmcnr.~ CIlnn. Eng~ 84(21): 106
(11I17). NOI~ These accu,aey bounds ..,11 var, "0111 one: eompany 10 anOther, and Ihc .ccuncy of I hoc
dclalkd C~llmalai Will nO{ be Ih.s good dunn. pmod~ ofh.gb 1IIftallon (Ihc cnon mlghl be as much as 8
1010'"". . even for a delalled cslmulle) Abo, nOrmall) Ihe ch4ncc 01 oblalmDI poIlu.e cnon Il; I,,:alcr
than lhal for nellamc urorl., 50 Ihal 11M: order-olmaSlUlu<!e esl,malc, I c. Ilcm I. ViOuld be rcportcd itS
+40 10 - 25 % (des.gn enIJrtCI"s seldom Overc:lilUnatc COSlJ,) S,mlla,I" hlpr eolltlrtgcOC' kcs rna, be
tndudcd III Ibc arloc' Icvcls(lhal J$, 10 10 2S}; In lIem } dropplDllO 10% ID .tcm oi) 10 accounl rorCOlls
not Included In tnc anal)'UI (.. hlCh IS somc:.. ta..l d.tre:rcnl r"ltD Ihc KCUnley 011"" c::IlUDalc)

01 D\.lIJOI

1. Prdlllllnary ail' male (budget aulltonuUon ,""umalc. ICOpc ct.llIIU.!c) based oa sulliocr.l dala UI
pclmll ItIt aiUmalc 10 be budaclcd. p,obabk accuracy WIthin .112~.
(. DclinlUVoc c:lillmatc (pro}Cd control e1illma!c) hued OQ almost compkle datI, bul bdorc compktlOll
or dnwlngl and Ipce:,jiQlllolU. probabk a<:cUUC, Wllhln :I. 6~

51 lIIiIIi.F~,.,..1s r;{C~,"1N1

On Ir.DO... J.cdJf-

....."'t, up 10 i25~~

EagiDeC:ring costs 10

C. M Thald",r. 1M

Cll!A1WE ASI'ECT'S Of PlOClSS DESION

PlOCESS OESIGN

Typt of ntimalc
Siudy (S lhouurtds)
Prclunmary ($ IhotlSdrtd.1
Dcli... uvt (S .hOWoiln,hl
F..- It.. P'ihli\. uod 1I E.
&rr, Iot(ll) 106 11'71)

,"

IS JS

"'"

(1977)

SI-$.! oniltiooo

.....

02)0
)060
60 020

o.a.. .ea.. Eou....' .... Ma)Ol

....

S5- s.5O MiItiooo

,0<O

lO90
100230
Procea Equ,......... ""'"

SECTION II

S~OIol I J

... HIU....CHlCAl ..,....(M,CH TO CONCEI'TUA.L OI:$IGI<

procedure of this type and then to show how the results can be extended to a study
estimate.
Detailed estImates are considered 10 be beyond the scope of this text
However, as noted before,the chance that a new idea ever becomes commercialized
is only about I ~.. so that .....e expect to undertake roughly 100 preliminary designs
for every detailed design. Hence. the methodology of conceplUal process design
should be mastered in considerable detail.
Other Applications of fhe l\1ethooology
Despite the fact thaI our primary focus is dllcctro to lhe design and evaluation of
new processes, much of the melhodology .....e develop is useful for other engineering
tasks. including basic research and technical service. In basic research, we want to
spend most of our effort studying those variables that wjJl have the greatest
economic impact on the process. and rough prooess designs will help to identify the
hlgh--cost parts of tbe process and the dominant design variables. Sinularly. in
technical service activities., .....e look for ways of improving an existing process. To
accomplish this goal, we need to understand the significant economic trade-offs in
the process, and it is useful to have procedures available for obtaining quick
estimates of the potential payout of new ideas. Thus, the methodology we: develop
will have numerous applications in the process industries.

1.2 A HIERARCHICAL APPROACH TO

CONCEPT AL DESIGN
The engulec:nng method (or the: artist's approach) indicates that we should sohe
design problems by first de\'eloping vcry simple solutions and then adding
sua:essi\'e layers of delail. To see hoYt we can ~ this approach for process design
problems. we consider a typtcal fJowshc:c:t for a petrochemical process, and Ihen we
look for ways of stripping away layers of detail until we obtain the simplest
problem of interest. By applying this procedure to a number of different types of
procc:ssc:s, we: might be able to recognize a general pattern that we can use as the
basis for synthesizing Dew processes.

Example: Hldrodealkylatioo of Tol~ne (HDA

Process)
Tbe e.xample we consider is the hydrodealkylal1on of toluene: to produce
The: reactions of Interest are

+ H J ....... Benzeoe + CH..

2Benzene~Diphenyl + Hz

Toluene

aod

benz~n~.

(12-1)
(I 2-2)

TIlls CIl"" .Iu<!y rC-p'nC'nIS" mod.fiecl "t'ntOll 01 1M 1961 A~ncan tmhlule 01 Cberwcal En&,,,",,s
(AIChE) Siudenl Conl~1 Problem. J J J McKC"lIa. bc)"C"kJ"rd,o t>f Clw"'lC'oJ PrOCtssutQ
vol "". Dekker, New York, t9n, pin. ror lhe on&,nli problem.oo .mUlIon

_tl/N",,,.

""tH..

... HIE~CMICA.L ... rPRO..CM TO CONcrI'TUA.L I>EllION

.,

Purge
Heal

Ccmp....... I

IHcat I
CooIllDl

Reactor

IHcat I

I Hca' I
)u

].

Toluene

Diphenyl

Ft""

H 2, CH",

1-

Benune

"

"
"&
~

Jj
:D

ncURE 1.2-1
HDA process lAfttrJ M DDt.gloJ. AlOE J. JJ JH (l9&.S).]

The homogeneous reactions take place In the range from IISOoF (below this
temperature the reactIOn rate 15 too slow) to 1300~F (abo\'e this temperature a
significant amount of h}drocrackmg takes place) and at a pressure of about
500 psia. An e:xcxss of h}"drogen (a 5/1 ratio) is oc:c:ded to prevent coklOg. and the
reactor effluent gas must Ix rapidly quenched to I 15O"F in order to pre\'ent cokmg
m the: heat exchanger following the reactor.
One: possIble: fJowshc:c:t for the: process is shown in Fig.. 1.2-1. The toluene and
bydrogen raw-material streams are: heated and combined with recycled toluene
and hydrogen streams before they are fed to the reactor. The product stream
leaving the reactor contains hydroge:n, methane, benzene, toluene, and the unwanted diphenyl. We attempt to separate most of the hydrogen and methane hom the
aromatics by wing a partial condenser to coodense the aromatics., and the:n we
flash away the light gases We: use the liquid leaviog this flash drum to supply
quench cooling of the hot reactor gases (not shown on the 80wshee:t).
We would like to recycle the hydrogen leaving in the: flash vapor, but the
methane:.. which enters as an impurity io the hydrogen feed stream and is also
produced by reactioo 1.2-1, will accumulate in lhe gas-reeycle loop. Heooe, a purge
stream is required to remove both the feed and the: product methane .from the
proceSS. Note that no rules of thumb (design guidelines) can Ix used to estlma.te the
optimum cona:ntration of methane that should be allowed to accum~late m the
gas-rec}"C1e loop_ We discuss Ihis design variable in much greater detalll~te~.
Not all the hydrogen and methane can beseparated from the aromatics 10 the
flash drum, and therefore we remove most of the remainlllg amount in a distIllation
column (the stabilizer) to pre\'ent them from contaminating our benzene product

10

5EClION U

A HIE.....CHlCAl AI'f'lOACH 10 COI\ICEPTI,IAl OfSlGN

The benzene is then recovered in a second dlstlllation column, and finally, the
recycle toluene is separated from the unwanted diphenyl. Other, alternative
flowsheets can also be drawn, and we discuss some of these as we go through the
analysis.

Energ:r Integration
The process f10wsheet shown III Fig 12-1 IS not very reahsllc because: II implies
that the heating and coohng requirements for every process stream will take place
In separate heat exchangers uSing external utilities (coohng water, steam, fuel. etc.).
In the lasl decade, a new design procxdure has been developed that makes II
possible 10 find tbe minimum healing and cooLlIlg loads for a proa:ss and the heatexchanger network that gnes the "best" energy integration. This procedure is
described In detail in Chap. 8.
To apply thIS new design procedure, we must know the flow rate aDd
composition of each process stream and the inlet and outlet temperatures of each
process stream. One alternative f10wsheetthat results from this energy tIllegratlon
analySIS IS shown 10 Fig. 1.22. Now we see that first the: reactor product slream IS
used to partially preheat the feed entering the reactor. Tbc:n tbe: hot reactor lases
arc: used to dnve the toluene: recycle column reboiler. to preheat some more foc:d, to
drive the stabdi7.c=r column reboiler,to supply part of the benzene: product column
reboiler load, and to preheat some more feed before the gases enter the partial
condenser_ Also the toluene column is prc:ssurized. so that the condenslllg
temperature for toluene is higher than the: boiling point of the: bollom Slream in the
benzene column With this arrangement, conde::mmg toluene can be used to supply
some:: of the benzene rc:bollc::r load. ins-lead of using steam and cooling water from
external sources of utllltlcs.
II we compare the energy-lIlu:gratc:d f10wsbect (Fig.. 1.2-2) with the flowshec:t
indicating only the need for heating and cooling (Fig. 1.2-1), then we see that the
energy integration analysis makes the flowshcct morc: complicated (i.e.. there arc
many more interconnections). Moreover. to apply the energy integration analysis,
we must know the flow rate and composition of every process stream, i.e. all the
process heat loads including those of the separation systc:m as well as all the stream
temperatures. Since we need to fix almost aU the Bowshcct before we can design the
energy integration system and since it adds the greatcst complication to the process
flowsheet, we consider the energy integration analysis as Ihe last step in our proocss
design procedure.
Distillation Train
Let us now consider the train ofdistiUation columns shown in Fig. 1.2-1. Since: the
unwanted dlphenyl is rormed by a reversible reaction (Eq. 1.2.2), we could recycle

.l!
:t"

1"..-

~~
2"u
-'

e~

u
" !'.

"

] tl

I;

0-

l"

"
0u

"

,f

u:

~~

"

~"B
.ll ~

c1

'T

~:
uwnjO:)

t
()

:IU~~

;)

uwnlOO In!llqllflS
:t
U

;..

'"

1,

I
uwnlOO

,I

:)\J~nl.L

>.
e

0-

is

I
L

+"
0

'"
u
u

"-

"-

ThUi wlUllon WH developed by 0 W To..n!iCnd al lmpenal ChcmlCllllndLl$lf1CS, Runcom., Unlled

Kmldom

"

"

"

II

12

sCTKm 1.;1

SECTION 11

Il NIElIllllCHIClll IlPPIIOM'H 10 C'OI'I("(I'Tl'lll DESIGN

Benzene

Toluene
(To recycle)

Il HlE....IICHlCIll ""PlIOlleH 10 CONO:I'TlJIll DESIGN

13

might be chealXr than uSing Ihe configuration shown in the original flowsheet
(Fig. 1.2-1).
The heurisllcs (design guidelines) for separation ~ystems require a knowledge
of the feed composition of the Slream entering the distillation tram. Thus. before we
conSider the deci~ions associated v.lth the design of the distillation train, we must
~peclfy the remalOder of the llov.shcct and esllmate the process ftows. For thiS
reason .... e consider the design of the distIllation train before we consider the design
of the heat-<:ltchanger network
Vapor Reco\'ery S)'SlenJ

Diphenyl
FIGURE t.2--3
Altcmale dislillalion IralOS,

th~ diphenyl with th~ tolu~ne and lei it build up 10 an equilibrium le\'eL ThiS
alternative would make il powble 10 eliminate one of the distillation columns.,
although the flow Tate Ihrough the reactoT would incr~
If we decide: to rover the diphenyl as Fig. 12-1 indlC3le:s, ....e expect Ihallhc
toluene-diphenyl spill 1,1,'111 be \er)' easy. Therefore. v.e might be able 10 use a
sldestream column to accomplish a benzene-toluene-diphenyl spht. That is, we
could recover the benttne o\erhead. remove the toluene as a sidestream below lhe
feed, and reco\'er the dlphenyl as a bollom Slream (sec Fig. 1.2.3) We can still
obtain very pure benzene O\erhead if we take the toluene sldestream olf below the
feed. The purity of the toluene reqcle will decfl~ase, howe\'er, if It IS reco\'ered as a
sidcstream, as compared to an overhead producL Since: there is no specification for
the recycle toluene. the purity might not be important and the savings might be
worthwhile. Similarly, we ellpc:ct that the methane-benzene split in the stabilizer IS
easy. Then, recovering benzene as a sidestream in a H 1 and CI-I.
benzene-toluene and diphenyl spliner (a pasteurization column) (see Fig. 1.2-4)

Toluene

Referring again 10 Fig 1.2-1. we consider the vapor flow leaving lhe flash drum. We
know that we never obtain sharp splits in a flash drum and therefore that some of
the aromalics will leave with the flash vapor. Moreover. some or these aromatics
",ill be lost in the purge stream. Of course, we could recover these: aromatiCS by
IOslalling a vapor recovery system either on the flash vapor stream or on the purge
<ITeam
As a \apor reco\'eT}' SYSlem we could use one of these
Condensallon (high pressure, or low lemper-Hllre. or both)
Absorption
Adsorption
A membrane process
To estimate", hether a vapor recovery system can be economically justified.
muSI estimale Ihe flow rates or the aromatics lost in the purge as well as the
h~drogen and methane flow in the purge. Hence, before we consider the necessity
and/or the design of a vapor recovery system. we must specify the remainder of the
ftowshcct and "'e must eSllmale the process flows. We consider lhe design or the
'apor ra;overy system before that for Ihe liquid separalion system because the nit
streams from the options for a vapor rcco\'ery system listed above (e.g.. a gas
absorber) normally include a liquid stream that is sent to the liquid separation
system.
"C

(To recycle)

Simplified Flowsheet for dw Stoparation Systems

Diphe.nyl

FIGURE 1.1-4
A11cnl.ale d,mllatiOfllrams

Our goal is to find a way of simplifying f1owsheets. It is obvious that Fig. 1.21 is
much simpler than FIg. 1.22, and therefore we decided 10 do the energy integration
last. Similarly, since we have (0 know the process flow ratcs to design thC vapor and
hquid recovery systems, .....e decided to consider Ihese design problems just berore
lhe energy integration. Thus, we can simplify the flowsheet shown in Fig. 1.2-1 by
drawing it as shown In Fig. 1.2-5, The connections between the vapor and liquid
recovery systems ~hown 10 Fig. 12-5 are discussed in more detadlater.
We now ask ourselves whether all processes can be represented by the
Simplified f10wsheet shown m Fig.. 12-5. Sma: this flowsheet CQntaiOs both gas- and

14

SECTlON' H

A HfE... ICHk4t 4''''0AQl TO C'ONl:(P'TU4t OESK.N

Pu<g

Vapor recovery
system

H1 , CH,
tl 2, CH 4

Reactor
system

'-----'-

Phase
Splil

To luene:

FIGURE L1-7

HDA

FIGURE U-S

Dovgla.

Aloe J, 31

Recycle Structurc of the Flowsbeel

Now we have obtained a very simple fto\lo'Jhcet for the process (Fig. J.2-6). We can
use this simple representation to eslimate the recycle flows and their effect on the
reactor cost and the cost of a gas-recycle compressor, if any. Moreover, we can try

r~le

Purge

Rcaao,

H 1, C H,

Separation
system

system

M Ou,,!/I,u, Alo.e J, JI JH (/lI8j)]

separation syslem or Ihe: energy integralion network For example, we can siudy
the factors thai determine Ihe number of recycle: strcams., heal effects in the reactor
equilIbrium limitatIons in the reactor, etc. Thus, conllnuing 10 stnp away levels or
detail, we sec that we want 10 stud) the recycle Slrul.:ture of Ihe flowshcct before
considering the details of the separallon system

JjJ (JSlIj).]

liquid-recycle loops. but somc processes do not contain any gaseous componenlS-,
.....e do oot eXp1 the resulls to be general (Sec Sec. 7.1 for other altemamcs.)
However, .....e can slmphfy Ihe fto\lo'Jhcct stili more by lumping lhe vapor and hquid
separation systems in a slIIgle box (sec Fig. 1.2-6). Thus, \Ioe consider the
specification of the general structure of the separatIOn system before we consider
tbe specificalion of either the vapor or the liquid recovery systems.

Gas

Slruchne (Af/IO'

re:prese~lation, wilhom worrying aboul the addItIonal complexitIes caused by the

D; phenyl
Jc:par1lllOn s)'$1cm.. [Aft.... J

mpuI~lput

to understand whal design questions arc importanl to obtalO Ihls simplified

"'

LiquKt separalion
SYSlem

Toluene

Benzene:

Toluene

, CH 4

HDA

---.r-'-----'-i-

Benzene
Diphenyl

Input-OufPUI Siructure of the Flowshecl

Figu~e 1.2-6 provides a \'erJ simple fto\lol>hect. bUI we consider Ihe possibility of
obtaining an even SImpler representatIon Ob\iousl}. If wc dra", a box around the
compkte process, we \10'111 be left Wilh the feed and product Slreams. Al first glance
(sec FIg 1.2-7), IhlS representation might seem 10 be too SImple, but II \10111 aid us m
understanding Ihe deSign ...anablcs lhat affect the overall malenal balances withoul
Inlroducmg any other eomplicalions Since raw-malerial COSiS normally rail in rhe
range from 33 fO 85 ~~ of the 10lal product costs, thc o\'erall material balances are
a domi~ant fa~tor in a desIgn Also, we do not want to spend any lime investigating
Ihe dcslgn vanables In the rangcs where Ihe products and by-products are worth
less than thc raw materials. Thus, we consider the input-output Slfucturc of the
ftowsheel and the decisions that affcci this structure before we consider any recycle
syslems.

Possible Limitalions
By su~ssivdy simplifying a f1owshcct, we can de\e1op a general procedure for
auaclnng design problems. However, our onglOal ftowshcet described a continuous, vapor-liqUId process lhat produced a single product and involved only
SImple chemicals (no polymers or hydrocarbon CULS) There are a large number of
processes Ihal saIIS() these hmllaltOns, and so we Iry 10 develop Ihis systematic

Toluene: recycle
E L Grurm., wScltma Pna"~ b .. Mllenil CosI,~ C~m Utg,19(9) 190 (April I", 1967) Abo
sec II E. Kyle, CMm Eng p,,,,.Il1(Il) 17 (1986). lor SOnIC dall com~nDI commOOIlY dlCmlQlI

FIGURE U-6

HDA,cqdewuclu,IO (Aft,.,.J M

~AICIoEJ.JI

JH(/98,S)]

prodlKUQn

to ~pcaIJJl)'

d1CmlQlb

16

SfcnOI'l 1.1

A lllUAIlCltICAl A"rIlOACH TO CQNl::ErruAI OBION

procedure In greatcr detail. Howevcr. batch processes may ha\c a somcwhat

difTercnt underlying structure (v,c often carry out mull1ple operations In a single
\essel). and certainly they are described dlfTerentl)' in terms of mathcmatlCal
models (normally ordinary diffcrential or partial diffcrcnllal equations Ins1ead of
31gebraic equations or ordinary differcntlal equations) lienee. our first deciSion
probabl) should be to distinguish bctv,een batch and continuous processes.

Hierarchy of Decisions
If we collect the results dISCUssed abo'e. we can develop a systematic approach to
process design by reducing thc deSign problem to a hierarchy of deoSlons; see
Table 1.2\. One greal advantage of this approach to design is that it allows us to
calculate equipment sizes and to estimate costs as we proceed through the levels In
the hierarchy. Then if the potential profit becomes negative at some level, we can
look for a process alternative or terminate the design project WIthout baying to
obtain a complete solution to the problem.
Another advantage of the proocdure arises from the fact that as we make
dectSlons about the structure of the flo.....sheet at various 1c"e1s, .....e know that if v,e
change these decisions. we .....iIl generate process altematl\cs. Thus, with a
systematic desIgn procedure for idenlifymg ahematives \Ioe are much Icss hkel} 10
O\'erlook some important cholttS, The goal of a conceptual design is to find the
.. best - alternati"e

SEcnON I J

A HlF.llAkCHlCAl """.0"01 TO CQl'fCl'TU4l OESION

11

to a profitable solutIOn, wc repeat all the calculations more rigorously, because

thcn we can justify the additional engIneering effort
TIle use of shortcut solutions and tbe hierarchical decision procedure also
makes it possible to provide mOTe .-apid feedback to the chemist who is allemptmg
to de\'elop a rrootSs. That is. alternate chemical routes could be used to make the
same product, Yo Ith a laTgc number of flowsheet alternati\'es fOT each .-outc. l-kntt.
quick estimates of the range of con\ersions. molar ratios of reactants. etc.., that are
dose to the economic optimum for the various routes help the chemist to take data
m the Tangc WhCTC thc most pTofitable opcTation might be obtained and to
tcnmnate expcTiments thilt ilTC outside the range of profitable opcTation.
Decomposition Procedures for Existing Processes
Of course, we can also use the approach presented above as a decomposition
procrdure for existmg processes, to simplify the understanding of the process. to
understand the dttisions made to develop the process, or to systematically develop
II list of prooess alternatl\es. The decomposition proocdure we suggest is as follows'
I. Remove all the heat exchangers. drums, and storage 'csscls.
2. Group all the dlSlillation columns (liqUid separation system block).

J. Simplify the general structure of the separation system (similar to Fig.. 1.2-5).
4. Lump (group all units
to Fig. 1.2-6)

In

a smgle box) the complete separation system (similar

Shortcut Solutions

5. Lump the completc process

Experience indicates that it is usually possible to generate a very large number (i.e..
often 10'" to 10) of alternative f10wsheets for any prOttSs if all the possibilities are
considered. Hence, it is useful to be able to quickly reduC'C the number of
alternatives that we need to consider. We nonnally screen these alternatives, using
order-of-magnitude arguments 10 simplif)' tbe process malerial balanccs, Ihe
equipment design equations, and the cost calculations. These shortcut calculations
often are sufficiently accurate to eliminate the 90~ or so, of tbe alternatives that
do nOI correspond to profitabk operation Then if our synthesis and analysis lead

This dttomposition procedure is different from those that break down Ihe
f10wsheet into discrete subsystems which always retain their identity, i.e" into
individual unit operations. To develop process alternatives, we want to modify the
subsystems. With our approach we accomplish this lask within a framework where
we aJways consider the total plant, altbough the amount of detail included at
various levels changes.

t.J.1
I-tmrchy of decisions

TABtE

t. tbleh venus conunllO\lS

Z. InJlul-ouCpul

~lrucum:

of the 1Io.'sheec

J. Recycle Ilructure of the no,",sheel

Hierarchical Planning
Our strategy of sucassi,e refinemcnts and our bierarchical design procedure are
similar to the hlerarchlC3l planmng stTategy discussed in the artificial intelligence
(AI) literature. Sacerdoti- states,
The essence of Ihis approach IS to utilize a means for discnminating between
imponanl Information and details In problem space By planning in a hierarchy of
abstraction spaces in which suca:ss.ive levels of detail are introduced. Slgnlficanl
increases in problem-solving power have been achieved

.. Geneul sCructurc of che seJl~'.lion sySlerl\

If. Va po. recovcry ~ysrcm
b trquld reoo,ely system
So IIUl-Ucbanl"'r no:lWOTlc
E. D. Sau,doll. -Ptanmn,ln a

Hierarchy or Ab!;lradKm Splloes.- AIIr/t..,d. 5 lIS (197").

18

SECTION U

SUI.HUn ''"0 XElClSfS

The amcepl CIIn be readily eltended 10 a hierarchy of space:li. each deahns wllh
fewer details than the ground space below It and with more delalls than lbe:
abslr1l.CtlOn space above II. By wrwdenns details only when a sl.lCttSSful plan in a
bJ&ber k"eIlipace Jlves Iiuona eVldeQCC of Ihen unportanoc,. beumuc scarcll process
..'I1J mvestlgale a peally reduced ponlOJi of lbe search spice.

1.3

c-;::::L

In our hierarchy, the ground state represents the energy-mtegrated flowshcet,

and each le\-el abo\-e It contains fc .... er delaib. Moreo\er, if the process appears to
be unprofitable as ....e proceed through the levels in Table 12-1, we look for a
profitable alternative or ....e teminate the project before ....e proceed to the next
level. As noted by Sacerdoti, the hierarchy provides an efficienl approach for
developing a design.

'"

-,

'"

"

I~

SUMMARV AND EXERCISFS

lIuml0;)

:KI~~

E
)-

1);-1

Summary

U.

~ uwnlOO pnpoJd) -

1l

j
<

'"

~
J~ru~

---.J

.. I------~

-0

r::i

w
w

l
'"
'f
w

uwnlOO B30 ) -

U"
:l:

..;'"

~I-

H,O

Cool water

11
'"

Process design problems are underdefined, and only about I ~~ of the K1eas for new
designs ever become commercialized Hence., an efficient strategy for developing a
design is initially to consider only rough, screening-lype calculations; l-e., .....e
eliminate poor proFls and poor prOOC$S alternatives witb a mmimum of effort.

H,

.
u.

I
u
W ;;
~

"'Q

<
~
<

Ol

Wlller _ _J
FIGURE 1.]..1
IPA planL (A/ler 1947 AIC" $'...., CDftlut Probk... )

19

20

SintoN I 1

~'Jol"'''''''''''' nnosF.S

Thcn If the result.. Oflhls preliminary analysIs seem luomislOg. we add del all 10 Ihe
calculations and we use more ngorous compulallonal procedures.
We can simplify the deSIgn problem by breallng it down into a hierarchy of
decisions, as In Table 1.2-1 In this text .... e discuss this hierarchy of decisions In
detail

1.3-5. An encr&),-mlegrated IIowshec:l for the production

I \-1 The pH",ary reaCllons ue
Ethylene:

In Fig

+ Benzene -, Ethylbenl.cne

Ethylene ... Ethylbenunc ~ Dtethylbenunc

Elhyknc:

+ D?ethylbcnnne ~Tnelhylbaurne

2Elbylbe:nzenc:;:::. Benzene

Exercise<i
Recommended eu,cises are preceded by an aSlensk '
1.3-1. If enginl1ng l'01e C0515 SIOO/hr. cstnnale the worker-hour'i requIred to complete
each type of dCSlgn 5tud) In Table I 1-1 for a smalt plant
1.3-2. Aa:ordmg to the engmeerln! melhod. what would be the best Will' to read a
telilbook thilt OO\tn a field you ha~e not sluched before. (ie~ bloteo::hllOlo&)',
elccuoc:hemlStry, etc.}'!
1.3-3. If the diphenyl In the hydrodealkylahon or loluene (BOA) proca.s is recycled to
ntlncllon, ln51ead of being reo::o~ered. show one alt"'mallve for the hierarchy of
nowsheets, 'c:.. Input-outpul, recycle, scparauon sySlem, dlstillallon train (do not
consider enerl'S integration).
1.J-.4. A Oowsheel for a proa::ss 10 produce acetone from ISOpropanol is Jlve.n In FiB- 13-1
The reaCllon IS ISOpropanol_ acetone + Ii" and an IIZCOUOplC m.i:l.lure. of
IPA-H10 IS used as the feed stream_ The reactIOn takes place at 'aim and Sn'F
Show the hierarchy of no'"'sheets,

or eth)Ibe:ru:e-nc: IS JI'en

of D?ethyr~ne

The reaCllon IS ,un ..,th iln ucess of benzene and a1lnO$t complete COn"enlon
of the ethylene, to try to mmlmlze the formation of dt- ilnd triethylbenune. and it
takes place It 300 psig ilnd 82O"F over a catalysL Two re:adOI$ are required (one on
sHearn and the other being regenerated because or ooke formation). There 15 0.94~.
or elhanc: In tbe elhylcnc feed and O.28X water In the bc:nzcne rc:cd.. Develop the
hlCf1lrchy or nowsbccts for Ihis process.
1.3-4. A nowshcct for eth.a.nol synthesis is shown In fiB- I)). The primary reactiOns af':

Elhylene

of lIJO~Ethllnol
Ethanol~Dlethyl

Eth('r + HlO

The reaClJon takes platt al S60 K and 69 ban., and about 7" conversion or lhe
elh)lcnc 15 obt:uned. The equdibnum constant fo, dicthyl ether produclJon ilt thdc:
oonchtions is aboul K .02. The: feed streams are pure Willer ilnd iln ethylene stream
contamrng 90~~ ethylene, g" ethane, and 1'7. melhane. Show the hierilrchy or
f1owshects.

Reaction section
HealC'r

Reactor

&paralor ~_ _..,

Scrubber

Vent

Water

Benzoic add
Condensate

Slartlh----~I_-
Feed elhylenC'

DEE
<

8"
FlCUlIt.: I.J..J

Eth..1101 synlliats

Reactor

ToluC'De
stripping

Benzoic acid
rectification

FlCURE 1.J.4
Beuooc llad JlfodOChOll. [Afi... lIyJ'ocft Ptoc_ 41(11) 156 (N... IllIU) J

22

Sl:CTlOH U

SU~ .....UY Ai'<O UOClSU

1.3-7. A nowshcct for bcnl:CIIC aod prodocllon '" liho.....n In h&- 1}-4 (from S IA
VISCOSA I'r~, lI)'dr~lJrb P'IJ< . 48(11); 156 (No..... 1964 The prlm..r)

rea"uon

CHAPTER

I)

Toluene

-t 150: ~ lkJUotCAad

+ lI J O

lIo.. e:\e:r. re\erslble by-pn)(hu:b (beno.1dchydc and beruyl...: .100001) as .. .:II .b

heauer ones (as.sumc phenyl benzoale and benzyl bc:nl~lel ate also formed al the
reaL1l0n condillons of 16O'"C and 10 aIm Pure wluc:ne and au are used as Ihe ra....
matenalli. and Ihe toluene COD\erSlOn 110 1.epl at 30 10 ]5~. As shown on Ihe
I\owshc:el. lhe IOluene IS rccovered and recycled in one column. and the re\C:r)Ible byproducts are recyclc:d from Ihe ovcrhead of a second The produclls rcco\'ercd as a
vapor sidestream (""1Ih greater Ihan 99 X pumy), and the heavy componenrs :.Ire senl
10 fud. Show Ihe hierarchy of 1\0wsheCI5.
1.3-8. Select a I\owshcc:t from HydroctJrf)(JI1 P,ocusing (liOC the Novcmber issue: of any
year). Develop the hiel1Hchy of I\owshccts for Ihe proces.s

ENGINEERING
ECONOMICS

In Chap I Ilo'e descnbed a SYSlemallc approach thai can be used 10 de\clop a

conceptual design In add ilion. we hsted the Iypc::s of design esllmatcs lhal nonnal!)'
are undertalen o\er the hfe of a proJCCL The goal of lhese esumates is 10 generate
cost data, although Ibe alXuracy of tbe calculation procedures and the amount of
detail consKkred arc different for each Iypc of csumalt.
Since. COSI estimates arc the dn'lng force for any design studl. Iloe need to
uDdc:rsland the \'anous faclon to Include. We descflbe a procedure for general 109 a
cost estllnate for a concc:plUal deSIgn 10 IhlS chapler We begm by presentlng the
results from a published case Stud}. In order to gam an o"crall pcrspc:cll\'e on the
t)pes of eOSI dala required, and Ihen we discuss Ihe details of Ihe COSI analysis.
Remember Ihat the cost models Ihal we develop should be used OIlly for
screeDlng process alternalives. The cost estimates that arc reported to management
should be prepared by the appropriate economic specialists in the company,
because they will mclude contIngency facton based on expenence and WIll include
the costs of more ilems than .. e consider. Thus, our oost eStimates Donnally will be
100 optimiStic, and they should be kept confidential untillhey have been venfied

2.1

COST I FORMA no

REQUIRED

By considering the results of a published case study. Iloe caD I!'et an overview of the
kind of information thai we nttd to de\'dop a cost eSllmate for a co~plual design.
Moreover, the framewor\.. rdatmg the material and energy balances, eqUipment
sizes and ulility flows. capItal and operating costs, and procc:ss profilability should
become more apparen!. Tbc: parllcular case sludy we consider 1O.,.01ve5 the
production of cyclohexane by Ihe hydrogenation of benzene"
Iknu:ne

J R. Fall,

+ 3H:;:: Cyclohexane

(2.1-1)

WashlOlloD UDlYC....I)' Dcslp Ca", Stud)' No 4, edll~ by B

I OUlS, Ma . Aug. I. 1%7

CJ"~.tJIII Mom.flX,wn.

D Smllb, WllJlua,lan IJm ...u'ly. St

23

'"

OUf purpose here is nOI to dISCUSS the details of the design. but merely 10 see
what Iype of results are generated.

u:
~

f,

'"

"

~o

";0

<:>

iii

~~~

ON~

"-

'"

~o

"

.,;

'"

oi

~o

"

S'

Q
~
~
~

..

"

r-:,..:o

~~N

C!'!
:;:ON
_ ~~

-8

N~

"

N~

",
',i:'"
'>

~~

""c

"

"".
:I:

1-

s:~

;;

~~

"
, E

Steam.. .'iO Ib,

....."

lJeo;l"cny

u~

::!5! ..

" "~ u~i2

>Oz

<

'"

. (,)-S1!.
-

p~

Io::~

II: .. 0;

uthl lD 8
Tor.1

,,~

~.

"-u'>

p.\
p.,
p.]

.~

<

......

ReooCloc (rool.nt)

a.lt

.....

"-,
"'pi

....

10

'.000
""b
0.500

Iblb

C,
C,

Eq.~

,.\

....
~

!
.~

c "

.l!

u.."

h_

:'8~

Utilities summlf)': Bur case

<

"

,.0

TABLE 1.1-1

Once .....e know the slream flow rates and the stream temperatures, we can calculate
the utility flows for the various units sbown on the f1owsheet; see Table 2. I -I. Then
if we know the unit costs of the utilities, we can calculate tbe total utility costs. We
combine Ihese utilities costs with the raw-materials costs and other operating
expenses 10 obtain a summary of the operating cosls; see Table 2.1-2.

.5

"'" - 8

;g~

Opera ling Cosls

~
~

- ;:;

One of Ihe most Important items Ihat we dc\"eJop during a design is a proce~~
flowshect (see Fig. 2.1-1). The nowsheel shows the majOr piettS of eqUIpment. and
usually each piece of equipmenl is given a special number or name, as in Fig. 2.1-1.
Normally each sHearn on the nowsheet is also lettered or numbered, and a stream
table Ihat contains these letters or numbers often appears 31 the boll om of the
flowshcet. Tbe stream table contains the flows of each component in every slream
as well as the slream temperatures and pressures. In some cases. enthalpies,.
densities, and other information for each stream are included in the stream table.

~~

FloMSbeel and Stream Table

.~

si s:s

<

Waste-beoIl boiler
Feed ODlIIp<UIOr

Recydt o;ompreuor
BeIlZlODt ICed pump
Boiler feed pump
Reaclor reflux pump
Fillet pump

12 b./daJ'

E'
E]

]16

Coolef-rondtnscr
Com~r inlt.ooolef
Comp<cno. allt.ooolcr

Tow
F... J R- hu. W""II"" U........ly Daop
.......h.d&''''' U"'nsdy. 5. 1 - . Mo, 1967

c....

_000

16.000

]\

l.1
II'

"',
.....
'"
]]()

Coobng'''ltf
E\

'''"

".000
l.000
n.ooo
2,119,(0)

"'pi
128.000

'.lOO
'.lOO

\'

"

!;{-.!J No . ~ ~

1.1JX(1
0

s-to.

Il:

TARLE 2.1-2
COSI

Oper1lling

summary: Cydohtnnt-bue cast

ESTIMATED PRODUCTION COST AT ARNOLD, CONSOLIDATED CHEMICAL CO

C.H II OUTPUT 10,000.000 GAL (65.000.000 LR)
PRODUCT DELIVERED AS LIQUID, 99.9+

PPR "rAR (8322 HOURS)

%
_ S510.('J('(I

TOTAL MFG CAPITAL

TOTAL FIXED &I WORKING CAPITAL. 693.000

UNIT

QUflNTlT"
I'HIt yrAR

UNIT I'RI(.'li

COST
PER YEAR

COST
P['R 100 LII

RAW MATERIALS

~.210.000

SO,D

SI.R93.CXXl

'.100.000

0,23

207.000

Ih

10.Mm

'00

21.600

Ib

IO,Roo

'SO

- 5.400

RI'NZENE

"I

HYDROGEN

MeF

CATALYST

It M HANDLING
TOTAL R M
CREDITS SPENT CATALYST

NH RAW MATI:RlAI.S

2.116.200

Sl26

DIRECT EXPENSE

Lobo.

"300

Super~IIIOIl

9.600

' 'OIl

Paytoll CharllU
Steam (SO PSIG-CREDIT)

Mlh

4$.SOO

'SO

-22,1100

Electn~l1y

kwh

2.119.000

001

21.200

Camp Air

20.""

Repalrl@4%MFG CAP
Waler-Coohllil

Mgal

141.000

Mgal

>'000

O.OIS

~200

OJO

1.500

Water-Process
Waler-BOILER FEEDWATFR
Fuel-Ga.-Oil
Fuel-Coal

Fa~lory SUPPheJ}
Laboratory
TOT.... L DE-

10.200
2% MF(i C.... p

W.OOO

012

!oj
(CO",,"wtd)

SEClION U

'05T rl'<ro.~HlQ,. If:QUllFO

29

TABLE l-I.J

Equipment schetluk

'.

,,~

rqi<llued

~,

,,
,
,,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,

R1

CI
C,

"E'
EJ
;;
,
j
,;;
~
1--1-+-+-+----11---+-+\--1

PO

p.,
p.)

P4
T,
T'
T)

,.,
T4

T~

"

"IE')I

r._

J R

Sin (ncb)

".~
Rnao,

45-," d,am " 28

r d comp'OIOI

<l(lI)

bhp.

ileo;)ck o;omplcssor

Cookl-<Ofwk~r

"2~ fl'

InlucooIn'

15511'

Aftrn:ookr
&nzcnc ked pump
tk"k. fotd pump

11 IP"'. 860 n

RenU1 p"mp

rille' pump
Iknttnl' sur~
R.,nU1 dlllm
....no:

tepllralOl'

Siumdrum
P,odlJd storal"
FIller char~ link
Calal}'st filu:.
RnclOf<'Oohnfcoil

r." """-"_

U">a1II~ Oo$>p

r.

t .. o-I!agc

bhp

usn'

lllpm.116ft

13 gpm. 93 n
2S !pm, 62 n
57,000 gat
930 pi
11.,a.. dlam. " J
150 pi
IS&.OOO 'II

300 ..'
JS ft'
41OR'

c.... Sl.tJ No 4......... bJ

0 SmotIt. \IouJ.,.- U",n1'I'. So. l - . 1010.. 1961

$
o

After .....e have determined the stream no101o's and slream temperatures. we can
calculate the equipment sizes; see Table 2.1-3. Then we can use cost correlations
(which arc dISCussed in Sec. 2.2) 10 estimate the delivered equipment coslS. NCXI we
use installation factors to estimate the installed equipment costs (see Tabk 2.1-4),
We must also estimate the working capital required for the plant (see Table 2.1-5)
Combinmg allthe:se costs. we obtain an estimate of the tolal capital requirements
(see Table 2.1-6).

t:
z

"

<
u

,~

Profitability Estimate

z
l;;

We combine the operatlng and capllat costs. along With some other costs. and "'e
use these results to estimate the profitability or the process (see Table 2.1-7). The
return on investment IS used as criterion of profitability in the case study, but a
number of othcr critcrla can be used. These arc discu~sed in Sec 24

8
o
o

~
18

Capital Costs

Engine-ering Economics
Now thatll.'c can see what types of costs are mcluded in an economic analYSIS. how
can we genenlle thcse cost data" First wc consider some of the mcthods for

JO S~CTION

1.1

con INlO"',ATION

ltQHI~EIl

~EcnoN II

cosr ISrolMUION lEQUIUIl

TAIU Ie: 2.1-4

CJI~

1\111nurllcu.ring Capilllll: 8a

TABU 1.1...
Eslimlll~ or

..

hat>_

.."
....""
"

~,

C,

76.000

c.2
E'
E2
EJ

J."'"
S,l00

'-""
'-""
'-""
'-""

P-Ia
P-Ib
P2a
P.2b
p.,.
P-lb

21l.llW

""

20.'"
10.

'.
<000
'.""
,.."

100

'.200

T~

T-Sa
TSb

10,800
10,800

H
'--I

"00
SUJ.l70

l .... crll,) DeupI

'.000

32.670

libare ul'i'ling apow esumaled .1

],.~

S69J,OOIl

ea",

Sh.d) No 4

e"...
TABLE 1.1.7

10' ,.l/yr

TABLE 1.1-5

WOrkio& capilal

'.600

J. PrOOUCI lo""nlory(SOY. full)

]],000
120.000

SIS9,ooo

Muw..dunnl capital
Total F&.W capol&!'
Grou uIa per year
MllIluf"crunnll;Oll
Grou profil
SAkE' @ IO~.

.....

S Slo.ooo
693,000

2""'-000
2.257.400
14~.600

14,JOO
128.JOO

";00

,~

Nel profit
R~lUrP on 10111 F&'W

M.l00
9Jy'

F'..... J R F"". WlldulIl'01l UN ~"

So""} No ... al".d

by II

I)

k>,l" C.",
SIIU.b, WhIOIIQII Un, r

OI'J, S11.owo, Mo, 1%7

wuJwact_

Umwrw,y Dc..p Caoc 51""y No 4

Wllal by 8 U S "h, W....J""I'OII UBI_W'y, So lo.iol. Mo~ 1967

F" W

SAkE
"od

auo.)'l1Ir Coo- 6
Kn>n~m Coo-

_nn'

d.1>d ..... lrnl

la. .~".,

12.000
107.000

"'n.'....

f''''''

gross ulcs

.........

From J R F

InlOnwaetunn, ap"..]

...

Profitabilily Or c)clobexaD~ manur.clure

10,000,000(024)(0 OS)

IS~~

29.000

J It F W..
L"".nol) Do:o.lp
l:... ~n"), 51 Louu.. Mo_ 1967

Me>... 1"7

Cyclohuanc; I..S.ooo gal @SO.2Jesllmaled

... Olh~l. II S Yo lVlUIi lilies

SlO.ooo

'.600

tln'II011 U....,-

I. Rlw Qlltcnal (SO~~ full)

e"lI. 24,jOO pl@SLt23
1. Goods ID prOCCSl
UI I1SO pi @ SO.u

10.370

....000

... Y.'orl<lnS Capol.l

k .....m.len.. IIR.~nlory
Goods in prOCQS
FlRlshed p,oduc, ,n""nl0,)'
S,orc liuppha; and all olher Ilcrm a,
TOlal ..orlan, cap".1
S. To,.1 F,.ed.nd Wor~ln~ C.polal

II,SOO
SSIO.300
Uiot SSIOOOO

F".., "'''''''"'',....s..u" '"

Sl...t) ,.... 4. Wl'od bj. B 0

10.00J

2900

Proporl.lOl:Ull~

2300
2.100
".000
".000
].600

"

S 9.700
".000

l. TOlal Filled Capll.]

Sum of I .o.,l 2

'."'"

..

TOlal COSI

2.. NOnm.iUlWadunn, C.p,..1

20.000
12,qOO

600

on construction in 1967

TOIaI ptOOCU equlpmenl

Tout manufaclunn, capital buc:d on baod f.aclon
Toul UU1aufactunqaxl e1iUmal~

J.
l.700

2700

blll~d

C8

FUI~r

10,000

800

capilli I requirtemtenls: Base

I. Manufadlmnl Cal"lal
Equ,pment
kuel'"
COllIpres:...>r1i
E.o.ehan.....
PumJTallu

S U,bIkj

."""
."" ""
"" ...
..

T,
T2
T]

..,_ 51

T~...

')00
')00

p~

r.OOII

Ib_
f"c'...

o../h-UN

p".J

re:ourch,

od,,'" b.

B D Smllll.. ........""'.1<1.

31

calculating capllal and operating costs, then we descnbe the techniques for pUlling
capital and olXrating costs on the same basis, next we discuss profitability
measures, and fina!ly we pm>ent a simple model Ihat IS useful for screening process
alternatives when we develop a conceptual design

:u ESTIMATING CAPITAL AND

OPERATING COSTS
In Table 2.1-1 the ulihty loads for Ihe various pieces of equIpment on the f10wsheel
Il.-ere itemized, and in Table 2.1-2 the ullhty costs were calculated. Similarly. in
Table 2.1-3 the eqUIpment SIZes for the f1owshoct were listed, and the COSts were
calc.ulated in Tabl~ 2.1-4..Thus, the first costs we consider are the operating and
capnal costs asSOCIated with the equipment on the fJowshocL
Operating Costs
0lXratmg costs are nonnaJly simple to estimate. Once we know the flows of tbe
rawmaterials streams and the utility flows (fuel. sleam, cooling water. power), we
simply multiply the flow by the dollar value of that stream. In companies that
operate their ut~l~t~ systems. i.e.. steam and power production, as a separate
compan}'. lhe Ullhtlcs costs factors are simple to obtain. If this is Dot the case,
however, an analysis of the total site is needed to estimate tbe cost of steam at
various pressure levels. For our preliminary designs, we assume that a value is
available.
. Care m~t be laken that the utility "alues are {t;1l'en on a thermodynamically
consistent baSIS; I.~. fuel and electricity should be more expensh'e than highpressure steam, whIch should be more expensive than low-pressure steam etc.
~berra~ions in prices do occur at times, so that it might appear that there is a ~rofit
III burrung feedstocks to make electricity or in using electricity to produce steam.
Howeve.r, desi~s based on unusual market situations normaUy pay heavy
economIc penalties after a few years. One way to keep utility costs uniform is to
relate ~U utility prices (electricity, various steam k"els, and cooling-water costs) to
an eqUivalent fuel value; see Appendix E.!.
The costs of chemicals can be obtained from the marketing department in a
company. For academic purposes, current prices for most chemicals can be found
in the C"~micQI A{wluting &po,t~, or many of tbe trade publications. Light gases,
for example. 01, N J , CO, etc.. arc not listed in the Ch~micDI MDTJc~/ing R~pon~,
beause most are sold locally on long.tenn contracts. The current prices available io
trade publications are often different from the price obtaiDcd from the marketing
department because of long-term contract arrangements.
Capilal Cosls
As :-'e mIght expect. there are a ...ancty of Il.ays of estlmating the capital costs or
equl~ment that range from vcT}' quick calculations with Irmited accuracy to very
detailed calculatIons that arc \lery time-consuming bUI more aecurate. The most

accurate estimate is simply to obtain a quote from a vendor; i.e., a heat-exchanger

manufacturer a~ to sell you a heat exchanger that has a specified perfonnance
and that will be delivered on a certain date for 8 specified price It pays to shop
around because a vendor's quote will depend on how much work is on hand. These
vendor's quotes arc used as the costs of a final design.
For conceptual designs we need a faster and simpler approach (i.e" we do nol
want to try to optimize a process based on vendor's quotes). Thus, "loe normally usc
equipment cost correlations. For ell8mple, the capital cost of a heal exchanger
normally is e.pressed in terms of the heat-c.xchanger area, and it is not neessary to
specif)' the number of tubes, the number of baffles, the baffle spacing. or any of the
details of the design. Similarly, tbe cost of. furnace is given in terms of the beat
duty required, and the cost of a distillation column is specified in tenns of the
column height and diameter. Tbe cost correlations are obtained by correlating a
large number of vendors quotes against the appropriate equipment size variable.
PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST CORRELATIONS. A quite extensive set of
cost correlations is available in Peters and Timmerhaus. Other correlations of this
type have been published by ChiltoD, Happel and Jordan, and Guthric. f The
correlations of Peters and Timmerhaus are amODg the most recent. although an
even more recent update is available in ASPEN. Several correlations for various
pieces of equipment that are taken from Guthrie can be found in Appendix E.2.
Of course, we are most interested in estimating the total processing costs.
Therefore, .....e must be able to predict the installed equipment costs. rather than the
purchased equipment costs. To accomplish this goal, we need to introduce a set of
installation factors.
INSTALLED EQUIPMENT COSTS. One of the earliest approaches for estimating
the installed equipment costs from the purchased equipment costs was proposed by
Lang.' He noted that the total installed equipment costs ....-ere approximately equal
to 4 times the total purchased costs, although different factors could be used for
different kinds of processing plants. Hand' found that more accurate cstimates
could be obtained by using different factors for different kinds of processing
equipment. For example. the purchased costs of distillation columns, pressure
vessel~ pumps, and instruments should be multiplied by 4; heat exchangers should
be multiplied by 3.5; compressors by 2.5; fired heaters by 2; and miscellaneous
equipment by 2.5. The usc of Hand's factors is illustrated in Table 2.1-4.

M S. Pdcrs and K. 0 TUIlIl1QlwlIJS, ''-t DaIfPl-" ELM_,na/or Cltmticlli bog_s. MeG,...

Hill Nc.. YOlk. 1961. chaps. 13 loiS.
, C II ("h,lton.
Oala Correlalm. ~ Cltnro Q,g_ 56(6)' 97 (Jan 1949), J IbJlpCland 0 G Jo,dan.
CIotom.ctJI f'rfKru u - ....s. Oo: c. New York. t97S. chap ,. K M GUlhrx., Capolal COSI
&umalllll-- C'-t. EIIf~ 76(6) I J4 (t969).
I H J Ung. S,mpliflCd Arproach 10 Prchminarr Cosl EslJmalct,- Clatm E.n{l~ SS(6)' 112 (1948)

c_

, W E- H.nd. ~From Flo.. Shccllo Cosl EsI;male.- rmol.

fqfi~', 37(9),

3JI (195&)

34

SECTION U
SECTION 11

---_ -_
_--_
--_

..,

iiiiiiiiiiiiii _ _ .iiii,;;.iiiiiiiiiiiiiii=;.iiiii;';;
_ _ 1 1 1 _ -111

I I I _ l:i~I~:

IIIIII.lIJi!lilll

_.

_---_

_ _ lIl
';11_
_ 1111
,lJ~

_~

1111_ _ 1111
UIl_ 1I11

.11

111I 111111

_~

.1111111I.111111I1

..... -......
.., .,..
.,.. .. .....
........,..
.
-. ......,--.. .... .."".. ,.... -... _"......
.. ,,,.,..,. ...---,. '"
..
, ,.
----.
...
---. ... -- ',.. -'. -." -

. .,0

<
__ -

~11111!!!.lili!I!!!
. ..
....,
_I
_
_

------,
..
-"'-' -.... .... ...-.. ....... ...
o

_ _ 111 _ _ 111

fSTlloC ...TlNG C... PIT...L "'1'10 Ort:....UNti COSTS

ESTlloCAT1N{; C... I'tT... L "'1'10 OPU...TING COSTS

"

u
'.0

__

It.

,u

........
..........
.....

u
u
u

,.
...
"

..... _ .

n.'

_--.,....

'I'-' ' ,

-__---

......

, 0' 0'
.~

~,

u
u
u

--.."""'_.__ .............---'_. - --u

u

o.

......

35

exchanger can be read directly from the graph. Then a series of correction factors
can be used 10 accounl for the type of heal exchanger (fixed tubes. floating head.
etc.). the operating pressure of the exchanger, and the materials of construction for
both the wbcs and the shell.
Moreover, once the purchased cost of the e}[changer has been estimated,
there is another sct offacto~ available which can be used to lind the installed cost.
The installation faclors provide separate accountings for the piping requirt:d,
concrete used for the structural supports, conventional instrumentation and
controllers, installation of the needed auxihary electrical equipment, insulation,
and paint. Simtlarly, factors for the labor costs reqUIred to inslallthe equipment are
listed as well as the indirect costs associated with rreight, insurance, taxes, and
other overhead costs.
The installation factors listed in the correlations are for carbon-steel exchangers, and we assume that the installation costs are essentially independent of
the correction factors for pressure, materials of construction, etc. Hence, we can
write the expressions
Purchased Cost = (Base CostXF.Xlndex)

(2.2-1)

where F. corresponds to the correction factors for materials. pressure, elc. and

_e-. _ ,-'_
..........-.
-._..... _--- .... .... .. .... _-"'-'... "

...... R

u_

'.'

""-

'"
..
_

~"

."

.It
'"

'"""u _

.......

."
-......_,.
~-

0-._
.....

.... ."'
...
....

......
_ . _

"'<:iI

a_

<:iI

..

, p,
" u.

U>
Ul

'" , '" ,It

'" ,.
,
u. u

,.. '."
'-If

...

."

~
_

_ , <>.'CO _ ' " a.':U ...,

<:iI W<:iI-...lI

u... ,..

-----,
_..... _- .............
----.............
.--...... _- ....

Q/

,.,

..
""
11

,~"
......

"'''-'l

Ul " ..
" ......

............

o.
'-n

FIGURE 2.2-1
Sbcll.nd-lUbe beal nchaog<:rs. (F,om K. M

Installed Cost = Installed Cost ofCarbon-Stecl Equipment

+ Incremental Cost for Materials, Pressure, etc.
= (IF)(Base CostXlndc}[) + (F, - IXBase CostXlndex) (2.2-2)

CUlItTl~, ~Capil,,1

where IF is the installation factor and Index is lhe correction factor for inflation
Hence,
(2.2-3)
Installed Cost = (Base CostXlndexXIF + f. - I)
Gutl:Jrie's correlations provide much more information than most other cost
correlations. although lhey arc as simple to use as other procedures. Moreover, if
we should wanl a breakdown of the tOlal COSI for piping, or instrumentation, for all
the process units, we could develop this infonnalion on a consistent basis. Some
additional examples of Guthrie's correlations are given in Appendix E.2.

COli ulimDllng, Chem. Eng., p_ JU,

Mar. 14, /969.)

GUTHRIE'S CORRELATIONS. An alternate approach was developed by

Guthrie," who published a set of cost correlations which included mformation both
on the purchased cost and on the installed cosl of various pieces of process
equipment Guthrie's correlation for shell-and-tube heat exchangers is shown in
Fig. 22-1 We sec that the information for the purchased cost for a carbon-steel

K M Glllhne, -Capll:;lJ COSI E!;IHllillrng." C/o,-m t:ng~ 76(6). tJ4 (1969).

ruE ASPEN CORRELATIONS. Another new set of cost correlations has been

developed by Project ASPEN, using data supplied by PDQS, Inc. These

correlations are part of a large. computer-aided design program. and therefore the
correlations are all in numerical ronn, rather than lhe graphs used in most other
sources. For example, the expression they use for heat exchangers is
(2.2--4)

L B Evallli. ASPEN ProjeCt. Depanmcnl of Chcrrucal Englnccnng &. Encrr;y Labonlory, MIT,
Cambooge, Mus.

SEC"llOI'I lJ

.... here C = 1979 ex&hanger cost; C. - base cost for a carbon-steel. floaung-head
eJ;chang...r with a tOO-psig dellgn pressure and betw~n 150 and 12.(lOOft l of
surface: an~a, FIJ - a dcslgn.typ..- correction: FMe - matenalsof-constructlon correction factor: and F,. = a pressure correction factor. The expression they U5C for
t he base cost IS
In C. = 8.202

+ 0.01506 In

+ 006811(ln A)l

Updating Cost Correlations

Chilton's correlations were published in 1949. Guthrie's were published in 1968.
and the Peters. Timmerhaus. and ASPEN correlations are more recent. Ho~ver, it
takes about three )'ears to build a chemical planl,and so ....e must be able to predict
future costs. aearly the cost of almost everything increases with lime. and 50 .....e
must be able to update the cost correlations.. Several methods can be used for thIS
purpose., but they are all SImilar in that they involve multiplying the base cost in a
ccrtain year by the ratio ofa cost index for some other year to the cosl index for Ihe
base year.
One of lhe most poplliar cost indlC:C:$ of this Iype is published by Marshall
and S~ift (M&S) and is updated monthly in Clr~nflcal Engilluring. A plol of the
M&S l~el[ IS shown 111 FIg 22-2 SImilar relationships are Ihe IIgJn~~"lIg N~"j.
Rt'cora Indell. the Nelson refiner)' I1ldell. Ihe Cht'mtCol IIglnurlllg plant constrlletion indell. and the materialsand-Iabor cost indell Some of these I1ldu:c:s include

600

"oouct

COSTS

37

separate factors for labor and materials, .... hteh often expenence dlfferentlOflatlonary forces, Guthrie's correlations have the advantage that it l5 possible to update
the material and labor factors at dIfferent rates, or som... kind of uerage faclor can
be u'\Cd to account for inflatIon

(2.2-5)

EquatIons for the correction factors arc available as well as the cost ...... pressions fOI
a \-anety of other pieces of equIpment. SImIlarly, the installatIon factors arc gj\'en In
the form of equatIons

8OOr------------==----,

101...L OPl14L INYSTMEPl1 AND 101...L

1...;'-fIOUSF COST CORREI ATlO....S. Man) companies ha\'e developed their own
cost correlations and installatIon factors, These arc frequently updated hy uSlOg
\endor's quotations and recent construction costs. These company cost correla
tlons should alr"up be used If they arc available We UM: Guthr)c's corrclatiom
because they are avaIlable in the published hterature.

2.3 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT AND

TOTAL PRODUCT COSTS
There are numerous costs required 10 build and operale a chemical planl other
than the op..-rating costs and the installed equipment costs; sec Tables 2.1-2 and
2.1-6. Some of these costs add to Ihe capital investment, whereas others arc
operating ellpenses. Fortunately, most of theM: costs can be rdated direcily to the
instalJed equipment costs throllgh the use of variolls factors. Aver) conciM:
summary of these costs was prepared by Peters by Timmerhaus" and a mod ifted
\erslon of their hst for the total capital 11l\'estment is shown 10 Table 23-1 The
corresponding brea.kdo...n for the tOlal product costs IS gi\en In Table 2.3-2.
It is common practlcc in the de\'elopmenl of a design firsl to calculate the
sIZes of all the equipment and to eSlmlate the amOllnts of ulilmes reqllired, ellt.
the equipment costs arc determined. and the utility costs are calculated Then the
other COSI factors are added. and finally a profitability analym is llndertaken
Ho.....ever. for preliminary process design. we prefer to look for processs alternatives
as soon as a design appears to be unprofitable. Therefore., .....e would like to develop
simplified cost models for total invcstment. total processing costs. and process
profitability. We develop a simple model of this type as we discuss the mdlvidual
cost items.

Tot.1 C.pital IOl'e:stmenl

200

According to Table 2.3-1. the Iota) capital investment (Tot_ Inv.) isthc sum of the
fi\ed capital investment (Filled Cap.) and the working capital (Work. ~ap):

~~O----;4;';;O:---c50;';;----60;';;--~70::---;:80~--;;!90

TOl- Inv - Filled Cap + Work. Cap.

Years
FIGURE 1.2-2

Mti

lIodel.

M S Pdcn.nd K 0 '1 'mJDI'rhaus.

McGra..--HllI. I'lcw Yorl, t%9. chap ~

rlDftJ INJtgtl

..J u_.u ft/ll'

C"'-_ Eit9UOfff'.

3d cd.

TOTAL ('A!'ITAL

38

SECTION

1)

lN~UTMEl'lT ANI>

TOTAL ,lOOOCT COSTS

39

TOTAL CAI'ITAL IIft'UTMEl'lT ...,.,0 TOTAL 'lOOUCT COST'S

TA8LE 2.J-I

Breakd",,-n of lolal capilal iMeslmtnl ud slart-up cosu

(l)
I
II

TOlol C<rfl,ta/ ",",SI_n' equab Ihe sum or lbc. fixed capital U1~aUDenl plus !he wotllnl c:ap"al
FlAd copll,,1 ",.,..SI,....n, (FCI) U lbe. COSli reqUired 10 build lbe: plOCCSli, equal to lhe s.uffi ollhe

doree' cosls and lhe Indlrecl cos...

A. D"UI cons equal the. iUm or II"" nlatenal Ind labor COSlli requored to build the complcle.
faclhly, about 10 IS Y. or FCI
I
tftuUt rosu or ISSL (IIrJJM of "cUl~y /.""u) .rc tbc: C05I.5 or IMla1linilM eqwpmenl
sboWD on lbe. process 1\owihc.c.1 '0 a spea&: FOPaphicalloo::allOD (Ibe. baUery bm1ls),
.boul SO 60~. 01 FCI_
"
I'IuclvuIti t9"IIJ'"D"I!>duda.aII equ'pmc.ul bIilc.d on complete: fto~, span:
pans and nofllnsl.a.lkd eqw~1 spafQ;'wptur; IlQWprMClI, wppba, and eqwpmenl .11o noes; Inft.lIon COIl- .aIlo..."na, fn,gbl c:ba<JQ, ta.r.c.s. UUUl&lM:lCo.and
dUlICS, .Uo 1lOt' for modlficallon dunn, il.arl-UP; .bout 2O~Y. of FCL
II
f'urc/oosld",q,,;pmr'" lfIJ'O/lOtlOn mcluda IlUill.llation or &II equipment IlSled on I
complele l\0\/4hec:1 includllliliructural supports, insulation, and painl boUI
7.)-26". or Fel 01 lS4Sy'
purchased eqwpmcnl c.oJl.
C I",-,,-w,,,o/lon WId c.."o/ "duda putdtul', IlliI.allaUOn..and callbrallOll, .boul
l.S-7.0~. 0( Fel or 6 JOy. 01 purchased equlplDClll ~I
J P","'fJ l!>dudes COQ 01. plpe.. plpc.lwlJeR. fitUDp. val'C$, IOSWaUOn. aDd eqUlpmc.ol,
:about) IS~. 01 FCI 01" 10-10% 01 purchased IlQwpmctll CXl5l.
r
Ckc"fC'OI ""I"'pmDIl 0Ifd rrtOlt'taols inctu 1M purdI.asc aDd iDslaUallOn olille
rc.qu"cd clc.o::ln;;a1 equlpll>c.nl inctudtnll.-lIcbe:s.. moiOrs. condwl, WIre.. tittulp,
kcders, poundina. Illltrumenl and conl,oI wirin.. "J.hllnll paDC!J. .00 tiiOCialed
libor costs; aboul 2 SilO" 01 FCI o. 1-20% ol pu.chased eqUJpmCllI COSI.
2. OJfSllt COSIJ Of OSBL COJU (0,.", of btl"",,) /,mllS) U>elude C&.ril diroctly .c.laled 10
Ihe. prOCC5li bUl bu,lt ,n sc.Pi"~I. l"cOlloM from lhc.m.lll p'OCCSl.,nl equ'rmc.nl
"
B"t/d,,.,. (",,:IOOmg iCr'ICCS) .aboul 6 2O~. or Fa O' 10
or pu,,:b.ascd equ,p.
menl COSI
(I) ""'u bo<,WM.fIS 'nclude ""~ln.eu.lD. supc.ntrucI .. rc.s. ~.p.laddcfl".
aa:ai ..-ars. cranes. moaorai/$, boasu. dc.>"lI1Gn. (Soaoc OOIl'IpaNCI uodudc
lhex 1a<:IOrt &Ii pan ollM ISBL -u. a.od DOl 1M OS8L"",IS)
(2) A ...."I_}- ~ J lIldudc adllU-llOtrallOll aDd olficc, mcd>caI at dlSprlli:ll.l)',
eafcl",n.. pOll. product .... "'hOU:SC. pam ...rc.howc.l~fd lind s.afcly, fire
51atlOn, chanJC house, pcnonnc.l buildJog, shipping ollioc and p1alform,
rc.sc.areh laboralory, conu-oll.botory
(3) Moinr",rwnu shops include e.le.etne.al p;plDl. ShOCl mel.a.l. m.chine. we.lding.
carprnlJ'Y. IMlrumcnll,
(4) B"t/dong U'nIOCtS tnelude p1unlblna. bc.auna. "c.llldauoo.. dusl ooIlec1lOrt. a"
COOOluonUlg, build,n, bpunl. c.I..... lOn. c.ocaI.alOrs. Ickpbonc.s.. UlICfCOIllJllUrucaloo-, system. pa.lluna. ipl1I1Uc.r .)'IJe....... liIc: alarm.
II
Y",d....,.,---..u ,n~oh'C sUe docvdopawlll inctuduol Jlle deanna. p"lIdiaJ. roads.
..."ILwap. raiuoads. rc._ pallina areas. .. ~c:s.nd pen. rtcrUltwul fac;d,ue.s.
la.ndscaptlll; lboul ISS 0" ol Fct
C s,f1J'u IlXi/JlIIS (jllSl.Ilc.d), aboul g 0 )SO~~ ol FCI
(1) UI,/IIII'S Include. siram. waler, powe'. refnrcrallOn. coroprc.s.scd .... fuel, watt",
dlliPOUI.
(2) 1",I",,,,s 10clude. boiler plant. JrK:,nc.talOr, "'elb. liver UluLe, ",aler lTe.allnen!,
c\Klhnglowcn. ,,"'ale' jto.ai:e. rlc.o::lT1C subnallon. refll~rallon p1lnl, a" p1anl.
fuel _IOrage.. ...,,>le d,.poul pbnt. lire p'<>IcetlOU

(4)

NOIII"IXIU I~nl cornpo$Cd of oltic:c rUl1l/IU~.nd eqwpcnt::ol, ukly .nd

medlCll CQUlpn!llll. shop CQwpmcnl, .ulomOfl'-c. c.qwpmc.nl, yard mllC.naJha",lhnl c.qulpmc.nl, 1.00ralory eqUipment, shd~c.s.. bllli. paJkli, hand lrucks.
fire nllnlul~hers. bOK$, fire. c.nI'IU:S, Io"dlng c.qlllpme.lll.
D,wlb"rron wuJ p"d.Gg,ng !Ddude I'lIw-malmal.nd prodtH;! slorlF and
handllnl cqulprnc.nt, plOdUCI pack.llnl equlpmenl. blcndllli r.cihlia;. loadlnl
it.UOI\S..

'-oJ. bout I

2~.orFClor4 &~.orPUrdlasc.dequlp'p"nlOOiU_

SuO'c)'i.nd recs
PrGpen) ~I$IrulirtCl caw lire. uprMd 110I dJr-ealy lo"'ohul "'IlII matmlll and la.bor 01 aa~llnslall.
(I)
(2)

8_

uoCl,lIboulls.-JO~.orFCI
I LtgllWlr"'fJ tJNI ~u_, .bout 4~21 Y. or Fel or S-ISy' or duM ....1$11_
!Aimu,"'fJ COSTS Indude .dmlllJ~ral1~c., process d""'ICl and geucral c.nl'nnng,

or

10"

dmung, CO'it c.n&lnc.c.nng. proocsslng. e~pedlllOl, reproducllon. communlCatlonli.

_Ie. modell.. consulI.nl rtts. lra"e1
II ErogutN''''fJ Sf'IN"u_ Qnd IfIJ~/ltMl
CQIIJ'fJIC/I"" U/W'UU; IIboUI 4 8 21.0Y. 01. FCI
/J
TtfPIIIO'/J'Y IJllln composed 01 COIlSINCIIOll. O-pcra11Oll., .nd IZAUlleMIlOt' 01
IaDpora.ry fllQbues; ofIiot::s, roads. parkllliiou. raliroacb. clec1nca1. p1p1nJ.
commUDOClUOns. kDan...
II Coru'TVCI_ ,oob <r..J ~,c C""Jlrvcl_ S"JWnu_ Ill~ohllll! aCDDUnl1nJ, Illnd':ttplnJ. purchasln~ upe.o:htm,.
d

Wo,rhOOlS<' JW'ltmnrllltld 1J,,'mJs

Solnl'. ,..,d..-ol. Qnd Irmgt /H"tfi"

I't,mm./itld ItJlS. sp"'u/ l'rtflHS

1
"

T".us. UlS"'lltIrt, tmd mlt',tSI

C_lttK'ors (tt_ abou' 1 S SO. 01 Fel

C..t"'9f"'C') 10 com~le for unprc.o:hetablc "enlS 'udl n "arms. ftoods. "n~eo.

pna: dt3nJCI. imall MIlD clgnp:s. ('fron ,n nlltrullCl., rIC boul S Xl. 01 FCI

AI't't_lt btnJ.:d/w" of FCI

I M-../oc-rllrlTOlJ c"p"oIInl'l'SI......nl-umc U 01Ul1a.
2. H_focIllTlTI(J CtlpluH /TIfIISI......,,1 Ii olfl,nc. plus mdlfCCI >i1.5.
III W....klng coptlat is tM c:apll.al reqUITed 10 aetu.ally oprrale lhe. p1anl, aboUI 10-20~. 0I1be. 101.1

cap"al ,nvc.slmc.nl
A.. Ra...' """",.wl for. on",-momh supply_ (11le supply dcprnds on .vallabo"ly, .KISOII.I
deman4s. cle.)
B. F",1SIwJ ,,~IS III
aad wm,filllShod producu, appco..,ma,e production C05I5for oM
monlh (Again. lbe amoUOllZAY vary.)
C Arcoo-u ClCtlC'Obll 10 I"e OISIomrn lO d.ays 10 pay lor coodt. aboul the productlOli
eoslS I'or one montb
o ClUit "'" IoDruJ 10 atttt oprraunl UprlliC5-salarlQ and waF' ra ...IMIc.naJ purrnasa.

,'oci.

E. AcC'OMIIu poy<Jbk - " ,urs ""yobl",

IV $,,,,r"P CIUIS; :about
10j~ 01 Fel
A. PHKtU wKJdljico,w#u needed 10 meel dc.s,&n speclficallolls
B Stan"p labo, more people a.e. nded 10 sra'l up plalll Ihan 1(1 ~ttp 11 rumllnl
C J.,ou In prodwc,,<)tI 111'01'0 lois of re'"(nuo durllli debull&'lIl (f( lhe pr00tli5
T.~ ... Ir_ M S
~ V",l,I'"

""'n......

I.. D l _ ' b a.... ,._

0...., -.tIu_",,/- o-.-.J~~.. Mr:G.... -lhll

40

SOClION U

SECTION l-J

TOlAl CArrrAI INVE5IMENT MoD TorAl ,.~olJUC'T COSH

Gross earnings lind lolal

Gr0S5 arnlnp

prodlK"t

10t.1 UloCOme

CCKts

tot.1 produo;llon CO$l

Tot.1 product CO$t _ m.nuf.etunnl COSI 1" p:oc:ral nrc:n5eS.

A M.nllr"etunn, eml _ dlrl produchon costJ -+- hed ch.r,es .... rl.nt ovn-MJld
I I)UllC1 f'lodUClIOl1 costs t.boul 60~';, otlhe tOlal product emt)
" R.... m.atefll" ,aboul 10 Xl" of 100al prodUCI COSl)
b Ullllt," (about 10 20. of tOlal p.oduct CO$I).
C MI,nlrna ..... and rrpant (aboul 1 10. or Fel).
J O""rJlllnr: supplors (aboul 10 20.0( COit lor mlonlenance and rrp,,"rs o. 0.5 1".0(

rell
Opellllnliabor (Iboul 10 20~. 0(10111 product COSl).
f Orna su""rvlSlOfl and dmcailibol (lboUI 10-2S" 0( ~Ilnl! Iabot)
fI labontory chafFS (Ibout 10 20" 0( oprnlu"Ilabor).
4. PatmtJ and fO)"lltlC$ (about 0 6~ oClot" product C05I).
2. Fiud charr;es (Ibovl 10 20% 0( total product cost).
... l)epnaahOn (aboul 10~~ of Fa).
II Loc:allun (aboul 1 4~~ ol Fel).
c InsurJlllCJe (about 04 I. of Fa).
J Rml (aboUI 10~. 0( ,.II.., 0( rrnled land .Dd bvrldinp).
r Int~ (about 0 7" ollolal captal m>a.UDr-Dt).
} P1.anl o~hcad (about SO 10~';, ol!hl: oasI ror opcr1Iunr: labor. s u ~ and ....onlrna.....
or 5 15~. 0(10111 product COlli). costs IDd\OCk rmc:ral pLmt upl-crp IDd o ..... Mad. r-)"roll
ovnhad, pKkallna. ~ Wl'YlCa, Aft'ly.nd protectIOn, rewt.UnrD!S, ucrca!lOll. S111'"lar.
laboralorxs. and ... orllt' r.alltx:s.
Gt'nrral u~ _ admtn~lraU"" c:ostJ -+- dutnbuuon IlId sdlml! COitJ -+- Tt'SeIlch and dt'.... I
oproc:nt COSls [ali(! ca1It'd SARE (SIlks, adrtlllmlnltioD, ~ IDd mplXftlJl!l]
I Admllu... rlllve QOIItJ (Iboul 1S% r:I ~ for opaUDI labor, supn-v!i1Oll, IIId mllnlrnana
or 2 S~. ollotal produo:1 eost); lOOI.ldt'll COliIS for ua:uti,"t'
c:kno::al ."I@t'S. kpl (<<II.,
t

w-na.,

offioe svppbr., and commU1lIC.IuonL

2. DttlflbutlOll.nd wlllnl costs (about 2-10" of total prodtJt:I COSI); irlclucks C:OS15 ror SIIkt
offica, S111t'$ sll1l', .lhIPPtnl. and IdVt'ItBUIJ.
3 Rt'teIrdt and dt'Ydoplllt'nl COSIII (aboul 2-S" of evefl' Wo:s dolLu or about 5% of tocal
product cost)
T.k

&_ M

41

Working Capital

TA8U- 1J..2

I
II

rOHI CAMIAl 1'I\E5rMENT MoO rOTAl P~f)l>lJC"I CQ5ls

s. ~ and K. D

T......ba.... ,.... Duip...J ~ / "

York.. 1963

aw-. ea._... Mc<lr.....H...

Start-up Costs
Many companies also include the start-up costs as part of the capital investmenl
Other companies conSider the fraction of the start-up costs that is allocated to
equipment modifications as part ofttle capital investment, whereas the funds used
for additional workforce: and malerials needed to start up tbe plant are considered
operating expen~s. The choice among the~ various possibilities depends on the
tax situalion of the company However. for our purposes we include the start-up
costs (Slart-up) as part of the inveslment. Hena:, Eq. 2.3-1 becomes
Tot Inv = Fixed Cap,

+ Work. Cap. + Startup

(23-2)

From Table 2.3-1. item IV. we see lhal

Start-up ... 0, I(Fixed Cap,)

(23-3)

The working capital represents the funds required 10 actually operate the plant. i.e..
to pa) for raw materials., to pay salaries., etc. We allempl to replace the working
capital each month OUI of product revenues, NeH:rtheless, we must have money
available before we c0mmence operalions to rill up the lanks and to meet the Initial
payroll For this reason the working capital is considered 10 be part of the total
In\cstmenl.
A breakdoy,n of the working capllalls gl\en m TaMe 2.3-1, and a reasonahle
first estimate of thIS cost can be taken as a 3-monlh supply of ray, malerials_ or
products We can greatly simphf) the mitial In\estment aoal)"sis. howe\cr. if we
assume thaI y,orkmg capital is related to the in\estmenL For this reason, we leI
Work. Cap. - O.I5(Tot lov.)

(2.3-4)

Fixed Capital 100-eslmenl

From Table 2.3-1 we set" Ihat the fixed captlal tn\estment is the sum of Ihe dIrect
COSt and the IIIdlrecl casls:
Fixed Cap. _ Direcl Cost

of

Indirect COSI

(2,3-5)

The direct COSTS mclude the onslle costs (Onstle) or ISBL costs (inside batter)
limits). and the otrslle costs. or OSBL costs (oumde battery limits):
Oncct Cost = Onstte + Offstle

(2,3-6)

The onsite costs correspond to the installed equipment COS!!i for the items shown
on the process flo""'sheet All these items are built III a specific geographical area.
called the bafUr)' IlmllS, We can eSlimate the onsite costs diTC{;II)' from Guthrie's
correlations.
The olfsite COSIS. or OSBl costs, refer to the steam plant, cooling towers. and
other items listed in Table 2.3-1 that are needed for the operation of the process but
are buill in a different geographical area, II is common practi~ to ha\<e central
areas for cooling towers. steam generalion equipment. etc. We note from the table
Ihal the variation in the individual olfsite costs is much larger' than that in the
onsile costs. In facl, the offsite costs may vary from as little as 40 to 50o~ of the
onsite costs for an elfpansion of an existing facility. up to 200 or 400% of the onsite
costs for the conslrUCIIOn of a grass-roots plant (a brand new facilily startmg from
scratch) or a major plant expansion. This situation is analogous 10 building an
addition to a hou~ versus building a new home. In OUf studies, we consider only
plant expansions, and we assume that
Offsite ... 045

On~lte

(2.3-7)

The indirect costs dcscribed m the table often are lumped in two categories:
(I) the owner's costs, whleh include the engineenng, supervision, and construction
expenses; and (2) contingencIes and fees (Contlng,) which account both for tlems

42

RiCTrON

1.)

TOTAL CAPITAL 1i'lVI!STMENT AND TOTAL PlOIJoUCT COST'S

SfCflON I I

overlooked in the preliminary design and funds 10 pay thc contractor. A contingcncy allowance of at Icast S %should be included, cvcn J1 wc have 6rm quotes
on hand from vendors, because something can always go wrong. For our
preliminary designs, where we consider only the most upcnsive pieces of equipment, we include a contingency factor of 20% Thus, we assume thai
Indirect CasU

Owncr's Costs

+ Canting.

+ Offsite)
Cooting. - O.2O(Onsile + OlIsite)

Owner's Cost ::::: O.OS(Onsite

(2.3-10)

Table 2.3-2 lists a breakdown of the total product cost. Since the total product COSI
(Tot. Prod. Cost) is the sum of the manufacturing costs (Manu. COSI) and the
general expenses (or SARE), we can wnte
Tol. Prod.. Cost = Manu. Cost

SARE _ 0.025(Revenue)

(2.3-11)

The factors we have selected to use in our analysis should give a reasonable
estimate of Ihe invcstment for the type of petrochemical processes that we are
considering. However, different assumptions should be made for different processes, and the choice of these factors is an area wbcre design experience is needed.
Our goal is to develop a simple method for preliminary process design. so other
factors should be used where they are applicable.
When we combine the expressions above. wc find that

Manu. Cost _ Direct Prod. Cost

0'

s.:

(2.3-19)

O.04(Fixed Cap.)

Supply = O_IS(Maint.) = O.l5(O.04)(FiJed Cap.)

Then. from Eq. 2.311.

(2.3-20)

Tbe costs for operating labor, direct supervision. and laboratory charges also can
be combintd into a single factor. We assume that

Labor

+ Offsite)

(2.3-17)

We caD eslimate the raw-materials costs and the utilities based on OUt
preliminary design calculations. From the table we see that the maintenan and
repairs and the operating supplies depend on Ihe fixed capilal in"estment, and for
our studlCS we assume that
Mainl.

(2.J-J2)

+ Offsite)

+ Fixed Charges + Plant OVHD

Direct Prod_ Cost = Raw MatI. + Ulil. + Mainl. + Op. Supply

+ Labor + Supervis. + lab. + Royalty
(2.3.18)

so that

Tot. Inv. = 1.3O(1.2S)(Onsite

(2.3-16)

The direct production costs include the raw materials. the utilities, maimenan
and repairs, operating supplies (Op. Supply), operating labor, direct superVIsion,
laboralory charges, and patents and royalties:

TOL Inv. = FiJed Cost + Work. Cap. + Stan-up

- FiJed Cap. + o.lS(ToL Inv.) + a.t(Fixed Cap.)

Tot Inv. = 1.3O(FiJed Cap.)

(2.3-15)

The manufacturing cost is the sum of the direct production cost, the 6).ed
charges. and lhe plant overhead (OVHD):

A Simplified Inveslmenl Model

TOLlnv. = 1.625(Onsite

+ SARE

The SARE costs often are about 2.5%, of the salc:s revenues for chemICal
intermediates. although they may be higher for finished products sold directly to
consumers:

With these approximations we can write

Fixed Cap. = Onsite + Offsite + Owner's Cost + Conting.
= I.25(Onsite + Offsite)

43

Total Produce Case

(2.3-8)

(2.3-9)

TOTAL CAPITAL Ii'lVESTMEN1 AND TOTAL P.ODUCT cosrs

+ Supems. + Lab. =

(I

+ 0_2 + O.lS)(Labor) = l.3S(labor) (2.3-21)

The table indicates that the cost for patents and royalties should be about 3% of
(2.3-13)

Ihe total product cost:

Royalty = 0.03(1"01. Prod. Cost)

For the case ofa plant expansion, we substitute Eq. 2.3-7 to obtain

(2.322)

When we combine these relationships, we 6nd that

Tot. Inv. = 1.625(Onsite

+ O.4S(Onsile)] =

2.36(Onsite)

(2.3-14)

Hence. once we have cstimated the installed equipment costs, It is a simple mattcr
to estimate the total investment, although it is important 10 remember that
the estimate depends on the assumptions made in Eqs. 2.3-3, 2.34, 2.31, 2.3-9, and
2.3-10.

Direct Prod. Cost = Raw MatI. + Util + O.046(Fixed Cap.)

+ I.3S(Labor) + O.03(Tol. Prod. Cost)
The fixed charges (Fixed Chg.) gn'en
insurance, rent, and Inlerest:

In

(2.3-23)

Table 2.3-2 include local taxes,

Fixed Chg. ... Tax + Insur. + Rent + Interest

(2.3-24)

44

SECT10N l.l

TOTAL CAnrAL INVfSTWUIT AND TOTAL I'llDOUCT COSTS

Based on thc values

gl~cn In

SECTION U

the tablc wc assume that

Tax + Insul'". _ O.03(FiJICd Cap.)

SImIlarly, we assume that

~c

(2.3-25)

(2.3-26)

do nol rcnt any racliiticl>

Rcnt _ 0

(2.3-27)

Thc allocation for depreciation- may be calculated in a variety of ways, and so we

discuss depreciation allowances in more detail later. With these approximations,
we find that
(2.3-28)
Fixed Chg. = O.03(Fued Cap.)

Fixed Cap ... I.25(Onsilc + Offsitc) = L25(1.45)(Onsitc)

= 1.81(Onsllc)
TIle cost for operating labor primarily depends on the complexity of thc
process, and 11 can be gucsstimated" from an inspection of the ftowshoet (although
somc cxperience is required to makc rcasonable estimates). An allempt to quantify
the reasoning Involved was published by Wessel, who corrclated operatmg labor
in workel'"-hours per day per processing stcp versus plant capacity. The difficulty
witb this procedurc lies in estimating the number or processing sleps; i.e., a batch
reactor may require a full-lime operator, whereas a continuous rcactor may require
only one-half of an operator's time.
For relatively small processes, such as we consider in this text, between two
and four shift positions (operators) would be required. Labor costs per shift
posilion are about SIOO,<XXI (since we operatc 24 hr/day for 7 days/wk, we need
about 4.S operators per shift position):
M

Labor = IOO,<KlOOperators
According to Table 2.3-2. it is reasonable toassurne that the plant overhead IS
roughly 60% of the cost ror operating labor, direct supervision, and maintenance.
Rererring to Eqs.. 2.3-19 and 2.3-21, we obtain
Plant OVI-iD = O.6(Labor + Supervis. + Main!.}
". O.6(Labor + O.2(Labor) + O.04(Fixed Cap.
_ O.72(Labor) + O.024(Fixed Cap.)

(2.3-32)

SimpU6ed Cost Model for the

Total p,.oduct Cost
Whcn wc combine Eqs. 2.3-30, 2.3-31, and 2.3-32. we obtain
Tot. Prod Cost = 1.03(Raw MatI. + Uti I.)
+ 2.13 )( IO~ operators
+ O.025(Revenuc)

(2.3-29)

When we combine all the expressions above, we obtain an cxpression for thc
total product cost:
Tot. Prod. Cost = Manu.. Cost + SARE
- (Direct Pl'"od_ + Fixed Chg. + Plant OVHD)
+ O.025(Revenue)
= (Raw MaU. + VIiI. + O.046(Fixed Cap_) + I.35{Labor)
+ O.03(ToL Prod. Cost + O.03(Fixcd Cap.) + (O.72(Labor)
+ O.024(Fixcd Cap.] + O.025(Rcvenuc)
Thu~

Tot. Prod. Cost = 1.03(Raw MatI. + Util.) + 2.13(Labor)

+ O.103(Fixed Cap.) + O.02S(Revenue)

4S

Now wc would IIkc 10 e1iminatc labor and fixed capilal from this cxpression.
From our previous analysis wc know that

Thc intcrest chugcs on borrowed capital dcpend on the company's financmg

policy, and for our prellmmary deigns we assume that internal funds arc used 10
finance the venlure. so
Interest = 0

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTWEm ANP TOTAL PI.OOUCT COSTS

or

+ O.I03(1.8IXOnsite)

Tot. Prod. Cost = 1.03(Raw MatI. + Util.) + O.186(Onsite)

+ 2.13 )( lOS Operators + O.025(Rcvenuc) (2.3-33)

Hence, we can usc thc estimates of the raw-matcrials cost, the utilities, tlK: revenues,
and the instaJkd equipment costs from our preliminal')' process design, to calculatc
the lotal product cost.

Profits
PROFIT BEFORE TAXES. Thc gr-oss profit before taxes is the revenues minus the
total product cost:

(2.3-30)

The okpoeciahon allo... na:. Included u a hed <;harp' I. ,be lable, bul man)' companies do noc
aorounl lOr depucialoon in .... wa)'

Profit before Tax - Revenue - Tot. Prod. Cost

(2.3-34)

H E. Wead. -New G.aph Condl.'es OpenIJnl Labo, Dala lOr Chcmoeal J'loc:eaes,- CIwM. E"9~
.5f(1) 209 (ltS2).

Sf.C1lON U

TOTAL CA~AL rNVESTM~,," Ai'IO TOTAL PlOOlKT (,:QSTS

TABLE 2.J..J

or, afte:r c:Iiminating the: total product COSI, we have:

Profit before: Tax ..

Deprec:ialion allo,,-aoctS

o974(Re:\'e:nue:) -

L03(Raw Mal + Ulil.)

_ O.186(Onsile) - 2.13 x lOs Operalors (2-3-35)

J.-J' p.o....n)

DEPRECIATIO . Ifwe consIder bUYing a car or truck to use for business purposes,
it is apparent thai lhe: vehicle will wear OUI over time:. Hence. we should set aside
part of our revenues 10 order to accumulate sufficient funds to replace the vehide:
when it does wear out, aRd we sllould consider thc:sc: funds to be one of the costs of
doing business. We could deposit this replacement allowaoa: in a bank and draw
interest., but we hope: that we could gain an even highe:r effcctive interest rate by
investing the funds in another venture: of our company,
Fortunately, the government recogmzes that it is a legitimate expense to
deduct a fraction of the cost of equipment as it .....ears oul, despite the fact that the
funds arc not actually used for Ihis purpose; i.e. they arc: invested in other ventures,
and a portion of the profits of thCS' other ventures is used to replact the
equipment Thus, to prevent a company from establishing completely arbitrary or
unrealistic depreciation schedules, the government specifies the average lifetime
that can be: expecled for various types of processing equipment.
Of course, if pieces of equipment havmg different lifetimes are combined in a
single process, clearly accounting for depreciation can be:comt: quite complicated
Slnct t he:re are often several processes in an integrated plant complex, however, we
can consider thatlhere IS an average hfellme for the process for preliminary design
calculations. In fact, for petroleum processes we oflen assume a 160yr life, whereas
for chemIcal plants we often take an II-yr life.
Onct the process hfetlme has been fixed, the government sull allows us to
choose between methods of computing the dc:prc:ciation: straight-hne or ACRS
(accelerated cost recovery system), Land does not deprc:ciate 10 value, and therefore
the investment in the land should nOI be: considered in a deprCClauon calculation,
Similarly, if we replace the worklOg capital each month, we .....m have the same
amount of .....orking capit.al al the: end of the project as we started with, so that
.....orkmg capital docs not depreciate. Furthermore:, the equipment may have some
salvage value at the end of the projeci (ofle:n about 10% of the purchased cost,
whIch corresponds to about] % of the fixed capital investment), so we should
account for this salvage value at the end of the projcct (If salvage value is not
Included In the depreciation calculation and the equipment IS sold at the end of the
project life. then a capital-gains tax mUSI be paid on the value of the equipment
sold.)
Straight-line depreciallon Simply means deducting 33 % per year of the value
of equipment having a 3-yr life, 20% per year (or equipment with a S-yr life, 10%
per year for equipment havlllg a 10-yr life, e:tc_ The ACRS melhod is more complex,
II only started lD 1980, and at that time all equipment had 10 be grouped in one of
four C8legones-3-yr property, S.yr property, 100yr property, and 15-yr propeny.
The depreciation allowanoes for the firsl Ihree categories arc gIVen in Table: 2.33.

,,

'I'n.

To calculate the profit afler taxes, we must consid.:r various depreciation policies

5-yr proPft1y

:s

""

1
)

"

'"'

'n,

"

1-1

Il

"

"

11

"

10
10

I>
7 10
-I

The IS-)"r property deductIon allowable depends 00 the month that Ihe lIern was
placed ID service, and IS 8lven in Table 2.3-4 for equlpmenl placed In servIce .fler
1980 but before March 15,1984. The U.S, go\ernmenl has been changing both the:
Iifelime (from IS 10 18 and now 19 yr) and the allowance for Ihis type of property
e\'ery year, so recent tax mformation mUSl be: consulted
The ACRS method is too complex to usc for screening calculations, thus .....e
usc the simpler expression
Deprec,"", O.I(Fixed Cap.)"'" 0.1(181)(Onsite)
== 0.181(Onslte)

(23-36)

PROF"IT ."-ITER TAXES, The deprcciallon allowance is subtracted from the profit
before tales because II represents a cost for replacmg C'qUlpme:nt. For most large
corporatiOns, the IOcome tax rate is 48%. so thai Ihe profit after taxes IS
Profit aflerTaxes _ (I - o 48XProfit beforeTues - Dcpre:c.)
= (O.52XProfit before TaxC$ - Depree,)
- 0.S07(Revenue) - [0.536(Raw MatI. + Utit)
+ O.0967(Onsite) + 1.108 I( lOS Operators]
TABU

(2.]-37)

+ 0,S2(Dcpre:c.)
(2.3-38)

Depreciation allo,,-aocc for 15-yr prope.ny (start in 1980)

l\1oed1 plal:fC1 ill

~,

,
I

",

10

,
, ""
,
10

", ,
"

II

7
6

7
6

10

7
6

_.~

, , " " "

,

", , ", ", ,

,

7

II
10

II
10

7
7

10

II
10

10

10

I'
10

$FCTION H

Cash Flo,",
The actual cash flow (CF) that

IS

relallled bf the company

IS

the profit after tues

plus the depreaalion allowancc,

CF _ Profit after Taxes + Deprtt.
"" O.52(Profit before Taxes - Deprtt.) + Depree
,.. 0.52(Re"enue Tot Prod Cost) + OAS(Dcprec.)

(2 3-39)

or. after substituting Eqs, 2.3-35 and 2.3-36. we have

CF "" O,507(Re\cnue) - O.536(Raw MatI. + Utll.)
+ O,OO98(Onsile) + 1.108 )( IO~ Operators

(2.3-40)

Profi.ability AnalJsis
Now that we have calculated the cash ftow, we ha\e the information required to
undertake a profitabIlity analysis. HO\l>e\er. sina: a profitability evaluation involves both capllal and operating costs. first we must find some way of pUlling
both types of cost on the same basis. To do this. we need to consider the timc valuc
of money.

2.4

TlME VALUE OF MONEY

When we consider proass optimization studies. we often encounter trade-offs

between capital and operatmg costs. Forexample, we can recover more of a soh'cnt
entering a gas absorber by mereasing the number of trays. Operating costs are
measured in SItu (or more commonly in S-'yr). whereas capital costs correspond to
a single expenditure of money (i_C-., an investment). Then, to trade off capital costs
against operallng costs, we must be able to place botb costs on the same baSIS.
Thus, we can either annualize the capital costs or capitalize the operating costs. In
this text we report all costs on an annual basis.

49

We determllle the lime value of money SImply by assuming that "'e Will
ahuys borrow the capital that ",e need from a bank and. of course, that "'e must
pa)' mterest on the money that we borrow. With this approach. we replace the
amount of capital investment by the annual payments that "''C must make to the
bank to repay the loan and the interest on the loan These annual payments ha"e
the same units as opetating cosl~. which is what we want to achieve
Thus. the key to understanding the relationship betwen capital and operatIng
costs IS mcrcly to de\clop a del,uled undcrstandlllg of the rcpayment of bank loans.
There are two parts to this repa)menl principal and interest.

Consel'"'"8tion or Money in a Bank Account

Banks lend money at compound mterest.. and the simplest way of understandmg
the changing balana: in an aCCQuntls to assume that money in a bank aa::ount is a
consen'ed quantity. That is, the money derositc:d (input) plus the interest paid by
the banl to the account (input) minus the money withdrawn (output) must be
equal to the amount of money that aa::umulates. Thus. the conservation of moncy
in a bank account can be treated just as the conservation of mass energy, etc. Of
course, this conservation pnnciple is valid only ror bank accounts and not for the
federal go\'ernmcnt. becau~ the government can simply print additional money.
However. rttogni7jng this restriction, we can write
Accumulation = Input - Output

(2.4-1 )

CO"TI"TOUS 1l''TEREST. Some banks are no", offering continuous compound

ing on money, rather than compounding the interest at discrete intervals.. Since the
coDtinuous compounding case is similar to other conservation problems that
chemical engineers study. we consider it first. We let 51. be the money we have in the
bank at orne t. If we make no deposits or withdrawals., the amount we have In the
bank will increase to 51,H.' over a time interval lit because the bank pays us
interest. U we let the coDtinuous interest rate be i, [5 interest!(5 in aa::ountXyr).
then the amount the bank pays us in the time intervallif is i,SI, lit.
Hencc. the conscnatlon equation, Eq. 2.4.1. becomes

Similar Problems and Strategy

The problem of trading off capital agaIost operating costs is commonly encountered in e\eryday life. For example, whcn I bought my last car, I wanted to
determine if it was to my advanage to buy a VW Rabbit with a diesel engine for
S6400 as compared to a conventional engine ror S5200, when diesel fuel cost 50.89/
gal as compared to gasoline at SO.94/gal and the diesel engine averages 45 milgal as
compared to a conventional engine that averages 32 mi/ga\. There are different
capital and operating costs ror the two choices, and we wanl to find ",hich is
cheaper. A similar problem occurs if we want to assess the desirability of installing
a solar heater that costs SI5.000 m order to save 55% of an oil bill of SIOOO/yr To
solve problems of this type, we must consider the time value of monel'

nMt VALUI': OF MONU

(2.4-2)
-0"" if we dIvide by AI and take Ihe limit as iiI approaches zero, we oblain

I 1m

6l~O

SL+61-S~

/:I.t

dS

dl

<

_~""l

(2.4-3)

We calf solve this differential equation to obtain

S =

p.~I"

(24.4)

"'here p. is the principal that we put into the bank initially; ie. at t ""' O. S - P"
Thus. our money grows exponentially.

so

SI!CTlOW 10

TlIotE VAl Ul OF MONEY

SECTlO.... "

DISCRETE COMPOUNDING. II is more common for a banl to compound interest at discrete lntervals. Jfwe let SI I - SI.. = Ihe accumulation of money in the
account over one compounding interval, I = S iotercstf($ in aceountXI period)).
the amount of interest in one penod - lSI and If we make no depoSits or
withdrawals. then the conservation equation becomes

Siu I

SI.

= IS!.

TI\lE VAlliE Of NO"~Y

51

compounded quarterly We nOie thai II IS CSS('nllal to mclude the eompoundmg

II1teoal In the dcscnpuon of the II1tercM, because \lo'e expect Ihat the ~lflU.~
InUr~$t rfU~ on an annual basIS will be greater than 6-.. If we let r be the nommal
inlerest r3te and", be the number of corresponding IOlervals pcr year, the
expression \lohlCh IS analogous to Fq 24-6 for paymenb for I yr IS

(24-5)
(2.4-7)

The parameter n takes on only integral values, and thus we call Eq 2.4-5 a
first-order, linear finite-difference equation
Finlle differences are not as common In chemical engmeering practice: as
ordinary differential equations. However, the equations describing the compositions in a plale gas absorber or distillation column, where the composition changes
from plate to plate instead of continuously, have thlS same form. If we use finitedifference: calculus to solve Eq. 24-5, we obtain
S =- P.(l

+ i"f

When ....e comp:ue thiS resullio Eq 24-fi ror I yr, ",here we call1hc interest rale in
Eq 24-6 the effecme mlereSI rale i.n
(2 4-8)

we sec that

1+ 'of' (I + i;;f
=

(2.4-6)

where, again, S _ .p. when" _ 0, so that p. is the inilial amount we deposited with
lhe bank.
Inslead of using finite-difference equations to find the compound interest. we
can prepare a table showing the amount al the beginning of each compounding
period, the amount of interest paid during that period, and the amount al the end
of each penod; sec Table 241. As this table indicates, II IS a simple mailer to
generallU the results and thus to ohtam Eq 2.4-6.

For very frequent compounding periods. i.e_,as m approaches mtinlly for" yr.
Eq 2.4- 7 becomes

( ,)- ( m')'.'"

S-P.I-I
Ho.... e\er,

b~

( ')"
1+

Discrete compound interest

P......

,,
I

=~

(:.'~IJ)

so that Eq 24-10 becomes

5""

p.~

(2.4-12)

which has the same form as Eq. 2.4-4 ir I _ n yr.

Thus. if we write Eq. 24-8 for n yr and compare it to Eq. 2.4-12. we see that
(I

+ I<lfr =

(24-13)

so thai
;.,,=e'-I

TABLE U-t

(2.4-10)

ddinition.
lim

As we might expect, the interest rate thai a bank would pay using continuous
compounding is different from that for quarterly compounding. Similarly, the rate
for quarterly compounding is different from the rate for semiannual compounding.
Hence, we need to find a way of comparing these various rates.
Suppose that a bank pays 1.5" interest per quarter and compounds the
interest 4 times a year. In this casc: ...... e say that the nomi"al interest rate is 6-~yr,

,.P,I+

._...

Comparison bet,,-een Discrete and Continuous

Compounding

(2.4-9)

(2.4-14)

Aher rearrangmg thiS expression and comparing it to Eq 2.4-4 Wllh r = n. we find

I'ri.;;pool .1

1.lu_

~iIUIilll or

tanIH dllflac

V.l~ 0(

poriod

..riol

end ot ptriocI

p.
1',(1 + I)
1',(1 + i)'
I',(t + ir

p.'
1',(1

1', + 1' _1',(1 +.}

1',(1 -t.J + 1',(1 + ilo _ P,(l + i)'
1',(1 + 'l' + 1',(1 + .J', _1',(1 ... ,)'
1',(1 -t i)" + 1',(1 -t i1 '._1',(1 +'1

+ .)0

i)'. ,,

1',(1 +
1',(1+i)"

r=ln(i.(f t I)=i.

(2.4-15)

fund u

Thus. we can find expressions thai relate the various mterest rates.
Eump4e 2.4-1. If Ihe llomlnal annual Inleresl rale IS 6~~ find lhe value or a .5100
deposit idle. 10 yr \0'1111 (IJ) continuous compoundtnio (b) daily compoundmg. (c)
scmUlnnual compoundmg, and (4) Ihe elfccuvc annWlI mleresl rale for conllnoous
compoundIng.

52

s.ECT1Ot':U

TINE YALUE

Of

nrno.. u n .."

Io4QNn

YALUJP: .,.- "ONn"

53

In the hmlt as At approaches zero. we find that

(_) s _ p.r _

IClOI.-u~lC'l

_ 11&2.21

(2.4-19)

;65
- 11&2.20
{ ')- - I00( 1 + 006)""'"
{ ')- 00( 006)"'" _11&061

(b) S - PI ... ;;;

(c)S_P

If",

l-t

Again, we can separate variables and integrate, and if S = 0 at r = O. we find that

S_R.(t"'-I)

(24-20)

'.

(~ .... = r' _ I _,,0010 - I -0061&

""hlch IS the contlOuous analog of Eq 24-18

It IS ,nlerCllilmg to note lhal contmuous compoundmg is cs.scnlJally the same as d:uly

compoundmg.

A fncnd buys a VW Rabbil for S5200, makes a do...n paymenl or

lOY.. and then pays SIS1.01/mo ror ) yt. U the nomina.! intcrCllit rate is 10~Jyr
compounded monthly. What is your frjends total cash outlay for the car'!
Eum~ 2,...1.

Annuities
If we retum to our example of whelher to buy. car with a conventional or a diesel
engine, we recogOlu Ihal we have to make monthl"'f payments on the car arKIthat
the bank can reinvest this money every month. Similarly, we usually contmue 10
make deposits in a savings account rather than just make a single deposit. Thus,
.....e need to extend OUt analysis of interest paymems to cover Ihese cases. The
method involved IS essentially Ihe same as buying an annuity from a life insurance
company.
DISCRETE CASE. Suppose .... e make periodic payments of SR. for a total of n
periods and the interest rale for each payment penod is i. It IS common practiCC to
make the first payment at the end of the first penod. so It will accumulate mterest
for n - I periodS: the second payment will accumulate interest for n
2 periods.
de. lienee. the mou'")' acculllulated al the end of the /I periods .....iII be

5 _ R(I + ;r-I + R(I + i)"-J + R(I +

,r-

+ ... + R(I +

We can simplify thiS expression by mulliplying by I

5(1

+ i) =

R(I

+ i)0 +

R(I

i)

(2.4-16)

+ i:

+ iy-' + ... +

R(I

i)

(2.4-17)

and then subtracting Eq. 2.4-16 from Eq. 2.4-17 to obtain

is=R[(I +0"-1]
0<

,("_+'..:.!iY'_--,'
S=Ri

(2.4-18)

This same solution can be obtained usmg finite-difference calculus,

CONllNUOUS CQMPOUNOING. For contmuous compounding. the Input term

in Eq. 2.4-12 includes both the payment R~ At and the: interest rate on the: mOlley
accumulated i.SI. At dunng the: time Interval Ar. so that

SohI,iolf. The 101.11 cosl is lhe lum of lhe do... n p3ymenl and lhe: accumulated value of
lhe: monthly payments given by Eq 2.4-18:

Tot. Cost

S20

1>1.01
0.10)"""
+- [( 1 +
010112

11

-I

] _ 1681947

GenNal Approach 10 Interest Problems

With a (J(:lailed background in conservation equatIOns., chemical englOccrs mIght
find It simpler to deri\e interest formulas for olher situations In lerms ofcontinUOUS
compounding by maklOg money balanoc:s based on Eq. 24-1. EJI3cdy the same
approach can be taken for discrete compounding.r we usc: fimte-difference calculus
Numerous tables are available in a varkty of books that give the results for the
dIscrete cases. and it is always possible 10 convert from one procedure 10 the other
by calculating the effective annual interest rale.
Presenl V.I~
The Interest formulas that we developed earlier describe the amount of money that
.....111 be in our bank account afler a Specified time interval; i e., they indicate Ihe
future value of money. However, we make decisions about investments today. and
so .....e would prefer to know the prese", oolue of various kinds of investment and
payment plans. In other words, we want to ask, How much principal p. would we
need to im'cst today in order to have a certain amount of moocy S available in the
future? Of course, ....e can answer this question merely by rearranging the equations
ie deri\'ed before. The present value (PV) for diSCTete compounding is SImply
PV = S(I

+ i)-O

(2.4-21 )

"llIk thaI ror conlllluous compoundmg IS

PV _ Se-f.l

The lerms (I -+ I) ~ and e-I,. arc called tM: diMoutttfacf(}IFs

(24-22)

54

SECllot" 10

TIME VAlUE

or

WONI;'(

EXlimpie 1.4-3. On your elghlecnlh bIrthday your nch UliCIe promISeS to &lve )011
$10.000 on lbe: day you arc 25 If lhe nommal interest rale is S-/" compounded

2_5

quarterly. how much money would he need 10 pUI

bIrthday for hIm 10 be able 10 keep hii promise?

From the dbcusslon m Sec. 2.3 clearly the cost accountmg associated wuh process
economics can become qulle com plica led We anlicipate the same kind of difficully
in allempls 10 assess Ihe process profitabllJly Of course. we prefer to use the
simplest possible prOi.:edun:s for our prelllllill3ry deSign calculations, but .....e would
lile the re:.uhs to be as meanmgful as possible Thu:s, before we select a procedure
for estlmatmg profitability, we need to undcf")tand Ihe rclali~c advantages and
dlsadvamage:s oflhe \anOliS techniques.

11110

lhe banI.

Oil

your elghleenlh

&/"lio. For Eq 24-21 we lind lhal

PV

~ 10.00:{1 + O~)

- S574175

MEASURES OF PROCESS PROFITABILITY

Comparing Capilal and Operaling CoslS

If we want 10 compare an investment / I plus annual payments R 1 to anolher

investmenl /1 with different annual payments R 1 , to sec: which is the smaller, .....e
want to compare It.e prescnt values for each case. The present value is given by
(2.4-23)

Return on Inreslmenl
In Table 21-7, the: profitablhty measure calculated was the return on investment
(ROI). We calculale thiS value by di\'iding Ihe annual profit by Ihe lotal investmenl
and multiplylOg by 100:
-;" ROI -

(or the discrete compounding or

PV = I

+ -;-(1

(2.4-24)

- t'-"")

"

for the continuous casc. The appropnate expressions for other payment periods
can be deri\ed in a Similar way
E1Am~ 1.4-4. Suppose thai ...e dove a car 15,000 mi/yr, Ihat ...cc leep I car for 7 yr
before II rusts away and 9I-e Junl II. and lhal ....e pay our g15 bdl~ monlhly If Inc
nomiul mlercstl1Ue 1$ II '"I.lyr eompouooed monlhly, IS 11 better to buy a VW Rabbll
wlIh a convenllonal enJ.lDe or a dlC:Sel engmc (assume we pay Ibe 101a.1 pUfl;hasc pnc:c
In cash and that .....e usc the oml and mileage conditions given earlier)'

Solllril1ff. According 10 Eq 2.4-23,

Convenuona.l:

PV_5200+

0.11)

(15,000/12)(1/32)(0.94)[
(
0.11/12
1- 1+ 12

_ 5200 + 2144.48 = $1344.48

DicscJ:

(15,000/12)(1/45)(0.89)[
(
0 ")
I'V - 6400 +
0.11/12
1- 1 + 12
_ 6400

+ 1443.85", $7843.85

Hence.. It is belter 10 buy the convenlional engine.

Eslimaling Capillil Costs

Now we can use a present-value calculation to compare alternatives Ihat have
different capila! and opcrattog costs. We can use these results to assess the
profitability of a process.

Annual Profit
T
x 100
ot Inv

(2.5-1)

We can base Ihls return on InvCSlmenl on ellher the profit before lUes or the profit
afler taxcs, so we must be: careful to repon the basiS for lhe calculaLion. Also, illS
ImponanllO remember that the .....orking capllal, as well as the ponion oflbe staTlup COSIS considered as an lmestmenl for lax purposes, should be included in lbe
100ai lD\CSlment.
The return on In\cstmentls a \'ery SJmple measure of the profilability, but It
d~s not consider lhe lime ulue o( money Morcover. it must be based on some
kmd of an average lear's opera lion, SlOtt variable deprcaalion allowances (such as
the ACRS method), Increasmg malnlenance costs oyer the pro)CCt life, changmg
WCS ~olum~ Cle., cannol be accounled for except by averaglDg. Dc.spue these
sboTloommg.s, the return on lfl\estment often tS used (or prelimmary design
cakulallons.
Payout Time
Anolher measure Ihal somellmcs IS used to a~sess profilability is the payour lime,
...hlch is the time in years It lakes to recover Ihe funds that we invest (after the
payout period we arc playing poker wilh someone else's money, which is a
desirable situation). We recover the working capllal every month, and therefore we
neglect the working capilalln the calculation However. the fraction of the start-up
costs that is comidered to be an investment should be added to the fixed capital
tnvestm~nt, to find the amount of money tied up to the project. The funds thai we
recover from the proJcct are the profit after taxes plus the deprOClalion allowance,
which we call the cashjlow, so thai the payout lime is
Payout tIme (yr ) _

Fixed Cap + Start-up

Profit after Taxes i Depree.

(2 '-2)

56

SECT10N lJ

MI'.ASUIlE5 OF PIlOCE$$ PIlOFTl ...IUTY

ThIs criterion also is \'ery simple to calculate, but it suffen from the same
limitations as the ROI. Hence, \loe would like to contrast these simple procedures
with a more rigorous analysis that accounts for the time value of money. In this
way we gam a better understandlOg of the additional complexity required to oblain
a more accurate estlmale

Discounted-Cssh-FIO\4 Rate of Return

Still another \loa)' 10 Judge the desirabIlity of in\'esting 10 a ne\4 process IS 10
estimate the maximum amount of Inlerest lhat we could afford to pay if \loe
borrowed all the in\"cstment and the project would just break e\en. Obviously, if
our analysis mdicates that we could afford to pay 120% interest, we know thai it
would be far better 10 in\'est in Ihis project rather than in a bank. However, if the
interest we could alford to pay was only 2OY.. we should abandon the project. When
we consider IOteresl cakulatlons, \loe recognize that intcrest often is compounded at
discrete intenals. and therefore we IKCd to conSider the lime \"alue of mOne)
Hence. we want to evaluale the revenues, costs. depreciallon, taxes paid, and the
investment on a yearby-year basis.
Normally it takes about 3 yr to build a plant, and for this reason we want our
1D\'cstment costs, raw-malerial and product prices, utilities costs. etc.. to reflect the
values al least 3 yr in the future. rather than at the current time Moreo\er. the
calculation of the process prufitabihty should be based on the income and costs
3)r after the decision has been made 10 starl conslructlon. In other words. zero
lime is considerl as 3 yr beyond the prOject approval
ALLOCATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT. Since it reqUires aboul 3 yrto build
a complex processmg plant. the direct costs will be spent over this total penod At
the outset, we will have to pay for the land, hire a contractor and construction crew,
order the equipment, prepare the Sile. and starl preparing the foundations for the
equipment. Then we start installmg Ihe equipment as it is delivered. Thus, the
direct COSI expendilure at lime mlOUS 3 )'r IS about 10 to 15 y. of the total. During
the periods of both -2 and -I yr, \\e often spend 40 or 35% of the direct costs
each year, and in the last year we normally spend the remaiOlng 10 to 15~~~.
Howe\'er, the owner's costs, which arc for engineering and supervision, and lhe
contingencies and fees may be spent uniformly throughout the construction period.
The working capital and start-up costs are invested at time tero, but
remember that the working capital is recoyered at the end of the project. Similarly.
Ihe saJyage value of the equipment can be realized al the end of the project. and IhlS
often amounts to 10% of the purchased equipment cost or roughly 3 % of the fi;l;ed
capital investment. Of course, money returned after N yr has a smaller value at
time zero, because we could deposit a smaller sum in a bank at time zero and
recei\'e the compound interest on these funds for N yr. Agam, we see that the time
value of money requires us to account for funds m lerms of their pr~K"' t"Cl/llr.

which is Just tilt: principal P, required to accumulate an amount of money S after

N yr. The present value of various investment policies can be esllmated once thc
inlerest rate has been specified by using the relationships we developed earlier,
ALLOCATION OF REVENUES AND COSTS. Most ne\lo plants do not reach
their full producti\e capacity in the first few years of operations. often because a
market docs nOI exist for all the product. Experience mdicatcs that the production
rate increases from about 60 10 90 to 95 % dunng the first. second, and third years,
respecti\'ely, of operation After that time, hopefUlly, lhe process operates at full
capaCIty.
Similarly, the depreciation allowance will vary each year, unless a straight.
line deprecIation schedule is used. Thus, with variable revenues and a yariable
depreciation allowance, the annual profits, the income taxes. and the net profit will
change from year to year. We call the sum of the annual nel profil, which is the
profit after taxes plus lhe depreciation aJJowance, Ihe cGYt flo .... because Ihls
amount of money is actually relained by the company each )'ear or eourse, Ihe
cash flow at the end of the first year, and later years. must be discounted to the
present value, again because we could realize the same amount of money al a later
dale by investing a smaller amount of money at time zero_
DlSCOUl'TED-CASII-FLOW ANALYSIS, With the background given alx)\'e we
can sel up Ihe proa:dure for calculating the discountcd-cash-flow rate of return
IDCFROR) This IS accomplished by equallng Ihe present ulue of Ihe mvestment
to Ihe present value of the cash flows. If we consider a falrl) general ca"e where
I. The allocation of the direct costs can be represented by percentages, such as
"I = 0.1, ttl = 0.4. "J - 0.4, and ". = 0.1.
2. The re\enues are constant except for the firsl 3 yr when b l - 0.6, b J
b J = 0.95.
3. The tOlal product costs (or cash operating expenses) are constant.

0.9, and

... We use straight-line depreciation, so that d 1 - d l = d J = ... "'" d~.

5. We exclude the deprecialion allowance from the lotal product cost.
then we can develop an ekpression for the equality of the prescnl values of the
expenses and the income.
The direct costs, the Owner's costs, and the contingencies are spent over the
construction period, but the working capital and the start-up costs arc requircd
onl)" at startup Thus. the total value at start-up time is

,
}-, {["l(Direct COSI -+
L:

Owner's Cost

+ Conting.))(1 + III

+ Work Cap. + Start.up}

(2.5-3)

58

SECTION U

SECTION H

~EASUUS 01' 'lOCfSll rlOnTUILITY

The present value of all the cash ftowsdlscountcd bad: 10 Ihe start-up lime plus the
discounted value of Ihe working capital and the salvage value at the end of the
planl life after N yr IS

/-1

{b.;l:0.52(RC\'enUc1

Tot Prod. Cost) + O.4&:q

The

59

re~ult bccOlllC:~

(Fi.I:C~ capX( I -t
=

(I +i)'

IoIl"-SUlU 01 'lOCUS 'lOH1UlIITY

Worl Cap t Start-up

[OS21(Re\enue -Tol Prod Cost) +

o48Dc:prcc][I

-(1,+ i) ....]

-t [Wad, Cap t Salv Val](1 -t II ,.

+ (Work... Cap + Salv, Val)}

(I

+ it'

(2.5-4)

For a DCFROR calculation, we look for the iDlercst rate j that makes these two
expressions cqualto each other. Unfortunately, there is no s.Ilnplc way to sum the
series involved, 50 that we must usc a trial-and-crror procedurc to find the interest
rate i.

F"'" C'P)((J + i) {(---:;."

I]

- [0 52(Revenue

}(I + I)'

+ (Worl. Cap. + Start-up)i

Tot. Prod Cost) + O.48Deprcc.][(1

+ it' -

+ (Work. Cap. + Salvo Val.)i

I]
(2.5-6)

Of course, we still need to use a trial-anderror procedure to find i.

APPARENTLY UNPROFITABLE PROCESSES. Of course, there IS no sense In
attempting to solve,the problem by lrial and error ilthe total cash flow over the life
of the project plus the salvage value is Dot adequate to pay for the fixed capital
investment plus the starl-up COStS, In olher words, for the interest rale to be
positive, we require that

[ll:Im~

2.5-1. Cakulale Ihe OCFROR for the allocation of m\'CSlmem and revenue

pallern gJvcn

Soluriofl
j _

(No. Years ) x Revenue> -.FO"='OdCC=,<pc+.:..:SO'O'C'O.' ,u,p~-~SO'cLcVO'O',-----=0c'o8,n.:o'p=,,==

0.52
- Tal Prod. CoSt (No. Years)

(2.5-5)

In practice... we expccl 10 eOCQuQ!cr this limitation quite frcquently; many idcas for
new processes simply arc not profilabk. and Ihe cffects of Inflalion will makc It
appear that we can never build a plant similar to one thai already CXlsts-even If
the: markct expands.
However, we do nOI want to climmale projects thai may become sound
IDvcstmcnts when product prices ose because of supply.and-dcmand considcrations. Thus, if Eq. 2.5-5 is not satisfied, we ortcn k:t i equal 015 or 0.2 In Eqs. 25-3
and 2.5-4; we substilutc our estimatcs of direct costs, owner's costs, contingencies,
working capilal, stan-up cost, 10lal product cost. and salvage value; and then wc
solve for the revenue we .....ould nted to obtam. Ncxt we estimate the product price
Ihat corresponds to these revcnues and undenake a supply-and-dcmand analysis
to dctcrmine how far in the future we migJIt expcctto oblain that pricc.lfthe Iimc
projection is 20 yr, we might as well put the project in the files for 15 yr or so; but if
the time projection is 5 or 6 yr, we might conlinuc 10 work on tbe dcsign. Again,
judgment is required 10 make Ihis dccision.
SIMPLIFIED MODEL As we might expect, the analysis becomcs much Simpler if
the investments, cash flows, and depreciallon allowances arc umfonn Wilh
conSlant cash nows we can use our mleresl and annuity rormulas to sum thc series

Sarl'upc:mt
P\'ID\~t

,
,
,
,
"

0;';"_1

O~I

fa".or

ranoe

207"

1.861

no,o..o

1749
I S21
J 322

1728

lSO,OCO

lIS

120

,-'"
""

1.680.032

1....9,&40

1.7l9.540

OI"

O_lll

0'"
0'"
0.572
0."97
0."32
o.J76
0.321
0,2&4
0.247
0247
0_247
1,869.474

0....

"'.

Thus, the

,,.""

l50,OOO

,,.""

'''''

"

..

100.000

...

240,000

lllO.OOO

""',000
"',000
""',000
""',000
""',000
""',000
"",000

Worlllll capnal
Salvag" value.
PV re.rurn

;_0.1611

Oisc....n.

"""'
,..""

Va' ,
,

; _ 0.2

fuult

In.e~U_I

YUI-4
hall
lUI2
YUI-t
.... ollr.m,Clpllll

O,IS

1j().OOO

"',000

OCFRQR IS 1681':'.

Oj7'
0."'2

0.",

ons

0.279
0.212
0.194
0.161
0.161
0161
Ull,lH

O.Hl
0627

0.",
0 ...
0.'"
0.ll7
0,219
0.247
0.212
0.212
0.212
I.H6.l12

Capital

Charg~

Faclors

We prercr to aVOId trial-and-crror calculations In preliminary process designs. and

yet ",e would hke 10 account for lhe lIme value of money In some way In our
profitability analysi~ To accomphsh thiS goal. we define a capital charge factor
(CCF) as
Re\cnuc

Tot Prod Cost = CCF(Tol Iny.l

I) + (Work Cap. + Start-uP)irl

(2.5-13)

A value of i _ 0.15 is the smallest value we would ever conSider for a new proJect;
i e" a value of 0 2 is more rea1i~tic for safe projects. For a proJcct with a high risk,
such as in biotechnology. we might let CCF _ I yr I.

A Simplified Profitability Mooel

+ i)'"

Using the definition of the CCF

= [0.52(CCF)(Tol Inv.)

+ (Work

CCf = 0.33] yr- 1

(2.57)

Nhere lhe total lllyeQrncnl mclude~ the .....orkmg capital and the start-up costs
NOll> "'e can usc: this definiuon to ehmlnale Re1.. cnue -101 Prod Cost. which
mvohes hourly costs, from Fq 2.5-6, so that .....e obtain an expression contailllng
only ioyestments;

[FiXCC:CaP][(1 + it -

Hence, based on lhese simplifying assumptions,. we see that lhere is a dlrccl

relationship between CCF and the discounted-cash-f1ow rate of relurn i If we let
,_0.15 and N .11. "'e find that CCF_O.35I; whereas rIwe let i=<015 and
N _ 16. v.-e obtain CCF _ 0.306. In our prehminary dcslgn calculalions, for the
sake of simphcity. we let

+ 0.48(Deprcc.)][(1 + i)" - I]

Reyenue - TOL Prod. Cost = CCF(fot. loy.)

(25-8)

Cap of Sah' VaL),

If we solve for CCF. we obtain

Io\e can subslllute Eq. 2.3-14 for tola) inveslment and Eq. 2_3-33 fOf total
production cost, 10 obtain
CCF(2.36 Onsitc) = Revenue - [1.031(Raw MatI.

CCF~

I)

o 52(Tol
+

+ (Work. Cap + Start-up)i -

In\ )(1 + i)'" _ 1)(1 + i)

+ 0.0256(ReYcnue) + 2.13
0.48(Dcprec.)
0'

1<

(Work Cap. + Sa" Valli + 048(Deprcc.)

O.52(Tot Inv.)[(1 + i)'
I)

(2.'-9)

In our discussion of depreciation. we assumed Ihal

Salvo Val. = 0.03(Fixed Cap.)

(2.5-10)

Also. we can relatc the other quantities appearing in Eq. 2.5-9 to fi"ed capital. using
the expressions we de\'eloped earlier;
Start-up = O.I(Flxed Cap.)

(2.3-3)

Tot. Iny = L3(Fiked Cap.)

(2.3-12)

Work Cap. = O.I5(Tot. lnv.)

- a I5(J.3XFixed Cap) =

(23-4)

O.l95(Fiud Cap.)

Depree. = O.l(Fixed Cap.)

(2.'-11)

0.298)_(1 + it'
I)
0.676((1 + i)'

+ 0.295; -

CCF=

+ Uti!. + O.l86(0nsite)

x lOs Operators

(2-5-14)

OAI3(Revenue) - 0.436(Raw Mati. + Util.)

Onsile

0.0788(Onsit~) +

0.902 x 10' Operators

0 nSlte
.

(2.'-15)

Hcn~, from estimates of the reveoues, the raw materials, the ulilities. and the
installed equipment COSLS (Onsite). we can calculale the CCF corresponding to a
design. tr this result is greater than 0.333. then the project appears promising and
we cao justify undertaking a more detailed design.
trlhe CCF is less than 0.333. we let CCF = i in Eq. 2.5-14. and we calculate
tbe revenue:

Reyenue = 1.06I{Raw MatI.

UliL)

+ O.998(Onsite) + 2.18

x lOS Operators

(2.5-16)

From tbesc revenues we cakulate the product price required to make the process
profitable. and th~n ....-e undertake a supply-and-dcmand analysis,

(2.3-36)

With these approximations. all the investment terms cancel in Eq 2.5-9. and .....c
find that
CCF .l025(1 + i)

(2.'- 7)

0.225/ -+ 0.048

(2.5-12)

Preliminary Design Profitabilily Mooel

For preliminary prooess designs where we are screening process alternatives. we
can approximate the cxpression above by the equation
Revcnue = Raw Mall.

+ Uti!. + Onsite + 2.13

)( lOS Operators (2.5-17)

Our first e~\lml:ltc: of Illl: ~cononllC poleUllal (EP,), based Oil currenl product
prices, corresponds 10

EJ> I

Revenue

Raw Mall.

(2.5-18)

Afler we complete Ihe miltenaJ and energy balances, we can eV.llluate the uulllY
costs, and Ilo'e revIse: the:: economic potenllal

However, ir thiS mlllllllum reqUIred produci price is less than the current
pnce. it probably is advantageou~ 10 build a larger plant and collect more re\'enues
Smce the CCF is dlreclly related to the DC"ROR by Eq. 2.5-12, we expectlhat the
ma;lIffiUm CCF lIlould correspond 10 Ihe maximum DCFROR. To find a design
variable .l that maXlmlZCS CC'F. we would wnle
dCCI' = d (Re\enUe - Tot. Prod cost) ~ 0
dl
dX
TOI Inv

(2.5-19)

Then, as we ealculale the cost of each piece of eqUipment, lIle can SUblraCI them
from the re\lse:d economic potenual
EP. -= Revenue - Ralll Mat. - UII!. -

L (Onslle)J

(Tol.lnv.)d(Re\eoue - Tot Prod Cost}/dX

(Tol In\)l

(2.5-20)

(Re\enue - TOI. Prod Cost)d[fOL lnv.)JdX

(TOL Inv.)l

i-I

If thiS COSI becomes sigmficamly less than zero al any pomt In the analysis. ""e
might want to redirect our efforts and 100" (or II$S expensive process alternatives.
rather Ihan to complete the design calculations. As in any creattve activity.
judgment is required to make lhls dCClsion.
In some cases it is easier 10 make judgments If we wnle Eq 25-11 In terms of
produci pnoes mslead of fC\'enues. For a process wllh a single major product, ....e
divide both sidcs of Eq 25-17 by the product flow rate (Prod). so that the IcJthand side of the expression JUSt becomes Ibe prodUCI price. C,.:
MatI.
Ulit
Onslle
(operalors)
C ... - Ra>lo
Prod
+ Prod + Prod + 2.18 x lOs
Prod
(2.5-21)
The lenns on lhe nghl-hand Side are the conlnbullons or the \anous quanlllies 10
the total product poce; I e.. the unus of eacb term can be t/lb product. If any of lhe
terms on the right-hand Side arc \ery large compared to lhe current product prices.
we want 10 consider process alternall\es.
For cases where a process produces multiple products. such as a pelroleum
refinery. the analysis becomes more complex. In these: situations. we consider both
modificalions of the prOClCU thai lead to different product dislributions and
processes thai can be used to convert one type of product to another- We contmue
in Ihis way unliJ we have developed as many cost expresSions as there are products,
and then we look for the optimum process alternative and design condilions.

d(Re\'enue - Tot Prod. Cosl):dl

0'

d(Tot- InvYdx

Revenue - Tot. Prod. Cost

Tol. 10v.

(25-22)

However, close to the oplimum design condition, the incremental return on

an incremental invcstmenl will become \ery small If this is the case, it ....-ill be more
ad\'anlageous to allocate lhat incrementalm\cstment 10 a projcc1 where we would
obl3.l0 a 15% DCFROR or CCF = 0.333. Hence, from thLS consideration of
incrememal relurn on IOcremenlallO\'cstment, .... e r(:qulre thai
d(Re\enue - Tot. Prod_ Cosltdx 0
"'-'-="'T'::~-'-,.;,'--'--'--" ~ .]]]
d(Tol In' )fdX

(2.5-23)

In olher words., to find Ihe opumum design condmons for a case Ilohere the
mlmmum required produci price IS less than the currenl pritt. first we muimize
CCf by solving Eq. 25-22. Then we evaluale CCF at lbe optimum design; and if
lhis value is less than 0.3]]. we sohe lhe problem by using Eq. 2.5-23. If the
oplimum CCF docs exceed 0.333, we might want to consider the possibllllY of
increasing the plant capacHy, since the return on our invcstmenl will then be beller
than for most of our other projects. Of course. marketing consideralions may limn
this alternative.

Economic Dedsions among Process Alternalin5

Optimum Design
In many silualions we want 10 find Ihe values of design variables, such as reaclor
conversion, Ihal maximize the profitability of the process. To do this, first we look
for the values of the design variables lhal wiU minimize Ihe produci price thaI
guarantees us a 15% DCFROR; ie_I we minimize C... in Eq 25-21 (or the more
enCI relalionship given by Eq 2.5-16 divided by Prod). If the minimum product
pm~ that we oblam from this analysis exceeds the current producl price, we use a
supply-and-dcmand analysis 10 decide whether we should lemnnate the projecl

10 general, we prefer to select the process allernative that salisfies the producllon
goal and requires the least capital invcstment, because with a specified CCF this
process normally will give lhe smallest producl price. However, if the least
cxpensive process involvcs a lot of unproven lcchnology. highly corrosivc or
hazardous materials, an uncertalll supply of raw materials, or other similar factors,
we must assess the addilional costs that we may encounter in overcoming polential
pro~lems

in addition, in some situalions we can decrease lhe losses of either materials

or energy from a process by installing addillonal equipment For lhese cases we

agam require that the mcremental return on thiS additionalmveslrnent satisfy our
m\e5tment enterion. i e; CCF of 0.333_

output structure of the ftololisheet, Le., 1e\c1 2

economic potential EP 1 at tbis le\c1 as

In

the hierarchy, we can define an

EP, ,., Re\"enue - Raloli Mati

Economic Decisions for Process Modifications

- (Power

or Replacl'ments
If our ne\lo' Idea in1l0h'es the modification or replacement of part of a process by a
ne'" technology. we SIll] ... anl to achie\e a 15 e;.. or more, rcturn on our investmenl
because this project loliiU be in competition With other projects considered by Ihe
company. The m\cstment required is equal to the COSt of the new equipment minus
the ac.ual maTur t"alur of the equipment we are replacing.. Note tbat we sbould use
the aClual market value in the calculalion rather than the original cost minus the
depreciation we ha\c already reco\"ered, becau.$C our original estimates of the
equipment life and the depreciation might have been in error. In other words, we
always base our economic dcrisions on present conditions. and we ignore our past
mistakes. just as we drop out of a poker game if the cards reveal we ha\'e link
chance of winning e\'en If we ha\'e a large stake in the pot.
The 5a1lmgs ... e expect to gam from the replacement are the old operatlOg
costs plus the depreoatlon of the old equipment over Its expected hfe as judged
from the present (and nOI the onginal deprecialion calculation) minus the:
operating costs for the nev. eqUipment plus the depreciation for this equipment
over Its cxpected hre Ifthe~e savings provide a 15% relurn on the nel investment,
we might want to conSider the replacement project u~ing more detailed design and
costing procedures

2.6 SIMPLIFYING THE ECONOMIC

ANALYSIS FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
In Eq. 2.5-17 we presented a \"ery simple economic model thal we can use: for
conceptual designs (te. the screening of a large number of flowsheet alternatives by
using order-of-magnitude estimates to determine the best flowshec:t or the best few
alternatives):
Revenues., Raw MatI. + UtiL + Ann_ Install. EqUiP, Cost
+ 2.13 )( 10' Opcratof!i

+ ADn Cap. Cost of Feed Compress. if any)

(2.6-2)

Sunilarl)'. when we consider the recycle structure of the f1owsheel, i,e., level 3. and
v.e genera Ie cost tstlnlates for the reactor and a recycle gas compressor (if any). we
can wnte

EP J

,.

Re"enue - Raw MatI. - (Feed Compress. Cap

+ Op COSt) - Reactor Cost - (Gas-Recycle

Compress. Cap

+ Op. Cost)

(2.6-3)

Thus. as we add more detail to the ftowsheet. we merely sublract lhe ncv.
utilities costs and the annualized, installed equipment cost of the new equipmenl
that is added If the economic polential at any le,'e1 becomes negative. we havc
three options:
I. Terminate the design stud)'.
L Look for a better process altemati\'e.

.l Increase the product pnce so that the economic polentlal IS zcro. and contmue
wilh the design.
If we follow option 3. we e\entually delermine a \'alue of the product price that
would make the process altemau\'e under consideration profitable. If thiS nev.
product pnoe were only slightly higher than the current price, we would probably
contmue wilh the design. (We need to undenake II supply-and-demand anal)-sis 10
sec how far in the future that .....e might e.tpect to obtain this higher pritt)
However, if the product price required to make the alternative profitable
Iil;ere much greater than the current price at any of the levels in the hierarchy. we
would terminate the work on the current alternative and look for one that was
cbeaper. If none of the alternatives were acceptable, we would terminate the
project This approach is very efficient because it makes it possible to term mate
projects with a minimum amount of design effort

(2.6-1)

The: annualized instalkd equipment costs lire determined by multiplying the

installed equIpment costs (sec Sec. 2,2) by a CCF which includes all the investmentrelated costs

Significanf Equipment Items

The case study considered in Sec. 21 is somewhat unusual because one piece of
equipment (the recycle compressor C-I) comprises almost half of the total
purchased (or installed) equipment cost. However. suppose we consider another
ca.sc study, for tbe disproporlionation of toluene to produce benzene and xylene.

Economic Potential
In Chap" I we presented a hIerarchical decision procedure that would simplify the
development of a conceptual design The appro.timate COSt model presented abO\'C
fits lOtO the hICrarchical framework \ery nittly Thus. when we consider the input-

R. J Hmplebeck IlDd J T 8.lacheto. Du"optl",_tlOtf t{ T~. WaslunglQII UDJvel~'ly De.p

Caw Study No I. ediled by R 0 Snuth. Wash,nston Un,."...ly. St- Lou!$, Mo JII_ 26. t969

TABLE 1.6.. 1

InHslmenl summary, S

Pumps (1949)
PI
P2
p.]
PA
PA
p.,
p.

.;;
~

"'

.,;

..

"'

...
M

0
~

~
~

"'

tncIudllll spates
Pumps (1%9)

E'
E2
E'
EA
E'

"

~
0

~
",

E~

f
...

...

E'
E'

10

Ul

"'

..

~ ~

,<

'

D
'
-~
~

.~

~ g li'

,
"
~

~,S;

R.
:

~~

C:cS<:i

66

28,760

".000
140,000
115,000

'.800
2.2.000
26.000
"000

'.<OIl

,........

17,000

E11

'.300

',200

'.>00

TI
T2
T'
TOlal

',800
)1,100

'2.000
79,000

CompreAOB (1969)

C,
C,
DnulUi (1969)

31l,ooo
23,650

IDSlailcd COlA liumllUlfJ

p=,.
Exch&n~ts
.~~

Towers (el< lrays)

T~,.

'00,200

ComJ'feMOn
Drums

....000

f",n"""

ItIS,OOO
1.140..000
121,000
'90,000

""""

751.000

130,000

52),000
-3,142,000

a.

.~

11

~
N

98.100

FJOm R J HCllplebccl al>d J T B"",<I,.,o, Wuh,nlloa U", nny Owl" CaM: S101dy No.
<dncd lot B D Slim'" W""lI"JIOI' UII, nny. 5. Lou... Mo~ 1%9

...-;--.

ol!
N

37,600

.~
~

u.

Total

,,"'"
".

TrIo)"S (1969)

10

E.. 12

TI
T2
T.'

~>

...

<

"'

1~,.J80

Towers (1969)

""M
19.800

b.cha.n~crs (1969)

O
-'S-

Reaaor (1969)

j;-

-r <:'

~
+

2.>00

,.,

<

....,

EJ.Cha.llgul' (1968)

Ul

1)20
1,9SO

Pumps (19-49).

"'urP<:ao (I969j

'.900

The equipment COSIS rOf the ftowsheet shown in Fig 2.6-1 are listed in Table 2.6-1,
and tbe operal1ng costs are gJ\'cn in Table 2.6-2. A cost summary fo(tbe process IS
preseoled In Table 2.6-3.
When we examine Tables 2..14 and 2.6-1, ..l lC sec that the costs of pumps and
drums are only a small fraction of the 10lal costs. If wc neglect lhese costs (or
Simply assume Ihat they are aboul 10 y. ofthe lotal), then we can save Ihe effort of
desigmog a large fraction of the total number of pieces of equipment and yet
Introduce only a small error an our calculations. SimIlarly, if we assume that the
costs oflhe feed tanks and product storage tanks will be essentially the same for all
the process alteroatives, then we can omit them from our screening calculations.
Of course, the process WIll not operate without the pumps, drums, feed tanks,
and storage tanks. Ilowe\-er, If our screening calculatIons Indicate that the process
IS not profitable and that the project should be teomnated when we do not include
these costs. then we never need to design them. Thus. for conceptual designs we

TABLE 2..6-2
O~nling

between these t .....o dIfferent types of quanlitteS. we mUSI consKk:r the time value of
money Thus. by usmg inlerest calculations to determme the: present value of IWO
allematives. we can compare them on the: ~me basis. The present value (PV) of an
Investment I plus annual paymenu R with an interest rate i i..

COS, summny, $1000

Ullhlln
Powr,

Slum

'20

F'"
"ala

H1

JO

lotal

120'

Lobo.

""

SuprrvlSlOn

16'

Taus. ins",..noc
Rrpalu
MI5OI:lllna>Ull
Plpol d'larp:l
Totll
SARF
Clu.I)'51
Total

2SO
I

""SO

PV=J+

16.

'"
2060

--

F.... k J 1l...1lldood aDd J T Iblldoon-o. w~ U... _ y

Deoop
S..ldy No .. ed>oeoI by B 0 s.illl. ""......_ 0......
...y. Sl. ' - Mo. 1M

c_

include only the COSls of the Significant equipment ilems. This approach is in
agreement with lhe engineering method discussed in Chap I,

2.7 SUM 1ARY. EXERCISF..'5, A 0

'OMENCLATURE
Summary

[1-(1+11")

Once we find lhe best alternative, we mUSI evaluate the: lolal cosl aSSOClaled
wtlh the process, to see whe'her additional engincenng effort can be: Jusllfic:d. That
is, we must include the cost of the offsite facilities. maintenance and repaIr..,
.... orking capital, start-up costs, elc. These various factors are discussed in Sec. 2,].
and a profitability modd IS developed in Sec.. 2.5, This modd provides an
ellplanatlon for the simple cost analyses fhat \,l.e use throughout this lext
NOle lbat we still have not considered the control of the process, ~fet). or
envIronmental factors in adequate detail Any of these faclors might make the
process unprofitable. lienee. the profilability calc;.llat;ons for our conceptual
design merely provide a basis Ibat we can use to Judge .... hether morc detailed
design slUd"es can bejusufied By including rough esllmales of Ihe other pr~smg
costs, howe\er, W'C are better able: to make Ihis judgmenL
Exercises

When we compare process alternalu'es, nonnally there are different economic

trade-offs bet\loccn capnal and operating costs. To make valid compansons

TA8LE 2.6-3
In.estment and operlling summary
Con"n5>On/pass. ~.
PUfFPS
tDYalmcnls, S IIIlIbons
IS8L
OS8L

JO

N.

'"

112
-4.86

WorkIng caPllllo

100

Calalyslmw:olory

'06

'"

j.1l2

OprrallDI coou.. St mlDoon"yr

Uhllloes

LAbor aDd 5llprrvtSIOO'

Tua Ind insul"ID(r
Repa.., aDd JlllJCelJanc:ous
Calal)'ll
SARE

Maleoals. BCDI (60F)

Tolurnc: feed
PrDdllCts

x,_
. . . . .M

H, Feed. 10" SCFO'

120

Fuel p.s. 10" Btu/day

016
017
OJ]

006
0"
>06

"

..

"'"

2000

'"

1700

Fr..... "- J ll
lcb.d and J T Banc:ho,o. WUbJqlOOl U.,~.",,,y ",""lpI Cur Sr""y I>lo .. od,rod by 8 0
W
IP_ U.",,",ly. SL Lou... Mo. 1969
~. "" .. ! -..d lO_y '" Inod ud ,.ndooaa,.-.lb r-. ,.oducu ......... ' . . .

S<att~

duo,,.,.

, I......... ~,....
, ICD .. boo"dsIcaInodar day

, SCTD - ."'wrd nobo<: ""'vda,

2.7-1. Dc:nve an npresSloD for the \'alueofan annUllyahel n yr I'lhe first pa}'mentls made
ill lIme zero. ralhe, llun ill lhe end of the lint year
2.7-2. A fnend of lOUrs joins I ChriSlmas Gub al a Ioc:al banI. She deposlls SID mo
starling on JanWiry I and receIVes SilO al Ihe beglnmng of tlrettmber If lhe nominal
rale available: is 5.75~~compounded monlhly. he... much ,nt(fest does Ihe bank keep
for providmg thrs servICe? (No/t, This payment plan IS dIfferent from the annUity
schedule dISCUSsed in Ihe te.l)
2.7), St Mary's Cemetry in Nonhampton. Massachussctts, charges SIlO for a amelry
plot and ISO for perpetual care of the plot. Al a nominal mterest rate of 6 %
compounded monlhly.....hat are the expected annual maintenanc:c charges"
2.1-<4. Some U1\I\eflillles are fortunale 10 hl\'e endowed chaIrs for lheir outslandmg facull}.
and oflen these cbaJfli provide S50.OlXt/yr. If the nominal mleresl rate 1$ 10%
compounded eaDImuously, bo.... moch money is required to establish a chair"
2.7-5. When we make monlhly payments on a car or a house, the amount of the payment is
a constlnt, but different fractions of this payment represent repayment of the
pnllCJpaJ and lhe iolerest. Also. lbe fracoon anoealed to cadi chan~ o\'er lbe loan
pcnod. Using the lennmology below, develop expressions for the pnncipal and
interest payments dunng year r
M _ amount ofmorlgage

p" monlhly

r _ annual paymenl

R .. nomInal Inlerest rate

, _ R,'12" monthly

iol~res:t

paym~nl

rale

P, - pn1lCJpal paid dunng year J

II "" no monlhs for loan

" - prinCIpal paid at end of lsI month

I, ,. mleresl paid during lear J

70

~FcrlO'" J1

Sl!ClION Jl

SU"MA~Y. EXEJlOSES. "'NO NOMENClAnJU

2.7-6. Estllnate: the: purchased and Installe:d equIpment COlli of. JOOOft\ SS/SS, U-Iubc
heilt e:xchange:r opc:r.atmg at ]80 Ibl
2.7-7. Dc..e:lop an CJlpl"CSSIOD for tbe: total lIl.. eslmc.ot U ..1: a.uumc: that 'be: ..orLmg capllal
... ] months' .. orlb oftbc product re:.e:nl>CS
2.1-8. De.clop an uprcsslon for the: profit before: lUes If \Ioe: a.uumc: that the: labor eo)t)
are: 15~. or the: lOU.! pcoduct COStS (sec: Table: 2.]-2)
2.7-9. tk\c:Iop an uprCSSIOD fur the: 10lal upst;!l m\CSllne:nt for a grass rOOIS plant
(;tSSume: olf)lIe: eosls are: ] limes onsne: eost~1
2.7-10. For an 11)'r plantlifc and a OCFROR of25~.. \Io'hat I) the: capnal charge faC1or'
2.7-11. Calculate: the payout time: and thc DCFROR for thc proocss dcscribed in Sec 2 I U
you need to Introduce: additional assumpllons, c1e:arly state: the:se: assumptions
2.7-12. Calculate: thc ROI, payout time:, and DCFROR for the: process de:scribed in Sec. 26
If you nc:c:d to introduce: addlllonal assumptions, cle:arly state: these: assumptions

P,

PV

R
Raw Mali

ROI

R,
S
Salvo Val
SARE
Start-up
Supervis

TC
Tot Inv
TOL Prod_ COSt

Nomenclature
A

C.
CCf

C.
CN
Contmg.
Depree
d,

EP,
F,
FCI

F.
Fixed Cap
F~

F,

'.n
"IF
Imur
ISBL

Lab
m

Main!.
Manu. COSI
n

Op. Supply
OSBL
Plant OVHD

Hcal-<xehange:r area
Bast cost for carbon sleel
Capttal charge factor
Exchanger COSt
Cosl of producI, ~ lb
ContlgeOC} costs
Dcpreciallon
Annual depreclallon
EconomIc pol~nllal at ]C:\c:1 ,
Correction factor for pressure:, materials of construclion,
etc.
Fixed capiJaI investment
Design-type correCllon factor
Fixed capital COSt
Malerial-of-conSlrllction correclion factor
Pressure corrttlion faClor
Effcclive InlereSI rate
Conlinuous interest rat~
Imlallatlon factor
Insurance
Inside-ballery-hmlls costs = onSlle costs
Laboralory costs
No. payment penods per year
Repair and mallltc:nancc costs
Manufacturing costs
No. )'ear~
Operating SUppllCS
Outside-ballery-hmllS COSIS = offSHe costs
Plant overhead

l;UMIolAIY,

uuasn.... ND

NOMENCI ..1UllE

Pnnclpal
Presenl value
omlDal interest ral~
Periodic pa}'menl
Raw-matcnal costs
Return on lO\cslmenl
Continuous payment
Amount of money In a ban" account
Sahiage value
Sales, admlnlslratlOn, research, and e:ngineering costs
Starting costs
Direct supervision
Timc
TOlal cost
TOlal invcslmeOl
TOlal product cost

Uti!.

UI,htlCS COSIS

Work: Cap

Workmg capllal

Design vanabks

71

SHTlOW 'I

n08lHl OEnNmON ... N" OENEkA.l CO"lSIDElAlIONS

73

Economic Potential

CHAPTER

3
ECONOMIC
DECISION
MAKING:
DESIGN

The first step In the anal)-sis of any deslsn problem is to e\aluate the economic
significance of the project Initially we do not know what fraction ohlle acetone we
might aHempt to recover, but rather than spend time on this decision we merely
base the calculation on complete recovery. Thus, we calculate an economic
potential (EP) as
EP = Prod Value

(3.1-1)

Or. since .... e are currently burning the acetone,

EP = (10.3 molfhr)(0.27 Sjlb)(58 Ib/moIX8150 hr/yr)

= $1.315 x 106/yr

OF A

SOLVE T
RECOVERY
SYSTEM

Raw Mati Cost

(3.1-2)

Operating Time
It IS conventional practice to report operatmg costs or stream costs on an annual
basiS. Different companies use somewhat different values for the number of
operating hours per year, and they may even use different values for different types
of projects. We .....iII usc 8150 hr/yr for continuous processes and 7500 hr,yr for
batch. (nus operating time includes scheduled shutdowns for maintenance,
unplanned downtime due to mechanical failures, and/or production losses caused
b~ capacity limitations or lack of fttd.)

Process Alternatives
To illustrate how process alternati\-es can be generated and the use of order-ofmagnitude calculations to make economic decisions, we consider the very simple
example of the design of a SOlveDt recovery system

3.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
We assume that as part of a process design problem there IS a stream containlOg
10.3 mol(hr of actlone and 687 moljhr of air that is being fed to a flare system (10
avoid air poUution). The design question of interest is; Should we recover some of
tbe acetone?

The next question we ask is; How can we reco\er the acetooc7 From our
k.nowledge of unit operations, we might list the alternatives shown in Table 3.1-1
We might be abie to think of other alternatives, and so we need to make some
judgment about using conventional technology versus the cost of doing the
de\dopment work required to design and evaluate unconventionlH ahematives.

TABLE J.I-I

Soh-ent recanr, ahematil'C!i

L CoDdr_uoa

.. Hlp prasun:
b Lo... temperaturc
c A combln.lion of boll!

1. Absorption
J,. AdJorpilon

Thill ~ "udr I$' moo:hlitd ..,noon olthc 19H AI<:bE Studenl Conl($l PIOI>lcnl. Jet: 1 J McKclla.
lJtc~"",..... O/C'-wal ~ IIftIl DWp...,( I. Dd:hr. Ne..- YOlk. 1976, P )1"

12

<l A mcmbr'M sepal.llon .""em

$. A ruc:tioa

p'0CQI

74

u.cnON u

S~cnON II

OUIGN 01 A GU AlSOnU

Now we come to lhis que~lioli. Which is Ihe cheapest alternative? Fairsuggests Ihat any time the solUle concentration in a gas Slream is less than 5"'..
adsorption is the cheapest process. However, many petroleum companies prefer to
use condensation or absorption systems because the companies have much more
experience design 109 and operallOg these types of units. Furthermore, only a few
vendors sell adsorption equipment Thus, we are again required 10 make a
judgment concefOlng the usc of technology where we ha\e a great deal of
experience \'ersus using a technology where .....e have much less experience. We
should base this decision on the rdatlve costs, as well as the risks, of the various
processes In question.
Of course, we do not know the costs of the various alternatives until we
design each of them. We do not necessarily want to develop rigorous designs
initially, because (at best) we would build only one of them. Henoe. we only want to
include sufficient accuracy in our screening calculation to determine which
ahernallve is the cheapest (or to see whether they have about the same costs), aod
theo we will develop a rigorous design if we decide to build the process.
On numerous occasioos In design we cao develop a number of alternatives
that appear as If the)' Will do the Job If we do oot mow which alternative is the
cheapest, we should consider designing them all By doing quick design calculations, we can simplify the design effort required to make dccisK>os.

3.2 DESIGN OF A GAS ABSORBER,

FLOWSHEET, MATERIAL AND E 'ERGY
BALANCES. AND STREAM COSTS
We arbItrarily deade to consider lhe design of a gas absorber tirst, although \loe
recognize thai we must also consider alternative designs before we deode whIch
process we might build. This very simple design problem illustrates the use of
shortcut calculations, rules of thumb, and other process altemati\'cs.
Flo"",sheels Mod Ahermllhes 10 Gas Absorption

or A GU

Al:lSO\laU

75

Water
Air
Acetone

Acetone

flCUR..[ 3.2-1
AcetODC absol!>et

It is reasonable to question whether dl.scardlDg the process water, as is shown

in Fig. 3.2-1, can ever be justi6cd-e\en when a pollution treatment facility IS
available. 1llc only justification IS based on the temperature of the process water
entering the gas absorber If a recycle proa:ss is used, we cool the recycle stream
WiIh cooling .......Ier. Normally ..... e assume that cooling ..... ater IS available from the
cooliog towers at 9O"F (on a hot summer day) and that it must be returned to the
cooling to.....ers at a temperature less than 12O"'F (to pre\ent exccsshe scale
formalloo on the exchanger surface) T'hen If we assume a IO"F driving force at the
cold end of the exchanger, Ihe recycled process water Will enter the gas absorber al
IOO=F.
However, If we use well water as the whent, theo the temperature of the
water fed to the absorber might be 7rF, or possibly less. It is advantageous to
operate the absorber al as Iowa temperature as possible, which we can achieve If

Before we can do any calculations, it is necessary to invent a flowshect for the

process. The Simplest possible ftowshcct we might imagine is shown in Fig. 3.2-1.
We use water as a solvent (because It is cheap) to recover acetone from the air
stream in the gas absorber, and then we distill the acetone product from the water
and throwaway the water (environmental constraints may preclude this possibility, so we include a cost for pollution treatment). Of course, we could recycle the
proa:ss water to the glls absorber (see Fig. 3.2-2), and III Ihis way we would avoid
any environmenlal problems If we used anything other than water as a solvent, we
would always recover and recycle the solvent.

Solvent

Acetone

Acetone
J R Fa'r, M,,,.,d 50/"""1 Rrco.,.,,1' "'" Pur,jiUJ/lO". p I, Washlllvon Uruverslly DeI;,&" Cue 51udy
No 7, alllW by 8 D Smnh, Wuhlllglon Umvcnlly, 51 Lou,s. !>to, 1969

DUffiN

FIGURE J.l-l
AlXIODC .~Ibc:1

Hoo'

well water is available as a solven! and if we do not recycle the .....ater ThiS
reasoning is the basis for a design heuristic
If a raw material component is used as the solvent in a gas
absorber. consider feeding the prooess through the gas
absorber

(3.2-1)

Thus, we find that we ha\e two alternatl\e ftowsheets. If we do nOI know

which is the cheaper. y,e should dcslgn both, In addition, we must evaluate whether
we really wanl to use y,aler as the solvent. We arbitrarily choose to consider the
f1owshec:t shown in Fig. 3.2-1 first. because it is the simplest.
Millerial BalarK"e';
DISTRIBunON OF COMPONENTS. Ona: we have specified a flowsheet. we
must try to K1enllfy the components that will appear in ew:ry stream. The: IIllet gas

ftow to the absorber IS given in the problem statement as 10_3 mol(hr of ac:etoM
and 687 mol,lhr of au If we use well water as a solvent, tben the inlet soh'ent stream
is pure water_ The gas leaving the absorber will contain air. some acctone: (we can
never obtain a comp&cu: recovery), and some water. Since water is rclati\'c1y
ine,;pcnsive. we neglect this solvent loss in our first design calculations. However. if
any other sohent is used, it IS essenlial to include the solvCIltloss in the cconcomic
analysis. as we demonstrate later
The feed stream to the distillation column will conlain ....ater. most of the
acctone. and some dlssohed air. Probably we caD neglect this dissohed air III our
first ~t of design cakulations, but it is essential to rccognize that we must put a
vent on the distillation oolumn condenser, to prevent the accumulation of air in this
unit. The overhead from the distillation column will tben contain acetone and
water. while: the bottoms will contain water and some acetone:..
We now sec that acelone leaves the process in three places: the exil gas stream
from the absorber. the distillate overhead. and the distillate bottom stream.
Nonnally, we would be given a product specification for the product stream. which
would correspond to either the specifK:ation that the company established when
they used aa:tone as a raw material or the specification that the marketing group
would indicate when they try to sell this acetone. However. even if we fh the
acelone composition in the overhead of the distillation column. we still cannot
calculate an acetone material balana: until we specify some infonnation about the
aa:lone leaving in the other two streams.

Similarly, there is an optimum fracllonal recovery overhead in lhe distillation

column As we add more and more plates in the stripping sa:tion of this column,
the still cost Increases, but the value of lhe acetone losl to the sey,er decreases.
We cannot find the optimum fractional recoveries of acetone in eilher the
absorber or the stili unless y,e carry oul detailed designs of these columns
Furthermore. it is not clear that we want to find the optimum design conditions
unlil we have decided to build an absorpllon process Hena'. for our first set of
calculations. we base the design a rule of thumb (i e. a heuoslic):
It is desirable 10 rcco\er more than 99~. of all valuable
materials (we normally use a 99.5~~ rcco\ery as a first
guess).

We discuss this rule of thumb III greater dctaBlater in thiS chapter.

We also ha\'e to fi,; Ihe water Row rate to the @as absorber before we can
calculate a ~t of material balances. The greater Ihe soh'ent flow rate. the fewer
trays that are required to achic\'e a fi,;ed fractional rcco\'ery in the absorber. but the
greater the load on the distillation column Thus, there is an optimum sohent no\lo
rate. Again, we prefer not to optimize: designs at lhe screemng stage if a heunstic IS
available. and so we use another rule of thumb to fiJI. the sohent flow:
For an isothermal. dilute absor~r, choose I such that L = IAmG (3.23)
We also dlseuss this rule of thumb later

EXACT MATERIAL BAL4.,:..CES. Wllh these rules of thumb. it is a straightforward task to calculate the malenal balanocs. For lhe acetonewater s)'stem al
7rF aDd 1 atm. 1 = 6.7 and fY "" U~, so that

m =

;~

----p; -

6.7(229)
760 - 2.02

L = 14mG.., 1.4(2.02X687) = 1943 mol,lhr

For a

99.5~

rCCO\'ery of acelone

III

(3.2-4)
(3.2.5)

the gas absorber, the aa:tone lost is

0.005(10,3) - 0.0515 moljhr

(3.2.6)

and the acetone ftow to the distillation column is

0.995(10.]) "" 10.25 molfhr

(3.27)

U 99.5 % of the acetone entering lhe still IS recovered overhead. we ohtain

0.995(10.25) "" 1020 mol(hr

RULES 01' THUMB. Ofeourse, we can recover 90, or 99, or 99.9%, or whalever.
of the acetone in the gas absorber, simply by adding more trays to the top of Ihe
absorber. The COSI of the gas absorber Will continue to increase as we increase the
fractional recovery. but the value of the acetone lost to the flare system 1'1'111
continue 10 decrease. Thus. there is an optimum fractional recovery.

(3.2-2)

(3 28)

Also. jf the product compo~ilion of acetone i<; specified 10 be 99"<;. the amounl of
wate, in the product stream will be

099\
' 0.99
/1020)

0 10 mol/hr

(129)

78

~CJ""JON II

llUlGN 01 .. GAS AISOUU

SECTION 11

0005(10.25) ... 0005 mol/hr

(3.210)

1943

(3.2.11)

0 I _ 1942_9 mol(hr

APPROXIMATE MATENIAL 8ALA1\Ct:S. Even though these material-balance

calculatlons are \ery SImple and quick. accordlDg to the englDeenng method ~e do
nOI want to do any calculations unless they provide us wllh SIgnificant infonnation.
Thus, we want to explore the POSSibility of developmg a set of material balances
that are almost correct (withm 10'1.. or so) with the minimum amount of effort We
need to calculate Ihe solvent feed rate in the same way as we did before, but there is
a simpler way of obtaining good estimates of the other nows
If we assume thaI 99.5% recovery (or any recovery greater than 99%) is
essentially equivalent to a 100% rcco\'ery (actually. we are willing to tolerate 10%
error). then the acetone Row in the disllllatlon column overhead becomes 10.3
versus 10.2. Also since a 99 % acetone composit;'.m in the distillate: is essentially the
same as 100% acetone, the .....ater Row leaving the bottom of the column could be
wnllen 3S 1943, versus 19429. Similarly, Ibe feed stream to the still becomes
10.3 molfbr of acelone and 1943 molfhr of water. versus 10.25 + 1943. Thus, we sec:
that we esseDliall} mal.e no errors m the stream Rows if .....e merely assume 100%
recoveries and pure streams and lhen just wrile down the Rows.
Of course......e cannot base: the: design of the gas absorber or the: still on 100%
recoveries_ Moreo\er, we would hl.e to esllmate Ibe acetone: losses from the
absorber m'erhead and the still bonoms. Howner, suppose .... e use 99.5 %
recoveries for these calculations. Our material balances will no longer quite
balance (although they are certamly wllhin 10% of the exact answers), bUI our
calculation effort will decrease. The savings in time are not significant for this
simple problem, but II can be: for complex plant designs. Thus., .....e use approximate
material balances for screening calculations throughoul thiS lext. although we
would make rigorous material balances as we proceeded with final design
calculations.
SOl.VENT LOSS. For ca-5C$ wherc Il.C usc a solvenl olher than water and we

recover and rccycle this solvent. as is shown in Fig. 3.2-2, II is essenlial to estimate
the loss of this solvent ID the absorber eltlt gas stream very carly in the design
calculations. For a low-pressure absorber, the fugacity correction factors arc
negligible, and the ...apor liquid eqUilibrium relationship for the solvent can be
written as
(3.2-12)
With greater than 99% recovery of the solute, the soillent composition on the
top Iray will be essenllally
(3.213)
If a solvent IS used that is

ID th~

homologous senes with the solute. then

1." 1

79

and .....e can wnte

Then the bollom Rows of acetone and water are

.nd

UUK.N uF .. OAS "~IU

(32-14)

Y. =

P';/Pr

(12-15)

lIence, a quid, way to estImate the soh-enl loss

m _

JI.

1 - J.

IS 10

write

GZJG

(12-16)

Stream costs. Once Iloe have esllmaled lh~ material balances, ....e calculate the
stream costs
ACETONE-WATER PROCESS. For the acetone-waler system wilh no recycling
and 99.5 % recoveries, we find from our approximate material balances the
following:
Acetone loss 10 absorber overhead (assume SO.27/lb) is
(SO.27/1bX58Ib/moIXo.0515 molfhrX8150 hr/yr) = S66OO/yr

(3.2-11)

AcetoDC loss in slill bouoms is

(SO.27/1bX58Ib/moIX00515 molfbrX8150 hr/yr) = 56600/yr

(32-18)

Pollution treatment casu (assume SO.25/1b BOD and lib acclone/lb BOD) art:
(SO.25/1b BOOXllb BOO/lb acctoneX58Ib/mol)(00515 molfhrX8150 hr/yr)
= S6100'yr
(3.2-19)
Se.....er charges (assume 50.2/1000 gal) are

'0.20 )( 1 g.1 \,
( 1000 gal 8.341b! 18 Ib/mol)(1943 mol/hr)(8150 hr/yr)

= S6S00/yr

(3.220)

Sohen! water (assume $0.75/1000 gal) is

SO.75
( 1000 gal

I g.1 \,
8.34 Ibfl8lb/molXl943 molfbrX8150 hr/yr) - 525,600/yr (3.2-21)

Since each of these COSIS is essentially negbglble compared 10 the economic

polential of SIJ 15 x lr per year, we want to contmue developlDg the design. Also
we note thaI there is lillie mCCOlI\'e ID using morc rigorous material balances or in
getting very accurale costs for the pollution treatment system. In fact. we can
tolerate IOOy" errors in our calculations. and the conclUSion of negligible stream
casu will DOl be affected.
COST OF SOLVENT LOSS. Suppose we also consider using methyl Isobutyl
ketooe(MIBK) as a solveD(, and we recycle the MIBK H 1": = 0.0237 atm at 77"F
and PT = I aIm, from Eq. 3.2-16 we find that
MI BK loss (assume SO.35/lb = 535/0101)
= (535/mol)(0.0237(687 mollhr)](8150 hr/yr)
= $4.464 x 10D/yr

(12-22)

80

SECT'ON Il

I>SIGN

or

~ GAS A~'U

SfCll0"l "

When we compare thIs value to the economIc potentIal, \loe see that y,e want to
dror any idea of usin@ MIBK as a solvent. Morco\'er, \loe are glad that y,e dId not
take the trouble to dtslgn the absorber and stIli before \loe calculatNi the stream
costs. Agam we find that our dCClsion does not depend to any great elltent on the
accuracy of the calculation Thus, we usc the economic analysis to help us decide on
the accuracy we need for our design calculatIons.
Energ~' Balances fOI"

Ihe Acetone Absorbel"

Our origlOal design problem was undcrdefined, and thus II \\as neccssarl to usc
some rules 01 thumb (greater than 99~~ reco\ents and L _ I 4mG) to be able: 10
calculate a sel of malenal balances. It should not be surprising Ihat the same
problem is encountered when we try to write energy balances. Thus, we need 10 fill
each of the stream temperatures in order to estimate the energy flows.
Since the inlet composition to the gas absorber is quite dilute, we might
assume that the absorber will opera Ie isothermally. Hence, if thc gas and liqUId
streams entenng the absorber are at 77 F, we assume that the ellit streams are at
Ihls same: temprrature (sec Fig. 3.2-3).
We do not want 10 store our product stream at its boiling pOInt, so we IOslall
a product cooler. With cooling water available at 9O"F and a IO~F drivlDg force,
the temperature of the product slream leaving the product cookr ....ill be 100~F
Our acetone product contains I % water. But rather than calculate the bubble
point of the distillate, ....e might merely guess that the temperature or the overhead
is essentially the same as the boiling point of acetone (135"F); i.e., we Cltpcct that
the error in calculating the heat load of the product cooler caused by this
assumption will be: negligible. Similarly, we assume thai Ihe bottom stream from
the still is at 212"F (because there is only 0.05 mol of acetone as compared to
Water
Air

120

90

nF

77F

135F

-!L{~~;}
Coolant 100F

Hut

120

120

90

90

Coolant
Sewer
L:':"::::='--' 1000F
FIGURE J.1.J

or

A GAS "'SOIt.u

81

1943 mol of y,alcr) and that \\C must cool IhlS waste stream 10 100 F (cooling91ater temperature) pnor to pollution treatment (It ...ould be beller 10 assume that
the bottom of the column IS at 5 to 10 psig, rather than atmospheric prtssure. but
again the error will be small)
We still must spccif) the temperature of the stream entering the distillation
column. Saturated-liquid feeds arc the most common case, and so we might guess a
temperaturc of 20<rF or so (10.3 mol of acetone and 1943 mol of water) Again, we
ellpect that a guessed value WII! enable u~ to calculate the load on the still preheater
\\ithout calculating the bubble point of the feed miltture or correcting for a column
operating pressure of 5 to 10 psig
If \loe do not preheal the feed stream entering the dIstillatIon column to close
to the saturated-liqUId conc.htion, then we will ha\'e a supercooled liqUId entering
the still and the heat load on the still reboiler will increasc. Thus. the lotal energy
demand on the preheater and the still reboiler is essentially constant 1I0wc\er.
usually we prefer to preheat the feed because T10nnally we can usc a hot process
stream that needs to be cooled down as the source of heat, rather than using steam
from a utility supply. Hence. we need to consider the energy integration of the
process as pari of our dtsl1!n activllY
E.....ERGy BALANCES. Once we ha'e SpeCIfied the stream temperatures and we

ha\e esllmated all the stream flows, It is a Simple mailer to calculate the: heat loads
of the various streams b~ uSing the eltpresslOn

(32-23)
Then we could decide on a heat-cllchanger network and calculate the heatellchanger areas, the annuailled heat-cltchanger capital costs, and lhe utility costs
For a simple process, sucb as the one 1;I'e are considering, tbis would be a
reasonable procedure. In general, however, we .....a nt to energy-integrate the
absorber-stripper heat loads with those of the remainder of the process, and
therefore we defer tbe energy analysis.

Acetone

276F, 25 psia

5ueuII Il'lllrera1ur<:s-

OESlG"l

PROCESS ALTERNATI\'E. In our selection orthe stream temperatures, we noted

tbal tbe still bollom was almost pure water (0.05 mol acetone and 1943 mol of
water). For this case. the column reboiler uses 25-psia steam to generate essenlially
l5-psia steam Ihat is returned to the column. As a process alternative, we could
eliminate the reboiler and feed live steam to the column. We pay a penalty with this
approach, howe\'er, because once the live steam is condensed. it must go 10 the
pollution treatment system and then is lost to the sewer (whereas the steam leaving
a reboiler would be vaponzed and recycled through the closed steam system). Also,
boiler feed water has a higher quality (it is demineralized, etc) and is therefore
more eltpc.:nSlve than process water. Hence. we must balance the reboilcr savings
8@alOst the incremental cost of boiler feed .....ater. pollution treat men!. and q: ....er
costs to see ....hether this alternative is worth pursuing.

SE<TKJN lJ

3.3

EQUIPME T DFSIGN CONSIDERATIONS

n-n:cr

In addition 10 calculating lhe sizes of the heat exchangers, we must calculale: the:
size and cost of the absorber and Ihe slllI Before we begin any calculations,
however, we wanl to underSland the cause-and-effecl relationships of Ihe: design
variables and to sec: whether we can simplify Ihe normal unit-operalions models.

Gas Absorber
For isorhermal, dilute systems, the Kremsc:r equation can be used to calculate the
Dumber of theoretical trays required 10 the gas absorber;
N

l-~(~- IX:: -::)+ t]

In(m~)

If pure water is used as the solvent, then

carlier, we know Ihat

y-

Y.

and

:s:

L=

XI. ""'

(3.3-1)

O. From the: rules of thumb discussed

1 - 0.99 = 0.01

IAC::)G

(3.3-2)
(3.3-3)

We can usc the Kremser equation and the rules of thumb 10 understand the effects
or the design variables.
COLUMN PRESSURE. Suppose we double the tower pressure PT. From Eq. 3.3-3

we see that L decreases by a factor of 2; but since LI(mG) _ 1.4, the number of
plates required in tbe gas absorber (see Eq. 3.3-1) does not change. Lower values of
L mean that the stiU feed will be more concentrated, tbe reflux ratio will decrease,
the: vapor rate in the: still will decrease., the column diameter will decrease, the sizes
of the condenser and reboiler will decrease, and the steam and cooling-water
requirements will decrease. Thus. decreasing the solvent flow to Ihe gas absorber
will have a significant effect on the design oftbe still. but no effect on the number of
trays required in the absorber.
TIle absorber diameter will decrease: (because of the density effect and a
smaller liquid load), and a (eed gas compressor will be required to obtain the
increased pressure. Since gas compressors are the most expensive type: o( prooess
ing equipment, normally it docs not pay to IOcreasc the pressure ohhe gas absorber
with a compressor. (In some cases, a high pressure can be obtained by pumping a
liquid stream to a high pressure somewhere upstream of the absorber.)

EQUIPMENT OUI(;N' COt<;S!OEIATlONS

8J

OF SOLVEI'H. For the: acetone:-water system, the vaJue: Qf m W".tS gl\len

by
'IP~
1/1 -

Pl- =

6.7(229)
760 - .. 2.02

(3.3-4)

We sec: Ihal If we: usc: a sohent such a.s M IBK Ihat forms an c:ssc:ntiaJly ideal
mlXlure: \lonh ace:tone:, so lhal i"; I, then frOIll Eq lJ-J weculthe liquid ralc: by a
factor of 6.7 (and decrease the stlll cost). lIowever, from Eq J3-1 we sec: that the
required number of plales 10 Ihe absorber docs not change
EFFECT OF OPERATING TEMPERATURE. If we change the inlet waler temperature to 4O"C, then 1 = 7.8 and P" = 421 mmHg. Thus, (rom Eq. 3.3-3 we see that
L will increase (so Ihal Ihe stIll costs will IIlcrease), but the: number of absorber
trays (sec: Eq. 3.3-12) Will remaIn the same.
S)"slems Approach Versus Unit Operations
The simple examples diSCussed above clearly reveal Ihat the Interacllon bc:1\.. c:en
unl1 operations IS the: key feature of process deSIgn. Thus, desIgn cannot be
accomplished merely by connectmg vanous umts and mlslalcnly thinking that If
we properly design each unit, we will obtain a proper deSign of the whole plant
Instead. we must always look at the behavior of the Iota I svstem
BacL;-(t(.lbe-Ennlope Design Equation
The Kre:mser equation, Eq. 3.3-1. IS actually a qUlle slmplc: equallon Ihal can be:
used to design gas absorbers for isothermal operalion with dllule fc:eds. However.
In accordance with the engineering mel hod and our baSIC dc~ire to do calculations
only If we gain some Significant information from this cffon \loe would like to
review the Kremsc:r equation and to evaluate the significance o'f each term. We do
this by examining the orde:r of magnitude of the various terms in the equallon.
First let us consider the left-hand side of Eq 3.3-1. i.e. the term N + I We are
concerned with obtaining accurate estimates of only lhe items Ihat are c:xpensive_
We: upcct that relatively expensive absorbers will contain 10 to 20 theoretical trays
(tbe: COSt or a gas absorber Willi only 2 or 3 trays will probably be ne:gllglbk:
compared to a ~umaoc, a gas compressor, a dlstillallon column with JO to 20 trays,
etc.). If we dcode not to undertake a calculation unless II changes the result by
more: than 1O~'.' then we sec: thai we: can simplify the Icrl~hand side of the Krc:mscr
c:quallon by writing
N

+ I::;:N

(3.3-5)

For pure solvents, ~,. = 0, and the numerator of the nght-hand side: becomes
-A

Kr~msc:r,

Nod

P~rrol

Nr.>iS, 22(2t);.2 (I9lO).

(33-6)

84

SFCfIOW H

SEC.TlON J.'

FOUlr~f'1'lT nUIGI'l COWSIOUAnoWS

L
mG

1.4

85

Process Ahernalh'es

L _ ,)('_)
( mG
.'_.

+ 1 ::::: 40 + 1

and If ,>,e apply The order-of-magmtude COlenon (I

(3.3-S)

40), we can write

In[(m~-IX;~)+'J~'n[(m~-'X:.:)J

(33-9)

'The denommator of the right-hand side ofthe equation. In [L/(mG, can be

wrillen as

(3.310)

In(1 +{;)

Now, from a Taylor senes expansion. \ilie can wnte

In - . , In (I
mG

+ ,) ~,=

-mGL - 1 ~ 04

(3.3-11)

With these: SImplifications, and replaong In by Jog. we obtain

2.3 log{[l./(mG) - I)(Y.JJ'_>J
N'""

TIIU ... 8

(3.3-7)

,nd

Thus,

or

the Sleam and coolmg-waler loads. Calculations of lhls type are discussed m
Appendices A.2 and A.3.

The rules of thumb indIcate that

-::I;:

lULU

0.4

Within a 10~ error. we note that 2.3/0 4 = 6 and (2.3 log O.4)/OA
simplIfied version of the Kremser equation becomes

y.
y_.

N+2=6Iog.....!!.

(3.3-12)

= -2. Hence, a
(3.313)

Now we have a design equation that we can solve without a calculator. For a
99% recovery. Eq. 3.3-13 predicts 10 trays versus the exact value of 10.1. For a
99.9% recovery, we obtain 16 trays from Eq. 3.3-13 versus 16.6 from the ell act
equation. In addition to calculating the number or plates in t.he absor?tr, we mu~t
calculate the height and diameter. These: calculations are diSCUSsed m AppendiX
A.3.
Dis.iIIation Column
To separale acetone from the solvent water, we use a distillaTion column The
acetone-water mixture is very nonideal, and we do not know of any shortcut
procedures for hiShly non ideal separations. However, the mixture is only a binary
one and so we can use II McCabc:-l1l1ele diagram to find the number of Trays. We
als~ must calculale the still diameter. the size of the conden~r and reboiler. and

I n addition 10 completing I he gas absorber design, we must design a condensation

procus and an adsorptIon process (as well as a membrane process) before we can
evaluate whether the acetone is ~orth recovcnng and, if so, which process should
be sdeeted Our goal here is merdy to indicate the nalure of design problems and
TO illusTrate how order-of.magmTude analyses can be used to obTain shorTcut
design procedures. These shortcut procedures can often be used to simplify the
evaluaTion step in the synThesis and analysis procedure, particularly during the
preliminary stages of design when a large number of alternatives is being screened

3.4

RULES OF THUMB

Originally ruks of Ihumb weK developed by experienced designers. A designer

IIlIght have optimittd the design of 10 absorber-stripper systems and found that
the optimization always gave values close to L Co IAmG and optimum reco"eries
greater than 99% Then, when The eleventh problem was encountered, the designer
simply wrote down lhe answer Ho,>,'ever. today most rules of thumb (or design
beumtics) are de"e1oped by graduate students who run 5CX) to 1000 case studies on
a compuler for a particular problem and then allempl 10 generalize the results
Of course:, the: fact That generahzatlons of computer optimization studlCS are
possibk Implies That The optImization calculations are very insensithe to changes
LD most design and cost parameters If the design and cost equations are Insensitive,
then the engineering method mdlcates that we should be able to simplify the:
equations. Thus. using the order-of-magnitude arguments to simplify problems, we
should be able to derive the rules of thumb. The advantage of a derivation of thiS
type is that the assumptions used in the analysis will clearly indicate the potential
limitations of the rule of thumb.

Liquid Flow Rate to Gas Absorbfrs

For isothermal, dilute gas absorbers, the Kremser equation, Eq. 3.3-1, can be used
to calculate the number of trays required for a specified recovery as a function of Lf
(mG). A plot of the Kremscrequation is shown in Fig. 3.4-1. From this graph we see
thaI if we pick L such that L/(mG) < I, we can never get close to complete recovery
of the solute even if we use an mfinlte number of plates (infinite capital cost). If the
solule is very valuable or, worse, if It IS toxic (such as HeN), certainly we will want
10 obtain very high recoveries. Thus, we can conclude that we would never choose
the liquid flow rale such that L/(mG) < I
We also see from the graph that if we choose Lf(mG) = 2, we obtain
csscntially complele recovery with ollly five plates. Remember that large solvenl
now rates correspond to dllule fec:dsto the dlslillation column-and therefore large

S6

RCTION H

~VLI:S OF TIIV...
UCTlO!'l 10

I plale

I~

TAC (S yr) "" (C, S/moIXGy_ mol/hrX8150 hr yr)

+ [C", S'(plate'yr)(N plates)
0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

20

2.4

2.8

87

COST MODEL It is common practice to r~pofl operating costs on an annual

basIs. Thus,to examlllc th~ economic trad~-off......e mU)1 also put the capilal cost on
an annualized basIs As discussed In Sec, 2.5, we annualize the capital coSt by
InlroduClng a capital charge: faclor (CCF) of i yr, where the CCF mclude:s all
capllal-related e"pcn~ (depreciation, repairs and mallltenantt. etc.). A CCF of
~ yr corresponds to aboul a 15~ discounled-cash-f1ow ratc: of return (DCFROR);
sec Eq 2513"
Suppose we: wrile a IOlal annual cost (TAC) modd as

3
2

,'i,

~VLES Of" TIfVIoU

(3.4-3)

3.2
OPTIMUM DESIGN. No...... if we use our simplified design equation, Eq. 3,).12 we
obtain

-L

.c
FlGURa,: 3.4-1
Ii: remKr equauol1. (/'-mm T K, SMrwooJ and R. L
Ntw YO'"k, /9J1.)

J>iQf~d. AbwrpllOII .1I"t f"ITIICIIOII,

TAC - 8150C,GY,.(Y:,,')

MeG'II....",'/,

+ C.(610&

:i. _

2)

)-,

),.

(34-')

The optimum fractional loss is given by

reflux rallOS, high vapor ratcs, large-diameter columns, large condensers and
reboilers, and high sleam and cooling-water demands. Hence, if we pick L such
thai L/(mG) > 2, we will obtain tin), lIlexpc:nsive absorbers, but very upc:nsive
distillation columns.
Based on these simple argumen15, we find that .....e want to choose L such that
1<

L
--<1

mG

L
- _ 14

0,

)'_, "" _. 6C",

Y,n
8150C.GJ..

(3.4-1)

Of course, 4(mG) = U IS right in the middle of thiS range. Ho.....e\oer, if "'e inspect
lhe sbape of the cuncs Dear 4(mG) _ 1.5 and with high recoveries, we sec that we
might obtalD a better trade-off betwocn a decrc:asmg number of plales required in
the absorber (capnal cost) and the mCfeaslOg capilal and operating costs of the
distillation column by decreasing L lienee:, as a first guess, il soems to be
reasonable: to choose L such that
mG

(3.4-5)

(3.4-2)

(3.4-6)

U we consider some typical values

C, = $15.5, mol

Gy.. = 10 mol/hr

C" .. S850/plale yr'

(3.'-7)

.....e find that

y_.
0004
-.., = 8150(15,5)(10) "" .
6(850)

(3.4-8)

which corresponds to
Fraclional recovcry =

which IS the: commOD rule of thumb.

99.6~

(3.4-9)

FraClional Recovery in Gas Absorbers

For a fixcd solvenl ftow rate, we can always lIlcreasc the recovery of the solute
simply by addlllg trays in the gas absorber. Hencc. tbere IS an economic Irade-off
belwocn an increasing absorber cost as we add trays versus a decreasing value of
the solule losi. One of these is a capJlal cost (the absorber), and one IS an operating
cost (the solute loss).

A IS"; DCFROR IS a bare mll1lmllm for<;onoeptWlI <JeliJgns or"ClI-lIl1dCRlood processes, I.e., a ~allN:
foOl hlpm!; pro,e:c:lii, liu<;h u m bIOtechnology. a ~aJue of III _ I IS not
unlusonable.

of if2.S - 0.4 Iii mOre reallsllc:.

'M SPeIer. and Ii: 0 Tlmmc:rhaus.. flnll/ Des.gn "lid U:tMt"'UCSjOf CIo"ml('W ErtglftUrs, McGrawHill, New Vorl. t96&, (I 389, &lve I)'plal ~.IUQ th.1 ,ante f,om 51200 to 52100 per plale depend,n. oa
tbe column d.-merer If we kt the 00Ii1 be S2SSO per (liale and 1IX a C"CF of i )'r. we oblaJll nso/)r per

....'0

Sensitivity
The significant feature of this elementary analysis is not the relationship for the
optimum design. Eq. ] 4~6. which is not exact, but rather the sensitivity of the
calculation. Eq. 3.4-8. From Eq. 3.4-8 we see that we can change any of the numbers
in the numerator or the denominator by 100':-.. and the optimum fractional
recovery onl) c:hanges from 99 2-. to 998_. Thut, the result is ~'cry in$.Cnslti,e to
any of the design or cost parameters.
This simple scnsilivHy analysis clearly demonstrates thatlhere is no incentl\e
for n=fining the cost data used In the analysis. ThIS same behavior is characleristic:
of a large number of design problems; i.e, the solutions are often ,ery insensiti,e to
the physical property data. the functional fonn of the design equation. and design
parameters such as heat-transfer coefficients. cost data, etc. Thus, good engineering
judgment requires that we obtain some idea of the sensitivity of the solution before
we expend a slgmficant amount of time gathering accurate data or attempting
rigorous design calculations. That IS. we want to spend as hnk time as posslbk
gelling an answer, and we want that ans....er to have only enough accuracy to make
the decision ....e are faced with.

Limitalions of Rule'i of Thumb

The rules of thumb .....e de,-e1oped .....ere both based on lile Kremser equation. and
we know Ihal the Kremser equation is 'alid only for isolhcnnal, dilute s)''Slems,
when~ both the operatmg and the eqUilibrium hnes are straIght For a system
satisfying these conditions. the minimum solvent flow rate corresponds to thc
condllion at the bottom end of the tower when tbe exit-liqUid composition (for a
fixed fractional recovery) is in cquilibnurn wilh the entering gas (so that an
infinite number of trays is required at the concentrated end of the column): see Fig_
3.4-14. The economic trade-olTs dictate that we want to operate with L ~ 1.4mG
and a high fractional reco,ery. From Fig. 3.4-2c \1o"e see that these: results
correspond to almost a pinch zone at tbe lOp (dilute end) of the absorber.
For concentrated mixtures of solutes, the equilibrium line might be curved, as
shown in Fig.. 3.4-3. For a fixed fractional recovery, the minimum liquid now rate is
determined by Iheoperating line becoming tangent to the equilibrium curve As the
liquid flow Tate is mcreased. we expect lhal it will require more trays to get from J ...
to
for this case than a corresponding change for the dilute case, Fig. 3.4-2b and
c. Hence, we might expect that using a solvent flow such that L/(mG) is somewhat
greater Ihan I 4 and attempting to recover somewhat less solute tban for the dilute
case will get us closer to the optimum design conditions.
An even more dramatic difference IS encountered for adiabatic absorbers. As
the solule leaves the gas slrenm and is taken up by the solvent. the solute gives up
its heat of vaporization This heat effect causes the lemptrature of the liquid stream
to increase as it approaches lhe bollom end of the tower Increasing liquid
temperatures increase the vapor pressure of the solute, and from Eq. 3.2-4 we see
that the slope of the equilibrium line increases_ Thu~. the minimum liquid flow rate

y_.

Dilute solutions: Y = y, X .. x
G. YOUl L, x...

:-vr-=

y-

Xm

G,)"... L,..tout

(a)

y-~
Y

I
I

y-

'

X lIUl

(b)

Minimum liquid flow when

Xout

Y -

(e)

is in equilibrium with Y..

flGURI: 3.4-1
MlRlmUIQ hquKlI'lo.' rile

ISOIbennal

occurs .... ben there is a plOch at the bollom of the tower when)'... _ m... x_. (see
Fig. 14-4).
From Fig. 3.4--4 we see that a "ery small increase in the sohent flow rate
above the minimum will al1o.... us to get from Y;. to y_ with a very few plates.
Howe~er. the upward-curving nature of the equilibrium line means that the
mmimum solvent flo .... rale will be much larger than a correspondmg case .....here we
could maintam isothermal optration at the same inlet liquid temperature. In fact,
The minimum liquid flow rate for an adiabatic absorber
may be 10 times greater than the rule-of-Ihumb value
L"", J.4mG based on the inJctliquid temperature.

(3.4--10)

This example illustrates that the indiscriminate use of rules of thumb may lead to
an inoperable design. In general.
Every rule ofthumb has some limitations.

(3.4-11 )

From our discussion of the design of an adiabatic absorbe;, we nole Ihat ....e
expect to obtain only a few plates (smaU absorber cost) and large liquid flows (large
still costs). which is not a desirable situation Thus. il is common practice to put
coolin. coils or one or more pump-around cooling loops on tbe bottom two or
three trays of a gas absorber. to force it to behave more as an isothermal lower.

flGUAE 3.4-3
Minimum liquid no... RIle

CO.-IIIR1led mL'uurfS.

ntt

90

SfcJlON H

Sl("TION II

SUMM,UY. EXERCISES. ANI> M.lr.tEN<.JA1Ukl

SI.'MMAkY. UEkClUS, Ai'O NuMENCLATlIRE

91

d Cooling water IS available al 90'1' from a cooling lower and musl be relurned
to the tower al 120F or less.
e, Assume a IO~F approach temperalure for Slreams cookd with cooling water
It IS Importanl 10 remember Ihat e\t:ry rult:: of Ihumb has some limilations!
F1GUME: 3.4-4
MIn,mum liquId " ...'"

adiaballC

Exercises

Again, il is essential 10 understand the Inleraction belween process unils in order to

develop a close 10 an opllmum design. Similarly, slructural changes in the
f10wsheet (cooling coils in the bollom trays of an absorber) normally have a much
greater impacl on lhe process economIcs than exact oplimization calculalions (the
optimum solvenl flow rate to an adiabatic absorber). We can Iherefore propose
another heuristic:
Avoid the use of adiabalic absorbers (unless there is only
a small temperalure rise across the absorber).

(3.4-12)

35 SUMMARY, EXERCISES, AND

NOMENCLATURE
Summary
A number of important concepts are presented in this chapter:
I. Process alternalives
a. A large number of alternatives can be generated even for simple processes.
b. We use shortcut procedures to select the best alternative thai we will design
rigorously, providing lhat the process is profitable.
(I) We want to spend as lillie time as possible gelling an answer.
(2) We only want to include sufficienl accuracy to be able 10 make a decision.
(3) We always consider the sensitivity of our calculations.
2. Shortcut design procedures
a. It is reasonable 10 base process flows on 100% recoveries in separators and to
base equipment designs on 99.5% recoveries, al the screening stage of process
design.
b. Order-of-magnitude arguments can be used to simplify design equations.
3. Systems approach
a. You should always consider the total problem.
b. Changes in the design variables in one unit (absorber) might affect the design
of some other umt (stili), bUl nOI the unit under conSlderallon.
4. Rules of lhumb heuristics
(I, If a raw malerial is used as a solvent in a gas absorber, consider feeding the
process through the absorber.
b. It is desirable 10 recover more than 99 % of valuable components.
c. Choose Ihe solvenl flow for an isothermal, dilute gas absorber as L = 1.4mG.

3-5.1 If we use Ihe rcc)'c1e llowshet:t shown III Fig. 3.2-2, whal an.' the economic trade-offs
thai fiA the n:cycJe COmposition of Ihe solvcnt?
3-5.2 Consider a condensallon process for recovering acetone from an air Slream.
(a) Draw a nowshcct for a condensation process for the acetone recovery problem
(b) If the condensation process operates at 15 psia, Whlll temperalure would be

required to recover

995~-:;

of lhe acetone?

(c) If lhe condensation process operates at lOOF, what pressure would be required to

condense 99.5 % of the acelone?

(ei) Discuss your results.
(e) Describe the economic trade-offs involved III Ihe design of a condensation process
(oolh low-tempera lUre and high-pressure).
3-5..3 Peters and Timmerhaus deri"e an CRpression for the optimum diameler of a pipe by
balancing Ihe cost of the pipe (which mcreases with the pipe diameler) againsl lhe
po.... er required to dehver a specified amoulll of flUId through the pip" (which
decreases as lhe pipe dlameler increases) For pipes greater than 1-10. dlameler, they
give lhe results

o
LOP'

J)H'J ".

~Qo",. Gu. o 0" [O.ggK(1 +

f
P
fl.,
(I + F)XEK

(35-1)

.. ].9Q1"po ,)

\\here D, = oplimunl pipe diameter (m.). Q f = volumelflc flo\\' rate (fl)/S), p =

density (Ib/rt), IJ. - viscosily (cP), K = SO.055fkwh, J _ 0.35, If, = 8760 hr/yr,
E = 0.5, F - 1.4, K f = 0.2, and X = SO.45/fl. Many mdustnal practlllOnerS use a rule
orthumb that the velocity in a pipe IS a constant, although Ihey US(' differenl values for
liquids and gases. Can you use Eq. 3.5-1 to derive a rule of thumb for pipe velocily?
Wbal are Ibe limitations ofthi5 heuristic? Thai is, for whal cases does it not apply? If
""e change lhe annual charge faclor K f from 0_2 to 0.4, bow does our'eslimate change?
3-5.4. A fnend of mine in induslry tells me Ihat some of the chemists in hiS company estimate
the minimum number of trays in a disttllation column for a binary mixture by laking
the sum of the boiling points and dlvtdmg by] times their difference. Can you show
thatlhe back-of-the--envelope model IS essc:ntially equivalelllto Fenske's equation for
the minimum number of lrays? (HUll: Assume Ideal, c1oseboihng mixtures, lhe
ClaUSIus-Clapeyron equallon. Trouton's rule, and we want 10 oblain 97% purities.)
3-5.5 Several quantitative heurisucs have been proposed for deciding 011 a sequence of
dlsllllauon columns (I.e~ for a lernary mIxture we could recover the lightest

M S Pelers aDd K. D. T'mmerllaus. Plant (H)'lIn and uOI'lonun for- eM"""a/ Eng",,,,,,s, 3d ed,

McGraw_lIdl Ne\\ Vorl, 1980, p. 379

SEcnow
oomponcnl In Ihe first column and the:n srhl the remain,"! 1\000, or ...~ eould rKO'er
1!Ie: he:lI\-1CSI componenl first and Ihen spill the: remilmtng 1"'01 Rod and Marek" usc:
the: allenon
I.\V

(II~(".

I 25X("

0.25Ix..

"..("-I

...hereas Rudd. f'o\loels, lind Snrola' C:Sllmate Ihe relau'e

sc:parallon b;r,~d on lhe: upress,on

eo~t

~-2)

of a dlsullauon

Feed Rale
OlSlIlIallOD COSI - 8o ilin s-Poinl Dilrelc:nce

135-3)

w,6!JT,
~

267

To

1lO

1----,_

- - - . , A~, U~
_

Ac ' Uc

100

1----

FIGURE J.S-I
lint r<'COv,"",
the: lInnuahzed C()$t of lhe: Iwo uchllngns plus the: cooIlns-_ter eost minus the: \lI1uoe
of the steam J"foouc:ed

Nadgir and Liu l propose: a coefficienl of c:asc: of S1Cparation (CES). defined as

CES _

--.-!!-. AT =
F-D

lOO( ._0

\0: _ 1)

F-Of

93

90w,

ckS

1;.. -366

SUMM"n. UUClstS, ",..0 I'lOMfNCUTV'-

Jl

(15-5)

(3.5-4)

...-h,le Nath and MOlard' and Lu and Motard- prcsc:.nl a mole:. <:omplu uprcssion
based on lhe: num~, of Iray, (proportIOnal 10 Inn II) mulupbed by comb,nahons of
flow rale factors. Can you show Ihlll 1I111hc:sc: a.prcsslons have CSSICnlllllly lbe same
depc:ndenc.e On the n:llluve \oIl1lJlllyl 0eri'"C the SImplest aprcsslon Ihlll lOU can for
Ihe vllpor rale In II brna" column. assuming Ih8t RIR.. _ I 2. and compare Ih,s result
to Rod and Marek's lesuh
J.5.4S ConSider the design of a benzene-Ioluene d,stillahon column (assume .2 2.5) for a
case I'.'here the fc:c:d rate IS 100 mol/hr. Ihe ben7.ene feed composition is 005, I'.e want
to rceo"el 99_5% of Ihe benzene, and ."e wanl the: benzene punt) to be: 099 Usc:
Smoker's cqualton 10 c.akulale lhe: number of trays 'cql,ured. and lIS$ume thai
R _ 1.2R~ Find both lhe: VlIflO! ,ates and lhe number of t,a)"S rcqullcd In ItIt
recltfyingllnd stnpptng sectIOnS if (a) the ked stream is at 1(1) F and (b) )ou mlltle
ked stream to salur.lled-i1qUld oondlUOn$ (also c:akulate the load on the hellter).
Compare the lola) heat mput and the number of trays requIred for bolh cases.
J-5.7 A rule of thumb commonly used in desIgn is that the approach tempcr.lture In a heal
exchanger should be 10F 10 the range from ambicnllo Ihe boilmg polOl of organics
(lower values.lhat is, 3F, are used ror refrigeration conditions and higher value.~, that
is, sooF, are used for high temperatures). To eyaluale this heuristic, consider the
sunplc s)'Slem shown In Fig. 3_S--I, whe:re 1'11:: are allc:mpting 10 lcoo,er 50me heal from
a "'lI$U: stream by productn,; steam The lotallinnulil C051 of IhlS process is the sum of

V Rod.ndJ Marck,C"'fn" Cud. C""" C_~U1,J2~(1959).

0 F Rood, G J Po"er$, lind 1 J Surola. P'OCtSS 5)""'''''I$, Plenlicellal!. Fnglc:",ood a,rr\. NJ~
1973, P 37
I V M NadJl' and Y A !.m, AlCltF: J~ 29 926{I98J)
, II: Nalh and II: L MOIIld. MholullOlllllY S)'nthrsos 0( Sepalalion Pr()CCSSle5.- AIOF MeellOA,
Ph,laddplua. 1978
I M D 1.lIand II: L MOl81d, /'UI CJw.oI. F..., S,., Mr, !"O 74 C1912~

Wrile the equations for the heal balances for the ellehangers, and show that Eq ).55
can be wrillen as

fC.(T I
TAC - C.. U, T

-+

C~

100) T, - 120
Fe. Tioo - T,
DO In 100 90 -+ C.. IT In T , _ T

Fe.

30 (T,

FC.
1(0) - C. All, (T.. - T,)

.
(H-6)

Sinc.e T. _ 267 and T, musl be gruter Ihan T" we simplify Ihe uprCSSlon by
assuming that (T, - 100)/(T, - 130) _ I. With Ihis applO...imation show Ihat the
opllmum value or ' . IS given by

0- _ CAIV .. -+ C.. IVe -+ C ..

T, - T,

T,

120

JO

+-.S..
All,

(B-7)

Evro though this equatIOn is rdali\"Cly simple 10 50Ive rot T1 , suppose lhal we
allanpl to bound lhe ans....er instead Thai is, ...~ know that T l must be Icss than T ioo
and that It musl be sreatel the T,. Uenoe, we can wrile (after we solve for T I - T,.
whICh IS the most .st:nSlli"e term lO Eq 3.5-7)
C../V.
C.. /U,
c.. C,
-T.--- 120 -+ JO -+

A-'-'.

<:

Tl

T. <:

C../V,
C.. /U,
C.. C.
T.. \20 -+ JO -+ A,

(3.5-8)

Clilcullile lhese bounds for. case: ... ha-e C.. -SIlJl/y". F-5I,100Iblhr.
C."" 1.0 Btu (lbcF). U,_JOBlu/(hr ftJF). U._20Bluj(hrfI J oF). C.=
JO.07J881((lb/hr) yrJ. MI, - 933.7 Blullb. T. _ 26TF, T... _ ]66F, and C."
S2122/1.{lb/h') yr]
Undelwood's equatIon for the mllllmum 'e!lux rallo for mullicomponc:nl mIxtures
no{mally requilcs a Irtal-and-error solution. Thai is, for an AB/(CD) split. we first
soh'e the cqulliion below for lhr: value of 8 be:twccn II~ and 1

(3_S--9)

94

St,CTION

$UW"AlY, UEiCISEs. AND NO .. ENCUruIE

SIiC1ION 11

and then we use lhl~ result to alcuJale R.. (assunlln! a sharp AB/(CD) split and that
no D goes overhead):
II.C .I:,U'

ClteX. D

11...::-9

11.:-9

---+

.l: CII

+--".R +1
1-9
..

C.

C,

(35-10)

C.
D

D,.

It IS Idvantageous to avoid trialand-error calculations when we are allemptlllg 10

determllle the best separallon sequence bec.:ause the number 01 wJumns thai need to
be designed IIlCfU.ses r"pldl) ;IS lhe number of componenlS mcreues (the columnsequencmg problem 1$ dlSCtlssed III Chap 7). Malone sugge:ned a procedure for
boundlllg the values 018 In Eq 35-9 He firsl re'Antes the equation U
IIJCX.,

Xu

II AC X,."

11..:-8

1-6

1I,fC-8

- - + - - *' I - q- -

~-

II I1C X.,

--lI oc -6

I )
In-~

I - x

L
m

the des.rred value 016 mUSI be IJl Ihe range of irK <: 6 <: I, be lim SUb$ltlutes 11 K
for 8 00 lhe nyll-hlnd sick of Eq 35-11 and lben solves the remiialll' quadrauc
equallOllo. lie repean 1hJ.s procedure wllh 9 = 1 sub$tilutal 00 the n&hl-haod sKie
The actual value of 8 must thus be betwce:n these bounds.
Consader a case where X A , - Xu = xc, = xDf" = 0.25,lI..c = 4,lI.- - 2. lip(" ...
05, and q - I, and find the bounds Oft 8 For a case where F .. 100, all the A and
99.S" of lbe B are recovered ol'erhead, and all the D and 993 ~ of the Care
recovered in lbe bonoms, lind the bounds on R...
3-5..9, In lhe ISOpwpanollo-aoetone proccu (a smgle, IrreversIble reacuon) sbown III FII1.3-1, lhere 'Atli be a large reliCIOr ~t at hIgh con~mons, bill tbe recyde tIow will be
small (and lherefore lhe: recyde cosu will be small). The: opposne SlIuatioo will hold
for low conVCl"SIons, 50 INit lhere muSI be an optimum co",,'erslon. Suppose that an
esumale of the costs kads 10 lbe nprcsslon

(1S-11)

511lt:e

TAC"" 7]) ( J082 + t5t

EP

(3 S-12)

when: lbe term 7J3/. corresponds 10 tbe rec;:yde flow, 3082 eorresponds 10 I~
elfecl of Ibe recycle now on the <:om of the equipmenl in the recyde loop, and 151
In [1/(1 corresponds 10 lhe ra(:lor cosL Plot t~ rec;:yde COSl,lbe ractor COSt,
and the 10lal Inoual COSI versus cooverslOn. Can you propose: I design heunsllc for
Ihe optimum conversion for lirsl-order, Ic:versible reactions? For wblt types of
kinetIC models ....ould you peet thai your heuristic would not be vaJid?

P,
p;
q

Q,
R.
T
TAC

T.
T,

T,

U.

u,
Iv,
Iv,

SUr.l .... lly. EXHCISf.S. "1'oD NOMENC"I_HlJU

Cost ofsteam (S/Ib/hr) yr]}

Solutc value (S/mol)
Cost of coolmg water (Sj[(lbjhr) - yr]J
Dlslillate flow
OptmlUm ptpe diameter
EconomiC potential
Flow rate (mol/IIC in Eq 3 S-2)
Gas rate (molthr)
Solvent rale (moljhr)
Slope of equilibrium hne (sec Eq ],2-4)
Number of plates
Operaling pressure; must have same: unil as po (atm. psia. mmHg)
Vapor pressure of SOIUIC, must have lhe same units as Pr (atm. psla.
mmHg)
Feed qualilY
Heal load (Blujhr)
Volumelnc flow rau: (fills)
Minimum reOux ralio
Temperature C'F)
TOlal annual COSI (SJyr)
JnJel lemperalure ("F)
Steam lemperalure (oF)
Temperature of Intermedlale stream (of)
Overall heat-transfer coeffiocnl for the waler ooolant
[8Iu/(hr. fl J OF)]
Overall heaHraosfer coeffiCIent for lhe steam exchanger
[Btu/(hr. It 1. 8F)]
Coohng waler flow rale (Ibfhr)
Steam Bow rale (Ibfhr)
Mole fraction in liquid phase
Mole fraction of oompooenl i in distillate
Mole fraction of component i in feed
Mole fraction in gas phase

Nomencllliure

A,
A.

C..
CES

CII
C,

Area of water cooler (ft 1 )

Arca of Sleam exchanger (ft J)
Annualized COSt of heat ellchanger [S/(ft 1 . yr)]
Coefficient of ease of separation
Annualized cost per plate [S/(platc: yr)]
Heat capacity (Dtu/(mol' oF) or Dtu/(Ib. OF)]

,,
8
p

".MI,
OT

M F. MaIORe_ De~flmc:nt u{C!lertuClll En&lDccnn~ Un,vcl~lly of MaaachwcIl1. penonal wmmun""'UOII

6V
1

Relative volalility
ActivilY coefficient
Small value
Root of Underwood's equallon
Density ""' Ib/II J
Viscosity (cP)
Heat 01 vaponallon of steam (Btuflb)
Boiling-point dtffercnce:
DIfference 10 vapor rate
Conversion

9S

PART

II
DEVELOPING
A CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
AND FINDING
THE BEST
FLOWSHEET

97

CHAPTER

4
INPUT
INFORMATION
AND BATCH
VERSUS
CONTINUOUS

As \lot mentioned earlier, the original definition of a design problem is underdefined. Not only must .....e develop designs based on ne..... reaction schemes invented
by our own company. but also we must design all our competitor's new processes,
to ensure that Ollf company's technology will remain competitive. Thus, we often
must design a process based on a minimum amount of information.

4.1

INPUT INFORMATION

The information that is normally available at the initial stages of a design problem
(or that must be gathered) is given in Table 4.1-1. We briefly discuss each.

Reaction Information
The reaction information we need to know is listed in Table 4.1-2. Often it is
possible to gather much of this information rrom the patent literature. In
particular, the primary reactions, the temperature and pressure ranges, the catalyst,
and the maximum yield often are available. It is essential to worl.:: closely with a
chemist 10 gather the remainder of the information or atleabt to make a best guess
of the missing data

100

SFCTIO""

'*

11'l1'l1! '''''OUlAllOt-

UcnoN"

TABU' 4.1_1

I, l"ht reacuons and reaCllon condlllon~

1. ".., delued production Ule
). The daorcd prodUCI pUrIly. Of _
mformatwn aboUI proce

VCT~UJ

purlly

-4. l"ht raw matenalJ and or JOmc Iniormillon aboll' pro"" '''''"''US runly
~ Inf...rmlhon aboul I .... fatt 0( I .... ,ean,,'n Ind the rate 0( cataJ~JI dracl1U'Kln
All)

101

corn:~pood

Input informalion

6.

Il'll'lJl INFO~M4ll01'l

pr<>oc%UlnJ. eon~"a.nts

7. Od.er plan. and Slle dna

a. Physocal "'OJtCft~ of III componmts

t. Informa\lon oonoelmna the 1.IIk!)'. 10~K'Ily.nd en'"onmmtll ImpacT of the
rnllCIUIs In"""~ ,n tM prootS$
10. Cosl data lor b),prodlllC/5. eqlltpmcrll.. and uuhtleS

part1CUlarl~ ~ry 10 write do"n any Side reaCllons

Ihat mtght take place.. E\en tf 001)' a Irace amount or a by-product is produttd in a
laboratory ellpenment. Ihis bY'product may build up 10 \'ery large 1e\'C1s in a
recycle loop lIe~. all lhe by-products produced musl be known io order 10
s)'nthcslZe a separallon system. O.-erloolong side reactions has bet:n a common
mislake. and it almosl al\\ays leads to paying large economic penalues

SIDE R[AnIO-':S. It IS

I'ot,4.XI\IUM nELl). Informahon cona:rning how the product dlstnbution

changes wlth COn\er$lon and. or reactor temperature. molar rallO of reaClaot$. elc..
IS often dllTlCult to obtam A chemISt's focus IS on scoullng different calal)'Sls.
anemplJng to define a mechalltsm. and looking for ways to wrile a broad patent
claim, Dunng lhese .scoul1ng ellpc:dlllOns the c~mtst normally allempls to find
the reaclion conditions that malllmll;C the yield Thus. ellperience indicatcs thai
the eJJS(lOg data base Will have mOSI of the points grouped in a small range of
conversions close to Ihe mallimum yield. (Often the largest amounl of dala will

10 il slOgle predefined cond'l,on Ihill IS used to ehec!.: the reproducibi_

hty of the catalyst. hut Ihat i~ far removed from The Opi101Ulll economic operatlOg
conditions.)
Numerous plOCCSsrS Illne been desIgned 10 operate al the cond,tlOn of
maximum yield. bUI this operallon onen dOC'i nOI correspond to lhe optimum
economic conversion As an example. k:1 us consider a simple:. hypothetical
react,on system A .... lJ C. where 8 's Ihe dc~,red product and C has only fuel
\alue The concentrallon~ of A. 8. and C \'~rsus t,me 10 a balch rcactor or sracc
lime 10 a tubular reactOf arc shown III fig 411 When Blakes on its ma:llmum
conc.enlrallon. polOl P 10 rig 4 I-I, a cons,derable amounl of undesIred C '5
formed and a large amounl of A IS converled !-iollle..'er. if wc consider operaling al
poml Q on Ihe d,agram. only a small amounl of C IS fonned and much Jess A IS
oon\er1ed. Thus. If .....e opera Ie al poml Q. we will require larger recycle Rows (and
higher recycle casa), but we lose less of our ell penSIve raw malerial A Ihal is
converled to the b) product C .... hich has (lnly fuel value
We define St'1'rlll'II, S as Ihe fnlcHon of the reactanl converted Ihal cOOs up
a~ d~lred producI

S = Mok:s of B Produced
Moles of A Con'erled

and .... e refcr to lhe con.erslon or A 10 C as a sckcllVlty loss. A dIagrammatic sketch

of our defiflltion of scleclI\lIy for the- !-iDA process (see Sec. 1..2) is sho.....n in Fig.
41-2 (Nole thai a vanet~ of definItIOns of selCCllvil) and yield arc used in the
IJterature. so lhal II IS ailloa)s nec.essary 10 check the' ddiflltlon)
NormalJ). ,a"-malenals COSIS and selecl1Vll)' losses are the dominant factors
1O the dOlgn of a petrochenncal I"rocess, Raw-materials costs are usually in the

0.'
0.8
" 0.7

I/

8. 0.5

Reaction informJltion
t, l1tt slo!CIuomct., 01 aU reaC:ItOnl th~t tak... p1ac:c
1. l1tt ranll: 0( temperllules and p.~urc$
the rclclions
1. l1tt phasql) of lhe rn"lOn Iysltm
-4. Some: mlOrmlllOn on lhe product d'llnbullon ~erlUI c:onVC!'IIon (and flOJSlbly rcaClOr tempe'"lme,
molar rallo of rclCllInl$. lind/or pressure)
S. Some: ,"(Otm.tlOn aboul con~erllon C'UuJ Sp"CC ~e1OClty Or residence IUne
6. If. call1ni .1 USI'd. lOme: Inlorm~tlOn abou' tM Jtale of 1M calalyst (homogcneou... IlullY. p"cktd
heel. powdet. etc:), _O'TIC In'OIm_IIOft abotJl the deactIvation r~te Ind JOme ,du
Iht rtgcnalhlhly
of 1M cal~lYlt OJ ",dl,Q tht method of r~~nc:rll,on (ooh burn.lOlvent w:nh, etc.)

'or

E 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

o
o

V-

I'.

S 0.6
TABLE <4.1-2

(4.1-1)

1/
1/
~

/
Q

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time

0'

-+- CatCao; -+- CbtCao; __ Cc/Cao

HGUR[ 4.1_1
Batdt composition

pl061cs

1,800.000
1,600,000

(a) Rt:a{:lor

(I

x) mol

Toluene
unre3Clw

Rel,;)'Cle

1.200,000
.. 1,000,lXXJ
~
~
8OO,lXXJ

Toluene

1=1
Benzene
produced

o
oI

Toluene
reacted

Reaetor

Benzene = .ll-

Dlphenyl ==
J(I - S)x

Separalor

f-f-D,p henyl =

~( I

02

0_3

04

OS

06

0_7

0-8

09

nGURE t-3
Prolil

(b) Plant

Toluene - I - x
Benezenc = Sx

Conversion x

Dlpheoyl
produced

Toluene
Toluene
lew
I mol
x mol

600,000
400,000
200.000

(I mol)

x mol

L--

1,400,000

- S)x

Toluene recycle = I - x

bull of the data which are talco in the neighborhood of the maximum Yield. Agam,
establishing a close relationship with a chemist and providing him or her with
feedback about the optimum processing conditions early in the experimental
program WIll lead to more profitable processes.
Unfonunately, most companies are not organized to operate in this manner
Instead, the chemist's apparatus has been completely dIsmantled, and the chemist
has been assIgned to another project before a design engmttr recei"es the: problem
10 thiS situallon, the designer should altempt to estimate the economic Incentive for
determimng the economi{: optimum conversIon, and therefore for domg some
adduional e.xpenments, rather than just designmg a process 10 operate at maximum YIeld

FlGURE ....1-2
Sda::uvll)'

range from 3S to 85 % of Ihe lotal produci COSL The opllmum economic

conversion is nonnally fixed by an economic trade-off between large: selectivilY
losses and large reactor costs at high comersions balanced against large recycle
costs allow conversions. Hence, the optimum economic conversion is less than the
conversion corresponding to the: maximum yield, as shown m Fig. 4.1-3.
Often the scouting experimenls performed by a chemiSI will conlain more
informalion about the effeCI of conversion on Ihe product distnbulion than Ihe

E. L. Glumcr. "Selling Pnct n Raw Mal~nal Cost," Clwm "il~ 79 (9) 190 (Apn124, 1967).

Catalyst Deactivalioo
Another Pleoe of design dala Ihat orten is lacking al lhe early slages of a design is
the catalySl deaClivation rale. The chemisCs efforts are focused on finding a more
aClive or selective calalyst, so that numerous shorHlme runs with a variety of
catalysts are conSidered. Some catalysts have an operaung life of I or 2 yr before
regeneration or replacemenl IS required, so obviously a lime-consummg expenmen! IS required 10 find tbe deactivalion rate
In mitlal designs we expect that there may be large uncertamtles m some of
tbe design data. Thus, we examine the sensitivity of the total product cost to these
uncertainties, and we use these results to help guide the experimental development
program in the directIon of the highest potential profitabilily. We use shortcut
lechniques for these imtial design calculations. because we recogmze that it will be
necessary to repeat the calculations as more mfonnatlon becomes avaIlable

... ,

,~

... ,

,,, ..,,, .,,'V....

Ud"lON ..

~'ION

Production Rate
If Voe are to desIgn a new plant to meet an expanding market condition. as a first
guess of the production rate Voe consider the lar:;est plant that has ever been built
With thiS approach Voe obtam the greatest economy of scak. (Nonnally, things arc
cheaper per unit If VoC buy tMm m large quantities.)
The maximum size of a rlant is usually fixed by the maximum size of one or
morc pieces of equipment. Often this maximum size is fixed by restrictions on
shipping the equIpment to the plant silc. Thai is, only a certain size compressor, or
whate\'cr, will fit on a railroad flatcar or truck.
Wc also consldC'r the possibility of exceeding the maximum size of an existlll!
plant. ThiS approach almost always requires the development of new technolog)
and thus has a hIgher risk. !-Iovoe....cr, by gaining a larger economy of scalc. it might
be possible to reduce the product price enough to gain a greater share of the market
and thereby justify the additional risk. However, if a project gelS 10 be too big, ncw
types of management probkms might lead to a SIgnificant increase m COSls..
Ofcourse. Voe must also consKier how oursbare of the market might change if
we bUIld a new plant It makes a great deal of difference whether our company has
50% of the market and $Orne of the largest existing plants versus whether we havC'
S ";. of the market and our ellistmg plant has onJy one-tenth of the capacity of the
largest plant.
The production rate specified for the plant might cbange (il usually does)
during a design Market conditions arc constantly changing, and we must be
respoosl\e to thcsc cbanges. By using sbortcut methods for our preliminar}'
designs.. Voe milllmue thc cffort requircd to change all thc calculations,

Product Purity
The producl purit) normally IS also filled by markcting considC'rations. In fact, it
might be possible to produce a range of product purities at different prices. Again.
we must expect tbat the product price \1:TSUS purity predictions might changc as the
design is being developed. It is also csscntialthat a designer infonn the marketing
department about the very high costs thai may be associated with producing some
high-purity products early in the development of a new process., so that the
marketing dC'partment does not raise customer expcctations to unrealistic levels.

A chemist normally uses '''ery pure chemical reagents in laboratory studies, whereas
natural or purchased raw materials always contam some impurities. Hence, we
need to gather somc mfonnall0n from our marketing group about raw-material
price versus purity in order to decide whether to include a purification facility as
part ohhe design project Moreover, we must work .....ith the chemist 10 see whether
the impurities in the raw materials are inert or will affttt the reactions. We must

11'<P\Tf

I,.roU,U Tl(ll'<

105

also ellamine their effect on the separallon system. In panicular, trace amouna of
impurities can build up to large values In recycle loops unless the Impurities are
removed from the process.

Constraints
For thc sake of safety ....e nonnally want to avoid processing conditions thai are
Within the explosive limits of a milliure. (fhere is an unwritten law of nature that a
spark will always find an explosi\e mixture and cause an ignition.) There have been
a disturblllgly large number of serious plant explosions throughout the history of
tbe chemical industry, and we want to avoid another occurrenoc. Howe..er,
phthalic anhydride plants, which oxidize zylene with air, do operate withlll Ihe
explosive range, although there are many special safely features.
Similarly. we have to know the processing conditions where some of our
malerials mighl polymerize and foul hcat-cxchange surfaces, or where they might
become unstabk and rapidly decompose. Numerous malcnals also form coke and
deactivate catalysts, so we need to know how to minimize this coke formation
Very toxic or highly corrosive materials also affect the way in which we approach a
design problem. Each of these: factors may impose constraints on the design
procedure.

Other Plant and Site Data

lfVoc are p:oing to build our ne.... prooess on an existing site, lhen Voe must design the
process to be compatIble Voith the facihtlCS that already exiSI on that sitc The
battery-limit conditions and costs that we need to know about are given in Table
4.1-3.

Pb}'ial Property Oatil

Conocptual designs oflen focus on attempts to make new materials, so that in many
cases physical property data are not available in the literature- An excellent

TABLE")

Raw Materials

Planl ud site data

L UtililJc:t
.. Fuel AlPPy
b Levds of Iteam prasun:
~ CoohDI-watn ,nlet and ootkt tempe",I"'''''
11 Rriril"ntion "'.ds

e Elcdnc power

1.

Wasle dlSpoW raalitaes

106

SECTION 41

INPUT INtOMM"nO'"

SECTION <2

collection of techniques for e~tllnallng physical propt:rlie~ is .tv!ulabh:. New

estimation procedures based on group contribution m~lhods are an area of aClive
research.
The mformatlon we nomlaJly need are molecular weights. boiling pomts,
vapor pressures, heal capacHleS. healS of vaporization, heats of reaction, liqUId
densities, and fugacity coeffiCients (or equalions of stale)
For conceptual designs. we u~ whate\er information is available (which in
some cases is a guess), and lhen .....e eSllmate lhe sensitivity of the total processing
COSIS 10 these values. This sensitivity evaluation provides a measure of the
economic incentive for making the appropriate measuremenlS. In many instances
Ihe costs are surprisingly insellsitive to the physical property values, but in some
cases they are eXlremely sensitive. The use of shortcut design procedures significantly simplifies Ihe sensitivity analysis.

LEVEL I OEC1510N ....TCII YElSI'S ("OmlNUOU5

TABLE ~.I-4
Inpul in(!!rmalion for Ihe hydrodealliylalioll of loluene 10 produce benzene
I.

MUCllOlllllformallOli
.. lleaclIon~
Toluelle + II,

21k1l~clle ""

RcactlOli

1lI1c1

p".

,.

Sc:lcctlvllY _

Dlphcllyl + II,

(41-3)
= 500

Mok:s &mClIC al MeaclOr Omlcl

.. S
Mob Toluene Convcned
Moles TollKnc Collvcrted 'II Meactor
_x
Moles Totuene Fed 10 knetor
0.0036

Cost Data

1k1l;Ulle + ClI,

tcmpc:ralure > tl WC (10 gCI a rCa50nllblc reaCllon ralcl, rC:lctor prCliSlIre

ConverSion _

S- I -

The capital costs of some pieces of equipment are given in Appendix E.2, and some
operating costs are given in AppendIX E.!.

107

-,-:::Ciio..
(i
x)''''

x -< 097

(41_4)

d. Gll!> phase

No "",lal)"S1
Production rate of benzene: 165 n,ol/br
3. ProdUCl pumy of bcllZClK. x D ~ 09997
4. lIa.. rn:llen:lls. Pure tolucnc at amblCnt colldlllOIlS, II, '\rcam COlitall\lllg 95% H,. S% CIl, at SSO
ps.... lCOr
s. COllSltolllrs' 1l.. /aromauc <!o Sal tbe reactor mlcl (10 pre.ert! coLmg); rcaCIOI ollliet leml"'ralure -<
1300 f (10 prCYenl b~Ju)(:radang). rapIdly quench rcactOl cffilKnt to 115O""F (to prcyenl colin&).
X -< 097 (01 tbe product dlSlrlbulion cornl:ltion
6. O'bel pl:lllt and sue d:lta to be gi"<:11 laler
~.

2.

Summary
As a general stalement about lhe input information, we can say that
You never have tne right information!

(4.1-2)

Some important dala will be nmsmg or will be taken in too narrow a range at the
wrong lemperalure and pressure. A chemIst's recipe for producing and isolating the
product might be available, but nOI all the side reactions may be known. The
chemist might have used a ~fa\orile" solvent for each reaction slep without ever
considering separation costs.
You should never hesitate to ask the chemist for more infonnalion; a close
working relationship is essential to developing good designs. And try 10 use
preliminary design calculations to help guide the experimental parts of the
development program. In particular, we want to determine how sensilive Ihedesign
is 10 physical property data, coking limits or other process constraints, cost factors.
purity specifications, elc.
EXllmplt 4.1-1. To Illustrate our deSIgn procedures, we conSider a proocss for
producing benzene from toluene. We develop the design from scratch and discuss
numerous proocss alternatives. The input In[ormation taken from Sec. 1.2 is given in
Table 4.1-4

R C. RCld, J M PraWimu.,and T K. Sberwood. l'M P'ope'l,uofGa.s~Jand L.iquids, 3d cd~ McGraw

Hill New Yorlr, t977.

4.2

LEVEL-l DECISION: BATCH

VERSUS CONTINUOUS
Continuous processes are designed so that every unil will operate 24 hr/day. 7
days/wI: ror close to a year at almost constant conditions berare the plant is shut
down for maintenance. Of course. in some cases equipment fail~res. or other
reasons. cause unexpected shutdowns. In contrast, batch processes normally
contain several units (in some cases all the units) thai are designed to be started and
stopped frequenlly. During a nonnal batch opera ling cycle. Ihe various units are
filled with material. perform Iheir desired function for a specified period, are shul
down and drained, and are cleaned before lhe cycle is repeated.
Many batch processes contain one Or mOre units that operatc continuously.
For example, in numerous cases the products obtained from several batch reactors
are temporarily stored, and then the producls rrom this intermediate storage tank
are fed to a Irain of distillation columns that are operated continuously. Similarly,
there are cases where a variety of by-products that are produced in small amounlS
arc accumulated conlinuously, and Ihen when a sufficienl amount is available. a
batch still is used 10 separate Ihe products.

108

SU IJON 02

lfVfl. I l)fOSION IlAH'!l VUSUS CONTINUOt$

The dlStlllcticlO bel .... een batch and conllnuous processes is sometllne<l
"fU72Y That is. large, continuous plana that exhibit catalyst deactlva
tion may be shut down every year or so, to regenerate or replace the catalyst
Similarly, a large, continuous plant may IOciude a single adsorption unit, which
usuall}' is a batch operatIOn If there are only one or two batch operations in a plant
with large production ratcs that otherwise operates continuously, we normally
refer to the plant as a continuous process.
~omewhat

SF.CnON oJ

lHfL I OF.OSIO" BATCH VEII;Sll$ CONTINUOUS

109

Multiple Operalions in a Single Vessel

Guidrlines for Selting Balch Processes

There are some rough gUidelines Ihat help 10 indicate when a balch process may be
favored over 3 conllllUOUS process. These are reviewed DOW.
PROOllCTIO"'l RAT[.';. Plants having a capacity of greater Ihan 10 x 1O'lbiyr
are usually t:onlllluous. whereas planls having a capacity of ItsS than I x 10' Ib, yr
are nonnall}' balch Iypes Large+C3pacity plants can justify a more thorough
de\ dopmenl program, Ie. a more accurate data base, as well as larger engllleenng
desIgn costs In contrast. batch plants are usually simpler and more fleXible. so Ihal
a S3tlsfactor}' product can be produttd with a larger uncertamty in the design
Also. because of Ihelr greater flexibility. batch plants are most common when a
large number of products are produced in essentially the same processing equIpment (e.g. pallltS)
MARKET fORCES. Many products are seasonal; for example. fertlhzer is sold for
onl}' about 3 month III the early spnng. If the fertilizer is produced o\'er the
complele year. then large inv-entory costs are incurred in storing II for the smgle
month .....hen sales are generated However, if the fertilizer could be produced 10 a
month or so in a batch planl and Ihe plant could be used to mue other products
during the remamder of lhe year, lhen the inventory costs could be dramatically
reduced. lienee. batch plants often are preferred for products with a seasonal
demand.
It requires about 3 yr to build a continuous proce:ss., bUI some products only
have an average lifetime of 2 yr (some organic pigments). The grealer flexibility of
batch plants makes them preferable for products wilh a shorl lifetime
OPERATIONAL I)ROBLf.MS. Some reactions are so slow Ihal balch reactors are
lhe only reasonable allernative. Also, illS very difficult 10 pump slurries at low flow
rates wilhout the solid settling oul of Ihe suspension and plugging the equipment
Thus. II I~ very difficult to build continuous processes when a low capacity of
slurries must be handled, Similarly. some materials foul equipment so rapidly that
Ihe equipment must he shut down and cleaned al frequenl intervals Balch
operalion turns out 10 be ideal for handling malerials of this type, because The
equipment is periodically Slarted and SlOPped, and normally iT is clcaned afler each
balch has been proccssed

Another uniq~e fea.ture ~fbatch processes is that It is often possible to accomplish

several operations In a Single batch vessel, whereas an individual vcssel would be
~eeded for each of the operations in a continuous plant. For example, suppose that
In a continuous plant we heat a reactant before sending it to a reactor where a
catalyst IS added. and then .....e send the product mixlure to a distillation column
(see Fig. 4.2-10) In a batch process. we mIght be able to use the reboiler of a batch
still for the heating and reactIon steps as .... ell as for the separation. sa:: Fig. 4.2-lb
Thus, a single pIC of equipment can be used to replace three pies of equIpment
When .....e cany out multiple operations in a Single vcssel. normally the vessel
must be larger than the SIZe required If we had used separate vCS5els for each
operation. For example. If .....e use one vessel for each operation (heating. reaction
and ~r.aration)and it takes I hr for each step, we: can produce P Ib/hr of produ~
by shlftmg the batches from one unit 10 another However, if we use only a Single
(a) ContinlJ()Us

Catal}'St

Product

F=l
Huo

Reactor

Scparalor

(b) Batch

Product

=-

'"

(I) Feed
(2) Calalysl
FIGURE 0-1
ConlJnllOUS "CISUS balch

lleat
Reactor
Separalor

II-

Heal

'--

110

SfCTlON~l

LHEIIDt:OSION

IHH.HYUSUSt:l.>I'flTNUOVS

\essel, lhen It tales J hr to produce any product, and to oblain the same
productIOn rdle we need to proce~5 J Ilmej, d$ much m.Henal Of course, when ~e
use larger vessels, v.e often oblam an economy of scale, so lhal of!en there is a
significanl economic incenlive 10 merge processing steps inlo a sing.le vessel.

4.3 SUMMARY, EXERCISES, A 'D

NO,\1ENCLATURE
Summlilry
The mpul information that we need 10 undertake a deSIgn problem includes

Design of Batch

\crsu~

COnlinuous l)roces!>eS

To develop a conceptual desIgn for a continuous process, we mUSI do the followmg

I. Select the process unils needed
2. Choose the interconnections among these units
3. Identify the process allemames thaI need to be considered_
4. lisl the dommanl desIgn variables.
S. Estimate the opllmum processmg condlIIons.
6. Dctermlllc the besl process ahernatLve

For a batch process we muSI make exactly the same decisions However, we must
also make the follOWing decisions:
7. Which unns m (he ftOlolosheet should be balch and which should beconlinuous?

I. The reactJons and reaction conditions. including a correlation for lhe product
dlstnbullOQ, a relationshIp for Ihe conversIon and space velOCIty, and Informalion about catalyst type, dcactivauon rate, and regeneration
2. The deSIred production rate, product purity, and value of the product
3. The raw materials available and their costs
4. Any processing constraints
S. Other plant and site data
6. Physical properties and information about the chemicals Involved
7. Cost data
Us~allY th~ correct data are nOl available or arc uncertam, However, we do
the best ~ob thaI ~e can, and we evaluate the senSIII\lIy of shortcul dcslgns 10
changes lR uncrrtam factors. Estimates of this type can be used to deternune the
economic mOCDli\'cs for undertaking addHional expenmenls. The data on lhe
product dlsmbution and side reactions are usually cnhcalto a good dcslgn_

8. What processing steps should be earned out

In a single vessel \ersus USlOg

lIIdlvidual ves~ls for each processing slep?
9. When IS it ad\anlageous to U~ parallel batch untts 10 Improve the scheduling
of the planl?
10. How much iotennedlate storage is required, and where should II be located?

A S}'stematic Procedure for lhe Design of B.atch

Processes
Clearly it IS necessary to make more decisions 10 design a batch process than to
design a continuous process. For Ihis reason, Malone and coworkers suggestlhal
the best approach to design a batch process IS 10 design a oonllnuous process first
With thIS approach II tS SImpler 10 screen PJoce!>S ahernau\cs and to determmc the
best process fto~hcel Once the best structure of the flollo'Sheet has been determmed, they SUggesl rollowlRg the systemallc procedure gl\'en In Sec, 13.2 to
develop the best design for a dedicated balch plant.

0 Im~nnl.nd M F Mltonc. ~ A SyslCrt1311C P.-occdllre for Ball:b p,ootSlo S)'lllhtsli,- paper

ptescnlcd al lbe 19U AnnUli AICbE MllnJ,. ClucaIO. 19 5. C M Mynalbros -f1c;ubtlI11 aDd
Tlf!,=Ui 10, Ibleh P.-neas Dcsrp - M S n.cs.... Un,.." .. I)' cI Mluae.:huwu.f" Amhcnr. t916.

Lev-el-I Decision Batch versus Conunuous

The faclors lhal favor balch operation are
I. Production nile
Q. Sometimes batch ifless than 10 x lti Ib/yr
b Usually balch if less than I )( IW Iblyr
c_ M uhlproduct plants
2. Market forces
Q Seasonal production
b. Short product lifetime
3. Scale-up problems
Q. Very long reaction times
b Handhng slurnes at low flow nltes
c Rapidly fouling materials

Exercises
4.3-1. Selecl a process from Hydrocarbo" Proc~ss",g. T~ EPIl:yclopedia of Cnemll:ol
P'~SJUif and Dc~n by J. J McKell.. or !he Eru:ychJpcdla ofCMm~al T#ttwlog)'
b) Kirk Olhmer. and sec. bow many of Ihe mput dala Ihal )'Otl can find
4.3-1. The 1967 AIChE Student eoolat Problem Jl~ data sbo....1DI bow the sdecU'IIlY
(5 - mala ofbenzcne al ~aetort:lll per mole oftoluenccoovened)de~nd5on lbc

SEcnON q

TARLE .t.J-1

.."

Sdcdi,ity dltl fot HDA

..,

.,

06

F"u- the 1961 AlOE

Product distribulioo for cfhue crlck.irtg

0.91

09'

Q7

0.1.5

0.15

c_ _

\-otW ,.11_ ...-1

s..-.., Con'_ I"foblcm

H,

>00

CH,

1.28

'89

C,Il,
C,H o

'"

reaClor conversIOn (Sec T.blc 4 3-1). Plot the data on uilhm~tic paper, lind make a
101! log plot of I - S versus I - x. Develop correlations fOI both 5C1S ofdata Why is
,t benel 10 conel.te I - S versus I - x? Also, usc tbe correlatIon gtven by Eq 4 1-4
10 cakulile the yidd of benune (Y - mol benune It relelor nil/rnol of loluene fed
to reactor _ SoT) as I functIOn or conversion. Estinu.te lbe COD_erslon colT'CSpondmg
to lhe muimum yield.
4..J-J. Selectlvily data Jor prooe:ss 10 pl"OdlKZ IIlXhc anbydric:le from KlClone and acclic
acid In: grven in lbe t9S8 AlOE Student Conlesl Problem' The dala are gr'en ID
Table 43-2. The reactions of interest are
ACl'."tone - Ketene

+ CII.

+ Acellc Acid _

Acetic Anhydride

C, ". -

>os

)$,

U.

'"

'"
'"

601

+ ",
t C 1H. + CH.

0 ..

.,."

62

...

OJ

'"

J.l3

236

+ H,

Ethyrbcnzene - BenlJ:oc

+ CJI-I.

Toluene

+ CII.

and points tead from their graphs are given in Tables 43-4 and 43.S [)e,elop
correlations for these: data

4 : J Consider t_o parallel fiul-order isolherm.' n:&CUOns in a batch (or lubular) reaClor

fed _'lib purc rcactlnl

A - ProduCl

A ..... Waste:

and define 5C1ec1l'1I) IS S - mol produCl}mol A convened. Use a kinelIC anaJYSlS 10

delemune. bo~ the selectl...l) dcpendt on lbe con''CfSlon. What are the rC'llults If the
first rcacllon IS first-ordet and the second reactlOo is second-order?
4-3-7.
Contider two. conSttUlIve, firsl-order, iSOlhennal reae:tiont in a balch (or tubular)
reactor fed wIlh pure reactanl:

ProduCl ..... Waste

Define tbe: sclecti~ty as S - mol product in reactor effluent/mol A converted, and

de,'Clop an ClIpresslOn, based on a kinetic analysis. for ho"" the selectivily depends on

Selectirity d.t. for aceric ubydridc process

39J

Elhylbenze-ne;Slyrene

A - Product
TABU .t.J-l

....

'"

."

Eth)lbenlJ:ne -t 11 1

80T. I aIm

elM.

..".,

aod some res~lts for the product distribulion are given in Table: 43-3. Con,c" the
data ~r~ I'.-'Crght perc:enl 10 mol percent, and tben develop a correrluon for the
xleccnouy (moles or C JH o at tbe reaclor nil per mole: or C,H, conl'Cned).
~enner and D)"tKbrl' ptCSCnt some product distribulion data for styrene rroduc1100. The reactions they consider are

7OO 0 C. I atm

and lhe selectivity It defined IlS S _ mol ketene al reactor exit/mol lcetone:
con.erted [)e,elop a correlation for Ihe data. Compare your results to the SlTOple
COrrelattOD S _ I - lx Usc you..- results 10 esllmate tbe conlerslon corresponding
10 lhe maximum }idd
A simpLified ~rston of I process to produce eth)knc: via ethane aadanl has been
prC$(nled by BoIIc:s..' The reactions of interest are

Cl " ,

W
lOS
JH

7OO"C I atm

Ketene - CO ... iC,II.

4A

113

TABU: .t.J-J

pt"0SS

0977

Ketene

St!MMAlY, UUcrsa. AND NONDlCUTUIIE

OJS

Q1lI

OJ

."
Q7

QIJ

O.

R.. W. "'~ and E

c. Dybdal Clom.. bog

Prof~ ,"<4) 2U (1948).

TABU~

M~ of benune per molt of slynne 'crsus (onvcrsion

'See J, J McKell.. erw:ycwptdla

ofC~"'lcaJ

P,oa,.lr\fI <mtl Desig.... yol I, DeHer. New Yor~, 1976,

p.211

I W L 8ol\el., ,Ioyk"" Pillltf Duigtt MtJl &.--icI, Wuhml10n UDlYel'Sily Destgn Cue SliMly No 6.
Jl 1132, edited by B 0 Smrth. Wulu0lton UniY'ClSlly, 5'- Louis, Mo~ AUI t. 1986.

Mol bel1U'llCjmol Slyrene

o.oos

0.010

0.020

0030

0060

0100

0140

Conyers..",

0.10

0"

0",

o.n

0."

OJ'

0'"

r ...... R. ""

JI

\It'

114

SfC'IlO'" oJ

SUI....... IY.

EXUClSE$. .. Nil NONI:NC..... nJ.r

SECTION 0)

SUMNAI.Y.

EXUOSfS, ""0

NOMfNC1A

rlln

115

TABU 4.3-5

Moks of 10lueM

pet"

mole of styrene lersus con,erswo

Mol 101_ 110OI IlymIC

0.006

oot'

00"

00"

0.010

0110

COIIv<:n1011

0.10

0"

0.20

02'

0.20

02'

~'"""

R- W

w.,,,,...1Id E. C Dybdal. CIw",

ptodUCIIOll rates of fl l and 8. lire P I and p. moll1lr, tcspc:ctl\dy. both reactiOns are
fir>t-Qrdcl, lSOthcrmat and trrc'erS!bIc wilh rcactk)p rate. constants l and " . the.
lk
I

flSltlc:s are P, anJ P.; tbe n:;IIctor downtllnes Ire I" and IJJ; the numbel"J of
bJ.tcbc>. per yen arc", and II" and only one rCilCI()f IS used to make both prodUC4.
Ilow do Ihe. rc:sults for USlDg t... o separale rc:act.us compare 10 tbe results for uSlOl a
slOglc rellClor for 3 C.lle ...-here thc rCill,:tor cost IS Incn by the folio... ing uprCS>olOn?

"60

,<0

NJ ,.."" .... tal IH (J~'

Reactor Co>t - C. I

4.3-10. SUppo:>c thai t... o parallel reactors arc used lD Ihe process dcscnbc:d In c.>.crcisc: 43-8
I low do thc reaClion limes, number> ofbatchcs per year, raw-materials COSts, reliClor
slle, and reactOf" cost dllJcr from the case of using a Single reaclor?
4.3-11. lSOOCIallC (gasoIIOC) can be ptoduced by tbe reaCllons

How do the resulls change if the first reaCllon IS KCOnd-order and the
reaCllon is also second-Qrdu?
43-&. To beller undustaDd Ibc sunilanuC5 and ditferCJKlCl bc:lwCCD the dCIJgns of a
COPtlouOUS and a balcb prooc:ss., let us consJdcr a very OVCl"JLmplificd dcuga problem
..here tbe prD0:55 collSisu of oniy II SlOpe reaClor. We desire to produce Pfoduct B
by tbe reKUOII A-B. The: cost of A is C/ (S/mol). we O~te 81SO hr/yr for a
conllnuous plant, the desarcd production rate is P moVbr, tbe reaction lUes p1aoc by
a fil"Jt<order isotbermal reaCllOn, the separattoD oltbe product from unoonvened
ractlnll is frcc, and we caDnot recover and recycle any uoconvenc:d reac1ants. We
ha"e to pay for Ibc raw malenals and reaCtOr, so our cost model ba;omes
coo~ersion

~nd

TAC _ elF,8150 + C.V

P_ F,x

(4.3-2)

and the reactor .olume IS gJveD by

V _ F,
_

I~x

TAC_ 815OC/P

Nomt'ncl~lure

A
B

(43-3)

C.

(4.3-4)

k
P
S

F,

Thul, .....e can wrile

C.P l,,{-'-)
kp..x '\I-x

I,

SInce tbe tmal annual cost becomes unbounded wben x approacbes dther uro or
unlly, there must be an optimum conversIon.
Suppo$c we do tbe same prD0:55 In a batch reactor, where lI..e produoc: "
balC:bc:s per year fot 7S(X) bt/yr Denve an eaprCSSK>n for the tOlal annual cost io
terms oftbe convcl'$)()o. Let the lImc II lakes 10 emply, dean, and refill the reactor be
IJ and the re:KIlOO ume per cyde be r, Ilow do the Upre$SIOns roc tbe hitch process
compare to tbe resull lOr the conunuoU$ plant?
4.3-. S"'~I COOSldcred tbe problem of making tWO products In a proa:ss thai COnlLSI5
only of a rUClor, I.e.. Jdenllcal to ExerClle 43-8 exoept thai we have two ructions
A, - B, and A. _ B); the COSlS of the raw materials are CII and Cn; Ihe desired

S S...a.au, ~ Prchnunary Deslp

MuucbldClU, Amhcm. 1915

and OptUlUZaoon 01 Baldi

~,~

JotS Theus, U.llvenuy 01

+ lsobulllllC" -ISOOCIaoc
+ ISOOCIaooe - C', J

Thc reactions take pboc: In the hquld phase. at 45'F and 90 pua ID a contlOuous
sltrrallank reactor. Assume Ihatthe reactIon klDCIICS agrc:c:s "'lIh the stOichIometry
and develop an u.prcsslOo for the SClecuvlty (l5OOCIane produ.:ed per buten:
coo.e.ned)

C,

I"~_

kp..

BUleoc
BUte-DC

(4.3-1)

The prodUCllOn ralC IS related 10 tbe fresh feed rale F f and lhe conversion x by the
upresslOD

b< I

'.V
x

x.
P.

Rc:aclanl
Ptoduci
CO>I of reactants ($ mol)
Armualizc:d COSI of reactor \lolume [S/(fl . yr))
'
Ftesh feed rale (mol/hr)
Reaction rale conSlanl (I/hr)
Production rale (mol/hr)
Sdecllvity
Downtime per balch (hr)
ReaclioD time per balch (hr)
Reaclor volume (ft J )
Com'ersion
ProdUCl purity
Molar deDSuy (mol ftl)

SECTIOl'f 'I

DECISIONS FOR m~ II'lI'l,n.()UT'l1l STIlUCTUU

111

TABLE 5.1-1

Bier.relty or decisions

CHAPTER

5
INPUT-OUTPUT
STRUCTURE
OF THE
FLOWSHEET

In Sec. 1.2 we: descnbed a hierarchical decision procedure for inventing process
flowshccls and base<ase designs" The decision levels are repealed in Table 5.1-1
The batch versus continuous decision of level 1 was discussed in Sec. 4.2, and in the
subsequent chapters we discuss the other decision levels in detail.

5.1

DECISIONS FOR THE

PlIT-OlITPlIT STRUcruR

I. Bau:::b Ya5US conbnuolI$

1. lnpul-oulput Sl'1lC\Ull: of lbe IIowshtt'

J. Recycle
...

" '".pol'

Almost e\ery flowsheel has one of the IWO structures shown in Fig. 5.l-la and b.
There is a rule of thumb in process design (see Sec. 3.4) that it IS desirable 10 recover
more than 99 y. of all valuable materials. For initial design calculations .....e use the

116

of the lIo..-sbr
of 'M

~.a".... 5}"~

rec:o~tl'\ 'ylltm

" LIquid Stl'u.'1Of\ ')"ltm

5. lleal<lLch.an&t. ncr .. o,l

order-of-magnitude argumenl to say thaI this rule of thumb is equivalent to

requiring that we complelely recover and lhen recycle all valuable reaclants. Thus,
Fig. 5.1-la indicates thai no reactants leave the system.
Of course, if air and water are reactants in a process, they are sufficienlly
mexpensive. compared to organic materials. that il mighl be cheaper 10 lose them
10 an exit slream rather than 10 recover and recycle lhem. lienee, in a few rare cases.
Fig. 5.1-10 mlghl not be complele.
The olher sllualion in .... hlCh commonly reaclanlS have been losl from a
process occurs when we have a gaseous reactant and ellher a gaseous feed impurity
or a gaseous b)-produCt produced by one of the reactions. We wanl to recycle the
gaseous reactant. but the mert-ga~ componenlS mUSI be purged from the process so
Ihat lh(") do not contmue 10 accumulale m the gas-recycle loop. In the past. It was
so expensive 10 separate gaseous mix Iures that some reactant was allowed 10 lea\e
the process in a ~as-r("cycle and purge stream (see Fig. 5.1-lb). Ho.....ever, the new
membrane-separation lechnology, such as Monsanto's prism process, has CUI Ihe:
COsl of gaseous separations so lhat gas recycle and purge might not be necessary

streams

To understand Ihe decisions required to fix the input-output structure of a

f10WSheel, we merely draw a box around Ihe total process. Thus, we focus our
auention 00 what raw materials an: fed to the process and what products and byproducts are removed. Since Ihe raw malerials costs normally faU in lhe range rrom
3310 85y' of the lotal processing costs., we wanl to calculate these costs before
we add any other detail to the design.
Flowsheel Alternatives

~'lIChrrt

~lluuet... t

~L

(a>

r -_.

streams

~ :;:::ucu

_ _P_'-,OC-,=

=L

P,oc,,,

,,",g,

~ Pm""'"

~ By-prOOucls

(b)

FIGURE 5..1-1
Inpul-<fu,pu' .lrudu't of I\o..-'!htd IF,."" J 101 D<ougltll. AIO.[ J. JI: JJJ (/98J)-J

SEmON II

DC!SJOI'I5 FOil 11lf INPUT-OUTPUT snocnru

119

TABU; 5..1-1

If a ked Impurity IS present as an azeotrope with a reactant.

often It IS beller to process the Impuflly.

u,'d-2 decisions

punr,

I, Should we:
,be: M.c:d SITUIIlli bdOfe: ,be:y C'IIlc:r tbe: Fooas1
1. Should _ umoY<: .... locydc a ,....... tslbk by-prodlK1

1. SbouId ....e:

IlM'

aau

reqo.:k aad pu,...,

(5.1-5)

If a feed impunly IS lOert but lS easier 10 separate from the

product than the feed, II IS betler 10 pr~ Ihe impurilY.

IIrQm'

... Should we: DOl bo,be:. 10 n:covu and ~"'" wmr: ruotUnlS'
5.. 110.... /lUDY prOOt>C1 SlfQIDS "In lbe:rC' lx'

If a feed impunty

15

a C01lotl)st poison, rClllove It.

6. What arC' tbe: dlOS'ln unables lor lhe: mpul-OUlpul IolnKU1f<:. and ",hal CCOlKlrID<: tndC'o/h .'C'

PROCESS ALTt.RNAltVE. Unfortunately, not all these dcslgn gUldellncs are

quantttallve, so often we must base our Innial decision on our best judgment
(which might be merely a guess)

aUOClatw .. lib lhae ""n.. hles'

We distinguish belween Fig. 5.1-la and b because the presence of a gas

recycle and purge stream adds a design degree of freedom 10 the design problem;
i.e., eilher the reactanl composition of Ihe purge slream or tbe excess ga~us
reactanl fed 10 the process becomes a new design variable. We discuss the dcslgn
variables later.

If we are nol certam that our decision is correct, we list the

opposite decision as a process alternative.

(5.1-8)

Wilh Ibts approach, we have a systematic way of generating a Iisl of process

alternall\es

uvel-2 Decisions
The decisions ....e must maLe to fix the mput-outpul structure ofttle flowshecl are
given in Table 5.1-2 and arc discussed belo","

PurifiCliltion or Feeds
A decision 10 purify the feeds before:. they eDter the process is equivalent to a
decision to design a preprocess purificalion system. This is different from a decl~lon
10 feed the process Ihrough a separation system thaI is required 10 any evenl..Smcc
at this stage of our synthesis and analysis procedure we do nOI kno~ what ~lIld of
separation system WIll be required for the process wilh no feed Impuntlcs, we
cannol always make a definite: decision.
Some design guidelines to be considered are as follows:

Reco\er or Rec)'c1e Re\'ersible By-producls

The r.r:.actlons 10 produce benzene from toluene are
Toluene

If a feed Impurity is DOl inert and l$ prescDt in signlficanl,

quantities., remove it (otherwise, it will lead to raw-matenal
losses, aDd usually a much more complicated separauon
system is required to recover Ihe additional by-produClS).

(5.1-1)

If a feed Impurity is present in a gas feed, as a first IUess

process the Impurity.

(5.1-2)

If a feed Impurity in a liquid feed stream is also a byproduci or a ptoduct component, usually it is bener to
Ihe process through the separation system.

(5.1-3)

+ Hz ..... Benzene + CH.

2 Benzene Diphenyl

reed

If a feed impurity is presenl in large amounU, remove it

(there is no quantitalive cnlenon avaLlabk to indicate how
Mlarge" is large),

ECOl'liOMIC TRADE-OFFS FOR FEED PURltlCATION, Our deciSion of pun~

(ying tbe feed streams before they arc processed IOvohcs an economic trade-off
bclween bUlldlng a preprocess separation system and mcreasing the cost of the
process because \oloe arc handltng the increased flow rales of men matenal$. Of
course, the amount of mert materials present and where they will efilet and lea\e
Ihe process may ha\e a great Impact 011 the processing costs. Therefore, it IS not
surpnsmg Ihat Ihere IS no simple deSIgn criterion lhat always indicates the corn::cl
decision.

(5.1-4)

+ Hz

(4.1-3)

Since the second reaction IS rc\-ersiblc, we could recycle the dlpbcnyl back to the
reactor and lei II build up In the recycle loop until it eventually reached an
equilibnum level. That is, the recycled dlphenyl would decompose to form benzene
at the same rale as ben2ene would be producing diphenyJ.
If we recycle the reverSible by-producl, we must oversl2e all the eqUIpment in
that recycle loop, to accommodate the equilibrium flow of the reversible byproduci. However, If we remove it from the process, we pay an ecollomlC penally
because of the Increased raw-material cost of reactant (toluene) that was conver1ed
to lbe reverSible by-product (dlphenyl), e.g., the raw-matenal cost of toluene minus
the fuel value of dlphenyl. Since our decision Involves an a;onomlc trade-off
bet""een raw-material losses to less valuable by-products and IOcreased recycle

120

SECTION,.

ncnoN 51

DCISlON5 rOl mE INPUl-OllTPUl nlUCTUl..I'.

costs. it should not be surprismg that no iimple design guideline is available to

make thIs decLSion The result Will also be sensiti\e to the equilibrium constant of
the b)'-product reactIon. So we generate another process ahemative

DestiJUltion coda and compoDnit dassificatiOfL'i

I. V""I

If .....e ha\'e a Mlight- reactant and either a Mlight~ feed impurity or a Ulight~ b)product produced by a reaction. it used to be common practice to use a gas rec)'cle
and a purge stream; Ie. we want to recycle the reactant. but we must purge one or
more components from the process. We define a light componenf as one which boils
lower than propylene (-SS"F, -4S"C). We choose propylene as a breakpoint
because lower-boiling components normally cannot be condensed at high pressure
with cooling water; i.e. both high pressure and refrigeration would be required.
Since gaseous reactants normally are less expensive than organic liquids. and since
refrigeration is one of the most expensive processing operations. it usually was
cheaper to lose some of the gaseous reactants from a gas recycle and purge stream
than it was to recover and recycle pure reactant.
However, membrane technology. such as Monsanto's prism process. now
makes gas separations less expensh-e.. Unfortunately. there is not a sufficient
amount of published information available concerning tbe costs of membrane
prooes~ to be able to develop new design guidelines. Thus, we treat the membrane
separator as another process alternative.. Because of the lack of published information. we would base our initial design on a process with gas recycle and purge,
whenever our design guideline is satisfied:

Whenever a light rcactant and either a light feed impurity

or a light by-product boil lower than propylene (- 5S"F.
- 4S"C). use a gas recycle and purge stream.

(5.1-9)

A membrane separatIon process also should always be considered.

Do Not RKOver and Rcc)'cle Som~ Readanl!'i

One of our design gutdelines states that we should recover more than 99 % of aU
valuable materials. Since some materials, sucb as air and water. are much less
valuable than organic ones, we normally do not bother to recover and recycle
unconverted amounts of these components. Of course, we could try to feed them to
the process so tbat they would be completcl)' converted, but often we feed them as
an excess to try to force some more valuable reactant to complete conversion.
Forellample. in combustion reactions. we usually use an uocss amount of air
to ensure complete conversion of the fuel. The greater amount of the ellocss we usc,
the closer to complete conversion of the other reactant we oblain. However, the
capital and operating costs of Ihe blower used to move the air. as well as preheating
and cooling costs. increase as we increase the ellcess amounl of air Thus there is an

121

TABu.: 5.1-J

G:ascout b,prodllClJ alld s...:d .... puntMS

1. Recyck and

Ca!'i Re'C),de and Purge

DKISIom FOR nu! IN"".()U'T1'VT snUCT\}l

purse

Rydo

Gueous IUClll!lS pNllIICf1 pscs andlor p _ bJ'producu

Rca~ts

Rcaettoll Ullermedl.ltcs
Auonopcs "'llb reactlnls (oomchmcs)
RevnsitHc byproducts (somcumcs)
<N~

5. E1cas-venl

6. E1cea- ... ute

1. Prim.a.1)" produn
L Valuable byproduel (I)
,. Fuel
10- Waitt

RUela.nUl-lf complete COnVCl'tI(lD 01 ulUllble rc.lCIJOIl ,ntcnncd'llcs

Gueous resetlnl nOI rco;o'fClCld lnd rco;ydcd
Liquid readlnl DOt recovered or recycled
Primll)"

Separlle

Pfoduel
dcstUl&tion

for ~nnl b,prodIKUI

B,products 10 fuel
By,pfodu.eu 10 "Ule 1R:l1lDC1lt

optimum amount of eJ:oess that should be used Similarly, at some point. the cost of
noess water used will become significant Moreover, pollution l.tealment costs
must be considered.
Numbt'r of PToducl Stream!'i
To determine the number of product streams that \\i1lleave tbe process, first we list
all the components that are expected to leave the reactor. This component list
usually includes all the components in the feed streams and all reactants and
products that appear in every reaction. Then we classify each component in the list
and assign a destinalion code to each. The component classifications and destination codes are given in Table 5.1-3. Finally, we order the components by theIr
nonnal boiling points. and we group neighbouring components with the same
destination. The numbeT of groups of all but the recycle streams is then consKlcred
to be the number of product streams.
This procedure for determining the number of product streams is based on
the common seme design gukl.eline that
It is never advantageoU!'i to separate two streanu and then
mix them together.

(5.1- 10)

Also, it is ba!'iCd on the assumptIon tbat the components can be separated by

distillation and that no azetropes are formed. Thus, in some cases (i e.. solids) a
different set of rules must be used to estimate the number of product streams.
Example 5.1-1. Suppose we have the 10 components listed ill order of l1lelr boihng
points and WIth the dCSllnatlon codes indlCl.led. How many rroduct streams will there

"'?

122

DIlCISlOHS HMt

UCTtOfII J I

nut

CompoMJtI

Otsri_tioa

Waste

WaSle

C
0
E

Recycle

c.m..-.,

Dati.luloo.

I. A.

H2 CH4

Toluene _

F~I

Recycle
Valuable by-product I

F~I

F~I

+ B 10 waste (do not separate them and tbeD mix them in the sewer)
+ E 10 fuel (do not separate them and tben mix them 10 burn)

~valuable

S. J to fud (J mwu be separated from 0 and 10 recover compoocnlS F. G, H, aDd I,

$0 we Ireal J as a separate product stream)

HydfOlilkyladOil of lolllC~ to

pl'"odUtt

bf,auoe. Find tbe Dumber of

product streams for the HDA process; ie.. sec Enmpk-4.I-l.

Sob<,iOll. Ill. Example 41-1 tbe components in tbc reacbons are loIUC'lK, hydrogen.
bellUM, mc:lhalX', and diphenyl. No addlUonal oomponents arc prC$CII1 In e:uba of
the: feed streaJns,. U ...Ie arrange Ihese componenlS In order of their nonnal boiling
poiols, we oblain the results shown in Table: 5.1-4. Since both hydrogen (a reaC'lanl)

and melhane: (bolh a feed impurilY and a byprodllCl) boil al a lower temperature
Ihan propylen.c:, we decide to usc a ps recycle and purge stream. 8enune is our
primary prodllCl, and loluene (a reactant) is rcqc:kd. Dipbmyl is a revemble byprodllCl, and for lhis uampJc we decided to rc:movc: it from tbe process aDd to we it u
pan of our ruel supply. Tbcsc destinatioD c:odc5 also arc given in Table 5.1 ......
Thus. lberc: are three prodllCl streams: purge coDtaininl H J and CH., the
primary prodllCl stream conlaining benzene; and a fucl by-prodUCt stream conUliniog
dipbenyl. The initial t10wshect is given in Fia- 5.1-2.

TABL5.J-4
Tol~

to beo.uoe

e.-,I I

..

H,

CH.
~~

-2S3-C
-161"'C

...c

Tol~

lwe

O!:pbmyl

2Sl"'C

Ree:yclc and purac

Ree:ytle and purac

Primary product

."""
F~I

Process

"'IGUR[ 5..1-2
Input-OUlput iUUdUIC 01 HOA pc-oecu. [F,_ J. JJ

Benzene

Diphenyl

~ AlaJ~

31 ljl

(l9,!U~]

At each stage of the development of a f1owsheel, this is essential:

Be nain that all products, by-products, aod impurities
leave the process!

by-product 1 (10 storage for sale)

Example 5.12

:iI'",,;
H,. CH,

Evaluation of Ihe F10wsheel

1. F -primacy product <to stOr.lse lor sak)

4. I

=L

Primary product
Recycle

F
G
II
I

$ohniolt. The product streams an:

2. D

'

INPUT-QUTPVT nalJCTUle

(5.1-1 I)

For example. in our HDA process. there mighl be some other impunlies in the
hydrogen feed stream. We would expect them to leave with the purge. We also
expect Ihat Ihere will be some impurities in the toluene feed stream. We altempt to
identify Ihese impurilies by considering the sour of our toluene, and the:n we look
for where tbey will exil the "process. Furthermore, we need to consider the
possibility of other side reactions (such as Ihe formation of terpbcnyl), and we must
ensure Ihal tbc:sc new by-products kave the process or can be recycled
If even a trace arnounl of a component IS fed to a req'de loop and is not
removed, Ihe process will be inoperable. This is one of Ihe most common mistakes
made by inexperienced designers.

5.2 DESIGN VARlABLES, OVERALL

MATERIAL BALANCES, AND
STREAM COSTS
To calculale: Ihe overall proocss material balances and the slTeam COSIS. we must
first assess wbetbcr Ibe probkm definilion is complete or whelbcr there are any
degrees or freedom that must be specified to calculate tbe malerial balances. In
general. lbe pmblem definition is not complele:. Therefore, normally, it 15 impossible to develop a unique set of material balances ror a process. Only a process wilh a
singJc reaction and with no loss or reactants from the prooc:ss has no degrees of
freedom.
or course, ir tbe: material balances are not unique, Ihen Ihe stream costs will
also not be unique. Thus. we must develop the material balances and the: stream
costs in terms of the unkno.....n design variables, and eventually "'e will Jook for the:
economie optimum values or these design variables.

TABLE 5.1-1

Design Variables

Procitdures

(Of"

ieTdoping

o~1I

malerial balances

1lle vanablcs we select to compkte the: definition 0( the design problems are what
we call the d~gr~~s of fr~~dom.. For compkx reactions., it is usually possible to
correlate Ihe product distribution measured in the chemist's laboratory as a
function of the conversion of the limiling reactant, the molar ratio of reactants, the
reactor temperature, and/or the reactor pressure. U the activation energies of all the
reactions are equal, then temperature will not appear in this correlation. Similarly,
if there: are the same number of moles of reactanlS and products for gas-phase
reactions, or if we are considering liquid-phase reactions. then pressure wiU not
appear in this correlation. In addition. we usually attempt to correlate the
conversion against the space velocity in order to estimate the reactor size..
For preliminary designs, where kinetic data often are not available, we
assume that the reactor configuration used in the process is the same as that used
by the chemist (a batch reactor is equivalent to a plug 80w reactor), because we
cannot evaluale the effect of the reactor configuration on the produci distribution
without a kinetic model. However, if the preliminary design calculations indicate
that additional development effort is justified, part of that development effort
should be directed to determining the best reactor configuration.
In addition to the design variables which affect the product distributlOll, the
other design variables that enter into the overall material balanoes correspond to
situations where we do not recover and recycle all the reaetants. Thus, if we use an
excess amount of air in a combustion reaction, we must specify the amount of
excess. Similarly, if we have a gas recycle and purge stream present, we must specify
either the excess amount of gaseous reactant fed (i.e., in eJlccss of the reaction
requirements) which is lost in the purge stream or the reactant composition in the
purge stream.
A list of the level-2 design variables that might affect the overall material
balanocs is given in Table 5.2-1.

To de:ve:lop the: overall material balances ror single-product plants, we: always slart
with the give:n production rale.. (If a process in an existing complex is replaced by a
new process, lhen the: fc:ed rate: may be known instead or the production rate.)
From the production rate, the reaction stoichiometry, and (usually) the correlaHons for the product distribution, we calculale all the by-product flows and the
raw-material requirc:men15 as functions of the desiln variables that appear in the
product distribution correlations. Then, Knowing the impurity compositions of the
feed streams, we calculate the inlet and then the oullet flows of the inert materials.
For feed streams where an excess of reactant is fed and not recovered and recycled
or a feed stream where the reactant exits through a gas recycle and purge stream.
we must specify the excess amount ofreactant that is lost from the process. Then we
can calculate: the inkt and outlet flows of any impurities from the composition of
these: feed streams. A summary of the procedure is given in Tabk 5.2-2.

Ovall Material Balances

Limitations

I. Start ..uh lhe apcCficd productoon ... Ie..

1. From lhe uo,cl'lIometry(ancl, for complu leIIChOllS,.lhe COtn,bl\>on fo' prodllCl dostnbuuonl find the
byprodllCl nows aDd the ruaant requlrementa (in tcmu o/IM destJJl vanablcs)
J,. Calculatc tM Impurily mlet and outlet Bowa for lhe ~ alreaml wherc the .elIctanlla.c completely

,o>'creel and ,ecycled

.. Calculatc the OUlla 110.... of reactanla ,ft lerm, of a apccified amount of UCICSa (abo\'e tM n:acllon
fCCjouremauaj fOlIllrc:ama ..bien: lbie reacranll arc 001 1CCO'CI..cl and Rqded (rccydc and PU'J'C 0'
.... or .... tcr).

So CaJeWa,lc the: ullcI and oullcllloW1' for the tmpu,nuea enlm.t WIth the reactant lllreams '0 IUCp.

Material Balance Procedure

Nonnally it is possible to develop expressions for the overall material balances in

terms of the design variables without ever considering any recycle 80ws. Any time
the overall equations are underdetioed. it is necessary to look for one or more
design variables to complete the problem definition, and these design variables
always correspond to sig"ificmtl prOCLSS-Cpfindzotion problems. Henoe, the initial
analysis should always focus on the input-oulput 80ws only.

Note that the preliminary material balances described above are based on the
assumption of complele recovery of all valuable malerials, instead of the rule-ofthumb value of grealer than 99% recovery. There are no ruks of thumb available
to fiJI any 0( the design variables. Moreover, it is aJlIl'ays much more important to
find tbe neighborhood of the optimum values of the design variables which tix the
inlet and outlet nows than it is to include the losses early in the analysis. Howe:ver.
we v.iU want to revise our initial material balances at some point to include the

TABLE 5.l-t

J=.

Possible design variables for level 2

Our approach focuses on processes that produce a single product. There are a
number of processes that produce multiple: products, e.g., chlor;nalion or methane,
amine: prooesscs, glycol plants. refineries, etc. The overall material balance ca.lculations ror these: processes are usually more diffkult than the procedure described in
Table 5..2-1 because the product distribution must match the market demand.

ReaaOf oon'Cf'SlOn, motar rallO of rcactuta,

'eactlOn temperatun and,tu< ptCBWC
R_nU not '_\'enld...- au 'CICY'* aad ...'tc

126

~u..'ION II

~ll.I"'plc

nOI(,N ~''''IAIiI "-S. U~UAII I'o!AIUIAL llALANCE.S. AI'U HlEAM CO~TS

.5.2-1

T"h"'M

knLt'ne. lk... dop lhe

o~eralJ

SECflON H

m;olenal bal,mCCi (or lhe

II DA process

lH:.SI<iN ~A.IAILES, O~UALL

1$

p. _ 265 mol/hr

(ElIImple: 41-1) If we usc a gas recycle: and purge: nrc:am for the: H J Ind CI-I.,lnd If
we: recover Ind re:mo~e lhe dlpbenyl, lhen there are three: product Ilrc:ams; see
E10Impie 51-2 Ind tbe: 6o......ihect lI\eo In Fig.. 5.1-2We nole from Fl!. 51-2 that aU the toluene we feed 10 the process gelS
convc:ned (I.e.. no lolu.eoc: lea... es the system). However, dUI does DOt mean that the
con..-erswn of loluene: lD the reac!or is unity A low conver-non per pass stmply means
thlt there .....111 be I large inlernll reqck flow of loluene.. H01O'ever, we eVlluale: tbc:se
rttyde: flows III later stage of our desIgn procedure:. Of course:. our lS5umptlon lhlt
aU !he fc:e:d loJuene is con\er1c:d negJc:eu any IOII1C:DC 1055CS lD any of tbe product
II reams, bUI IhlS COtTesponds to Our Initial design assumpllQn of complete: recovery
~ersus I!lfClter than 99~. reoovenes.
SELECflVITV AND REACTION srOICIUOMETRY. We ddioe the ulectivity S
as the fraction of loluene converted In lhe reactor that corresponds 10 the benzene
flow al lhe reactor oUllet Also, we recover and remove aHlms benzene. Hen, for
a production of p. mollhr, tbe toluene fed to the process F FT must be

p.

FrT=~

(5.2-1)

Also, from Ihe StOIChlomelry (Eq. 5.1-3), the amount of melhane produced PIt.CII.
must be

p.

PIt.Ol.. =

p.

2S(1 +S)-YFHFG

(5.2-4)

(41-))

+ II J

and we arc 1I\e:o thaI the: dc:smcd proouclioo nlte of bc:nzcoc:

FE.

8c:0zc:0c: + CII.

28c:0zeoc::;:. Dipheo)'1

127

process, this hydrogen will leave with the purge stream. Thus, the IOtal amount of
hydrogen fed to the: process Will be

Sulurju". The reactions of mll:rC:S1 arc

Toluc:ne + II J

MATEliAL BAlANCES. AND STlUM COSTS

(52-2)

If a fraclion S of toluene is con ..erted to benzene, a fraction J - S must be 10SI to

diphenyl. However, from the stoichiometry of Eq. 5.1-3, the amounl of diphenyl
produced PD musl be

which IS equal 10 Ihe amount of hydrogen to the makeup gas stream YrHfc;.
Similarly, the methane flow rate leaVing the process will be the amount of melhane
entering the process. (I - YrHWG' plus the amounl of melhane producro by lhe
reaetJons, P It.CH. = P.IS, or

POI. - (I - YrJl)Fc;

p.

+S

(5.2-5)

The t01a1 purge flow rate PG will then be Ihe c:xocss H J , FE, plus the tOla! methane
POI.. or
(5.2-6)
Rather thao uSing the excess hydrogen feed F as a design variabk, we
normally use tbe purge composJllon of the reactanl 1'H' wMre

F,

(5.2-7)

)"H = -

p.

This purge composmon IS always bounded belween zero and unity (aclually there
is a smaller upper bound which depends on the feed composition and sometlmes on
lbe conversion). The use of bounded variables makes the preparalion of graphs
simpler.
We can develop expressIons for the makeup gas rail' F G and the purge rate
Pc; explicitly ID tenns of the purge composition of reactant }'rN either by using
Eq. 5..2-7 to eliminate F from Eqs 5,2-4 and 5.27 or by writing balances for the
hydrogen and methane and then combining them. That is, the amount of hydrogen
in the feed must supply the net reaction reqUirements as well as the purge loss

(5.2-8)

(5.2-3)
Since the toluene stream contains no impurities, we find Ihc: tnluene fresh feed
rale and the diphenyl by-product flow rale in tenns ofselcctivity from the reaclion
stoichiomelry and the given production rate. A relationship between selectivity and
conversion is given ill Example 4 I-I.

and the melhane in the fec:d plus lhe methane produced must all leave with the
purge
(1

YtH)FG

p.

S = (1

Y'II)PG

(5.2-9)

Addmg these expressions gives

RECVCI. AND PURGE. The stoichiometry also indicates the amount of H J
required for Ihe reaclion If we feed an excess amounl of hydrogen, "-1;' inlo Ihe

P.. -FG

r.
S

I- S
2

(5.2-10)

We can thcn solve for Fr;:

of the desired component divided by thc production of thc undesired component

For the HDA process. in the first case we would ha\c

(52-II)
If we are given valucs of p S. and either F[or Y'H' we can use the abO\e
equations to calculate the fresh feed rate of toluene. FH (Eq 5.2.1), the production
rate of diphenyl, Po (Eq. 5.23), the makeup gas rate Fr; (F..q. 5.2-4 or 5.2.11), and
the purge f1owrate. PG (Eq 5.2-6 or 5.2-10). Thus. we have detennined all the input
and output flows in tenns of the unknown design variables S and either F or )"H'
MATERIAL BAUNCES IN TERMS OF EXTENT OF RUCTION. It is becomina common practice 10 describe material baJance: calculations in tcrms of the
utcnt of reaction ~ I (or fractional extent of reaction). Thus, for tbe HDA process.
we would say that ~I mol (or molesjhr) of toluene react witb ~I mol of H 1 to
produce ~l mol of benzene plus ~I mol ofCH ... Also, 2~1 mol ofbenune produces
C1 mol of diphenyl plus ~l mol or hydrogen. Then, we combine these statements to
5ay that

Net benzene produced - ~I

Methane produced _

2~l

~I

Diphenyl produced ..,

~l

(52-14)

S. =

~l

(,

(5.2-18)

~l

2~l

(,

(5.2-19)

II is essential 10 ensure that the definition of seleclivit~ that IS reported by a chemist

(or in the litcrature) is clearly defined. but it is a simplc matter to COfl\'ert from one
definition to another.
Enmpk 5.1--2 Tor_ to kurer.. De\~lop tbe apressioas relauD@ lbe utcnlS of
reacuon to prodtlClion ratc and $ClcctivlI) for tbe HDA process.
SoIMtioll.

From

Eq~.

5.2-15 and 5.2-1 we: find that

p.

C s

(52-20)

Also from Eq 5.2-12 "'c find Ibat

(5.2-21)
Tbu.s

\III'e:

can

\III

rilc
(52-22)

(5.2-15)

<I -

~_I_ -:: 2~l

whcreas in the second case we would ha\c

(5.2-13)

Toluene consumed - ~l
Hydroaen consumed -

(5.2-12)

(5.2-16)

Stream Tables
We can generahze these expressions and say that the number of moles (or
moles per hour) of any component is given by
(5.2-17)
where the II IJ arc the stoichiometric coefficients, which are positive for products and
negative for reactaol5.. Normally (for tbe purposes of initial design calculations) no
= O. and no reactants are aUowed to lea\'c,
products are fed to tbe process,
"J "'=' O. Experience: indicates that it normally is possible to correlate tbe extent of
each reaction aaa-iost the perpass conversion of tbc limiling reactant., although
in some: cases the molar ratio of reactants, reactor temperature, and/or reactor
pressure: must be included in the correlation.

II;

<,

EXTENT VERSUS Sf:L.ECT1VITI. For lhc case or only two reactions. It often is
simpler to describe the product distribution in terms or selectivity. Selectivity can
be described in a number of different ways, such as the production of the desirable
component divided by the amount oflimiling reactant converted or the production

It is common practice to report material balance calculations In tenns of stream

tables. That is. the streams are numbered on a flowsheet, and then a table is
prepared that gives tbe component flows in cach of these streams which correspond
to a particular set of values of the design variables.. An e:xample is given in Fig.
S.2-1. Tbe temperatures., pressures, and enthalpy of eacb stream also are normally
listed_ Since we do Dot consider energy balances until thc end of thc synthesis
procedure. we add th~ \alues to the stream tables later
One major difficulty with this conventional practice: is that the designer is
forced to select values of design \'ariables without knowinatbe optimum values.
Moreover. once a sct of values has been selected, it is orten difficult to remember
tbat they were selected arbitrarily. For this reason, we recommend tbat the stream
tables list the: values of the design variables and that the appropriate material
balance equalions. such as Eqs. 5.2-1. 5.2-3. 5.2-4 5.2-6. etc.. be programmed on fI
~pread~heet such as LOTUS. With this approach it is very easy to change: the
production rate and the design vanablc:s and then recalculate: all the stream nows.
We can use this same table as the basis for calculating the: stream costs a~ a functi(>n
of the design variabks.

130

DeilON V"II"aLES., OVaAlJ.. W"TUI"L ......... NCeS. "NO

SECTION S!

H 2, CH 4
I

Value of berw::n~
Vilue or lolll~n~
Valll~ of H J feed
Fud ~ Sot 0/10 Blu
Flld valu~, H,

Diphenyl

ToJuen

CII.

Production rale = 265

Tolu~nc

SO.8S/gal = S904/mol
so SO/gal _ S6 4O/mol
S3 00/1000 fl' .. Sl l>l/mol

o12l "

A .. u.... lIP 'Dlemaltran.f~r,,",," value v...... the

pnca. nl U.l6/pJ.

H,

FH ,

CH.

FM

FE
FM +

Be=~

1.68 " 10" Blu/mol

2.688 " 10" Blu/mol

DipbCllylt

Design variables: FE and x

p.

Toluene

PsiS

Diphenyl

Temperature

100

100

100

100

100

Pressure

550

15

15

15

465

Ps(l - S)/(2S)

10" lilli/mol

0.383 " 10 Bill/mol

141 " 10 Blu/mol

Benzene

Componem

131

Cost datil for HOA process

Benzene

Of.SKiN V"kl"lu.s. OVUAU M"TUI"L II"LANCES, "ND srlEA.M COSTS

TAllLE U-3

H2, C H,

Process

UCTION H

COSTS

Purge

s.-.""..

w. a.Ioo ......"'" wt the fuel

val... nl d,pbe..yl

cun~QI

.. SSJI/IDO!.

The economic polential is the annual profit we could make if we did not have
to pay anything for capital costs or utilities costs, Of course, if the economic
potential is negative, i.e. the raw materials are wOrlh more than the products and
byproducts, then we want to tenninate the design project. look for a less expensive
source of ra..... materials, or look for another chemistry route that uses less
expensive raw malenals.

PsiS

Example 5,2-3 HDA Siream CMIS. If we use Ihe coS( dala given in Table 5.2-3.
""here tbe values of H l ' CH., and dlphenyl in the produci Streams are based on the
healS of combusllon of lhe compollc:nls and a fuel value of S4/I06 BlU. we can
calculale Ihe economic polential for lhe HDA process in terms of lhe design variables
(""e use reactor conver~ion per pass x, instead or S. and YI'H). The results arc sho... nlll
Fig. 522. The graph indicates lha' al high conversions Ihe process is llnpt"ofilable

where S
I
0.0036/(1
X)U44
FH1 _ FE + PB(I + S)/25
FM = (1 - YFH)(FE + P8 (1 + S)/S))IYFH
Fa = FHI + FM
FIGURE 5.2-1

Siream ur.bk HDA prOOCSli.

4,000,000

Stream Costs: Economic Potential

3,000,000

Since the Kbest" values of the design variables depend on the process economics, we
want to calculate the stream costs, i.e" the cost of all raw materials and product
streams in tenns of Ihe design variables. Normally, we combine these costs into a
single term, which we call the economic potential (EP). We define Ihe economic
potential at level 2 as
EP l = Product Value

+ By-product Values
- Raw-Material Costs, Slyr

(5.2-23)

---.. "'"

1.000,000

"

0
-1,000,000

YPH

...... 0.1

0.1

(5.2-24)

We would also subtract tbe annualized capital and operating cost of a feed
compressor, if one is needed. (fhe calculations required are discussed in Sec. 6.5.)

0.2

0.3

0.4
Conversion x

FlGURE 5.22
Eco"omK

___ 0.9

i".. 'li

-2,000,000
-4,000,000

-+- 0.7

-3.000,000

which for an HDA example would be

EP = Benzene Value + Fuel Value of Diphenyl + Fuel
Value of Purge - Toluene Cost - Maleeup Gas Cost

2,000,000

POI~DuaJ-lcvel 2.

0.5

0.6

"

0.7

SECTlQN,.

for

the

UOA

I. Punfy the bydrOlC'D r-t JlrcanL

1. Rcqdc 1M dlpheTl)'llo ulJnctK>n.
J. Punfy lhc U.-rceyCH. JlIam

(u~..'C

con"crt so much loluene

10

dlphen}l Ihal lhls selccuvllY loss ucecds the

mcrcucd value of the benzene Ihal ~ produce). Also. al hIgh pur!C composItiOns of
hydrogen ..~ lose money (~lose so much hydrogen to fucllhal"~ cannol mue up

IhlS )os;s).
Aocordm! 10 the gnlph. the mosl dcsu'lIbie vall.lCS (i.e., the Wellesl profil) of
lhe design vllnables corrcspond to x _ 0 (i.e.. no sc:lCClivily loss) and a reactant
composlIion or lhe purge slream Y'B equal to tero (i.e~ purge pure rm:thane),
As we prooeed lhrough the design, ho...ever, we find lhal a tero conversion per
pass (x - 0) corresponds to an infimtdy large recycle 801" of toluene and that purpng
no hydrogen lI,. - 0) corresponds 10 an Infinuely large gas-KC}'C1e Row Hena:, ...e
develop Ibc:.opumum vall.lCS or x and Y"" as "'~ proc:eed througb the design.
for

5.3

133

1. Should we purify the feed stream?

2. Shouk! we remove or recycle a re\'ersiblc by-product?
3. Should we use a gas recycle and purge stream?
4. Should we use: an excess of some reactant that we discard?
S. How many product $Ireams will there be?
6. What are the design variables and the economic trade-ofTs al this Je\d of
analysis?

TABLE s.J.t

Alternatives
p<oc""

'l-'loll.MIlY. VIllOSE$, .....-n NOIoIE"ClATU."

PROCESS ALTERNATIVES

In our development ofa design for the HDA process (see Fig. 5.1-2), we made the
decisions (I) nol 10 purify the hydrogen reed srream, (2) 10 remove the diphenyl
from the process. and (3) to use: a gas recycle and purge stream. If we change any of
these: decisions, we generate process allernatives. It is always good practice to make
a lisl of Ihese alternauves. Such a hSI tS given in Table 5.3-1.

Evaluation of Alternath"es
We could attempt to SImultaneously develop designs that corresponded to each
process alternative Ho....ever. if we remember that less than I ~ of ideas for new
designs ever become commercialized, our initial goal should be to eliminate, with
as little effort as possible. projects that will be unprofitable. Thus. we prefer to
complete the design for one alternative as rapidly as possible before we give any
consideration to tbe other alternatives, for we might encounter some faclor that
will make all the alternatives unprofitable. Then, aner ViC have compleled a basecase: design, \\'e examine Ihe alternatives.. In the terminology of artificiallOteUigeooe
(AI), we arc using a tI~pfh-first, rather Ihao a br~odlh-firsl. stnJl~gy.

In some caeS heunstJCS can be used to help make these decisions. When no
heuristics are available. we make a guess and then hst the opposile decision as a
process alternative. We complcle tint desigo based 00 ow original guess before
we consider any other alternatives. (Since Ic:ss than 1 ~ ofidcas for new designs arc
suca:ssful. we might learn something about the process thai will make all the
alternatives unprofitable.)
Some of the heurislics and design guidelines that were presented include Ihc
following:
If a feed impurity is not inert, remo"e it
If an impurity is present in a gas feed stream. as a first guess process the
unpurity.
If an impurity in a liquid ked stream is a product or b)product. usually f~
the process through the ~paralion system_

an impurity is present in large amounts. remove it

If an impurity is prese:nt as an a7.cotropc with a reactant. process the
Impurlly,
If a feed impurity IS an inert. but is easier to ~parale from the product and
bl-product than from the feed. il is beUer to process the impurit}
Whenever there is a light reactant aod a light reed impurity or by-produci
(where ligbt components boil lower than propylene, _48C), use a gas recycle and
purge stream for lhc first design. Also consider a membrane separator later.
If O 2 from air or water is a reactant, consider using an elcen. amount of this
reactant.
For single-product. vapor-liquid processes. we determine the number or
product streams by grouping components with oeigbboring boiling points that
have the same exit destinations; i.e.. we never separate streams aod then remiJL:
[f

th<m.

5.4 SUMMARY, EXERCISES. AND

NOMENCLATURE

Be certain thai all by-products and impurities leave the process!

The: significant design variables are those that affect the product distribution
and purge compositions of gas streams
Raw-material co~ls arc often in the range from]J to 85~~ of the lotal COsl~

Summary

Exercises

The queslions we must answer 10 fix the mput-oulput structure of the flowshect

include the follo.... in~

5.4-1. Draw the inpul-outpul no...sheEt .nd plot lhe CIODfK)I'Tl;C rolenhal rot'" the IIDA.
rorOOCft for the cue wherr. the dlphc:n)t Os rec:yclaI

134

SECTION,.

SFCTION,.

SUMMU.Y. UUL/Sb.... NO NOMlNCUTUIl.E

5.4-2. Draw the nowshe<:t and plol Ihe economic potenllal for lhe I[DA process for lhe
case where the ".15 separaled from CII. b<::fore It is recyeled and where diphenyllS
removed from Ihe proces~
5.4-3. Acetic anh)"dndc" can be produced by lhe reacuon system

Acetone ~ Ketene
Ketene ~ CO

CII.}

+ !CJII.

Ketene t AceliC ACId ~ Acetic Anhydnde

100"C, I atm
80"C, I atm

The seleCtlVlly (moles of ketene leaving Ihe pyrolYSIS reactor per mole of acetone
converted) is gIven by S - I - 4x/3 at low conversions. The desired production ratc
of anhydride is 16.58 mo[fbr at a purity of 99Y.. The cost data are: acetone =
SIS.66/mol, acid = SISJlO/moJ. anhydride = $44AI/mol, and fue[ at $4.00/10' BlLJ.
Draw the 8owshcct, and plol lhe economic potenlial.
504-:1. A process for producing acetone from isopropanol IS discussed in Exercise 1.3-4. The
desired production rale is S[.] molfbr. The feed azeotrope contains 10 mol % IPA,
and the costs are acelone - SIS.66/mo!. IPA-HJO au:otrope = S9.S3/mel, H as
J
fuel ~ S0.49/rnol, and H 1 0 as waste = -SO.001/mol Draw the input-.output flow.
shcct, calculate the overall malerial balances, and ptol the economic potential
5.4-5. A simplified f10wshccl for elhanol synthesis is discussed in Exercise 1.3-6. The
desired prodUClion rate of the azcOlroplc product is 783 mol/ltr (8SA mol %
EIOH). and the caslS arc: elhylene feed mixlUre = 56.1S/mo[, process ....ater =
SO.00194/mol, elhanol as azeolrope "" 5 10 89/mol, and the fuel al S4.00.'IO" Btu
Draw the input-outpul Slructure of the f1owsheer. and plot Ihe economic potenlial
5.4-6. Styrene can be produced by Ihe reactions
ElhylbelUcne ~ Styrene

+ HJ

Ethylbc:nune -. Benzene

+ Elhylene

Ethylbelluoc

+ H J -. Toluene + CH..

The reaClions take place al III S"F and 25 psia. We wall! 10 produce 250 molthr
of slyreoc. The cosu are: elhylbenzene ... SIS.7S/mol, styrene = 521.88/mol, benzene = $9.04/mol, loluene = S8.96/mol, and fuel at $4.ll0/1()6 Btu. Wenner and
Dybdal' give colTelations for the product distnbuliOD
Mol Bellzene

:.;::;.:;:c:::::=
= OJ]]x Mol Styrene

0.21 Sx J

Mol TolueDC
Mol Slyccne

o 264x J + 2.6]8r

:.;::;.:;;::::::~ - 0.084x -

+ 2.547.r 1

where x - styrene conversion. The elhylbc:nune feed stream contains 2 mol %

benzene. Draw the inpul-output 80wshcct and plot the economic poleOlia!.

11115

probkm

IS 1I

mOllified VerSIon oflhe 19~8 AtChE Student COlllesl !>robkm. sec J J McKetlll,

Ent;yelofH!Jla of C,","'lclll ProcnslIIg IlM DC5JfJ". vol I. De~~er, New York. 1976. p 27t

, R. R Weoner lind E. C Dybdll[, Cltr",. Eng P'<>!J~ 44(4); 27~ (l94g)

SUMM"'IlY. OiEllCIE'I, "NO I'OMENCLnUIlE

135

5..4-7. Cyclohuane" can be produce:d by the reaclion

Benltne

+ ] III "'" Cyelohennr:

The re"clion lales place at ]92"F dnd 370 psia. Pure bemr.c~e IS used as a feed
stream, but the hydrogen Siream contams 2 y. methane. The dcslred produClton raIl.'
15 100 mol/llr, ;$nd the costs art; benzene ~ $6.50jnlol, H, = $1.]2jmol. cyelohel(ane = SI2 OJ/mol, and fuel at $400'10" Btu. Draw the mput-.output f1owsheet, and
plot the ecunomlc pOlenlld.L
5A-8. Ethylene can be produced by Ihe thermal cracking of ethane'
CJH .. ~ CJH..
C JH6

-.

!CJH..

HI

+ CH.

The reaclions lale place at I 500F and SO psia. We desire 10 produce: 87S molfbr of
etby[ene with 7S% purity. Assume that the selectivity is given by
mol CJH. Fonned

0_0381

S ... mol C H" Convened - I - (I _

1

X)0.101

The ethane fa:d conlains Sy. CH. and costs S1.6S/mol. Ethylene at 9~% composition is worth S6.lS/mol. Fuel is worth $4 00/10" BIU. Draw the mpul-output
f1o ....shcct and plot the eronomic pOlentia!.
5.4-9. Butadiene sulfone" can be produced by the reaction
Butadiene

-1

SO, -;:;:: Butadiene Sulfone

The reaC!lon tales place: III the liquid phase at 90 F and 15Opsia. The costs arc
SOl = S0064/mol, butadiene = S6.76/mol, and butadiene sulfone = 58.SO/mol. We
want to make 80 molfbr of product. Draw the input-output f1owsheel, and plot the
economic potential.
5.4--10. Isooclane (gasohne)' can be: produced by the reactions
Q

lsobutane -. ls00ctaoe

Butene

-1

Bulene

+ Isooctane -. C l l

The reactions take place in the liquid phase at 4SF aDd 90 psia; sa: Exercise 4.]-11.
The desired production rate is 918 mol/hr. and the costs are: buten~ ... 6514.S6/0101,
Imbutane = SI8.S9/mol, isooctane ... $]6.54/mol, and fuel = $4.00/10 Btu. ~ne
feed stream contams 8% C 1 , 80% bulene, and 12% n-C while Ihe otherconlalOS
12% C 1 , 73% iC., and IS% n-C. Draw Ihe input-output f1owsha:t. and plot the
economic potenllaL

" 1. R FlIir, CydO~)H"'~ M"""fact"u, Wasb'"8Io" Umve~lty Design Dse Stud}' No. 4,e.:lItcd by B D.
Snmb. Washlogton Universlly, SI. LouIS, MIl~ Aug. I. t967
, W L BoIlC:!', Elh}/efli: Pwnt Design anJ EconomiQ. Washlllgion Unl.erslty DesIgn Case Sludy No.6.
cdned by B D Smllh. Washington Unlvcrslly. Sl loUIS. MIl~ 1970
'llus problem '5 ~ modIncd ,'enaOn of lhe 1970 AlChE Sloocm COlll<:s1 Probl~m. 'ICC J J McKella,
E"C}"clofH!tlu, o{C,","'lcal P'OCCU1"II <1M D~s,gn. vol.~, DeHer. New Yor~. 1977. p 192.
, TIm problem IS ~ modIfied versLon of the 1977 AIChE Studcnt Conlan PfOblcm; MellE Slud"'"1
M~mbns a"l/cUn. AIChE Headquuler$. 1977_

136

SEcnON H

SIJ~MU.Y.

ElCF.lClSES. AND NOMENCLATIJIU!

Nomenclature

EP
F,
FH

F.

F.,

"
"p.,
PClI.

p.
p.
P.II.ct!.

CHAPTER

Economic potential
Excess 1-1 2 fed to lhe process, mol/hr
Fresh feed rate of toluene, mol/hr
Makeup gas rate, mol/hr
H 2 consumed by the reactions. mol/hr
Final moles of component j
Imtial moles of component j
Production rate of ben7-l:ne, mol/hr
Purge flow of methane, molfhr
Diphenyl produced, molfhr
Purge flow rate, mol/hr
CH.. produced by the reaction, molfhr
Selectivity, mol benzene produced/mol toluene converted
Feed composition of H 2
Mole fraction of H 2 in the purge stream

6
RECYCLE
STRUCTURE
OF THE
FLOWSHEET

Stoichiometric coefficients
Extent of reaction i

Now that we have decided on the input-output structure orthe llowsheet, we want
to add the next level of detail. From earlier discussions we know that the product
distribution dominates the design, and therefore .....e add the details of the reactor
system. Also, since gas compressors are the most expensive processing equipment,
we add the annualized capital and operating COStS of any compressors required.
However, at this level of the synthesis and analysis procedure, we treat the
separation system asjusl a blackbox, and we consider Ihe delails of the separation
system later.

6.1 DECISIONS THAT DETERMINE

THE RECYCLE STRUCTURE
The decisions that fix the recycle structure of the fiowshccl are listed in Table 6.1,-1.
Each of these decisions is discussed in detail.

IJ7

138

O[CI~IONS TIIA!

HClIO"l.1

I.lto'HNII'IL litE

~lYCU: H~tJC1H~L
SKTlON 01

OliCiSIONS THAT OflUMINE THE RECYCLE STItUCTUIE

139

TABLE 6.1_1

Decisions for lbe rec:)'cJe Slruclure

I. flo.. many reaclOf S)$ICIIllI at'l' reqwrcd T Is there any scpala"Oll bct,,'Ota the rc:aclor .)'Slc..... ?
1. lIow llally rcc)dc $lIlt'ams.ll1t' KqwrcdT
J,. Do Wit' _Ill 10 WIt' . . . u _ 01 one fCKUllt at lbe: rcaaOt mlct'
.. Is a &as compl"CS$(Jf IcqUIIN T Whal arc the o:GIIJ"
So Should 1M rcacaO! be opcntlcd adUlNtlClUy "'lIh d"1 !>Qll"C or co.,;,hn
dI

ClImer requucd"

&. Or Ii a 'ucnt or twat

.,

Reactor
Acelone fe..'l.I

i. Du WC """110 duft lhe cqwhbnllm c:un~CUIOnT 110....

7. How do the rc.llnOI ~ts alfca the CCQOlom", palenllal'

Rt;actOr

.2

Acid recycl

Number of Reactor Sysfems

Acetonc recycle

If se~s 0(. reactions take place at different temperalures or pressures, or if they

require different catalysts, Ihen we use different reactor syslems for these reaction
sels. For example. In the HDA process Ihe reactions
Toluene

+ HI -

Benzene

2 Benzene;:: Diphenyl

+ CH_}
1150 1300""F, 500 psia

+ HI

(6.1-1)

both t~ke place al the same temperalure and pressure withoul a calalyst. Therefore
Ihere IS only one reaelor required. In conlrast, In Ihe reaetlOD system
Acetone __ Ketene

Kctene_CO
Ketene

+ Acetic Acid -

of

FIGURE 6.1-1
Aczue anhydndc

Now .... e can lake our hst of all lhe componenls ka,mg Ihe reaclor that has
bet'n ordered by the nonna! boiling poinls, e.g., Table 51-4, and .....e Iisl the reaclor
number as the destination code for each reg.de stream. NCllt we group recycle
componenlS having nelghbonng boilmg points If they have the same reaclor
dcstinallon. Then Ihe number of recycle slreams IS merely Ihe number of groups.
This simple procedure is based on IhlS common sense heunsllc;

+ CH..}

!CIH..

Acetic Anhydride

700"C, I a (m

(6.1-2)

80"C, I atm

the first tWO reacllons take place al a high tempera lure. whereas the third reaCtion
takes place at a lo.....er lemperature. Hence, tWO reactor systems would be required
and we could call these R I and R2.

umber of Rec)"ck Streams

From Ihe diSCUSSion above, we see thai we can associale reaction sleps with a
reactor number Then we can associate the feed streams with the reactor number
where Ihat feed component rcacts; e.g., m Ihe aohydride process, acetone would be
re.d ~o the first reaclor, whereas acetic acid would be red to the second reactor
Similarly, we can associate the components 10 rccycle streams with the reaclor
numbers where each component reacts; e.g., in the anhydride process, acetone
would be recycled to Ihe first rcactor, whereas acetic acid would be recycled to the
second reactor (see Fig. 6.1-1).

Do nOI separale two components and Ihcn remix them at a reaclor inlet

(6.1-3)

We also distingUish belween gas- and liquid-recycle streams, because gasreClcle slreams require compressors, which are always expensi'c. We conSider a
stream 10 be a gas-recycle stream If it boils at a lower temperature than propylene
(i.e.. propylene can be condensed with cooling water 81 high pressure, whereas
lower-boihng malerials requlfI~ refrigerated condensers, which require a compressor). Liqutd-rttycle streams requlfe only pumps In our IOllIal design calculalions
we do notlOc!ude lbe costs of the pumps because they are usuaUy small compared
to compressors., furnaces, dlsullauon columns, etc. (High-bead. high-volume
pumps can be very expensive, SO 10 some cases we mUSI check this assumption.)
Enmple 6.1-1 Number or recycle ","earns. Conslder tblt' components and the
dcsunauons given below tn Ihe order or Ihlt'lr normal boil1ll8 points:
A.

Wasle byproduct

B. Waste by-product

C. Reactant recycle [0 RI
D Fuel by-product
E Fuel b)'.prodUCI

F. Pnmary produCI

G. Reactalll - recycle to R2
11 Reactant - recycle 10 R2
I Reactant - recycle 10 RI
J Valuable by-product

140

SECTIOl'f'"

SI'OION II

DECISIONS nlAr OIl!TUMI!'<1' llll! II;f.CYCI.f. STl.lIOl!U

There are four product strums (A .. B. D + E. F nd J) .nd thr rn:yclc:

.ilreams (C. G + If. and I). where lhe first .nd 111$1 So 10 R I .nd the 5IeCOnd S0e5 10 R2
En,",w 6.1-2

IIDA,..~

DFnSIONS 1M'"

Gas reC)'cle
Compress<W

DETH"'lINt: 1H 'ECn:I.E SlllurlUU

141

Purge

The components and lheir dallnallon for the ltDA

proc:as are 15 follow5'

Wl

-253

.'"

Recyck + purSc
Recycle + pur,c

'"

Cll.
Ik=~
Tol~

Pnmary prodUCI

Reacior

Enm""

6.1.)

In

hg. 6.1-2. and

Anbfdrid~ prl)(:ll'!I5. Th~ componenl

/I

0<.
C,H.
Ketcne

-)126
-250&.6
-ISH

Aoelone

-"2.1
133.2

AoetK .00
Aoetic .ohydrilk

2.)
181.9

f1GURE 6..1-2
HDA recydt: Rno<:lurc- [F,-. J, /of Doug/#$, AIC4J~ JI J51 (1985)J

shows tbe reaclor and the

lisl and the destinalion codes for

lhe .nhydride process arc lvcn'

co

Diphe"Y'
Toluene recycle

ThUs. there Ire three product streams purF- br:tutne. Ind dlphcnyl and ''''0
recycle ilreams. II ... CII" and toh~nc. where the fint is Isas and ,he second,s I.
IKju,d A recycle nowsheet IS given
recycle gas oomprCSllor.

Separator

Tolue ~
fWl

Recydo: - I.ju""
Fad by_prodUCI

'"

o,,,,,",yl

...'U

and if the kinetics match the stoichiometry. then the usc of an excess of lsobutanc
leads to aD improved seleclivlty 10 produce isooctane. The larger the excess, the
greater the Improvement III the seleetivily, but the largel the cost to recover and
rcqcle the isobutane. Thus. an optimum amount of excess must be determined
from an economic analysis
The usc of an excess component can also be used to fortt another component
10 be close to completc con\'crSlon For eJlample., III the production or ph<Kgene

co + a.-coo:

Fuel b~ product
Fuel ~~product
Fuel b)'-product

(6.1-5)

Acetic add feed

U~labk IUCUnt - complcldy oon""nrxl

RelICWlI - recyck to RI - Dqll;d
Reacl.l.rll _ ~ to R2 - liquid
Primal')" prodlld.

CO. CH", C 2H"

Thus. lhere are IWO prodllCl Sireams.. CIi" + CO + C;.H" .nd anhydride. and ,wo
Iiqllid_rccydestreams.re returned to chft'ercnt reactors: Ketone is re=yelcd 10 R I, aad
Ia:tic acid is rccydal to R2. A f10wshm is shown in FiB- 6.13.

.,

Reactor
~

H,

J)f$I;lUlliool

NBP.

~c

Com,....ml

!kn7.e

fWl

I
Acetic acid rcqcle

Excess Ructanls
In some cases the use of an ucess reactant can shirt the product distribution. For
example, if we write a very oversimplified model for the production of isooctane via
butane alkylation as

+ IsobuLane - booctane
Butene + lsooct.t.ne en

Butene

(6'-4)

Aohy d

Reactor
R2

Acetone recycle
FIGURE 6.1-J
Auc anhydnik lec)C1e

SEcnON t..l

Cyclohexane

Benzene
Reactor

(6.1-6)

we want to obtam equlllbnum conver)iom very close 10 unity so that we can

ubtain a high conver)ion of benzene and avoid a benzcnecyclohexane distillation
separation (the boiling points are very close together). We can shift the equilibrium
conversion to the right by using an excess of III at the reactor inlet.
Thus, the molar rallo of reactants at the reactor inlet is oflen a design
variable. Normally the optimum amount of excess to usc involves an economic
trade-off between some beneficial effect and the cost of recovering and recycling the
excess. Unfortunately, there arc no rules of thumb available to make a reasonable
guess of the optimum amount of excess, and trerefore we often need to carry out
our economic analysis in tenns of this additional design variable.

Dipheny

F,-,
Toluene

Fr(l - x)

[=l
FIGURE 6.2-1
IlDA, liqUJd recycle.

Thus, the feed to the reactor is

,

6.2

Separator
System

FT(I - .)

FT

Heal Effects and Equilibrium Limil3lions

In general, the reactor flows need to be available in order to evaluate the reactor
heat effects. Also, in many cases, equilibrium calculations arc simplified if we have
C<ilculated SOffie of the reactor flows_ Thus, we defer our discussion of these topics
until we have discussed procedures for estimating the process flow rates.

,- f
_

FT

(6.2-2)

This same malerial balance is always valid for the limiting reactant when there is
complete recovery and recycle of the limiting reactant.
In some cases, some of the limiting reactanl might leave Ihe process in a gas
recycle and purge stream (ammonia synthesis), or it may leave with the product
(ethanol synthesis), If we consider a simplified \'crsion of the ethanol process, lhe
reactions arc

RECYCLE MATERIAL BA LANCFS

CHJCH J + HJO~CH3CHJOH

Our goal is to obtam a quick estimate of Ihe recycle flows, rather than ngorous
calculations. We have not specified any details of the separation system as yet, and
therefore we assume that greater than 99 % recoveries of reaclants are equivalent 10
100% recoveries. This approximation normally introduces only small errors in the
stream l'Iows.

2CH3CI-I20H~(CH3C112hO

(6.2-1)

+ HlO

(6.2])

We suppose that we want to produce 783 mol/hr of an EtOH-HlO azeotrope that

contains 8S.4 mol % EtOH, from an ethylene feed stream containing 4 % CH .. and
pure water. A recycle f10wsheet is shown in Fig. 6.2-2 for the case where we recycle
Ihe diethylether and the water.
The overall material balances start with the production rate of the azeotrope

Limiling Reaelanl
First we make: a balance on the limiting reactant. For the HDA process (see Fig.
62-1), we lei the flow of toluene entering the reactor be FT' Then, for a conversion
x the: amount of toluene leaving the reactor will be F,.{l- x). For complete
recoveries in the separation system, the flow leaving the reactor will be equal 10 the
recycle flow. Now if we make a balllnce at the mixing point before the reactor, the
sum of the fresh feed toluene F FT plus the recycle toluene will be equal to the now of
toluene into the reactor, or

14]

Purge

which is an mtermedlate In the produUlon of dl-isocyanate, the product must be

free of Cll. Thus, an excess of CO is used to force the Cll conversion to be very
high
Similarly, the lise of an excess cun be used to stufl the equilibrium conversion.
For example, in the producllOn of cyclohexane by the reaction
BellLcne + 3 H l

IlECYCLE MATU.JAL BAlANCES

p. zu = 783 moljhr

(6.2-4)

P"'OIl = 0.854(783) = 669 mol/llr EtOH

(6.2-5)

This contains

Then the amount or water in the produci stream

IS

(6.2-6)

144

SECTION '2

SECTION

ROCYClE MATEJJAl IALANCU

145

RECYCU! MATERIAL I\LANCa

Other Reaclants

C2H., CII.

After we ha\-e estimated the now of Ihe limiting reactanl, we usc a spcc1ficalion of
the molar ratio at the reactor inlet 10 calculate the recycle nows of the other
components. For example. 10 the HDA process (sec Fig. 6.2-4). Ihe 10lal amount of
h}drogen entering the reactor is the sum of the fresh feed hydrogen l'fIIF G and the
recycle hydrogen RGV'H We sho....ed above that the amounl of the hmllmg
reactant, toluene, entenng the reactor IS F niX. Thus. If .... c let the molar rallO of
b}drogen to toluene at the reactor inlet be1\1R. we find that

1
E'

Separator
system

Reactor

A zeotropc

H,O

Ethe<

hHFG+Y,lJRf<=MR(F;r)

(62.10)

R _....!..!....-(MR_
Y,lJ )
G SXY'H x
Y"H Y'H

(6.2.11)

H,O
or

FIGURE 0..2
Elbaoollynl'---

ThUS. from Eq. 6.2-3 and the rC$ulls above, the required feed rale of water, ....hich is
the hmiting reactant, is
FII,o - y..... p.uo

+ (I

- Y...o)p..u - 669

+ 114

>=

783 mOlfhr

(6.2-7)

Suppose that we lei the water leaving witb the product be F .... f' - 114 and the
fresh feed waler required for the reaction be F ....... Now. referring to the schematic
in Fig. 6.23 for water, we let tbe amount entering the reactor be F ... , tbe amount
leaving tbe reactor be f...(1 - x). tbe amount leaving with the product be f .... f'. and
the amount recycled be f...(1 - x) - f .... ,.. Then a balance at the milling pomt
before the reactor gives

(f.... ,.

so that

F......)

+ [f..(1 -x)-

Reactor

F(J - x)

F(I - x) - Fp
FIGURE 6.1-3
F.lh.noI5ynl!lesl$.

There are no rules of thumb available for selecting x for the case of complex
reactions. Similarly. there arc no rules of thumb for selecting the purge composition
or the molar ratio M R. For the case of single reactions. a reasonable first guess
of conversion is x = 0.96 or x ... 0.98x.,,:

y,..

For single reactions, choose x = 0.96 or x ... O.98x." as a first guess.

(6.2-12)

This rule of thumb is discussed in Exercise 3.5-8.

(6.29)

F ... - F ...... /x

Design Heuristics

(6.2.8)

F .... ,.] = F ...

This result is identical to Eq. 6.2-2, e.~pt that instead of the fresb feed rate we
substitute only tbe amount of matenal that enters into the reaction. A Similar result
is obtained for the case where the limiting reactant leaves with a gas purge stream.

F,. + FR

OD~ we specify the deSign variables X.l'''H. and /of R, we can sohe Ihis equation for
the recycle gas now RG .

. Pc

Reactor

Fp

Separator

Be=~ .

MR

Toluene
f<ed
FlGUR 6..l.-<t
ItDA. PJ .ecydc.

FT

p.

Separator
s~tem

Diphe"yl

~(AC1011 HEAl EHRTI

'KIIO!" 6J

Reversible Byproducis
If we recycle a by-product formed by a reversible reaclion and lei the component
build up to liS equilibrium leve~ such as the diphenyl in tbe UDA process
2Benzene~Diphenyl

+ U1

or the dlethylcthcr III ethanol synthesIS CEq. 6.2-3), then we find the recycle flow
by uSing the equilibnum relallonshlp at the reaclor exit That is, at the feal:tor
e1l.11
K = (Dlphenyl)(H 2 )
(6.2-13)
.,
Benz.cne2
However, the H 2 and benzene 80ws have been detennined by using the first
reaction and the purge calculations; so we can usc the equilibrium expression to
calculate Ihe dipbenyl 8010' at lbe: reactor exiL

63

Elilllnple 6.3-1 IlIlA proc~ hom the over~11 nlllleriat balances for the /lOA
process, ....'e found thaI only small "mounu of dlphenyt were produccd in the range of
con~en.ion where we obtallled pro61able opcr,lIlon. If .... e want to estimate the reactor
beat load for a case where x _ 0.75, P," 265, and f f f = 27] mol/hr, we might
neglttt the second redctlOn and wnte

Q. '" All. 1"'1" (

21,5JO)(27l)

S87~ x

10" Btullr

(6 ]1)

.... here All. 1.lhe heal ofre.K'lon at IZOO Fall<! 5(X)pila and hu.lls liberated by lhe
reaction
Enmplt 6.3-2.

A~tone

can be produced by tbe dehydrogenauon of Isopropanol

(63-2)

If we desire 10 p-oducc: 051) mol(hr of acctone, tben o5lJ mollbr of IPA 15 ~ulred.
The heal of rClllcllon at o5-ro-F Ind t 11m 15 205.800 81U/moI., so (be fC.iIctor heat load 15

Q.. - 25.800(51 3)- 1324 x 10"' Btu/hr

REACTOR HEAT EFFECTS

We need 10 make: a dCClSlon as 10 whether tbe reactor can be opcrated adlabatlcaUy, wilh dlfect healing or coolin& or whether a diluent or heat carrier is needed.
10 particular, if .....e need to lDlroduoe an exlraoc:ouscompooent as a diluent or heat
carrier, lhen our recycle material balances, aod perhaps even our overall material
balances, will have 10 be changed Moreover, we need to make this decision before
we consider the specificallon of lbe: separation system because: lhe decision 10 add
an extraneous component nonnaUy will affect Ibe design of the 5C?3-raLion system.
To make the: decision concc:nllog tbe: reaClor heat effects, 6rst we eslimate the
reaClor head load and Ihe adiabatic lemperature change. These calculations
provide some guidance: as to (be dlffu:ulty of dealing wilh tbe reactor heal effecls.
Similarly, weconslder any lemperature constraiolS imposed on thedcslgn probkm.

147

(6 J.3)

and bealiS consumed by lbe endolhenmc relictIOn..

Adiabalic Temperature Qange

Once: we have delennloed the reaClor heal load and lhe f10~ rate through lhe:
reactor as a function of the design variables, we can eslimale tbe adiabatIC
temperalure change from lhe expression
(6.3-4)

EliImpk 6..3-3 ItDA p r _ The flows and heal capacina of the reaelor feed
stream for a C3$e .... here x _075 and ",,, - 04 are gwen belo""

Reac(or Heal Load

For single reactions we know that aU Ibe fresh feed of the limiting reaclanl usually
gets converted in the process (Ihe per-pass conversion mighl be small so Ihal Ihere
is a large recycle flow. bUI all the fresh feed is converted except for small losses in
product and by-product streams or losses in a purge stream). Thus, for single
reactions we can state that
Reactor Heat Load = Heat of Reaction x Fresh Feed Rale

Sttum

C,. 81u /(moI-f)

Mahupps
RClCyd~ au
TolucDc reed
TotU~D~

recycle

<9,
337t

"

(6.)-1)

where the heat of reaction is calculated al Ihe reactor operating conditions.

For complex reactions, the exlent of each reaction will depend on lhe design
variables (conversion, molar ratio of reaclanlS, temperature, and/or pressure).
Once we select the design variables, we can calculate the extent of each reaction and
then calculate the heat load correspondmg to the side reaclions. Hence, il is a
simple mailer 10 calculale reaClor heat loads as a function of the design variables.
Some guidelines for reactor heal loads arc: diSCUSsed laler in this section

09S(7) + OOS(IO.I) _ 1.16

04(1) 'i' 0.6(101) - 8 86

...

48.7

Theo. rrom Eumple 6]-1 and Eq 63-4

Q~" -5K78

lC

10" _ (273

T.. _,_lt$O I IIS_1265F

wllh

T. I__ I 150F.

+ 91)48.7 + 496(7

(6)

+ 3371(8.86)](T~.;_ -

'/~._)

(63-S)

This ...alue IS below lhe constralnl Oil Ihe reactor Ull lemperature of IJOOfiF (sec
Eumple 4 11) Also, the calcuhtllOn IS nOI very sensitive to Ihe C, values or to the
flows llic: relallvely small lemperature rise is dllC to the large gas-recyck flow

148

SECTION U

~L\CTO~ HEAT

S~cnoN"

F.FFl!CJ1i

)"1: = 0.7

710

= 0.6

)'u, = 0.5

YIl,

0.4

)'11 1

0]

)'11,

= 0.2

)'''1

= 0.1

Hydrocracking
limit

1000 ftl

680

"u

'"

149

the amounl of heat-transfer surface area Ihat we can fit into a reactor To get some
"feeling" for Ihe magnitude of this area, we consider the case of a high-temperature
gas-phase reaction, and we let U = 20 Dlu/(hr. fl1. oF) and AT=- SODF. Then. for a
heat load of I x io~ BlUthr,

)'II J = 0.8
)'11,

~OUIUIl~IUfol lIMll"nONS

(63-7)

The maximum heal transfer area that fits InlO the shell of a floatlllg-head heat
exchanger is ill tbe range of 6000 10 8000 ftl. Thus, to use a single heal exchanger as
a reactor, when we are altempting to remove or supply the heat of reaction by
direct heating or cooling, the reactor heat loads are limited 10 the range of 6.0 to
8.0 x 106 Bluthr.

650

Heal Carriers

x
FIGURE 6.3-1

Re.aClor cullcmrcralurc..

[From J. M. Doug/D.<. ,fIChE J,

31 J.B (1985).)

A plOI or the reactor eXit temperature ll5 a function of thc design variables is
givcn in Fig. 6.31, and we see that in certain cases the constraint on Ihe reaclor exit
temperature is violaled

Eumple 6.3-4 IrA process. If Ihe feed stream 10 the acetone process described by
~, 6.J-2 IS a~ I.PA-H JO 117.eotrope (70 mol % IPA) and if ...e recycle an az.cotropic
mlxtllte, then It IS easy to sbow that 22.0 mol/hr of water enters with tbe feed. Also, for
a conversion of,'( ~ 0.96, the recycle Row will be 2.1 mol/hr of IPA and 0.9 mol/hr or
water. If the reactor inlet temperature is 57rF, then from Eqs. 6.3-1 and 6.3-4 Ihe
adiabatic temperalure change is
Q"

or

T"._,

1.324 x

1ij6 _

51.3

+ 22.0) + (2.1 + 0.9)](22.0)(572 _

= 572 - 788 __ 216F

T.

->
(6.3.6)

Clearly, this is an unreasonable resull. Thus, instead of usin8 an adiabatic

reactor, lJo'e altempt to achieve isothcrmal operation by supplying the heat of the
reaction 10 the process. In p3nicular, I.'e mighl attempt 10 pack the tubes of a heat
exchangcr with a eatalysL

The reaclOr heal load is oflen fixed by the fresh feed rate of the limiting reaclanl (if
only a small amount of by-products is produced so that the secondary reactions are
unimporlanl). The adiabatic temperature change depends primarily on the flow
through the reactor. Hence:, we can always moderate Ihe temperature change
through the reactor by increasing the flow rate.
If we desire to moderate the temperature change, we prefer 10 do this b)
recycling more of a reactant or by recycling a product or by-product. However.
where this is not possible. we may add an extraneous component. Of course. the
introduction of an extraneous component may make the separation system more
complex. and so we normally try 10 avoid this situation.
In the HDA process (sec Eq. 6.3-5). the methane in the gas-recycle stream
(60% methane) aels as a heat carrier. Thus. if we purified the hydrogen. recycle
stream, the recycle flow would decrease and the reactor exit temperature would
increase. If this exit temperature exceeded the constraint of I 300F, we eoul<l, no
longer usc an adiabatic reactor. !,nstead, we would have to cool the reactor,
increase: the hydrogen recycle ftow, or introduce an extraneous compound as a heat
carrier.
A similar behavior is encountered in many oxidation reactions. If pure
oxygen is used as a reactant, the adiabatic lemperature rise is normally so large thai
problems would be encountered. However, if air is used as the reactant stream, the
presence of nitrogen moderates the temperature change.

6.
Heurislic for Heat Loads

If adiabatic operation is not feasible, such as in the isopropanol example, then we

altempl to use direct heating or cooling. However, in many cases there is a limit to

EQUILIBRIUM LIMITATIONS

In numerous industrial processes equilibrium limitations are important. We

discussed a procedure for estimating the nows of reversible by-products when they
are recycled and allowed to build up to their equilibrium levels at thc reactor outlet.
Our focus here is the primary reaction.

ISO

stCIIOH U

U)I'IUUJUM UMfI .. TlQNl;

SECTKlN.'

lSI

EQUtUUIUJot UWrr4110NS

H,.

Equilibrium Comen,ion
We can use our prC:YlOUS procedure f.:lr cakulaling the process: flows iiS a funcllon
of the desIgn Yanables (com'ersion, molar .alio of reaclanls, elc.). Then \o\,e can
subslllute Ihese flows mlo lhe eqUllibnum rclallonship 10 sec: whether the conYersion we selecled is above or below the equilibrium value Of course, If il cllcc..:ds thc
equilibrium conversion, the result has no meaning.
In most cases, however, II is necessary to delermlllc the exaci ...alue of the
equilibrium convcrsion (as a funclion of Ihe design unables), because Ihis \aluc
appears In Ihe kinetiC modcluscd 10 delermloc the reaClor SIU- Our samc general
approach can be applied, bUI nonnaU) a trial-and-c:n-or solulion IS reqUired We
ilJU5trale tbis Iype of problem by considering Ihe cyclohcxanc process.

H 4 , N2
Separalor

Reactor

Cyda he13ne
'''''~

FlGUll U-I

Eumpk 6.4-1

CycIGMUM l""ooucrioQ. CyclohcxaDc can be produced by lhe: reac-

Cydobuanc

lIo""s.hcci

lion
(6.4-1)

Cyclobc:lIaoe _ p.

We: cow;Ide:r a cue where: ....e dQ:m: 10 produce: 100 mol/br 01 C.II, J .....llh a 99 9~.
punty A pure: benzene fc:cd Slrum IS aval.lable, and tbe: hydrogen makeup stream
cont&l.Jl5 97.5" H J. 2.0'Y.; CH., aDd 0 5" N J A Dowsbect (()I" Ibc: recyde stroclure: IS
iho....n in Fig. 64-1 for a case \lihere: we recyde 5Omc: of the: bc:nzcnc (",hieh is not
~rily lhe best f1owsbcc:l)

(6-4-10)

(6.4-11)

(6.4-12)

501,,,io..
O.enU bal.DCb.

(6.4- Il)

Auume no losses. Theo

Production of C.III~: p. = 100

(6.4-2)

Benzencfrcsbl"ccd: 1",. _ p. _100

(6.4-3)

TOlal Ilow _
~

Assume ....e: usc: a ps recyc:k and a purse stream. Let

F ., EJ:ccu H. Fed to Proo:;:all;

Total H, Feed .... lP. + F. _ 0.9751"..

..
PurseoomposlllOGofHJ:Y,,,"'"

Makeup au rate: F G
Purge nile: PG

F.
00 l

Fr +2F..

Y,.

J..

Ic
"cYc
'-'1-.P...".v.y.Y.
iii

(64-15)
.

(6.4-16)

The.

(6.4-1)

(U-14)

Yr.

"" - 1

+ O.02SFG

Benzene: fcd to reactor: F. _ -

3) _'_]

From Ibe: H'aJ/unglo" U"iWlrsity Df's/f}" CaJt Study No.4, p. 4-3, Part II,

(6.4-6)

p.

(6.4-5)

1- Y,.
lP' 0 .975

F.

RlltioaIIl.i,

(6.4-4)

p{~ + (MR ~

(6.4-8)

.'
JC. I+MR-JJC~
J.JlP... K~ - --(MR
3
)
J - JC.
JC~ Yr.

(6.4-17)

Dir-nria ... SlDce benzene and cydoheuDe are very dose boilers, we would like
avoid a benzcne<ycloheune distillallon separallon. This can be accomplished by
operating Ihe reactor at a suffiCiently high conversion Ihal we can kave any
10

leI molar ratio of II, 10 benzene be: At R Then

Recycle: ps now: R" _

1 (MRP.
- - - 09751".. )

y,.

(649)

J L Fan, Cydobu..I.pc M.a.nufaetun. WuhmJloa U....'fUSIly Da.lp Cue Sludy No 4. edJlcd

by B 0 51mlh, Wasbllllloa UIlUw:nIlY, 51 L.ows, Mo~ 1967

152

SI!(."TlON U

SECTION .,

EQUtUUllIM U""rlAnONS

unconverted ~nune as an impurity in the product.llo...e'er, to obtain high bo:nzene

conversions, we must foree the equilibrium conversion to be very close to unity.
Equation 6.4-11 indicates the dependence or the equilibrium conversion on tbe dcsign
variablcs.
Economic lr.d~rr"," From Eq. 6.4-17 we see that we can IncreaS(' the equilibrium
converSion by increasing the reactor pressure P_, by increasing the molar ratio of
hydrogen to benzene at the reaClor inlet M R, or by decreasing the reactor temperature
(thO' reaclion is e)(olhermic). 1I0"e"er, high reactor pressures correspond 10 a large
feed comprenor and more upensive equipment becauS(' or an Increased wall
thickness. Large molar ratios of h)drogen correspond 10 larger gas recycle Dows (see
Eq 6.4.9) and therefore a more expensive rt'Cyde compressor. Lo""er reactor
temperatures correspond to larger reactors, because or t1le decreased reaction rate.
Thus, an optimization analysis is required 10 determine the values of P x T:
MR,and'PR'
. , '
APflrollim.t.. mod.. t If we expect that x. will be dose to unity in Eq 6.4-17, then

we can ""Tite

,-"cO'.,.
MR - 2
l3K.P~ [ CMR
3)YPH

x. "" I - I

J'

(6.4-18)

CO""PUSSOIt OUJON' AHO

COSH

153

Re __ersible Exothermic Reacfions

There are several important industrial reactions that are reversible and exothermic.
For example.
(6.4-21)
Sulfuric acid process; SOl + 10l ~ SOJ
In ammonia synthesis,
Water'gas shift: CO
Amonia synthesis: N 1

HlO~COl

+ H1

+ 3H 1 2NH J

(6.4-22)
(6.4-23)

High temperatures correspond to small reactor volumes, but for tbese reactions the
equilibrium conversion decreases as the reactor temperature increases. Hence,
these reactions are often carried out in a series of adiabatic beds with either
intermediate heal exchangers to cool the gases or a bypass of cold feed to decrease
the temperallJres between the beds. With these procedures we obtain a compromise
between high temperatures (small reactor volumes) and high equilibrium conversions.

which provides a SImpler modelta use in preliminary optimizatiOD studies.

DiJuenfs
Separator Reactors

If ODe of the products can be removed while the reaction is taking place, then an
appareotly equilibrium-limited reaction can be forced to go to complete conversion. Two examples of this type are discussed now.

From tbe discussion above we have found that temperature. pressure, and molar
ralio can all be used to shift the equilibrium conversion. HowcvC'r, in some cases an
extraneous component (a diluent) is added which also causes a shift in the
equilibrium conversion. For example, styrene can be produced by the reactions

Acetone prodll(tiOlL Acetone can be produced by the dehydrogena_

tion of isopropanol
Isopropanol ~ Acetone + H 1
(6.4-19)
in the liquid ph~ as well as the gas phase. AI JOOoF the ~uilibrium con"ersion ror
the liquid-phase process is about.l:... _ 0.32 However, by suspending tbe catalyst in a
high-boiling solvent and operating the reactor at a temperature above the boiling
point of acetone. both H 1 and acetone can be removed as a vapor from the reactor.
Thus, the equilibrium conveBion is shirted to the right. A series of tbree continuous
stirred tank reactors, with a pump-around loop containing a beating system that
supplies the endothermic heat to reaCiion, can be used for the process.
Example 6.4-3
reaction

ProdlKtiOIl of Clh)'1 acrylau'_ Ethyl acrylate can be produced by the

Acrylic Acid

+ EthanoJ~Etbyl Acrylate + HaD

+ H1

Ethylbenzene ~ Styrene

Enmplt 6.4-2

Ethylbenzene
Ethylbenzene

(6.4-24)

+ Ethylene
Toluene + Methane
Benzene

(6.4-25)

(6.4-26)

wbere the reactions take place at about ll00"F and 20 psia. The addition of steam
(or methane) at the reactor inlet lowers the partial pressure of styrene and H 2 and
so decreases the reverse reaction rate in Eq. 6.4-24. The steam serves in part as a
heat carrier to supply endothermic heat of reaction.
Steam is often used as a diluent because water-hydrocarbon mixtures are
usually immiscible after condensation. Hence, the separation of water caD be
accomplished with a decanter (and usually a stripper to recover the hydrocarbons
dissolved in the water, if the water is not recycled).

(6.4-20)

Both acrylic acid and ethyl acrylate are monomen, which tend, to polymerize in the
reboilers or distillation columns. We can eliminate a column required to purify and
rec::ycle acrylic acid from the process if we can force tbe equilibrium-limited reaction to
completion, say, by removing the water. Hence, we use an eJ;OCSS or ethanol to shift the
equilibrium to the right, and we carry out the reaction in the rcboiler of a rcctirying
column. With this approach, the ethanol, water, and ethyl acrylate are taken
overhead, and the acr)"lic acid con~ersion approaches unity.

6.5

COMPRESSOR DESIGN AND COSTS

Whenever a gas-recycle stream is present, we wiU need a gas-recycle compressor.

The design equation for the theoretical horsepower (hp) for a centrifugal gas
compressor is
hp =

J.OJ

x
Y

10-') Pin QIn

[(P_,), ]
--

Pi.

-,

(6.5-1 )

liABLE o-a]

For a thrcc.-stage compressor w!th IOten:oohng, Ihe ..or'" required IS

Values of l'
MonotoDIC
D'illornlC

pieS

p~.

More complu JIISQ {CO,> ("II.)

The inlermediate pressures that minlluiL.e the war'" arc deicrtlilned from

Other a.uc:s

oWorL-: ;. c~ork ;. 0
S-u Tilles iro. J

H~ppo<l

aPJ

OP l

aDd 0 (i Jo<<iaa,

Clw.....t "'..uJ,J EL-.c. ld 1. IkLlo.

No.... VorL. !t}S. p Ull

(65-4)

which leads to the results

(6.5-5)

where Pi. - Ibljlll, Qi.. _ltJ/mm, and i' = (C,/C. - I)/(C,/C.). The exit temperature lrom a compression stage is
T_

T.

(P_)'
Pi.

Thus. ...c obtam anolher design heurisllC

(6.5-2)

(where Ihe temperatures and pressures mUSI be in absolule umls) Values ofy thaI
can be used for firSI estimales of designs arc given in Table 651.

The compression ratios for each ~Iagc 10 a gas compressor should be: equal
(6.5-6)
Annulilliz.ed Installed Cost

Efficieot}'
For first designs., we assume a compressor efficiency of 90% 10 accouDt for fluid
friClion in suction and discharge vahes. ports, friction of movmg metal surfaces,
fluid IUrbulence, etc. Also \loe assume a dnver effiCiency of90~~ 10 account for the
conversion of Ihe inpul energy to shaft work.

Spares
Compressors are so expensive that spares arc seldom provided for centrifugal units
(although reciprocating compressors may have spares because of a lower service
factor). In some instances two compressors may be installed, with each providing
60% of Ihe load, so that partial operation of the plant can be maintained in case
one compressor fails and additional flexibility is available to respond 10 changes in
process Hows.
l\1uhistllge Compressors
It IS common practice to usc mullistage compressors. The gas is cooled 10 coohngwaler temperatures (looeF) belween stages Also knockout drums arc inslalJed
between slages to remove any condensale. It is essential to ensure lhat no
condcnsation tales place Inside the compressor, since liquid droplets condensing
on the vanes wh.lch arc rotating at \ery high speeds might cause an Imbalance aod
wild vibrallons

Thc brake hOT5epower bph IS oblamed by IDlroducing lhe compressor effictency

inlO Eq 6.5-1.
hp
bhp"'"' 0.9

(6.5.7)

Then, Guthric's correlalion (see Itcm 4 in Appendix E2) or some equivalent

correlation can be: used 10 cak:ulale the installed cost for various Iypes of
compressors:
Installed Cost =

M&S\
280
r517.5XbhP)OU(2.. 1I + F.)

(6.'-8)

.....here F. IS gl\cn m Appendix E.2 and M & S = Marshall and Swiflmflation index
(whlCb is published eacb month In Ch~mlcol Engm~e,ing).
To put the mstalled cost 00 an annualIZed baslS, "'c I.DtrodUlX a capital
charge faClor of i yr. Note Guthrie's correlations and capttal cba.fge factors are
dtsCUSSCd III detail In Chap. 2.
Operating Cost
By dlvldlllg the brake horsc:po\loer by the driver efficiency, we can calculale the
uulny requirement. Then from the ulllllY cost and uSlllg 8150 hrlyr, we can
calculate Ihe operatmg cost

..-

TABLE ......1

Design guide.lines ror rc.etors

30

SlD&!c ~f5.bk reaCl.ons ( _ lutOgllal,IK)

2.0

.",
<
<

II

MUI fIo_ rI the

plUI flo.. n:aclt>.

rUdJOll nile moaClIonIQU~' docTc:II'ICS ...... oon~

2- CSTR ~"'''"I'l llor .... umu... leKUOIl r"" follo_ed by

S,nt\l: n:vnSlbk lualOM adlllbahc

plUI ""... K'CbOII

A Mlumum lcmp",a,ulc if endolhor:nnoc

8 A !lena of ...hab.tlc beds "lIh .. dccTc;uon'laTIJlC'llurc fll'Ofik II' c10thcmuc

1.0

1i

III Para1ld relICUOn5 oomJl'Ol!I,on dfcclS

A. FOf A. _ It (6QI~) and A __ S (WU1C). ",be,t: lh<: nt.o of lhe: rt:lIClwn nICS IS t~ fS -

(1c,/",}C';.' .,
1 If., > II,. kccp C .. hIgh

02

... UK boItch Of plUI no ....

It Hlgb J'l'es!Iu,c, chlnlnJIlc IlM"lS
c. Avo,d Iec)":1t: or products
Can use. tmllI rQC!Of
2 If., <0,. lOltp C.. I.....

FlGLRE '5-1
5ertlll,"17 of nocyde o;Imp..:uor AI'

Sensith'ity
At the preliminary stages of a design.....e do not have a complete Rowshttt. Thu~,
we cannot obtain a good estImate for the compression ratio P_,IP,. for recycle
streams. Our approach i~ simply to make a guess and then to evaluate the
sensitivity of lhat guess In most cases. the results are fairly Inscnsitlve. An example
for the HDA process with x = 0.75 and Y,.H = 04 is given in Fig. 6.5-1.

6.6

_"")'11150"

B "duohanC'.

90
4S

6u

A. ISOlbnmaI

180 PSI~

REACTOR DESIGN

At the very early stages In a new design, a kinetic model normally IS not available
Thus., we base our material balance calculations on a correlation of the product
distnbutlon. Also, we assume that we will use the same type of reactor in tbe plant
that the chemist used in the labol1ltory, and we often base a first esttmate of the
reactor size on the reaction half-life measured by the chemist. For adiabatic
reactors we might base the design on an isothermal tempel1lture which is the
average of the inlet and outlet tempel1lturcs or an average of the inlet and outlet
I1Ite constants.
This type of a kinetic analysis is veT)' crude, but ill most cases the reactor cost
is not nearly as important as the product distribulion costs. Thus. again, we merely
look at sensitivities until we can justify additional work and a kinetic model
becomes available We estImate the costs of I"lug flow reactors in the same way a~
we do pressure v~scls (sec Appendix E.2), and we annualize the inslalled cost by
introducing a capItal charge factor of 1yr (we discussed capital chargc factors in
Chap 2).

1I. UK I OTR ....-1I,h I tllgb COn~l'SIOn

burp reqde or products
c 1.0.. J'fCSiSU.e, add malS
II! Need. btSC reactor
B F.,.. A + B _ R (da-lIed) and A .... B _ S (_"aSIC), _hen lhe: nUO of the ralCS IS '. '5-

(.,It,)C7.' ~.,
1 lfa,>".alldlt,>b,.bothC.. andC.h'lh
1. If I, < lI, and It, > It,. then C. low, C. hIp) 11 "I :> '" and !I, <; !I,.lben C, h,p. C,Io4 If '" <; '" and !I, <; !I,. both C. and C.low
5. Se-. FIll- 6.6-1 rOf \aoo.... rUCIO, confiRuauons
IV Col1.KC\ltJve ~lOns -c:omposlt10n effect.
A. A _ R (d~lIed>. R _ S ("'illite)-m,mm,~e lhe m'~ln8 of streaml .. lib dlffe,en, compol1Uon$
V PantJlel t .... cllons tempenlllure effects './" - (.,/.,>!(C. C.>
A. If E, :> E. \1.$0: a blSb temper.ture
B. If E, <; E" \I.$C an .ncrusin& lempttalure pt'ofile
V1 Comeolue rudJOftI-t.,...peralure dIecta A ~ It ~ S
A. If E , :> E" u-=' decreasullto;mperalure pt'ofik-aO'l ery KrtIIU.-e
B. If E, <; E,. __ low u:mperalurc:.

Reactor Configuration
Siooe tbe product distribution can depend on the reactor configuration, we need to
determine Lbe best configuration. A sct of design guidelines has been published by
Lelenspicl. For the sake of completellcss some or tbese guidelines are reviewed in
Table 6.6-1. As this table indicates in some cases we obtain complcx reactor
configurations; sec Fig. 6.6-1.

158 su:noi'l"

al!cr(;u.

UX>I'IOMIl: t:\AlU.-T10N

2,000,000
1,500,000

//
500.000 /
/
o
/
-500,000
1,000,000

~:

B~. C.bolh low

C,. C. bolh low

U_~lnses
C6>
~

~-....4r C, h.gh. C. low

(c)
FlGUln: U I
Pal1l!ld R:K't101l5..

c. . . . 7-"

6.7

A-f)
B

'"

1/

-1.500,000
-2.000,000
-2.500,000
0.\

....... 0.2
...... 04

........ 06
-&- 08

I~"

"\"

'\

0,2

0.3

0.4

0.'

0,6

o. 7

Conversion x

C, h,gh. C. low

~-l'~-l'~-.TI----,~

S"n wnh A

-1,000,000

---

YPH

<IC'_ EJog-fItOI, Ztl at.. Woky, "...., Yor.\:, 1911,

(F._ 0_ ~ CJo-uaM R..

RECVCLE ECO OMIC EVALVAnON

Our economic analysis for the input-output structure considered only the Slream
costs, i.e., products plus by-products minus raw-material costs. The results for tbe
HDA process mdlcated Ihal the most profilable operation was obtained when the
conversion was zero (we made DO diphenyl by-product) and when the purge
composition of hydrogen was uro (we both purged and recycled pure methane).
However. when we consider the recycle, Eq. 6.2-2 shows that we nocd an
infinite recycle Dow oflolueDC when the conversion is equal to zero, and Eq. 6.2-11
shows that an infinite recycle flow of gas is required wben the hydrogen purge
composition is equal to zern. Thus, if we subtract the annualized reactor cost and
the annualized compressor costs, both capital and power. from the economic
potential, then we expect to find both ao optimum conversion and an optimum
purge composition. Figure 6.7 1 shows this result for the I-IDA process. (We
would also subtract the annualized capital and operating cost ofa feed compressor.
if one was required and we did not include it in tbe Ievel-2 calculation.)
The values for the optimum shown in Fig. 6.7-1 arc DOt the true optimum
values because we havc not included any separations or heating and cooling costs.
Hence, we expect that the true optimum economic potential will be smaller and will
be shifted to lower recycle nows. However, we can sec. that our simple analysis is

FIGURE 6.1-1
~poltl:lual

Ie",,) )

rapldl) restnctmg (he range of the design vanables wbere Il>e obtam a POSltl\C
profiL Thus, our calculations for the separalK>n system and tbe hen-cxchanger
network arc Simplified

6.8 SL'MMARY. EXERCISES, A D

NOMENCLATURE
Summary
The decisions that need to be made to fix Ibe recycle structure of the Oowsheet arc
as follows:
.
I. How many reactors arc reqUlrcd? Should some componenlS be separated
betwccn the reactors?
l. How many recycle strcams arc reqUIred?

3. Do we want to usc an excess of one reactant althe reactor inlet?

4. Is a gas-recycle compressor required? How docs it affect the costs?
5. Sbould the reactor be operated adIabatically, with direct heating or cooling, or
is a diluent or heat carrier needed?
6. Do we want to shlft the equilibrium cOllverslOn? 1I0w?
7. How do the reactor costs affect the economic potential?

160

ncnoN II

SI'.C11DN II

SUM MAn, '.JlI':llClSf'.I, "NO NOMI!NOATlJIU!

The design guidelmes we use to make some of these decisions for first designs
are as follows:

I. H reactions take place at different temperatures and pressures and/or

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.

the~'

require different catalysts, then a separate reactor system is required for each
operating condition
Components recycled to the same reactor that have neighboring boiling points
should be recycled in the same stream
A gas-recycle compressor IS required If the recycled compoDC'nts boil at a
temperature lower than that of proPllene.
If an ellocss reactanl IS desirable, there is an optimum amount of the eJlCC5S.
If the reactor temperature, pressure, and/or molar ratio are changed to shirt the
equilibnum conversion, there must be an optimum \'alue of these ariables.
For endothermic proc:esses with a heat load orJess than 6to 8 x 106 Btu/hr, we
use an isothennal reactor With direct heating. For larger heat loads we may
add a diluent or heat carrier
For uothennic reactions we use an adiabatic reactor iflhe adIabatiC tempera
ture rise is less than 10 to 15% of tbe inlet temperature.. U the adiabatic
temperature rise uceeds this \'alue., ...i e use direct cooling if the reactor heat
load is less than 6 to 8 x 1()6 Btulhr. Otherwise., we introduce a diluent or a
heat carrier.

S. For single reactions we choose a conversion of 0.96 or 0.98 of tb.. equLlibrium

COn\erslOD.
9. The most upensive reactant (or the hea\'iest reactant) is usually the limiting

reactant.
10.

If the equilibrium coDstant of a re\'('rsible by-product is small. recycle the

re\'ersible by-product.

11. Several design guidelines for reactors are gi\'en in Table 6.6-1.

12. The recycle flow of the limiting reactant is gi\'en by F = F .. (I - x)/x, where F II
is the amount of the limitlO& reactant needed for tbe reaction and x is the
conversion.

13. The recycle flow of other components can be determined by specifying the
molar ratio(s) at the reactor inlet.

Exercises
6.8-1_ Develop the recycle structure for lhe HDA process with diphenyl recy<:lod (see
Eq. 6.2-)]). Plot the economic potential \'ersus tbe design nriables, assuming that
K ... _ 0.2]96. (1\1so see Appcndi1 B.)
6.8-2. Develop tbe recycle strUCIure ror an acetic anhydride process (5Ce Eq. 6.1-2 and
E1ercise S.4J). If tbe acetone pyrolysis reactor costs are calculated as a rumac:e cost,
and ir the anhydride reactor cost is nesJigible, plot the ecollomic potential versus Ihe
desisn \'ariables. (Assume All 11,'0" _ 34.700 Btu/mol, AH II.'" - - 27,000 Btu/mol,
and MI ....... - 20,700 Btu/mol.)

SU\olMIlRY. UEIlClSn, IlJ'oID NOME'oIClATUU

161

6.8-3. De\'elop the recycle struclUre ror the gu-phase process that produces acelOne rrom

Isopropanol (ExerCise 5.4-4). Anume that 611 .. _ 25,800 BlU/mol and that the
feaClor cost can be estimated as a heat nchanger .,.,jtb U - 10 BIU{hr ft J oF). The
heat required for Ihe reaction is supplied from a Dowtherm fumaoe \\"Ith Do\\tberm
al 600"F. Piol the economic potential versus tbe sIgnIficant design \'anables
6..8-04. De\c1op the recycle structure for the elhanolsynthesis rroblem (see E~ercise 5. 4 5)
Assume that 61f 1l . EtOM _ -19,440 Btu/mol and AU u [( - ~5108 Btu mol, that the
forwud reaction IIle constant IS gn"en by
k, _ 14

and IS fin;l-order

In

J(

IOnp{-S3,700,1RTCR)J} br-'

1Io-.lef: and Ihat

K ., (1679 >< 10 ~) up [10, 1I9;T("R))

Plot the economic potent,,1 versus the silJ1lfic:ant design >-a.riabk:s_

6.8-5. De\dop the recycle sJruclUre fOI the styrene: process (~E"erci5c 54-6). Assume
Ihal 6H..~ _ SO,SJO Blu mol. AU II ..u _ 45.]70 Blu mol. aDd 6U, .. -23,380 Btulmol, that the reacuon rate constant rOf the primal}' rea(1lOl1 is
gn-en b) the aprCSStOll t, _ (381) up (-20.440I[Rn'R)]} hr '. and thai K .. ..
7,7].4 up I
27.170 T (OR)~ Plot lhe economIC poIenual >n>;U5 lhe si~n,flC8nr
desl~n \--anabb
6A-6. De>elop the ryck Slructure for the cyclohaane process (see oerose 5 4-7) Assume
Ihal AH II _ 93,200 Btu/mol that K .. _ (2.67 )( 10- U)u:p [4.72 )( 10" 'T(R)),

lhal the fono.. ard reac1tan rate constant IS given bJ ('788)(

( _ 14.4(0).(R7lR))}, where the rorv..ard reacuon is first-order in bel1lene
Plot the economic polenlial versus the stgnificant design \'ariabks.
6..8-7_ Develop the recycle SIrUClure fOf the ethykne pr-ooess (see oerose 54-8). Anume
Ihat AH I _ SS.6SO Blu/mol thai 611. _15.320 BIU mol aDd thatrhc reactor cost
can be eshmated as a pyrolysIS furnace. Pk>t Ihe economic potential .enus rhe design
and

10~) eJlp

.ariablc:s.

6.8-3.. De\-dop the reC)"c1e structure ror the butadtcne sulfone process (see oerCI$IC 5.4-9). As
sume that 6H.. _ -48.000 Btu/mol. K ... _ (6846 J( 10- 1 ' ) e"p (-36.940/(TfR)).
k l _(8.172 J( 10") eJlp (-52.200/T(OR)), and lr, - k~IK ...(moINt'.br)):
that the reaction rale corresponds to the stoichiometry: and that we use a CSTR for
the reactor_ ConSider \'ariable denSlIy effeeu and assume that the annuaJizcd, installed
reactor cost lS !Iyen by 315011'" [$I(fl' yrn Plot the economic porential >ersus
the significant design \'anables.
6,.1.9. De\'elop the recycle strUCIure ror thc butane alkylation plocesS (see Ellcrase 5 4~ 10)
AS5ume that AH, _ -27,440 Btu/mol, AliI _ -25.180 Btu/mol, t, = (9.56)( 10")
ell' {- 28.oooI1RT{R)]} hr I, and k J _ (2.4]9 J( 10") up {-]S.OOOf[RTfR)]}
hr - I. Use a CSTR With the cost correlation gi>'en in E"ercise 6.8-8.
Nomenclalure

A, 8, R,S.
a" h,

A
bhp
C,

Reactive and product components

Order of reaction for component i
Ileat-cxchanger area (ft J)
Brake horsepower
Conoentration of component i

162 ~U.-rlON..

C,
,
f(C.. , C.)

1.

F
F,

F,
Fn

F,
F,

F.
hp

"K,.

MR
M &S
P,

Pia.
PJ

P,,~,

p,.

Q..
Q.

"

R,
T., T_
T.
U

x
Y..
Y,

h.
AH.

Sl'MMAII.'f.

uunsu,

AN" NOMEtoCLATUl.E

lleat capacity [Btu/(mol "..-))

Activation energy for component i
Function of composition
Fugacity of component i
Rcactor fccd rate (moljhr)
Conection factor for a gas compressor
Feed rate in excess of reacllon requIrements (mol hr)
Fresh f(cd r.lte of toluene (molfhrj
Mal-eup gas rate or III (mol/hr)
Flow rate of compClnent i (moljhr)
Reactor rec:d rate: of toluene (moljhr)
Horsc:po....cr
Reaction rate: constant
Equilibrium constant
Molecular weight
Molar ratio
Marshall and Swift mdex ror inflation
ProductIon rate of component; (moljbr)
Inlet and outlet pressures for a gas compressor
Pressure at stages of a gas compressor
Total pressure of reactor
Volumetric ftow rate (ft1/min)
Reaclor heat load (Btujhr)
Reaction ratc
Gas constant
Recycle gas flow (moljhr)
Inlct and outlet temperatures from a gas compressor ("R)
Reaelor temperature: (~F)
Overall ~eat-transfer coc:ffiClCnt [Btuf(hr. ft 1. CF)]
ConversIon
Feed mole fraction of H 1
Mole: fraction of component i
Purge composition of Hz
Heat of reaction at rcaccion tcmperature and pressure (Btu/mol)
Fugacity coeffiCient of component
Cp/C. - I

Cp/C.

CHAPTER

7
SEPARATIO
SYSTEM

Here we consider only the synthesis of a separation system to rc:eo\er gaseous and
liquid components Our diSCUSSIOn is broken down mto thrc:c separate: parts.
general struelure, vapor reco\'cry system, and hquld separation system. Also keep
in mmd that .... e need to detemline the best sc:panuion system as a funelion of the
design variabks, I.c., the range or the design vanablc:s In FIg.. 6 7-1 .... here \loe obtain
profitable operation Thus. our previous economic stu(hes hc:lp to simpllfy the
computauonal effort.

7.1

GE ERAL STRUCTURE OF THE SEPARATIO ' SYSTEM

To determine the geDeral structure or tbe: separation system......e first determmc the
phase: of the rc:aelor effluent stream (see Fig. 7.1-1). For vapor-liquid processes,
there arc only three posslbilltlCS:

I. lIthe reactor effluent is a liquid. we assume that we only need a liquid separation
system (sec: Fig. 7.1-2). This system might mclude distillation columns. cxtrac-

tion units, azc:otropic distillation, elc., bUI nonnaJly there will not be any gas
absorber, gas adsorption UflitS. etc.
2. If the reactor emuent IS a two-phase mixture, we call usc: the reactor as a phase
spllller (or put a flash drum after the reactor). We send the liquids to a hquld
separation system If the reactor is operating above cooling-water temperal ure,
\loe usually cool the reaclor vapor stream 10 IOOQF and phase-sphl this stream

163

164

SECTIOI'" 11

GENERAl sn.ucrullE OF nlE SEPAIl.. noN SYSTEM

SF.CTlON 1(

Purge

GENERAl STRUCTURE OF TIlE SEPA1lAl10N SYSTEM

165

(see Fig. 7.1-3). If the low-temperature nash liquid we obtain contaills mostly

reaclants (and no product COmponents that are formed as intermediates in a

Reactor
system

r't'cd streams

/'

consecutive reaction scheme), then we recycle them to the reactor (we ha,'c the

Separation
systt'm

Products

the reactor emuenl stream contains only a small amount of vapor, we often send
the reactor effluent directly to a liquid separatlOll system (i.e, distillation train).
3. If the rcaclor emuellt IS all vapor, we cool the stream to lOO"F (coollng-waler
temperature) and we allempt to achieve a phase splil (see Fig. 7.1-4) or 10
completely condense this stream. The condensed liquid is sent to a liquid
recovery system, and the vapor is sent to a vapor recovery system.
If a phase split IS not obtained, we see whether we can pressurize the
reactor system so that a phase split will be obtained. (We see whether a high
pressure can be obtained by using only pumps on liquid feed streams, and we
check to see that the pressure does not affect the product distribution.) If a phase
split is still not oblained, then we consider the possibility of using both high
pressure and a refrigerated partial condenser. In case no phase split can be
obtained without refrigeration, we also consider the possibility of sending the
reactor effluent stream directly to a vapor recovery system.

Focus on reactor exil Slream

FtGURF 7.1-1
Pha.sc of the relict". effluent stream

Liquid
sepanllion
system

Liquid

Reactor
system

F=J,

equivalent of a renu~ condenser). However, if the low-temperature flash liquid

contains mostly products. we send this stream 10 the liquid recovery system. The
low-temperature nash vapor is usually sent to a vapor reco\'cry system. Bu!. if

Products

We need 10 ensure that the: same structure: is obtained for the complete range
of design variables under e:onsideration. These: rules are based on the: heuristic that
phase splils are the cheapest method or separation and the assumption that some
type of distillation separation is possible.

FIGURE 7.IZ
React". cUI is liquid. [F,om J M. DtNgltu, Ale": J., 31: JH (l98J).J

r-):5- 35"C

Vapor

Ph""
split

Vapor

r--------------

F=J,

Reactor
system

Liquid

Purge

Gas recycle

Vapor
recovery
system

Liquid
Liquid

Liquid
se:paration
system

Purge

Vapor

co'x""'')'
system

-,

Vapor
Reactor
system

Vapor

35C
;-

Products

Ph""
split
Liquid

I
Liquid recycle

Liquid
separation
system

FIGURE 1.t_3

Reador uJl IS ~apo. alld Jiqutd.lFrom J M Do"9fas. Afe,,: J~ 31 JJJ (/98J) l

FleURE 7.1-4

RC<IIdof

nIt ~

Liquid

vapor [From J. M f)Quglru. AfOrE J~ JI J.5J (l98J).J

Product

166 $Ecnow

11

l..t;t.IEIl..Il. nllJCWIE 01 TIlE

$U,,-"now

SECTlON'11

SYSH:W

TABU 7.1-1

Approximale Flash Calcuhllions

balance.

F=V+L

(7.1-1)

Componenl balance.

(7.1-2)

Equilibnum:

)'- =
, V/F

x _

0'

I in

z,

...

"

,..00

99_01

""

.""

+ (I

(7.1-4)

V/FXI/K,)

Com,.-,wl

I,

.. =~

26'

Tol"",ne
Dip"""yl

;;--,'e'''''o--~
(K
J)vIF + J
J
,

f,

, ".,
"" " "BUn

91

"
0.01040

0.00363
0.0oo

I,

"
29.'

"

,1.2

235.4
17.4

J.'
0

J.'
0

Fz,

(7.1-6)

Fz,

(71-7)

',-1.- 1,-1.(' - K':fl.)

and if K, <t I in Eq 7.1-5, we find Ihal

Lxi

for all components wbere X, > 10

(7.1-8)

[h

for all components where X < 0.1

(7.1-9)

These express!ons are cqui\'alent 10 a perfeci split. providing lherc are no

components with a K i value bel ween 0.1 and 10.
The perfect SpIll expressions Ignore the: vapor-liquid equilibrium_ However
we can superim~ Ihese eq~~libnum relalionships on our expressions for th~
flows. Thus, .the liquid composition In equilibnum wilh a vapor component having
a mole fraction

Ji

Ii

Yi""V-~

Y.
X_,z_=
X.

/,_
K , EJi

10

the

(7.1-14)

v - [Ji

(7.1-13)

The cofTcspondlDg expressions for componcnls thai are predomrnanlly

liquid phase are

Thus, as a first eSllmale of the vapor and liquid flow rales, we can write

236.1
17.4
'.0

Now, we can go back aDd adjust Ihe: vapor flow for thiS loss:

Vy,

;,

"

(7.1-5)

Eq 7.1-4, we s Ihat

L:::

10

A,....ou.n.11t

(7.1-3)

When we combine these expressions, we obtain

If K ,

H,
CH,

AIfII'OUaYllt

c_ _

167

., ,

HDA flub

To. delennin~ Ihe phase of the reactor effluenl, in som~ cases, we can usc a sharp.
split approxlmallon procedure to avoid Ihe lrial-aod-error SOluliollS associaled
Wllh lIash calculations. The flash "IualiODs can bt: wnllen as
O~'erall

Ouq....l STJ;.l,!C1VIf Of' TN! 1l!.......noN IY5l"I!W

(7.1-10)

Table 7.11 compares Ihe: approximate and exact solutions for Ihe HDA
process. W~ sec Ihat tbe approximalc solution is satisfactory for prdlminary
designs. However, the results are valid ooly if there are no components bUlDg K
values in tbe Bnge from 0.1 to 10
AN ALTER.....ATE APPROXIMATE PROCEDURE .-oR Fl.ASH CALCULATIONS-

Another shoncut procc:dure for flash calculations was published by King. If we

again consKkr Eqs. 7.1-1 through 7.1-3, wc can wnle

(7./-11)

when:

The: liquid flow of Ihis component is Ihell

(7.1-12)

(7.1-15)

'Dd

+ K.Vllj
,

Ii'"

II,

fi

Fz;

s;

(7.H6)

168

SEClION'-l

VAreR RF.COVEU'SY5TEw

By rearranging Eq 7.1-16 we oblam

Gti

J.- - I - L
v,

r------

recycle

(7.1-18)

K,V

~-'----i'L

Now, if we divide Eq 7,1-18 by a similar exprCSSlon for componenlj, we oblain

J;/v, -

h/vJ -

I - K, -

KJ

'J

(7.1-19)

If we specify the fractIOnal recovery vJ/iJ for one component, we can usc Eq 7 1-14
cakulale !he fraCllonal reco\'ery for e"'ery other componc:nl_
.
E\'en th~ugh this analysis is rigorous for constant-a systems., the results for a
SpeCIfied fractional fCCO\'ery of one componenl normally will not correspond 10 a
flash.lemperalure of 10000F and Ihe flash pressure, Thus, some iteration migh' b<
reqUIred.

Purge

"'
"
"-- r--

Prevenl loss of
PrC'-ent recycle
_ _ ,--- ---1 _ _ valuabk or
of certain
undesirable
l::omponenlS
,
material

,,

10

onideal Mixtures

r-------

I--.----il

vaporfTOm~
phase split
nGURE 7.1-1
Vapor recovery

sysl~

klc:at>oa

-:;;e~e arc no sh~rtcut calculation procedures for nonideal mixtures. However all

' '11
packages,l,e., FLOWTRAN. PROCESS, DESIGN 2000 ASPEN
handle Ihese problems.
'
, etc., WI

7.1

VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM

When we attempl to synthesize a vapor recovery system, we need to make (wo

decisions:

2. Place the hpor rCl::overy system on the gas-recycle stream if materials Ihat are
deleterious 10 the reactor operation (catalyst poisoning, etc.) arc present in this
stream or if recycling of some components degrades the product distribution.
The g&5.rec)'cle: stream normally has the second smallest flov. rate.
3. Place the \'apor recovery system on the flash vapor stream if both items I and 2
8rc valid. i.e.. the flow rate is higher. but \lle accomplish two objectives.
4. Do Dot use a vapor recovery system ir neither item I nor item 2 are important.

J. What IS the best location?

1. Whal type: of vapor recovery syslem is cheapest?

Location of Vapor Recovery System

There ate four choices for the location of the vapor recovery syslem:
I. The purge stream
1. The gas-recycle stream
3. The flash vapor stream
4. one

The rules we use

10

make this decision are (see Fig. 7.1-1) as follows:

I. Place the vapo~ recovery system on the purge stream if significant amounts of
valuable matenals are being losl in the purge. The reason for this heuristic is
that the purge stream normally has (he smallest flow rate.

Adjust the Material Balances?

Note tbat unless item 3 is chosen, our simple material balance equatioDs will not be
valid; i.e., some materials that we assumed were recovered as liquids will be lost in
the purge stream or recycled wilh the gas stream (which will change the compressor
size). However. in many cases the errors introduced arc small, $OJ,hat our previow
approIimatioDS still provide good estimatC5. We expect to de\'e1op rigorous
material balan<:es if we proceed with a 6nal design, and therefore we use our
engineering judgment 10 see whether I::orrections need to be made at this point.
Eumpk 1.2-1
process?

HDA proce-. Do we need I Vllpor recovery system for the 1I0A

F,. _

For a oon\'Crsion ;r; _ 0.7S and a pur~ oomp<mtlon

0.4, the vapor
Ro..s (rom the phase .plitter arc given in Table 1.1-1 The purge and recycle Dows for
this case were 496 and 3371 molfbr, respectivel) lienee, ,,"'e can estimate Ihat the
benzene and toluene nows lost in the purge are 3.79 and 046 molfbr, respectively On
an annual basis and by neglecting the fuel values of tbesot components, Ibis loss
~presotnlS SOJ04 x Ilf/yr. 11us value t5 small compared 10 our ecooorOlc potentIal
SobniOIl.

HenoN 1J

lind so we dcode not to Include. vllpor recovery system II this POlDt 10 Ihe dCSlgn
development. We mlghl well reconsider thIS dccwon .fier we have deternuncd
whether the BOA process is profitable. I.C.. If we dcQde to .bandon lbe projCCt, ....e
.....ant 10 mlnunw: tbe eoginccnog effort thlt we iDvClit.
Slna: the reaction we ace COn5ldenng is bomogeDcOllS. no COlDpoDCOLS 10 the
gas-recycle slrca.m c:a.n cause QllIlysl delClJvllJO!l. However. there is I slptficant
amount of benzene Itl the Illsh v'por stream (l2~ of the benzene 8ow); sec T.ble
7.1-1 And mosl of IbIS benzcne (29 6 mollbr - 4 3 mol./hr }ost In tbe purge) "111 be
recycled to the reaetor The benzene IS formed as tbe lntermedilite m a coDsecUtlVe
reacuon scheme
Toluene of H,

->

Bcnzcn.c + CH 4

2Bcnzcne

Diphenyl

+ Hz

(7.2-1)

Therefore, we would eJ.pccl tbal 50me (or most) of &Dy benzeoc thaI is recycled 10 Ibe
reactor will be convened to diphenyl Unfortunalely, lbe selectivity data we Ire uSing
(see Example 4 I-I) do oot include the effect ohny benzene reed 10 tbe reactor. so we
cannot esllmlte Ihe amount of benzene lost 10 dlphcoyJ. This difficulty could be
o,'ercome If "'e bid iI \;metlC model aVlllIbIc.
Wuh lbe 1\"libblc datil, bo".evcr. we wouJd need 10 put I vapor recovery
syslem eIther 00 tbe psrecyclc strum (to JKeveot the loss of 50DX of the benzene by
reaction 10 dipbcoyl) oc 011 Ibe Il.ub vapor Stream (10 preveot!osi of bcnzeoc both 10
the purge strum .nd by reacttOIl). AnolMT Illernative could be to necydc tbe
dipbcnyI 10 ClItDClion.. ratber tban recoverillg and rcmovi0llk dlpbcnyl Witb tblS
altcmaUH\ we would avoid the 5ClccuvllY loss of Ioluene 10 dlpbcnyilltogetber, lod
we C<lD tolerlle the prcscnce of benzene io lhe gas-rccyde Slream
Some of the benzene in the glsrecycle stream Cln be recovered in lbe
compressor \;nod:out drums before the gas-recycle slream enters the reactor The
~ash vapor stream IS a ulUratcd vapor, so that as we false the pressure of [his strelm
In each of Ihe Ihree stages of tbe gas-recycle compccssor. 50me of [he benzene will
condense Normally, we cool the nit from eacb compressor stlge 10 10000F with
cooling water. Ind then ...e include a Imod:oul drum (ic..1 Dasb drum) to collect tbe
coD.denslble m'lenals. We can SCIId tblS condensed benzene 10 lbe: liquid separauon
system.
Rather lhan IlIcmpl Co evallllie IUlhesc VariOWI Iltcruativcs II this umc. ,,",e
merely make some dccisIoo and CODlinue 10 develop a buc c:ue. We list all the olhc:r
allernatives as Ilems that need 10 be considered after we b,ve estimated the
pcofitlbiltt)' of lbe process and bave I betlcr undcntaoding of the allocation of the
costs. Q{ courx., we IWnimJzc our don by suc:ssing thai most of the belU.C'De In lbe
gasrccycle stream win be recovered in the k:noctOUI drums ISSOCIltcd wnh the
comprasor or wdl nOI be converted 10 dipbenyl if II IS recycled to tbe rcaetor
However, it is csscnlillto check IhlS Issumption laler

VAl'OllECOVUY SYSlt....

171

benane reco~ered m the compressor l.nockout drums WIll decrease the magnitude:
of the error
We could go back and revIse all our matenal balan calculauons. lIo....'e\'er
11 Will be necessary to revISe them agam after we ha\"e spec::tfied a hquld separatIOn
system. Sintt the changes ....e Introduced III the process "o....s are not too large, .... e
decide 10 contmue Wllh the analy!>ls Of course..... e arc startmg to 3ccumulJte
erron., and .... e \;now Ibat If .... e decide nOl to abandon Ihe projeCl. we must rClll:.e
our calculations. We describe a procedure for correclmg the material balances In
Sec. 7.5.

Type of Vapor Reconry Syslcm

The most common choKes (with currenl technology) are
I. Condensation

high pressure or low temperalure, or both

2. Absorption

J. Adsorption
4. Membrane separation process

s.

Reaction syslems

$honcul dwgn procedures for gas absorbers "'ere dISCUSsed in Chap ], The
economic trade-offs for the design of a condensation prOttSs arc considered In
Exercise 3.5-2. A design procedure for adsorpl!On processes has been presented by
Fair.- Neither a deSIgn procedure t nor a oost correialion for membrane recovery
processes seem to be available in the open literature, alihough vendors of
membranes Will provide Ihls service. Reactions arc sometimes used to remove CO 2
from gas streami, and H 2S IS recovered with amlneS

SlTalegy
We design the yapor rcoo\"ery system before .....e consider the liquisJ separation
system because each of the vapor rCCOft'ry proc:csses usually generates a hqllld
slream Ihal must be funhcr purified. For the cascofa gas Ibsorber, where .... e ncc:d
10 supply a solvent 10 lbe absorber. we also introduoc: a new recycle loop between
the separation systems (see FIg 7.2-2). Nonnally we need 10 estimate the StU and
costs or each umt to detennine which is the cheapest

PROCESS FLOWS. If we do not recover the benzene and toluene from the nash

vapor streams, our assumptions concerning the overall and recycle material
balances are no longer valtd. In particular, the amount of benzene leaving in the
flash liquid stream IS not adequate 10 meel Ihe plant production file, allbough the

J R hur, ~M'Acd SolveOl R~lIvelY .nd P""lici\lOD,~ p l. WlnlulllloD Uwvecolty Dc:5lgn C.se
Sludy No 7. edl\ed by 8 D Smllh, WllShmlllon UnIversIty, St LOUIs, Mo., 1969
, A WDpIc model lhal can be ~ 10 CiUm.aIC lbe are;!, of. membr..., proccu hilS been publIShed by
J E Hopcn and W II MiIlZW. Jlydr""arb Proc AugllSt 1983, P 51

lRI!CTIO,," U

Vapor

fCCOYCry

S)':'ilem

H 2. CH 4

Purge
H 2' CH..

f-

li):stem

173

3. Do we recycle components thai form azcotropc:s wilh the reactanls. or do wc

split the azeotropes?

4. What separallons can be made by distillalion?
S. Whal sequence o( columns do "''C use?
6. How should we accomplish separations if distlllallon is not fcaslbk?
Each of Ihese decisions IS dISCUssed below. Remcmber that wc want 10 male thc~
decisions as a (unction of the design variables o'"cr the range of polcntlally
profitable operalion

.....
'"
spill

Reactor

UQUJD SU'''kATIOM SYST1!1ooI

oluene

Light Ends
Liquid separation
system

Benzene

D, phenyl
tlGURE 1.2--2
Scr-tabOa s)'Slem

~Ie

loop

Some: Lighl ends will be: dissolved in the liquid leaving the phase splittcrs shown m
Figs. 7.1-3 and 7.1-4, and normally some will be dissolved in the liquid streams
leaving the vapor recovery systems. If these light ends ml!ht conlammalc the
product. Ihey must be removed.
ALTERNATIVES FOR LIGHT-ENDS REMOVAL. The ehoJCCS we have for removing light ends are these'

Combining tbe Vapor RKonf)' System ,,-jib tbe

I. Drop the pressurc or increase the temperature of a stream. and remove thc light

Uquid Separa.tion S)'stem

ends in a phase spliner.

1. Usc a pawal condenser on the product column.
3. Usc a pasteurization section on the product column.
4. Use a stabilizer column before the product column.

If we use a partial condenser and a flash drum 10 phase-spilt the: reactor effluent.
some of the lightest liquid components will lea ve with lhe: flash vapor (i.e.. a flash
drum never yields perfect spillS) and therefore will nOI be recovered in the liquid

recovery system. However. if there is only a small amount of vapor in the stream
leaving the partial condenser and if the first split in the liquid separation system is
chosen to be distillation, we could eliminate the pbase splitter and feed the reactor
effluent stream directly into the distillation column.
The diameter of a distillation column with the two-phase feed will Deed to be
larger (10 handk the increaseJ vapor IrafflC) lhan a column Ihat follows a flash
drum. Howe~r. this increased cost may be less than tbecosLS associated with using
a vapor reco~1')' system to remove the liquid components from the flash vapor
stream. There docs not seem to be a heuristic available for mak.ing this decision.
and so we noed 10 add another process alternative 10 our list.

7.3

LIQUID SEPARATION SYSTEM

The decisions lhat we need to make to synthesize the liquid separation system
include the following:
1. 1I0w should lighl end. be removed if they might contaminate the product?
1. What should be the deslmation of the light ends?

The lasl three alternatives are shown in Fig.7.3-1.

The options arc listed in the order of increasing cost, and therefore we prefer
to usc the earlier entries. However, 10 make a decision for ligbt-<nds removal. il is
oecessary 10 kno.... the flo .... rates of Ihe lighl ends and 10 make. some shortcul
calculations or some CAD runs to eslimate II>e amount reco'cred:
I. Flasb calculations. These are discussed in Sec. 7.1.

1. Partial condensers. CAD programs handk these probkms.. or in some cases the
approximate flash calculations given in Sec. 7.1 can be used.
J. Pasturization columns. A shortcut daign procedure has been published by
Glinos aDd Malone (see Appendix A.5).
4. Stabilizer columns. This is a normal distillation column that rcmoves light cnds

Ie. GliDos and M f

Malo~.I"'.

F...., Climl. Proc DeJ. 0-.. U 10117 (19115).

S~CTIOI'I

If produci quality ll> unattepwble, opllOIl5 are:

1]

UOUlD S'.......T10S SYSTEM

175

the azeotrope nonnally requIres two columns and therefore is expensi\c. Howcver,

if we recycle the azeotrope, we must oversize all the equipment in the recycle loop
10 handle the incremcntal ftow of the extra components. A gencral design heuristic

SL3blhzcr
column
Panial

Applicability of Distilllliion

conden~r

Pasleurizatlon
section

NOle: Recycle vapor stream

does not seem to be available for mai-Ing thiS deciSIOn, and so we usually nccd to
evaluate both alternatives. Azcotropic s)stems are discussed in more detail in the
next sccllon.

10

vapor recovery syslem if possible.

FIGURE 1.3-1
AhcrualJVCI lor remoVlDI baht ends

DESTINATION OF UGIIT [:"ODS. For lhe deslinauon of the light ends, we can
venl them (possibly to a flare system), send tbe light ends 10 fud, or recyde the 1Ight
ends to the vapor rtto\'ery 5~slcm or the ll.ash drum. If the light ends have u:ry
little value, we wanl 10 remove tbem from the process through a venl. IfthJs ,-enting
causes air pollution problems, we try to vent them through a flare system to bum
the offending component. If most of the light ends are flammable, we try to recover
the fuel value. However, if the lighl ends arc valuable, we waDt to relain them in the
process. If we recycle them to the vapor recovery system, we introduce another
recycle stream into the process.
SUMMARY FOR L1GIIT [f\,'05. If light ends will not contaminate the product,
we merely recycle them to the reactor with a reactant-recycle stream or remove
them from the process with a by-product stream that is sent to the fuel supply If
light ends will contaminate the product, they must be removed from the process
The method of removal and the destination of the light ends depend on the amount
of light ends. Hence, we must delermine the amount of light ends as a funcllon of
the design variables before we can make a decision.

In general, dlslllJalion IS the lcast expensive means of separating mixtures of

liqUIds.. However, If the relauve volatihucs of two components vo-Ith neighboring
boilmg points is less than 1 I or so, distillation bc::comes very expensive; i.e.. a large
rcflux ratio IS required which corresponds to a large vapor rate, a large column
diametcr,large condensers and reboilers, and large steam and cooling watcr costs.
Wheocver we encounler Iwo nelghbonng components having II relatl'-e volauhty
orless than 1.1 in a mixture, we group these components together and VO'C treat this
group as a single componenl 10 the mixture. In olher words, wc dc\-e!op the best
distillation sequence for the group and the other components, and then vo'e separate
the lumped components by using other procedures (see Fig.. 7.3-2).

Column

~uencing-Simple

Columns

For sharp splits of a thrcc+componeni muture (with no azeOlropcs) we can cuher

reco"cr the hghlest component first or the heaViest componenl first, and then we
split the remaining two components (see Fig.. 7.3-3). When the number or
components increases, the number of ahernauvC$ increases very rapidl) (see Table
7.3-1). lbe spillS that can be made in the 14 alternatives for a five+component
mixture are lisled in Table 7.3-2.
It appears as if it will be a major task to decide which distillation column
seqUCDCC to sclecl for a panicular prooess, particularly since the best sequencc

It

3_2

(B,C)

Separate [
B
design task
_ C

.... --- ......

IS

Lump----l

1.71

t~ __ ~~
D

1.0

0.4

r--D
D,E

Auotropcs with Reactants

If a component forms an azcQlrope wilh a reactant, we have the choice ofrecycllflg
the azeotrope or spliuing the azeolrope and just recycling the reactant. Splitting

L-_E
flGURE 7.3-1
Oul.l1lauQn K~"'"0n)

176

UCTl0N U

lIQUID S[PAUTlDS SYSTflol

SECTION 7J

,-B

,--A

r--A

1I0lllD SEPAUTION S'($11'r.l

177

TABU: 1..]..]

Gt'nrul beutistK::s for column wquencing

A

I. ll.emo>'t: 0I>rT0$I>'t: c:omponeal$ all 100II as possobk.

1. Ilemo",", tcao;t,ve componclll$ or ~ n .. _
t i possibk
1. Ilanm'e prodUCIJI as d~hl1ales
.. Remo", rcqeloc wurns all datillates. plrtJallarl1 .r they an ~

A
B

B
C

10.

'----c

'--8

Direct

Indirect

FIGURE 1.3-]
0'$1111."')11 IhemllOves ror I lem.ry mlllUtC

TABLE 7..]..1

Number of ahemathes
Numoo of comPOIlalIJ
Numoo of St:quenc:ell

TABLE 1.3-2

Column Rq~nces fot

1
3

10

"

11

..

l)

2
I

, , ., .,
3

ti,". product sunms

Colo_ ,

C..... ,

A BCDE.
A.BCDE.
A BCDE.
A BCDE.
A,BCDE.
ABiCDE
ABiCDE.
ABC/DE.
ABC/DE
AIlCD/.
A8CD/f.
ASCO/f
ABeD/.
ABCD/E.

B/eDE.
B/eDE.
BCDE.
BCDE.
BCo/E

AlB
A'8
DIE
D'E
A/BCD
A/BCD
AB/CD
ABCiO
ABC'D

CoIooo 3

C.......

C/DE.

01'

CDE

CID

BrC

D/E.

BCD

CrD
B(C

BClD
C/DE.
COlE.
AIBC
AB/C
B/CD
BClO

A'B
A/Be
ABIC

o/E.

C/O
8'C
A'8
C/O
8'C
C,D
lliC
A'8

J*d:ed bed l'CKIl)r

might change as I,l,e aller Ihe design variables To simplify this effort, we might want
to look for heuriSllCS for column sequenCing. There has been a considerable
research effort in this area over the past decade or so, and some of the results are
given below.
GENERAL HEURISTIcs. There are some general heuristics thai can be used to
simplify tbe selection procedure for column sequences (see Table 7.3-3). The first
lKuristic in this list is based on tlK fact that Ihe malerial of construction of the
column is much more expensive than carbon steel if corrosive components are
present. Thus, the more columns that a corrosive component passes through, Ihe
more expensive will be the distillation train
Reacti~e components will cbange the separation problem and tbus should be
removed Il.S soon as possible:. Monomers foul reOOiJers, so it is neoessary to run the
columns at vacuum conditions in order to decrease: the column overhead and
bollom temperatures, so that the rate of polymerization is decreased. Vacuum
columns are more costly tban pressure columns, and we prefer to avoid the
increased cleaning costs.
We prefer to remove products and recycle streams to paeked bed reactors as
a distillate to avoid contamination of the product or recycle stream with heavy
materials, rust, etc., which always accumulate in a process. If it is necessary 10
remove a product or recycle stream 8S a bottom stream, it is often taken as a vapor
from a ~OOiler and tben condensed again. At tbe same time a small, liquid purge
stream may be taken from the reboiler to prevent tbe buildup of contaminants.
COLUMN SEQUENCING HEUlUSTlCS FOR SIMPLE COLUMNS- A number of
other heuristics for selecting sequences ofsimple columns (i.e., columns wilh ODe top
and oDe boltom stream) have heen published; a short lisl is given in Table 7.3-4.
TARL1~

Hauistia for column Sl!:C(UfttCing

I. MO!II plentiful lint
1. Lighlcst Iinl
),. H,gh-l'CCXlvcry Jepllt.lIons luI.
4.. DtfficuJI Jepll'It>OllS IIlSI
~ F...or t:qUlmollr SpillS

" Nest,.."anuon should be cheapesl.

118

Sf:CT1Ot< H

5t:CIl0N JJ

UQtJIIl SI'.'AIUTION SnTDot

However, Ihe firsl and fifth heuristlcs III this list depend on reed eomposltlons,
whereas the second and rourth depend on relative volatilities Henee, we ellOpcct
that these beunsucs wiJIlead to contradictions; i.e., if the most plentil"ul component
Ui tbe heaviest, there is a conOiet between the first and second heunsllcs.
A longer hst orheuristic:s has betn published by Tedder and Rudd, and some
Iflvesligatorli ha\e tried 10 order the importance or the heuristics, 10 resolve the
conOlcts.' A suney or the literature has been presented by Nishida, Stephanopou.
los, and Westenberg, I and a detailed discussion or the limitations or these heuristics
has been pubhshed by Malone et all Some additional discussion of the heuristics IS
given below.
We might also note that as we change the conversion in a process, we expect
that Ihe unconverted reactant will go from being the most plentirul component at
very low conversions 10 Ihe least plentirul at very high conversions. Hence, the
heuristics in Table 7.3-4 imply that the best column sequences will change as we
aller the design variables. Similarly, note that tbe studies used to develop the
heuristics were limited to sequences of simple columns having a single reed stream
that were isolated rrom the remainder or tbe process, so thai different results may
be obtained when we eonsider the interacllons betwttn a distillation train and the
remainder of the plaol.
INTERAcnONS BETWEEN TIfE SEPARATION SVsn:M AND THE PROCESS.
For ellOample, suppose we consider the two flowshttt alternatives shown In Fig
7.3-4a and b. We might consider these two configurations to be two of the
allematives in a sequencing problem. However, there is a different number of
columns in the liquid.recycle loop ror the two systems, and therefore the recycle
costs will be different. Hence, the optimum conversion, which usually corresponds
to a tradeoff between selectivity losses and recycle costs, will be different ror thl:
two cases. Of course, we should compare alternatives at the oplimum processing
conditions of each alternative, rather than on an identical feed-stream condition for
tbe two allernati.. cs.
From this simple argument we .see that the problem or selecting the best
separation sequence cannol always be isolated from the design or the remainder or
the process: i_e.. tbe least expensive sequence for a fixed feed-slream condition
might not be the least expensive sequence (becauce the feed-stream condition
sboukl be cbanged to correspond to the optimum Oow). In faet, there might be
another heuristic:

Select the sequence that minimizes Ihe

number of columns in a recycle loop.

0 W. Toddcr &.lid D F Rood, AlCIIE J~ 104 )OJ (1918).

' I D Seader &.lid A W WClitcrbcrg, A/ChE J~ 13 951 (1917).

'N NlWda, Ci SlcplwlopoulO1.,.Dd A_ W Wale/berg, AICII J~ 19 l26 (1981).

'M F MalllM., K, CiUIIOI., F E. Marquez..Dd I M Doua.W. AICIa J . JI 683 (I91S).

(7.3-1)

lIe,,1

Reactor 1----jCoolant

Reactanl
Product

LlQl..'10

n .... ATIOI'l

SYSTEIol

179

Flash

Light

,00'

.;;~

(oj

F=I

--.:l:....tH~"'~'j ---1 """'0< ~-.jCoolant I----L~~J

Reactant
Light

end~

.;; 1--_ _--'

Product
(bj
flGURE 1.3-4
Scqueooe sde>cl1OG cl\.o.lI&CS recyck

oon~

MULTIPLE SEPARATION SEQUENCES. Suppose we consider separalion syslems that correspond to the general flowsheets given in Fig. 7.1-2 or 7.13; I.C., .....e
need both a vapor and a liquid recovery system. A flash drunl never gives shurp
splits, so that some 01 the most volatile. "liquid" components Will leave with the
flash vapor, and orten they need to be recovered and sent 10 a hquld separatl?n
system 1-l0.... eHr. the Ilash liqUid nllghl contain a large number or much heaVier

180

5ECTlOfo;

1I0UIO SE'UATlOI'I JYS'TDt

components as well as those that are returned hom the vapor recovery system. In
silualions such as thIs. It might be better to split the sequencing problem into (Wo
parts. That IS, we would split the flash liquid 1010 one portion contammg the
oomponenls returne.i born the vapor recovery system and one portion containing
the heavier components. Then we would design one separation system having a
single feed stream for the heavy components and one separation system having
multiple feed streams for the components returned from the vapor recovery system.
AN' ALTERNATE API'ROACII TO SELECTING COLU 1N SEQUENCES. The

reason for allemptmg to develop heuristics is Ihat the number of alternati\'e

sequences increases very rapidly as the number of components increases (sec Table
7.3--1). However, there are a large number of plants where four or less distillation
columns arc needed to accomplish the separalion. Four simple columns (one top
and one bollom slream) arc needed to separate a five-componenl mixture into fh'e
pure streams. but only four columns arc needed to separate sill: componalts. if two
components With neighbonng boiling points leave in the same stream Thus, for
five exit streams and using only simple columns, we need to consider the 14
sequences shown m Table 7.3-5.
An examination of this table mdlCates Ihat 20 column designs are requIred 10
evaluate all the possibihties. Twenty column designs requires a considerable
amount of effort if each of Ihe designs IS rigorous. However, by using shortcut
procedures (see Appendix A 4), it is possible to significantly simplify the calculations. Using shortcut techniques. Glinos demoostrated thai thC' evaluation of the
14 sequC'nces '''..as almost instantaneous on a VAX 11-780; i.e., the results appeared
as soon as the program was run. Kirkwood' has shown that the 14 sequC'nces can
be evaluated in only a few seconds on an IBM-PC XT.
The results of Glinos and Kirkwood indICate that for modest-slZC' sequencing
problems it is bellC'r to develop computer codes that evaluate the 00515 of sequence
altemalives than it is to use heuristics. Moreover, the running times for these axles
.re sufficiently small that the best sequence can be detennined as a function of the
design variables.

Complex Columns
Rather than consider only sequenoes of simple columns (one overhead and one
bouom stream), we can consider the use of sidestream columns, sidestream
strippers and reboilers, prefractionators, etc. One set of heuristics for columns of

TABLE 7.J-S

HeuriSlics

rM complex columns-Tedder .00

Rudd

CntuUl
I(AI(C

Eue4 IICp"r.uon

IndeX

If ESI < I. the A B Splil

1(.".

0A.

(ESI) "" - - - IS

0.,

harder thall tbe BIC Splll U ESI > I, tbe AlB spbl IS ea$lef than the SiC

_rllt
lleunSlIQ lor ESt < I 6
I. H 40 10 80"; IS mtddlc product and nearly eq.... 1 amounts or overhead.nd bot.toms are presenl.

then favOI desll" S

1. If mon lhan ~"IS rmddle produd aftd lao Wtt S"; IS bottoms.. t1aal Ca"O< desl.p 6.
l. I f _ than~" Os middle prod'llCl and lao Ibn S" 1S0werhea<k. dlra favor dalp 7
4. If lea than I S"; IS middle prodlKt and nearly eq....1 amowns or owahelds aftd bonoms are

r.VOf

present. then
design 1
So Othc..- (avo< desll" I 01 2. wluehever remo~ the most pIelitiruJ cocnJlODe1It lint.
HcunstlCll lor ESI
I. If moIC than
2. II mon: titan
1. If more lban
<I. If _ e than

> 16
SO'% II'
SO% IS
SO"; IS
SO~~ tS

bolloms produc:l.. then fa"O< danl" 1.

middle prodUC:I and from S 10 20" tS bono..... lher. fuor doslgn S
nuddle p1ooUC:I and lea than S" is bottoms, tbeD favor dell" 6auddk po-odlllCl aad lao thaJt S% .. 0eI'heads. tlom f.VOf desI,n 7

So Otbeno'lse. raVOl delll" J

0l.1ter HeuosllC$
,
I. Therrna.lly coupled designs J and <I should be considerai all ..hemauves to deslJ1lS I a.nd 2.
resJlCC',ItIt!y, of lea tban hal( tbr ked Os mlddll: produd.
1. D=pK l. <I. 6. and 7 should be coMICkred r.,.. Kparaun, an mulUl'eI _liar alo-lIIUddll:-prodUC1
punly

IS

a.cgeptabk.

StnltelY
I. Roduco: N-compon<:DI &eplIratiollli 10 oequenca cl pscudot=iilry teparallOllSo, UId perlonn tbe
most ditlicuIl ta1Ia.f}' sep&nllOQ IuL
1. ThIS beunstic does 110I 'Uilrant suuaur.1 opluna..li'y 01 uploal.1y CODAda all complu. colUflin

altertlaUVd
F.....

I)

w Teddrr.1Id

I)

F Rudd. AIClte J. 14: J03(I91Il.

this type has been published by Tedder and. Rudd (see Table 7.3-5 an~ Figs. 7.3-5
and 7.3-6). Anolher set has been presented by Glinos and Malooc (see Table
7.3-6). Some shortcut design procedures that are useful for complex columns are
given in Appendix A.S.
COMPLEX COLU tN'S IN SEQUENCrs. Our goal is 10 complete a base-case
design as rapidly as possible in order to make a preliminary evaluation of whether

K. Gli-. -A GIot-1 Arll"OKh 10 lbot rrdinunary ","""p altd SYIIlha.ui of Do!Itill:ltooll T.a.II,,PhD t~ UlI1tTSlly of Muudtuselts. 1984
'R. L KIrkwood. -PIP Pr.-.,,; III"CIltioll Pr~u~- Pl>.O
Amhenl. 19S7

n \\'

n..s....

Uni~_"'y of

MllSIKh ..... u ..

Tcdda and n F ROOd. AIChF J. lA: lOJ (1978)

K Ghnos a.nd 1>1 F Malone. Complex Column Ahetnal'ves in Do!Ildlauon S~telll!.,- rap"'r
submitted to

("lrt...

f.rtg Itt, INs., 198.5

182

5EClIO'" 7J

LlO'IlI.1 ","AUTIO'" SYfiH,

TABLE 1.3-4

I-Ie-urislics (or complex columns-Glinos and Mlilooe

~mpk 5ClJ1ICncc:s

.. u.etbtdlf=M>llllClXltllL.,.,U~,,,,z<,I~d 1),.1:> ...

I)
b U..c tbt ,lId,reet ""'IlICllU II ZA' 'rL.,. ~ le,) <; I C........ 1>e C.Jcub.le lhe .-apor ~IG If (:r d - I) \"...
l) > I~,.,'{L, -f la) > 1/("....

2.

-+ I).

Skl~nam ooluJlUU,
G AI.... )s wrwda woln,. SlIksueam wtumn .. hen L .. and 0' L,. <; 0.1
b. ColWder lWnJ' 5,da:m:am column .. hen ,be lO'ermedlllle .. ,ccydcd.nd blVi ptInty IS nOl
reqlllred
c ConsKler 115m, 5100lream wlumD ... hell the WlI,ulJtleS .re 1101 evenly dl51nooted.
d Coostdc:r, lldalrcam 'bove Ihe rced \O'lKn lhe illlermedlllle 15 more difficult 10 "'~r~le rrom Ihe
heavy th'n 'rom Ihe hibl Otherwlsc, consider, siootream bela... lhe feed.

B
Design 2

Indirect sequence
A

l Sideslream s,nPflC'rs 'nd r"lien

o Cons>der llSInJ' PdClitrcam <:<)1111110 when leu than 3O~ of Ihe l'ccd IS the 'D~rmcdi'lC.
b As ~I :opprlChcs ("A' - 1),.1".oe - I). lhe sllVlnp ,re npo:;ted 10 IDacasc.
e The InUJmllm 5lI"'Dp are
lI.depeDdenl of the rebu>'e vol,uhllQ,.
4 CO<15ider uwllia udC5Ircam oolumD when lhe VolaWIlICS are nOl C"enIy dWflbulcd.

jO"_

4 Pellyuk c:ulllfWl.5

SO"

T'he DlalUmum vapor ">-..015 for :0 Pellyuk columa I,e

aod an approached .. ben
IA - (..... -I)I(a.oe-I)a.ndz. - 0
b The vapoe- rale ... .,np are ht&bcr "" :0 Pctlyul colUIQJI lluln for aa,. olhcl Uad of wmplc.o
rol_

.. for IotrlC' or moderslc l <II Pc'l)"l eolumn 15 b,orcd wbeD

(I) The volallll1lC5 Ire bAlanced Ind bolh splits 're dlfficull, lhal I$, <l A "" ll'... S' 2(2) The spIn"" 8 IS dIfficult. and lhe 81C spill Ii cuy; Ihal 15, ll' < .,.
d For low X. C(ln~tdcr USIIlI a Pelll'ul column .. hen 1. IS dow: 10 (cr d - l)/("A~ - I), al1bou&h'
s,de5CCIlon column rna) be" be"lIe, 10 IhlS cue (II .eSlllls In .bolll 11Ie ... me vapor .... VIDg5 bUI has
rewer lrays).
e Pellyul columll5 may be advaD1ageous for mndcrale Or blp Z., ClIpecially ... lKo the ""18 Iplll II
nOI much usic, lhan ,be 8'e Ip~l or when"L > o.~
f i'leulUhCS r_mcndm, lhe usc of Pctlyul; columos for Iarp: nluuof I. arc DOl always corre<:l,
because: tbe pedonnallU depends 011 lbe volatiblJel. If lhe vollhltuea Ire ew:n.ly dislribuled, the
Pctlyuk column aDd prdracllOnlllCN should be conSIdered..

S PrefraetiolUllOrs
. Do DOl oolWdu a prefractlO~lor If:o Pettyul c:olwl:ln an bc used.
'" The IDILWDWIl AVlDp dcpcad 00 the volalibt_ nod ..Iticb '-'cd Ii COCltrolbnJ.
(I) H tbc upper '-'cd CODU.... the: lD.UImUIII ..",ap are (a.oe _ '".,},'{a..., - 1)... bIeb OIXUB as

. -,

,,-.

(2) If 1M IowCf feed eolttrok, lhe mil.l.lQlllm U~lDp are (a., _ ll(ll'.oe _ I), ...hoc:h oocurs .. ben

the process is profitable Thus, normally we include only SCqucilCC5 of simple

columns in our first designs, Ilowever, a complex column IS often cheaper than two
simple columns, and lherefore we need to consider these possibilities at some poun
In our design procedurc, Since: wc can replace any two neIghboring (;()Iumns ID a
sequence: by a (;()mplex column, .... e can generatc a large number o( process
altcrnatlves. To aVOid gellmg bogged do.... n in a lar~ number of alternatIve

c
Design 3
SideslreaJn rectifier

Design 4
Sidesueaffi stripper

nCUR 13-5
CoIu..mD dc:ItJllL [F,_ D W.
TdJcr aNI D. F. R.od, ""JCJrE J~
24: )03119111))

evaluatiolls, we dcfcr a consideratIon of complcl columns until we coosidcr other

process alternatives, which we discuss in Chap. 9.

Otber Types of Separations

If distillation is lOO expensivc to use to separate IJquid mixtures, that is. (I < 1.1, the
olber chOIces that arc normally thc ncxt least expensIve are lisled in Table 7.3-7. In
most cascs. these: separation procedures require multipk dIstillation columns to
rcplace a convcntional distillauon, and $0 they arc normally more Cllpensivc. A
brief description of eacb type of separation is given below.

EXTRACllON. To separate a mixture o( Band C having a (eed composition

correspondmg to point I on Fig. 7.]-7. we counlercurrently contact the (eed with a
solvent S, corresponding 10 point 2 on Fig, 7.3-7, in an extraction column.
Nonnally, we attempt to recover 99% or more of component C. from the original
feed, which corresponds to point] on the figure. We remove the solvent from this
stream by usmg a dIstillation column to obtain the product stream (or component
B, shown as POlOt 5. The other stream kaving Ihe extraction unit corresponds 10
point 4, and when wc usc distillation to remove the solvent from this mlxturc, we
)btain the conditions at point 6

184

SECT10N U

UQUJD

~"IlATIOI'< 1\'Sl'l!",

reduction In the degree of separation must decrease the cost sufT-.aentl) to pay for
the extraction column and the other two distillation columns. In some cases this is
possible.

A, B

EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION. If we attempt to separate HN01 and HlO by

extractive distillation. y,e add a heavy component, HJSO near the top of the
tower. The presence of the heavy component changes the vaporliqutd equilibrium
(for this example the actl\-ity coeffiCients y,11I be: changed). which in some cases will
Simplify the separation We obtam a pure component, HN0 1 O\'erhead mthe first
column (sec Fi~ 7.3-8) Then .....e reco\er the olher component overhead m a sc:cond
column, and we recycle the: extractive entrainer. HlSO back to the first column.
We see that two distillatioo columns are required.

B,C
C
Design 5

C
Design 6

C
Design 7

nGUJ.: 7M
Columa conti. U'l.tiooL [hem D W.

AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION. In azeotropic distillation we: add a rdativd) "ght

component that again changes the vaporliquid equilibrium of the original liquid
mixture, often by formlOg a new azeotrope with one of the feed components. Thus,
to split the ethanol-water azeotrope. we can add benzene, which fonos a ternary
a.uotrope. With tbis modification. we can remove pure ethanol from the bottom of
the first column and reco,,'er the ternary azeotrope overhead (.sec: Fig. 1.39).
Since the ternary lUC:otrope is a heterogeneous mixture when it is condensed,
.....e use the benzene rich la}'er as reflux to the fint column, and ",,-c use the other
layer as the feed to a second column. In the second column, we a@:ain take the
ternary azeotrope O\'erhead, and we reco\"er an ethanol.....ater mixture as the

T,dr-dD F. RMdd,,flOtEJ ~

JOJ (191111 J

'Y~ note: that ~int 6 corresponds to a binary mixture of B and C. which Wll5
tbe: ongmal sc:paratlon tbat llo'e: we:re trying to ma.lr:e, aoc:pt that it is mon::
conoc:ntr~t~ th,an tbe: original fc:c:d, point I. Also. whe:n we: separate: Band C by
no~mal dlstlUatlon, we: can set the: bottom specification to give: us almost pure c.
IX?lnt 7. and. the overhead composition as the original feed mixture., point I. Thus.
~t~ e:x~ractlon. we: must carry out the: same: B--e distillation as we would with just
dlstillatron. although the degree of separation required is reduced. or course, this

(J)B+S

B+C

S
C (+ 11)

TABLE 7.3-7

AJttmali",s to distillalion

CD

B+C

(J)

@)
C+S

I. EJltractJ()d
1. EJllr.cuvt! dutillallon
J,. Auouopic dJstillillion
.... ReKbe dlStilb.tJon
5. Crysl.alliDlJOII
LA_

7.

R~ctKln

(+ 11)

crl
B

nCURE 7.3-7
E,UI1IclIoII.

(j)

a>

186

SECTlOf' TJ

UQUII) SErAaATION SYS'T1ol

"'CHON 11

Add nonvolaulc component to modify

")'.~

Add re<tcmc componem tu modify

UQt1![)

n,... uTlO"

S'"'~O.

187

")"5

r - - 8 , - 2S, -

,J

rC
S

L-_ _

C+S
S

c.g, B. C = xylcnc:s: a "'" 103

S - organomc:tallic: B, CS:

FIGURE 7.J-IO
a

0=>

30

RelIal~ dlSl.iJl.alloD.

c.g., B = HNO)

bonom strcam Now, in a third column. wc reco"cr purc .... ater. our second
product, as the bottom stream, along wilh lhe onginal bmary azeotrope o\crhead
ThIs binary azeotrope IS recycled to the first column. and .....e obtam pure producls
from the system of three columns

= H 20
S = H~O~

FIGURE 70U
blracll~e distiII<tlw..

Add volatile component that fomu an azeotrope

with one or more of feed componems

Bes ternary

heterogeneous azeotrope

8+C

R."crl\'[ DISTILLATION. In some cases it is possible to add an entrdiner that

reacts with Onc component in a miXlUrc that is dlfficuilto ~parate For example.
the relative "olatllny between me/a- and para-xylene IS onl)' 103. Howe\er. If
sodium cumene is added \0 a mixlure of the xylene isomers,lt reacts with the para
isomer. and then the relative volatility between the meta-xylene and the organometalhc complex that IS produced becomes 30 The reaction can be reversed m a
second column. and the entramer is recycled (see Fig. 7.3-10). Thus, the original
separation is greatly simphfied. but at the expense of handling sodium cumene. If
eutrainers that arc simpler to haDdlc can be found, the reacti"e distillatIon will
become a more imponant separation altcrnative.

azcouope
B

L-_8

e az.eouopc

Thus, by froclJng, separation of the liquid-sohd mlJ:ture, and orten using some
recycle. the desired separation can be achieved (see Fig. 7.3-11).

e.g., B == Ethanol
e == Water
S = Benzene
HCURE 7.3-'
Auotropt<: dulill.allOll

CRYSTALUZATION. Thc separation of xylenc isomers IS difficult by dlsullauon.

so often it is cheaper 10 use the difference in freezing poiDts to separatc the miAture_

C
DISCUSSION. Extraction. extractive distillallon, and azeotropic distillation all
in\'olve the separation of nOOldealliquid mixtures Until reocntly there has!xen no
simple design procedure that could be used for the quick. screeDlng of these
alternatives A procedure of thIS type has recently been de\'e!opc:d by Doherty and
coworkers, and some of the baSIC Ideas of this procedure are discussed next.

188

SEClION JJ

UOUID SI>AU,TlOto/ SnTUI

SEC"rlOW ,.

r - - Vapor
D.C.

C (+ B?)

2,000.000
1,5OO,OOCl
./
1,000,000
500.000
./

-$;
0
-500,000
/
-I,OOO,OOCl
-1,500,000
-2,000,000 /
-2,500,000
-3.000,000

Crystallizer

L---Bc~s
FlGUR.- 1J-11

Cry.laUu,atoon.
.::um,R 7.3-1. IIOA P""~ 1lJe f10lVS or lhc flub liquJd ",tream llult are Jed 10 the
F.Dd 465 psia). If"'e let tbe bpt ends
dIStillation tTam ale lI~eQ 10 Table 7.1-1 (1
Ia.~e wtt? the prDduct and lecover all the product, the compositioo of the pt'"OOU<1
stream will be:

- 3,500,CO:h.1

-.nonol'lc

~
""'-

SYSTEWS

YPH
..... 0.2
........ 0.4

I"

___ 0.6

'"
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

189

0.6

-e- 0.8

0.7

Con~fliion x

fiGURE 1J-1J

2354
;,." - 2

II

+ 235,4

whlCb 15 k:ss than the required produa purity

lIght ends.

Economic polenlial

or 0.997. Heooe, we must remove tbe

prC!iSun:...~ remo\'e the h)'dr~ and methane: first We send the: light ends to the fuel
supply
The flows of the components remammg after >1.e ro\er lhe light ends are
benu.nc: _ 235.4, toluene: _ 874. and dlphenyl _ 4 lhe heunSII(:S of hghtcst first.
most plentiful firS!. and favor c:qmmolar spltts all favor lhe duect sequence (reco\'er
benzene first). and shorlcut design calcul:ouions verify thIS result
When IIIe add Ihe purge Ioucs and the cost of the disuliallon columns (sec: FIg
73-12) 10 our economIC polcnllal calculations for Ie\el 3. we oblain lhe: rcv~
economIC polenllal for level 4 shown in Fig. 7.3-13. The range or the d~gn ... ria~
where .. e observe profitable operatIOn hi15 beell further dc:aeascd, ....hich simplifies the
problem of add 109 a hcal-e:~changcr network (sec Chap 8).

We wuld aHempt t~ recover the Itpt ends in a pamal wndco5Cr at tbe top or
the p~oduet column. but SlOce the reqUIred product purity is so hIgh. we expect that
we WIll need 10 use a slablhzer column 10 remove the IIgltt ends. The dc:sign of this
column IS dlscuued 111 Appc:ndlll B. SInce tbe stabilizer mUSI operate at an elevated

'" g.

7.4
Roocto,

,L

].

To h>eoc

'"
DiPhenylT
F1GUR[ 1J-12
HDA pl"0Q::5$.

k\l1:1 4

(7.3-1 )

- 0.947

A"'"
H2 CH.

Denuoc

:E

AZEOTROPIC SYSTEMS

In tbe previous section where we discussed the sequencing of trains of distillation

columns, we assumed that it was possible to split the feed mixture between any two
components (see Table 7.3-2). However, if azc:otropes are present, it is often
impossible to achieve certain splits. This, for azeotropic mixtures it is essential to be
able to tdentify when distillation boundaries are present that make ocrtain splits
impossible.. Most of the discussion below concerning the behavior of these systems
has been taken from the papers Doherty and coworkers..

or

Distillation Boundaries
For ideal, ternary mixtures we can use either the direct 01 the indIrect sequenoc (see
FIg. 7.33) to oblam three pure products. However. for azeotroptc mixtures, the
feaSible separations orten depend OD the feed composition Henoc, It is necessary to

190

SIOCTION 14

S!TION 14

ALIOOTIlOPIC SUUMS

understand lhe behavior of these prOLCSSCs

In

much greater dC:lail than the IdeJ.1

me
For example,. suppose we conSider the ternary mll:turt: of acelone, chloro
form. and benzeoe. We can plot the composItions on a triangular dIagram, and .... e
nOle the fact that Ihere is a maJ:lmum boIling azeolrope for acelollC--chloroform
blflary mixtures. We abo p101 Ihe boiling temperature; see Fig 7.4--1.
ow If .... e suppose Ihal ....e put a blflary mixture having a compo:'lIlon
corresponding 10 poinl A 1fI a simple stIli ,md c;onllnue 10 increase the lemperature
In the sliII. the composilJon of the malenal remaining In the sull ....111 move In the
direction of the arrow shown on FIg 741 (toward the bmary azeolrope). Also
mIXtures neh 1fI acetone would be recovered from the top of the slili.
In contrast, SHirting with a binary mixture correspondmg to point B on Fig.
7.4-1, as the slilltemperature is increased,lhe malerialleft in lhe still will again be
the binary azeotrope, but the overhead will be rich in chloroform. Binary mixtures
of acetone and benzene at point C or chloroform and benzellC al point D will both
lead to final stili mixtures of pure benzene.
Suppose no.... that e conSider lernary mixtures corresponding to points A
and B on Fi@ 7.4-2. As e increase Ihe temperature 1fI a simple sUI~ the stIli

191

SO.1
Benzene

Bmary
SO. 1
Benzene

AZEOnO',C SYSTt:~IS

,""".rope
56.2

644

Chloroform

612

flCURE 1.4-2
Terna., m""UfCS

c
A

Acetone
56.2

Binary
azeolrope
64.4

FIGURE 1.+t
AoolOQC-chlorolOl"m bclUl'llC Iyilem-blnary .'ilufd

Chlorofonn

compositions for each mixture will approach Ihat or the binary azeotrope, until at
some poin! they will tend to collide. Since benzene has a hIgher boiling pomt than
lhe binary azeOtrope, as ....e continue to increase lhe stiU temperature, the
trajectories (residue curves) w"l bolh lurn toward benzene. Thus, the final
composition In the still pot for both cases will be benzcne. Ternary mixtures
corresponding to points C and D on Fig. 7.4-2 will also yield benzene as the final
still composition.
There arc rigorous proofs for this type of behavior; see Levy. van Dongcn,
and Doherly" However, if we merely say Ihat for every source lbere must be a sml,
Ihen .... e can de\'elop reasonable pictures of the behavior; i.e., each traJeclory
(residue curve) must have a stopping point lhat is eilher a pure component or an
azeotrope (these polOtS correspond to the singular polOIS or the sct of differentIal
equations describing a simple still).

61.2
S. G Levy, 0 8 ..,n DoDf;C"D, and M F Doherty, ~ Ocs>&a &nd Syalbc:w of Azcolropoc DuullauOlL
II M.lD1IIIUDl lIeftw;. Calcu1allOni,~ /6.C h",,-,,'j>/s, 24 463 (1915)

192

SEctiON 1.4

Al~OT"Ol'rc IYS'nM5

SFCTIOI'IH

When ",e consider more starling l;:onditions, .....e obtain the results shown in
Fig. 7.4-3. Now we see that there is a distillation boundary going from the binary
azeotrope to benzene that divides the composition triangle into two distinct
regions. Feed mixtures to the left of this boundary produce acetone-rich mixtures
overhead and lead to pure benzene in the boltom, whereas feed mixtures to the
right of the boundary lead to chloroform-rich mixtures overhead and pure benzene
in the boltom_

193

80.1
Benzene

SEPARATION DEI'ENDS ON TIlE FEED COMPOSITION. Suppose thaI we

now consider the separation of a feed mixture having a composition of.x in Fig.

.
FI
7.4- 4 In Iwo contmuous columns using the indirect sequence. It can be shown that
the distillate, feed, and bottoms compositions for a single column must fallon a
straight line (this is the material balance expression). Hence, if we remove
essentially pure .benzene from the bottom of the first column and recover essentially
all. the ~nzene m the ~oltoms,. the ov~rhead ~omposition will correspond to point
A In Fig. 7.4-4. Now, If we spill the bmary mIxture corresponding to point A in a
second column, we will obtain esscDiially pure a~tone overhead and the binary
azeotrope as a bottoms stream_
80.1
Benzene

UEOnOl'lC S"\>TEMS

Separalrix or simple
disllllation boundary

Acetone
56.2

Binary
azeotrope

Chlorofonn

64.4

61.2

FlGt:RE 7.4-4
Sequence of 1"0 ronunuous columns.

Separatrix or simple
distillation boundary

Acetone

Binary

Chloroform

",""ope

56.2

64.4

61.2

FIGURE 7.4-3
Relidue CUn<e map. [F,om M. F ~")' onJG A CQ/holtJ, rue F~rrlo.r. 24: ~u (/985). ""ulr
pr'mLrsiotl of IIIe A_,kan C""micDJ Sod..I),.]

However, if we start with a composition corresponding to X n in Fig. 7.4-4,

then we will obtain pure benzene as a bottoms stream from the first column and a
binary mixture corresponding to point B overhead. When we split this binary
mixture in a second column, we obtain pure chlorofonn overhead and the binary
azeotrope as a bolloms stream. Hence, the products we obtain depend on the feed
composition wherever a distillation boundary is present.
.
Another way of stating this result is that pure chlorofonn cannot normally be
obtained in a sequence of two columns if the feed composition lies to the left of the
distillation boundary, whereas pure acetone cannot normally be obtained if the
feed composition lies to the right of the boundary. The relative volatility of
components in a mixture close to the boundary changes from a value greater than
unity to a value of less than unity if we just move across the boundary. Of course, if
we split the binary azeotrope in an additionall;:olumn system. we could recover all
three components in pure form.
MORE COMPLEX SVSTEMS. As a more complex system, we can consider ternary mixtures of methyl a~late, methanol, and hexane. Now each binary pair
exhibits an azeotrope, and all three are minimum-boiling azeotropes. If we put
binary mixtures conespondiDg to any points on the edges of the triangle in a simple

SITION H

690
Hexane

195

690
lIexane
Azeotropcs

AZeQITopes

SOO

SOD

51.8

Melhyl acetate
57.0

AZEOTltOI'I('" SYSTEMS

'1.8

53.5

M<ilianol
64.7

flGURE 7......5
MelhylaClttale _lhanol MUrK mllal)

mUllUQ.

still, the composition of the material remalnmg in the still W1U move In the same
direction as an Increased still temperature. Thus, the arrows in Fig. 7.4-5 corrt:.
spond to the dlrecllon of Increasing liquid compositions remaining in the still pots.
When we consider a set of ternary mlXlures that are close to tbe sides of the
triangles and recognize that the still composition must move in the direction of
increasing temperatures, we obtain the results sbown in Fig. 7.4-6. Since there must
be 8 source in the inlerior of the triangle for the trajectories to behave in this way,
there must be a tt:rnary azeotrope which has a lower boiling point than any of tbe
binary azcotropes.
A residue curve map showing more trajectories (residue curves) is shown m
Fig. 7.4-7. Now we see that there are distillalion boundaries that divide the triangle
into three distinct regions: ADGE, BDGF, and CEGF. Depending on where our
feed composition falls in Ihese regions, we will obtam different products.

.JL
Methyl acetate
57.0

Methanol

53.5

"'7

FIGURE 7.....
Te.-ry mululn

minimum \"alue, we can calculate the \'apor and liqUid Rows throughout the
column. We use this mfonnatlon to desIgn the column.
A procedure for calculaung the mlDlmum renux ratIo for Donideal mixtures,
including azcolropic systems., has been developed by Doherty and coworkers.- We
diSCUSS tius procedure now
SYSTEM EQUATIONS. The material balance equallon for the strippmg secllon
can be wollen as

X,"'l-c: I)h.. +(s~ I) XI.

where s is the reboil ratIO. H we subtract
obtain

X t ..

(74.1 )

from both sides of the equation, we

(1.4-2)

Minimum Reflux Ratio

For ideal systems, we can use Underwood's equation to calculate the mmimum
reflux ratio. Then, after we select a reflux ratio of 20% or 50, larger than the

S G. l.c:vy, D B van Donaen, and M F DoMrly. Iks'Cn and Synlbe~l~ of AuolrOpK DI~hllauon
II. Mlllimum Rdlu. Cakulallons, ~ I,fEe f.. nJum~'If"Is, 24 463 (1981)
M

196

SECTION 10

Al[OTllorIC 5YSTF.MS

srcnoN"

690
Henne
1.0 A

AU01J.OrlC SYSTEIoIS

197

Eq 7 4~ I. Thus. the differentIal equatIOn will provide a rigorous calculal10n of the

plOch compositions
An o"erall matenal balance for the column gn'es
J . D=('

Az.eolropes

O'

+:

I)(ZV_ X',D) +

'l:,

(74--6)

Wf'; can use these results 10 de,'clop a procedure for calculating the minimum n:nux
rallo.

06

X,

IDEAL MIXTURES. To understand Doherty's prOttdure. \loe firsl conSider the

case of a hexane-heptane-nonane ideaJ mixture. If we are attempting to make the
sharp split A/Be ror lhe feed composition shown in Fig 7.4-8. then the distillate.
feed, and bottoms compositIons all must fall on a straightline(thecolumn matenal
balance must be satisfied). Every component will distribule to some extenl, and thc
componenl speclfical10ns are gi\'en on Ihe figure.
If we fix the column splits and the rcAux ralio. we can usc Eq 7.4+6 to
calculate Ihe reboil ratiO, 'ow. we integrate Eqs. 7,4-3 and 7.4-4. starting from the
ends or the column_ If the reflux ratio chosen is below tbe minimum. Ihen the two
traJCClones do not mlersect see Fig. 7 4-8 raJ the beJianc.heptaoc.nonanc: example.

Residue curve

51.8

0.4f7~~~~
02

Bof''-L~0i1~2-;'~3~.'~0~4i'''''::~0~.~6'';:;';;;0~.~'~~l.g
Methyl aett3((:
570

Xl

Methanol
64.7

H<pun<

10

Mol '1

r=d

Dlstillale

Ilexane
lIeptanc
Nonane

0.3
03

0999

0.001

0,001
10 x 10- 1

0,428
0.571

Legend

0.'
Now we appr~ximale the left-hand side of the equation by a derivative with respect
to column height:

~~' = (5: 1))0, -Xi + (5 ~ ,)X;..

(7.43)

+ Feed composition
o 8oI:tom composition
Condenser liquid composition
Ii Distillate composition

0.6

x,
0.4

Similarly. for the recufying section we obtam

~~' = ( , ; I)Y' - x,- O)Y',D

OA

Bolloms

1.5

+
(7.4-4)

0.2

(7.4-5)

Non31lC

where r is the reAux ratio.

At mfinite reflux. Eq 7.4-4 reduces 10

0L.L--'0,f.'2---;ot.4,--nO"6:--0,f.'8---i,~.0

which IS jusl the equal Ion for a simple shll Also. pinch pomts exist when
dxddh - O. or x ...... I ... x,.... and for Ihis COndition Eq. 7.4-3 becomes idenhcallo

FIGURE

XI

Hexane

1~

' - tban lDIDUDum .~nUA I From S """0 0 B ''OIl ~ <JNI N F OoNt"', IMe Fund"m"u,,!J,
24 463 (/oaj), ..,,11 P't''''W/On fr_ f~ A"",KIlIf CMmocm Sw,~]

198

UCTION H

Heptane

.u:lOTIOf'IC SYirrliWj

1.0
If the selected reflux ratio exceed::. tbe: minimum value, then the profiles for the
stripping section and rectifying sc:ctlons cross, and we can oblam the desired
separation (see Fig. 7.4-9). (fthe reflux rallO corresponds 10 Ihe mmimum, Ihen Ihe
pinch 'Zone for Ihe strippmg secllon Just ends on Ihe profile for Ihe recufying seeuon
(see Fig. 7.4-10)
Now if we ..:hange Ihe mole fraclion oflhe heavteSI component in Ihe dlslillate
from xf/ = 0.001 10 x,. = I x 10 I I and rc:pcat Ihe calculatIOns, we oblam Ihe
results shown In "Ig. 7,-1-11 We nOle that Ihe mimffium reflux ratio for thiS case IS
R. _ 154 IflSlC:.ld o( R. = 215. We also nOie Ihal Ihe rectifying and strippmg
profiles exhibll very sharp corners, ....hlch correspond 10 pioch 'Zones.
Anolhe:r feature 10 Fig. 7.4-11 IS Ihat the: plOch composition in lbe rcetifylflg
section {poinl P 00 Fig. 7.4-11).lhe plOch point for tbe strippingscctlon (point Q).
and the feed composItion F are collinear. ThIS result can be rigorously proved for
ideal systems, and the result can also be shown to be equivalenl to Underwood's
equalions. However, the same result is approximately valid for nonideal syslems.
COMPLEXITY OF THE PROBLEM. There are 113 types of residue curve maps
lhal can be drawn (or lernary mlxtures.- The: maps Ibal are useful for selectmg
entrainers for blOary mixturc5 with minimum boiling 8zeolrOpc:s, lolal of 35
posslbilitic:s, are shown in Fig. 7.4-12.' The number of possiblll1lcs grows very
rapidly as Ihe number of components prestnl in lhe mixture increases. Hence,
azeotropic systems present a formidable challenge as a separation problem
However, the geometric ideas presented above can be used 10 develop an
expression for the mmimum reflux ratio for azeotropic syslems.
NONIDEAl. SYSfEl'>1S. Now suppose: we consider Ihe system of acelone:, chiou>
fonn, and benzene: We plcl a reflul. rallO below the: miDlmum value, \lie: use the
lenninal composllJons shown m Fig. 7.4--13, and we apply the: procedure described
above. Then the profiles for the rectifying and stripping sections do not IDtersect
(see Fig. 7.4-13). However. if we are abcwe the minimum reflux, the curves cross (see
Fig. 7.4-14); and If ....e are at minimum reftux, the pinch region (or the: slripping
section just ends on the profile for Ihe rectifying section (see Fig. 7.4-15).
When we change the end composlIlons, we obtam the results shown lfl
Fig.7.4-16, and the minimum reflux ratio decreases. Moreover, we note from Fig
7.4-16 thaI the pinch zone for the rc:c1ifymg seclion al minimum reflux (point P on
Fig. 7.4.16).lbe pinch point for the siripping section Q, and the feed composilion F
are essenlially collinear. (This example: shows tbe largesl deviation that has been
observed for numerous casc: studlCS.) This collineanty condition provides a
criterion for calculatlng the minimum reflux ralio.

08

o.
R

X,

25

04

+
0.2

o
NONO'"

02

04

08

06

1.0
Hmne

X,

FlGURE 1.4-9

Gruta than IIlIIWDwD Rft..... [F~ S. UrY. D B &>all Doagm. ll1td JtI F o.4'y, 1&.(
F~,,'tUJ, U 46J (/9Ij), ""i,}, ".,mU5,Ott!'om 'M A..."..cmI CMm...ol Sv'J)

Heptane

1.0

08

0.6

R = 2.15

X,
04

0.2

oLL--'of.2'---'0!-,"'-<!0.';;6-10r-.'8--j,"C.O
H Mal.su~allUl and II J N'5hunur.. J. Clotm r..~1J JfHI, 10 111(1977)
'M F Doheny and G A Caldarob. I&I;.C FIINI;J11V~lIJb. U 474 (I9SS)
, S. G

Lev,. D 8. vall DoaJCR, llId M .. Dohen,. -Oc:Np alld S)"Dlbem 01 AKoIro~ DlSU,llaUOll

II MlllUnlim Itdilill Cakubloont., -'&EC

F~Nl..u.. U

463 (1915).

Nonane:

Hexane

XI

f1GUIU.. 7.4-1'
MuwDvm rdIu. [From S Lny,D B

&>all

~ ... DNJ M F DoIwr'1, IdEC FuruJonw"ftW, 2-1 46J

(lSISj}. ..,A ".nJft1M_!IDM llot A..-K'1JI'I CJwm.cgJ Soocotly]

'99

200

SECTION H

AZF.oTJIO!'lC nJTQ.lS

Heptane

F<cd

Mol"
Hexane
Heptane

'0

SECTlON l '

Distillate

0.3
0.3
0'

N~~

0999
0.001
10 X 10- 11

0.001
0.428
0.571

F<cd
BOHOIUS

.l!t.

Coodcn$("r rIqU Id
Distillate

'-

X,

o
0.6 -

0.4

1.54

~--

., -

., -

"-

~-f
,. -

--

o. _

--

..

.-

..,

. '. -

...

'"

l.-'"

,. -

Q
F

0.2

0
Nonane

0.2

0.4

0.
X,

0.8

1.0
Hexane

FIGURE 7.4-11

[From S ~,.. D. B "'"" ~ and}of F ~ry. fMC

FIUt~uJ1s.1<t 46J (/985), "'II1a I't-""u.s"",j,om, A.....nc.... C~s1 5.,.....,y)

Mlnlltlwn rellu1-higher'purily spill.

EQUAnONS FOR MINlMIJM REFLux. We can write the equations describing

tbe rtttifying pinch

rz, - (r+ I}", + YD ""' 0

(7.4-7)

s)'.-(.J+ 1)x.+ZD=O

(7,4-8)

.,

.-~

~..

_.,

~
...

..

and the feed pinch

where each of these equations contains eJlpressions for the two key components.
The reftux and reboil ratios arc related by

s = (r +

1)(X.'1 - ZT,I)
X",I -

(7.4-9)

YD,I

and we IlSC a vapor-liquid equilibrium modd to n:late ;re, and y,. Then. the
collinearity result requires thaI
(74-10)
The value of r thai satisfies this ~I of equalions corresponds to the minimum renux
ratio. Underwood's equalions are a special case of this new general fonnalism

., -

-,

201

Bottoms

Legend

0.'

Al:I:OTltOPIC SYSTEMS

.. - ,

....-

... - - ,

., -

.n_

"

_on,

Henzene

0.120

1.0

0.660
0.220

0.990
0.009
0.001

0.001
0.749
0.250

0_

0.8

1.0

Be=~

Chlorofonn

0.120
0660
0.220

+ Food

+ Food

0.61'-\---\

x,

Di.sIillale

X,

Az.oouope

0.4
Dislillalion
000"""", -+-~

o Bottoms
Condenser liquid
.6 Distillate
Azctllrope

0.61'1------\

ColKienser liquid

.6

0.4

Distillation
000"""",

R "" 6.5

0.2

0.001
I.e ,""

0.8

I.e.<nd

--+__.},

= 74

0.2

---;;o.';6-----;o:':.8~~1.0

O'--'0f..2'''''0"i.;;4
ChIomfonn
X,
FIGURE 1.4-13

0.2

0.4

0.6

Acetone

La,.

0.8

FlGURE 1.4-15
Minimum rdiu. [Frpm S UvY. D B

'"is,

00/1 Dongol. QIld M F.

(J98J). ,,<j,1I pMwiottj,um 1M AJIIl"U:-1Vl CIwmic<l1 SocWI)'.]

DoN,')', IdEC FIIIl~'l/aIs, 14 46J

Feed
Ilenu~

Acetone

1.0

Be=~

Chloroform

Food

DistillalC

8oIuxn>

0.120
0.660
0.220

0.990
0.009
0.001

0.001
0.749
0.250

1.0

DlSlillate
Az.eoI:rope

b.

R = 7.35

\_-----"<;'"'

0.4

--t--.\

1.0 X
0.749
0.251

Fo<d
o Bouoms
Condenser hquid

x,

8.2

Boctoms

0.6.1-1''-.10

Az.oouope

0.4

Disciliate

0.120 0.990
0.660 0,003
0220 0.007
Legend

..woo

" Coodenscr liquid

6 Distillate

X,

Benzene
Chloroform

Stripping

0800~

0.6,1'T_-\.

Aeecone

0.8

+ Food

000"""'"

Benzene

0.8

1.0
Acetone

Xl

Chloroform

l.aa thaD mirumWZl rdlul. [Fr_ S.

D B. - . Donge<, INId AI F. {)oM'" I&EC FtuU1DmnI
14 46J (198j}, "'1I1t prrmissiollfrom 1M A",mcaor CJwmkDJ SOd,UY.) ' .

Distillation

0.001
0.749
0750

0.990
0.009

Separatrix ror_-+---'''

Straight line connecting

saddle to reed poinl

simple distillation

0.2

0.2

Rectifymg

..woo

o
Chlorofonn

0.2

0.4

0.6

X,

0.8

1.0

Acetone

Chloroform

0.2

0.6

X,

0.8

1.0
Acetone

FlGlJaE 1... 1.

DlIIoen,. l<fEe

202

MUlUIlWD n:flla _lib doecreucd boa")' cwnPOIiCiU 1Il (be ovnbad. [F,..... S. u.:,. D. B. ~
tIIId AI F. DoIw"Y. /d.EC F~"'lI1s. 24. 463 (/98J)" WIlli ~rm_ft ..... 1M A.......1t'AII Clt..""ca!
$ocw'y.)

203

EXTENSIONS OF n-fE METIfOO. This approach ror nonideal systems has beea
utended to multiple-feed streams" columns with aoanegligible heat effects.'
heterogeneous azeouopic systems,' prooedures far seleding eatrainers., and aptimum design and sequencing. Once the minimum reflux ratio has beea c;;aJculated,
we c:an let R _ I.2R. and then design the column, roUowing the same procedure as
\o\'e U2d for Ideal mixtull'S. A procedure for cakulating the minimum reflux ratio
for systems with 4. or more. components has fe(XIltly become available

7.5

RIGOROUS MATERIAL BALANCES

After we have selected a liquid separation system. we have completely filled all the
units in the f10wsheet where the component flows change. Tbc:se units include
mixers (for fresh feed and recycle streams), splitters (for purge. streams). reactors.,
flash drums (phase splitters). gas absorbers (and/or other vapor recovery units).
and distillation columns (and/or other liquid .separation systems). Thus, we can
now develop a set of rigorous malerial balances.
Of course. if our rigorous halanoes differ signiflCantly from our earlier.
approllimate results, then we Wlij need to review the decisions that we made. We
could have revised the material balance calculations at any stage: of our development of the design, and clearly there is a trade-off betwccn the time required to
perform all the calculalions and the accuracy of the answer. Our goal is to complete
the design as rapidly as possible. providing that major errors are not introduced,
and to e"plore the alternatives using appro"imate calculations. Then after we have
identified the best ahemati\e, we will use rigorous calculation procedures. However. remember that it is not possible to make rigorous material balances until we
have compktely defined the pans of a flowshcct where the component flows
change.

Uneu Material Balancing

These: equations arc always linear. and therdore they arc sImple to solve by eIther
matriJt methods or simple substitution. Normally, we stan with a balance for the
hmlting reactant. and then we consider in tum the pnmary product. other
reactants. by-product components. and inert materials.
Not all the fractional recovenes (or losses) of the components in various units
can be chosen independently For example. the sImple flash calculation procedure
dcsc:ribed by King (Eq 7.1-19) shows thai if the fractIonal recovery of one
component 15 filled, then all the other fractional recoveries can be ca1cul:ued.
Similarly, the fractional recoveries ror a producl column must be fi.\cd so that the
product purity specification IS satisfied. and in some cases the fractional recoveries
for purge streams must be chosen so that constraints on molar ratios at the reactor
inkt can be satisfied. Iknee. in some cases some iteration might N required.
E:umpk 1~1 HOA p r _ The procedure is best iIIuslralc:d m Icrms of an
example. aDd for Ibis purpo5C _"e ehoose the !lOA process. The fIo~sheet is shown in
Fig. 7.5-1 Now. _"e .... rue balances lOr the component flows or eacb su~m. sl.a.rtlng
~ith lbe hmmng reactanl
ToIUf:M balance. The toluene entering the reaetor TOL,II"ft is the sum or the fresh
feed toluene TOL,.,. the toluene in the gas-recycle stream TOL ell aod the toluene
in the liquidrycle stream TOLu :

TOl lI ,;"

""'

TOl,-,-

+ TOlclI + TOLur

(75-1)

The toluene kaving the reactor TOLII ._. is the toluene that was not converted in
the reactor

TOl lI _

= TOl..... (I -

x)

(7.5.2)

lfwe Iet!TOl..'" be the fraction of the toluene leaving with the flash \apor TOl,...
then a fractioo I - !TOl.,.. leaves witb the flash liquid TOL n :

The procedure we use to develop rigorous material balances is called linear

mlJferial balancing (the set or equations generated is always linear and therefore

TOl,.. - ITol.,... TOL ll ._,

(7.5-3)

easy to solve), and it was first described by Westerberg.1 To apply this procedure.
first we draw a fJowshcet so that it contains only those units where component
flows change. Then we write matenal balances for each component individually in
terms of the molar flow ratcs and the fractional recovery (or loss) in each unil.

TOl n - (I - IU)LJr) TOl,ll_

(7.5-4)

If 1~..e let In; be the fractioo of toluene lost in the purge TOl rc , tbell a fractioa
I - In; of the toluene will N in the gas-recycle stream T0l..-,II:
TOL rc = II'(; TOL,...

Doben.,.

S.G. LeYy. and M F

-~ and S,..lhcwso(H~AxolrOflil:
DWitlatio.... IV
Minimum Reltu.l Calculalioos lOr Muhiplc Feed Columns,- '.tEe F~'/lh, 15: 269 (1915).
I J. R. Knishl and M F. Doberty. MOcsiI" and Synlhaili 0( 1I0m0w:nc0us Azeol.opoc: DislillahOnll. V.
ColumN wilh Nonncl'ipblc hcBl EIJecu.- /dEC FruvltJ_",ah, 8: 219 (1915)
I II. N Pham and M F Doberly. Deisn and Synlhai, of Ilctero8CIll!OUI AUOlropic DiSllllat/On I
M

llC1rroaeneous Phase o'a.........- COW... big Sci. (t985).

I A W WClIlcrbcra. -NocCli for a COUI'llC on Chemical P . _ IJa>&n,- laUpl al the tnsUlule ck
OcuflOk) TCClt06op:o poOl Ia hodlG<lna QuImic::a (lNTEC). Santa Fe. A'am'",a. A",\lSt 1971

TOl clI

""

(I -Ire) TOL,...

(75')
(75-6)

If we let ITOl.5T be the fraction of toluene that leaves with the stabilizer distillate
TOLn..o. then a fraction I - ITOt..5T will leave with the stabilizer bottoms
TOLsr .:
TOL,.T.D -

ITOt..ST

TOL".

T0LsT. - (I - IrOt...ST) TOL n

(757)
(1,5.8)

Gas recycle

Purge

H, , CII 4
Flash
vapor

Reactor

Reactor

on

oot

Mox

Reactor

Now if we comblflc Eqs. 7.5-6, 75-3, and 7.5-2 to soh'e for the gas-rec)'c1c
flow, we obtain
TOL G

TOLIl.I.(1 - froXfToL.n--XI ~ x)

(7.5-13)

Also, if we combine Eqs 7.5-12. 7.5-10, 7.5-8. 7.5.4. and 7.5-2 to calculate the
liquid recycle flow, we obtam
TOL u = TOI I ..(1

IloL.l,c)(1

1'01.".)(1 - llOl.sT)(1 - fH)I..nXI

x)

(7.5-14)

Fluh

Next we substitute Eqs. 7.5-13 and 7.514 mto Eq 7.5-1, to obtam

TOL.I .{1 - [(I - IrGXIToLn)

Recycle

Product

Slabilizer

o""head

"""head

""'th<ad

n
,

.~

J-

To I~~

t
"

]5

bO(lom$
FlGUIlE

Product column
boctoms

Flash
liquid

- flOL.leXI - flou.XI - JlOUTXI - flOL..fY))

(I - x)} _ TOl,.,

(7.5-15)

We can use this result to solve for all the other tolueM flows.
NOh that if there is no loss of toluene from the process, i.e-,

J
Recycle column

+ (I

frG "" 0

[TOLIC = 0

hOL..,. = 0

fTOL.sT = 0

Ihen Eq. 7.5-16 reduces to

SLabiluer
boll"""

TOL II ,.

7~1

TOL,.,
-

---

(1.5-17)

>

IIDA Pf0c:c:s6.

which is the Simplified approximation that we used previously.

If a fraClion [TOL.,. leaves with the benzene product TOl,.p, then a fraction
I - [TOl.rlC will lc:a ..e the product column in the bolloms TOl,...:

BENZENE BALANCES. The balances for benzene are essentially the: same. except
for the reactor equatIon. That is, at the reactor inlet we obtain

TOl,..p = [TOl..rl TOlST.

TOl,I. = (I - lTOL'I) TOlsu

(7.5-9)

(7.5-10)

Finally, If a fraction/Tol.le is lost with the diphenyl by-product Stream from the
recycle column TOlp,then a fraction I - lTOL.le is recycled to the reactor TOL u :
TOllJ "" fTOLIC TOl,..
TOl"l -= (I - fTOL. cJ TOL,I.

(7.5-11)
(7.5.12)

We try to select the fraellonal recoveries in these: equations such thatf, will be
a small number. However, the purge split/'G is the same for all components, and
the SpillS of the components in the flash drum are rdated to one another

(7.5-18)

where Ihe fresh feed flow of benzene 82,., IS equal to zero. Accordmg 10 our
selectivity corTeiation, a fraction S of the toluene converted appears as benzene,
although it is important to remember thai this correlation was based on a pure
toluene feed stream. Thus, we expect that some of the benzene recycled to the
reactor will be converted to diphenyl, and if the benzene recycle flow is significant,
we should revise our correlation Neglecling this discrepancy until we estimate the
benzene-recycle now, we can write that the wluelle converted in the reactor is
simply
Toluene Converted ... TOl.x

(7.5-19)

208

seCTION n

_IOO_OUS MATeRIAL IALA/'fC1!S

where we can substitute Eq. 7.5-16 for TOL II . Hence the ben7.ene leaving the
reaetor is the benzene produced (xS(fOL II .... plus the benzene fed to the reactor;

BZ II _ _ BZII .,",

+ xS(TOLII ...)

(7.5-20)

Letting/,z.,v be the fraction of benzene going overhead In the flash drum

(which is related 10/r0l..1"I b)' Eq 7.1- J9) and I,G be the: fraetion of benze~ lost 10
the purge (whK:h is the: same for all components), we can show that the gas-recycle:
ftow of benzene IS
(7.5-21)
SImilarly, .f we Ic:t I.z.n be the: fraction of benzene lost o\'erhead In Ihe stablhzer
and/u .,11 be the fraction of benzene lost in the bottoms of the product column, and
if Wl: assume that all the benzene goes overhead in the recycle: column., then the
liqUId-recycle flow of benzene is
BZ UI =

fIlJl:,I'II(1 -

f'Z.ST)(1 - f.z.,..)[BZ II .... + xSn-OLII h .)]

(75-22)

Substltutmg Eqs 7.5-21 and 7.5-22 into Eq 7.5-18 gives

nZ'I.I.. [1 - I'Hv(l - f,d -/117..,11(1 - ltu..srXI - f.z '1')]

= xS(fOLII.I.)[flll.n (I - II'G) + l.l.,II(1 -/117..51')(1 - I"z.n)]

BZ~II 1....
,

xS(TOLII.lJ(f.z.n(1 - I,G) +ltu..,II(I ~ l,z.ST)(1 - In,Tv)]

J l'lJ,,{1 f,G) l.z.,,J1 f'Z.ST)(1 IlIl.'-")

(7.5-23)

(7.5-24)

We can now usc: this result to calculate all the other benzene flows.
Other Component Flo"'s
The material balances for tbe other componenl.5 are developed III the same way.
with a few exceptions.. Thu IS, ...,-e assume that there is a nesJigibk amount of
diphenyl in the flash vapor stream (see Table 7.1-1). Also, we assume Ihat aU the
hydrogen and methane: in the: Oash liquid that is not rcc::overed in the stabilizer
leaves ",oith tM benzene product, i.e.. there is no hydrogen or metha~ in th~ liquidrecyck stream.

Linear Material BalallCe5

From the discussion above we see that by writing balances for the molar 80w of
each component in tenns of tbe fractional recoveries obtained in each process unit,
we obtain a set of linear equations in terms of the conversion or the limiting
reactant and the selectivity (which is related to the conversion). These equations
are simple (although somewhat tedious) to solve for the recyde flows of each
component. Once we have calculated the recycle 80ws of each component, w~ can
calculate all the other flows of that component.
An inspection of the resulting equations indicates that we must SpeCIfy the
fresh feed rate of toluene, the fresh fc:ed rate of hydrogen, the fresh feed rate of

methane. the reactor con\'erSlon, the spill fracttons of the components 10 the nash
drum (which are related to each other by Eq 7.1-19 and depend on the tempera lUre
and pressure of the flash drum). the split fraction of the purge stream, anrl the
fractional reco\'enes of the components in th~ distillation tntin.
Optimizatinn Variables
In our pre\'ious approllimate material balaocn..... e specified the production rate of
benzene. the product punty of benzene. the plllge composition of hydrogen (.... hlch
""~ showed ""as cqul\alcnt to specifying the fresh feed rates of hydrogen and
methane). the con\'ersion, and lhc molar ratio of h)'drogen to aromalics at the
reactor inlet. For our linear material balance: problem we can assume that the
conversion and makeup gas flows are optimization variables (since the: feed
composition of the makeup gas stream is filed, specifying the makeup gas flow lilies
the fresh foed rates of both hydrogen and methane) As ....e diSCUSsed earlier_ these
are the dominant optimization variables.
The fractional loss of benzene overhead In the stabilizer also corresponds to
an optimization problem (loss ofbc:nzene to fuel versus the number of trays in the
rcctifying section and the column pressure). The fractional losses of toluene and
diphen)'1 o\'~rhead in the Slabili7.er are then fixed by the column design. Specifying
the fractional loss of methane in the stabilizer bolloms will fix the design of the
stabilizer (small losses correspond to a large number of trays in the stripping
section). and ona: Ihe column design is fiud, the h)'drogen loss in the bottoms is
fixed. Ho\o\ever. we expect that all the hydrogen and methane leaving in the
stabilizer bottoms stream WIll also leave with the benzene product. Then the
fractton of toluene that goes o\'~rhead in the product column and leaves with the
bcnzcn~ product stream plus the hydrogen and methane leaVing with this stream is
fued b) the Specified production rate and product purity,
To obtain small amounl.5 of tolue~ overhead in lhe product column..... e
must include a large number of trays in the rectifying section of this column. Thus,
then: is a trade-off between using a large number of trays in the stripping section of
the stabilizer (to keep the hydrogen and methane 80ws in the produet Slream
small) balanced against using a large number of trays In the rectif)'ing section of the
product column [to keep the toluene (and diphenyl) 80ws in the product stream
small), for a c:ase where lhe sum of the hydrogen., methane, toluene:, and diphenyl
Oows is fixed.
The fractional loss of benzene in the bottoms of the product column is also an
optimization variable (trays in the stripping section balanced against the cost of
recycling benzene through the reactor system), as are the rractionalloss of toluene
in the bollom of the recycle column (toluene lost to fuel versus trays;n the stripping
section) and the fraetionalloss of diphenyl overhead in the recycle column (recycle
COSI.5 of diphenyl back through the reactor versus trays in the rcctifying section).
To avoid all these separation system optimi7.8tions, we fix the fractional
recoveries of the keys to correspond to the ruleof-thumb value of grealer than 99 0/0
and we fu the fractional losses of the nonk~ys arbitrarily as 0.15 to 0.3 times the
fractional losses of the keys Alternativel}. we could use Fenske's equation to

design \Ioe might assume tlut the ImpuntlCS ID tbe product jue I SOISO malure or
mc:lluone Ind IOllIoCne
ItOtJT TIt.e fraCllon of loluene leavlllg overhead III the stahlhur depends on
the ~h:trpne~s or lhe spIll belw=n mcth:tne "'nd bcnunc. 511lcc ....e mU~1 tale some
bcn:.tene overhead in Ii1lS column to ensure :tn adequate Sllpply of rellul, we do not
expect 10 obtaIn a sharp sphl. For a first desIgn .. e fix 'he effluent cooling.waln
temperalure m Ihc partial COndenser used m thiS column as I JO~t-, .. e choose lhe
l:Qnden5mg lemperature as 115 or 120 F; and ....e hi the column prtsSure so Ihatthc k
....Iuc: or bc:f12eoc IS K. _ OOj If Ihese results arc rea50oablc, 'ben 'lot find the " V1Iluc
of tOluene In Ihe reRull drum, and .. e can e$lImale the toluene loss

C:Sllmate the fraroonal IQM of the nOllkC)'s Thus. our matenal bala.nccs are 00(
ngorous, but since we e-lpcctlhat these loss tenns to be small we do 001 introduce
much error

Constraints
Most of the flows can be \l.n[len In lerms of [he fresh feed rate of toluene TOl
(see Eq. 7.5-16). However. we want to sol\-e the design problem in terms of t~~
production rate PROD of benzene Hence, we need to sum the flows of benune
hydrogen, methane, loluene, and dlphenylleaving the lop of lhe product colum~
and lben eliminate TOL n from these expressions aod replace it with PROD. This
procedure will remove the production rale constraint.
In addition, we must wrile the expression for tbe hydrogen-to-aromatics ratio
at the reactor inlet, set this value equal to 5/1. aod then solve for the fractional spill
of tbe purge stream!rG that satisfies tbis e-lpression. This procedure removes the
other process constraint.
Unfortunately. the algebra required to remove these constraints IS tediOUS
Thus, it might be easier to solve for the recycle flows of each component, solve for
all the other componenl flows, and then adjust Ihe solutions, i.c., ilerate, until tbe
constraints are satisfied. Allematl vdy. one of the computeraided design programs,
such as FLOWTRAN, PROCESS. DESIGN 2000, ASPEN. etc., can be used to
rt\"ise the material balance calculations. We diSCUSS the use of the CAD programs
to revise the material balances later in the text.

For Ihls example, tbe amount ofeffort requIred to iOlve tbe ngorous malenal balanus
by usinglillear malerial balances probably exlXCd5 the effort reqUired to use a CAl)
program

7.6

SUMMARY, EXERCISES, AND

NOMENCLATURE
Summary
The deCISions .. e must malic 10 synthesize: a separation system fall mto three
categories: the general structure. the vapor recovery system, and the hquu..l
separation S)"Slem Tbcsoc dCClsions arc listed here.
I. General structure

Enmple 7.5---2 IIOA pr~ The exprcsslon for loluene feed rate 10 the reactor 15
g"en by Eq. 7.5-16 To evaJu~le IbiS flow, we mus, spcc.:.tfy the tenns 10 tbe equallon
TOl.... Our original dcslgn problem speafics tbe desired prodocuon nne of
benzene, ralba than tbe fresb feed rate or tolueoe. HOllrever, from our sboncut
baJaDCe$ (With DO losses) we fouad tbal FIT _ PJS (see Eq. 5.21). For a case .... bere
p. ~ 26j. x - 0.75, Ind S ~ 0.9694 (see Appendix 8) F n _ TOl" _ 273.4. We ca.n
UK tbis ut,mate In the finl IOluuon and tben use i'cntion 10 rorrCCl tbe value.
f,.(> Using our shortcut calculations, we found thai the purge ftow rate was
496 molfhr and that the gasrecycle flow was 3371 rnol/ltr for a CllSC where x _ 0.7j
and Y,.H - 04. Hence, the fraction of tbe flash vapor tbat is purgc<l from tbe process is
496/(496 + 3371} - 0 128 We use this as. first gucss, .nd then we iterate to m,urn
the problem specifications
fT04.." The retuJts of the shoncut flash cakulations arc liven in T.ble 7.1-1,
.nd we see tb.tfTOL..... - ],6/91 - 0.0]96. AgaIn, we need to iterale to m.tch the flash

drum operaling cooditions.

IHJL.ac The fraction of toluene talcen overhead In tbe recycle column is aD
optimization variable.. For our first design .. e choose f":J(_,ac *"' 099S
11OL.,.a The fracllon of toluene taken overhc<lld III tbe product column is also
an opllmizalloD vanable (lbe: ImouDt of toluc:ne pha mc:lIl11ne t.lien overhead IS find
by tbe product SpeaficatlOM, but ellher composltina can be adjUSled). For our first

Q.

Do we need both liqUId and vapor recO'er)' unib, or Just IIqutd'

2. Vapor recovery s),stems

a Should the vapor reco\ery system be placed on the purge slream, the gas
rcc)'ck stream. or the flash vapor stream? Or. is il better OotlO tndude one?
b Should \Ioe use a condensation pr()C(:SS., absorption, adsorption, a membrane:
process, or a reactor system as the vapor recovery system?
3. LiqUId separalloo syslem
Q. How should the light ends be separated If they might contaminate the
product?
b What should be the desllnation of lhe light ends?
c. Do we rec)"CIe components that form azc:olropes with a reactant. or do we
spilt the azeotrope?
d Whal separations can be made by distillation?
~ What sequence of column~ should we use?
f How should we accomplish separations If dIstillation is not feasible?
Some design guidelines that are helpful in making the decisions above are
listed here.
1. The general structure \I.e choose for Ihe separ,itlon syslem depends on whelher
lhe phase of the reactor effluent IS il- liqUid. a two-phase mixlure, or a "apor

The three types of ftowshc:et arc shown in Figs. 7.1-2 through 7.14 In cases
where the reactor effluent is a vapor and ~e do not obtam a phase spIll when
we cool the effluent to I<XrF, either wc pressurize the reaclor (if the feed and
recycle streams are liquid) or .....e Install a compressor and/or a refrigerallon
system to accomplish a phase spilt If a phase split results in only small
amounts of either vapor or liquid, \lie mIght delele the phase spllller and send
the reactor effluent to either a vapor recovery or a IiquKl recO\er) system
2. We Install a vapor reeoy'ery system on the purge stream If
materials WIth tlte pur~e

~e

lose valuabk

3. We Install a vapor rccoy'ery system on the gas-recycle stream If some recycle

components would be deleterious to the reactor operation or degrade the
product distribution.
4. We Install a vapor recovery system on the flash vapor stream if bolh Items 2
and 3 above arc Important.

5. We do not use a vapor recovery syslem if neither item 2 nor item 3 above is
imponant

6. Our ehoiccs for a vapor recovery system are condensation (highpressure or

low-temperature or both), absorption, lldsorption, or a membrane recovery
process (A reactor system could also be considered.)
7. If the light ends conlaminate the produ~l, they must be removed. Our options
are to drop the pressure of the feed slream and flash otT the light ends, to
remove' the light ends by usmg a partial t:ondenser on the produci column, to
remove the hght ends in II: pasleun7.31101l seclion in lhe product column. or to
use a stabthur column to remove the htdlt ends.

8. We recycle components that form a;reotropes with the reactants If the

s)"stem mIght be needed, ~herc: It sholiid be placed, and whal type m1ghl be the best.
and I!UCS5 the dlSllllatlon seqllencing a1ternau\es lhal might be the best Describe in
as much detail as you an the reasons for ,our suesscs. and mdlcate in delall what
cakulatlons you ~ould nc:c:d 10 do to \"enf} yOllr SlJCSSd.
(II) The: cyclohcunc pcocess (SCl! Exercises 547 and 6.8-6)
(b) 1lJc: butane alkylatIon plocess (sec ExcrClSCS 5.4 10 and 68-9)
(e) The: st)unc prOCtS'l' (5 FlefctSC5 54 6 and fo85)
(01) The acetIC anh)'dnt.le process (sec Exercises ~ 43 and 611-2)
(I!') The ben~olC acid process (Itt Exercise I 3-4)
7.6-.1. If the BDA process "'Ith dlpbenyl ra-overed ... en:~ run at liny hl!h conycamnlo. "'e
mIght obtam a 50/50 mlAture of loluene and d1phcnylthat ..ould be fed to thc recycle
columll. If we select an oyefhc:ad Q)mposilJOn of tolucne as X D - 0.9 and we rCCQyer
99% of the tolucne overhead, how many tra)"$ are rcquTred m the diSli1bLion column
(ilS5ume II _ 25)"1
7.6-04. Suppose th,lII the now laIC to the dlSullatmn tram In a butane alkylation prf.)CCU (sec
fuercises 54-10 and 6.89) when x = 0.9. T _ 4O"F. mol i-C./mol D.c. al reactor
inlel _ 9 IS given by C J _ 310molfhr. i-C. _ 11892 mol,lhr, o-c. - 143 mol,lhr.
II-C. '"" 419 mol/hr, i.C, _ 918 moljhr. and (", 1 _ 184 mol/hl (..here \\-c do nol split
j-C. from DC.) Usc: heuriStiCS to suggest ahernauve sequenccs of dlsllliallon 10
consider Should sldeslream columns be considered
'
7.~S. Suppose that in Ell.Crcise 7.6_4 lhere is no" C. in Ihe feed Calculalelhe vapol rates
reqUIred in each column m a scqllcncc where we .emove the hghtesl componenr firsl
Compare IhlS result to a case where ....e rCCQver the C J firsl, flash lhe bottoms stream
from rhe C J splltler. and send the flash liqUid 10 a distIllation train ~here we lecover
the hghlesl component firsL Assume that thc presSllre or the dep.opanizer is 230 psla
and thai lhe pressure of the debulanlzcr IS 96 psla
7.k. Corn.de. a process Ihat produces 100 mollhr or x}lene and 100 molthr of ben~ene by
,olue:nt d,sl"'oporlJonauon

azcotropic compoSition is not too hIgh. but there is no heuristK: avaIlable to sct
the euct level.

(7.~1)

9. We norrnallydo nol use d1stiUatlon to spht adjacent componenls when 2 < I I_

10_ Instead of usmg heuristics to sdeet column sequences, we usually calculate the

lbe reacuon 1$ .aculaJly equ1hbnum-limlted. But, nc&JeCIins tbis ~utlibrium IImlla

tion. find the amounl of toluene in lhe fccd to. distlllallon train where the dIrect and

costs of all the sequences.

II. If dastlllation

15

100 expenSIve, .....e consider lUZOtrOpK: distillation. extradiYc

dIstillation. reactive distIllatIOn, extractl(ln. or cryslalliution.

Exercises
7.6-1. For one of the design problems thaI you hllye considcred. determine the: follOWIng
(a) Thc general slrudure of the sepllration system.
(b) Whether a V;lpor rCCQvery system IS required and, ifso, wherc it should be IQCaled
If ncccs.sary, detcnnine lhc dCSlgn of Olle of lbe: ahunativcs
(e) Several allernalive di~Iill;ltlon tlllin~ [k"~ign one of these: (Cautloll 1 he II'A al1d
ethanol proccsSQ are nOl Ideal and r~lll~ aellvlly coeflicrenl moods and lhe use
ofa CAD progr-am.)
7.6-2. Sletch your best guess of a separation s>,,-tem for one of tbe: procrsscs below (I_e.
8U~~ the general structure of the q:p:uahon system); gUCS1i whether II vafl'Or .ce<n-cry

the indlrCCl sequences .. ould have the same cost Would you upccl that a complex
column ""QUid ever be less es.pensive?
7.6-7. A rCSKIuc curve map ror m'XlUIn of acelone. isopropanol, and ..aler lS given In FI&7_6-1. For tbe: cond1uons given in Example: 6.]-4, csumate the composition at the
bouom of lhe first lo...el If the dIrect sequenoe is u$Cd and attbe top of the first lO... cr
if the indirect scqllenoe is used
7.6-8. A model for a Simple plant is given m detatl m Sec. 10.] fOI the case where a direct
column sequeoce is used If we ocglcct the optimizallon or the renllx ratio and the
fractional rccoyery in the second tower and if ".. e usc the indirttt ralher than the d1rcct
column sequenoe, what Irc lhe opumllm desIgn condluons? How do the costs for the
IWO aiternauves comrarc1 Compare the reactor eJlit compositiol1s at the optImum
condllJon~ of cach alternative At these values of the reactor uit compositions. how
do the Sland-alone dlrecl and mdncct sequences comparc?
7.6-9. The: lC3cllon (sec I.Jlerclscs 5.49 and 6.88)
Butadiene + SOl

Rlitadiensulfont

SEC1lON H

Acetone

y,

10

'

IPA/HZO azco!rope

08

RclatJ",e volatIlity of component

06

X,

""""'"
8

04
nGURE 1.,""1

0.2

Aa:[ooe-IPA-H~O

0v...<"'=:0;;::.2~:::"0'"'.4~~0.;6~"0';.8;c.:~1.0
XI

Water

rcsldue o;urves
[FrtHIt S Lnly, D B _ [)o"gm.
- " AI F lNIk.ty, IHe FwttIiJ

_'tlls.lA 46J(l98n ..."llpBmu-

_ F-.

l~ Amno=n C~""'ill

Isopropanol ScJ<,,,,'y.]

F
FF
FL

FV
GR

LR
has a slgmficant reverse rcaC!lon ratC' at IlK boiling POint or the product; $0 we: do not
want 10 usc dlSlillauOD 10 recovc:r aod recycle lbe reactants. Suggest another
scparauon system (not lDcluded 10 our ~ra1 set oIruk5) (or Ihis proau. PIOIlhc:
economte potl:nl1al in terms of tbe Slgwficanl deslgo vanabks.

Nomenclalure
8Z

ESI
F

I.

h.t,
h
K.
L

,I,. 'j

TOL
V

x.
x

x.,

Benzene: molar flow

Ease-of-scperalioD mdo

Feed rale (molfhr)

Fractional recovery of compooenl i
Component flows of hght and heavy materials (moljhr)
Column height
Distribution coefficient
Liquid flow rale (mol/hr)
Component flows of hquld (molthr)

Reflux

Vapor mole fraction

Feed mole fraction

ratIo

Reboil ratio
Toluene molar flow (molfbr)
Vapor rate (molfhr)
Component flows of vapor (molfhr)
Con version
liqUId mole fraction
Mole fraction of component j ID distillate
Mole fraction of component j in foed

PG
PR
PR.B
PR,D
R,m
R,out
ST,B
ST,D

TOL.PR
TOL,RL
TOL,ST

with respect 10 component j. a ,j =

KdKJ

Rool of Underwood's equ.ilIon

AClivlty coefficIC:nt

Bottoms
Distillate
Feed plOch
Fd
Fresh feed
Flash hquld
Flash vapor
Gas recycle
liquid recycle
Plate number
Purge
Product coJumn
Product column bottoms
Product column dislillate
ReaelOr IOlet
Reactor eXH
Stabilizer bottoms
Stablhzer distillate
Strippmg plOch
Tolueoe leaVlog the product column
Toluene Ieaying the recycle column
Toluene leaying tbe stabilizer

CHAPTER

8
HEAT-EXCHANGER
NETWORKS

Energy conservation has a1...., 3)'5 been important in process design.. Thus. it was
common practice to install feed-effiuent eJ.changers around reactors and distillation columns. However, a dramatICally different approach that lakes into coDsiderallan energy iDlegratioD of tbe total process bas !xeD developed over the past two
decades. The: basic ideas of thiS new approach are presented now.

8.1 MINIMUM HEATING AND COOLING

REQUIREMENTS

"~

"

~
~

"

The: starting point for an energy integration analysis is tbe calculation of the
minimum heating and cooling requirements for a heat-exchanger network. These
cakulatioDS can ~ performed without having to specify any beat-exchaoger
network. Similarly, v.:e can calculate tbe minimum number of exchangers required
to obtain the minimum energy requirements without baving to specify a oel...ork.
Then lhe minimum energy requirements and the minimum number of exchangers
provid~ targets for the subsequenl design of a heat-exchaoger network.
In any process f1owsheet. a number of streams must be heated. and other
streams must be cooled For example. in the HDA process in Fig. 8.1-1. we must
heat the toluene fresh feed, the makeup hydrogen. the recycle toluene, and the
recycle gas stream up to tbe reaction temperature of 115O"F. Also, we must cool the
reactor effluent stream to the cooling-water temperature 10 accomplish a phase
split. and we must cool the product stream from its boilillg point to cooling-water
216

" "
~

~~

:I:~ ~1l

E:J:!

c-"
U
I'.

{d

u
~

1-u

Ji

.e-

" :rl
..
"'~
~

.~
~

,,~

217

218

SECTION 11

WINIMUM llEAlli'lG "'!'IO '::00111'0(. IlEQUIIlfWENTS

SEn ION II

".

(ABU: 8.tt
Fin;t-Ia", c.lculation

,
1

e-diu-

H. r , Ik./(..... of.

f.

H~

....

'lO

6000

'lO

'000

H~

'20
100

'" ".
''''

JOOO

C"'"

C"'"

f_

Il.

""
'10

I:IIJ

140

-360

-10

temperatures because we do not .....anl to store materials at their boiling points. We

also have heating and cooling loads on the dislillation-column condensers and
reboilers.

FirstLaw Analysis
Suppose: we consider a very simple problem where .....e have IWO streams that noed
be heated and 1.....0 streams thaI oocd to be cooled (sec the dala In Tabie 8.1-1). If
we simply calculate the heat available 10 the hOi streams and the heat required for
the cold streams, Ihe difference bct... ce-n these tlkO values is the nel amount of beat
thai we would have to remove or supply to satisfy tbe first law. These results are
also shown in Table 8.1-1. and the first twO entnes are determined as follows:
10

~ FIC,l ~T, =

219

,'"

Ie' HI_JIor

FIGURE 8.12
ShIfted ll:mpen.lur~ $ClIla.

'"

'00

QI

HUll"'..... Nl) COOUtolG l.lQUIRMlNTS

NO

Qa a...

Sou_

~t1"'IMUM

Flower: and we describe their analyses. If we choose a minimum driving force of

10F bet.... ocn the hot and cold slreams, we can establish two temperature scales on
a graph, one for the hot streams and the olher for the cold sueams..... htCh are
shtfted by 1000f Then .... e plol the stream data on thIS graph (Fig. 8.1.2). eu .....e
establish a sencs of lemperature Intervals that correspond to the heads and the tails
of the arro....'s on this graph. Ie, the inlet and outlel lemperatures of the hot and
cold slreams gIven In Table 8 I-I (sec Fig. 8.1-3).
In each temperature IOlerval Ike can transfer heat from the hot streams to the
cold Slreams because \loC are guarantocd Ihat the temperature dnvlOg force IS
adequate. Of course, \loe can also transfer heat flOm any of the hot streams 10 the
hlghtemperature intenals to allY of the cold streams at lo.....ertemperature

[1000 Btu/(hroF)](250 - 120)

- 130 x 103 Btu!br

(8.'-1)

Ql - F 1 C,16T1 = (4000)(200 - 1(0)

_ 400 x J03 Blulbr

E. C Hohmanll. Optlmum Nel...orkl ror Ile.l Elchan&C'.~ !'h.D T1Iem. Ulll'enny of Southern
Caltfom'a, (1911), T UnKda, J IIOh. and K ShlfOko, CAm! Eng !"flg.14 (9)' 10(1918); 8 L.nnhoff
aOO J R. f10"'~f. AlOE J~ 24. 6)), 642 (1978).

(8.1-2)
2 j ( ) - 240

Thus, 10 x JO} Btulbr mUSt be supplied from utilities ulhere are no restrictions on
temperalure-driving forces.
This first-law calculalJon does not consIder the fact thai we can transfer heal
from a bOI slream toa cold stream only ihhe temperature of the hot stream exceeds
Ihal of the cold slream. Hence, to obtam a physicaUy realizable estimate of tbe
required heating and cooling duties. a posItive temperalure driving force must exist
between Ihe hal and cold streams. In other words, any heat-exchanger networl
thaI we develop must satisfy the second law as well as the first law.

200-

..

Temperalure Illlenlllls
A very simple way of Incorporating second-law considerations into Ihe energy
inlegration analysis was presented b)' I lohmann, Umcda el ai, and Lionhoff and

,'"

''''

1 0 0 - 90
FIGURE 1.1)
T~mpcnlUle IJlICO'alli

220

SEeriON I I

MINIMUM lU!A IlNO AND I"OOt.lNO UQl1I....MENTS

srerloN II

MINIMUr-t "FAlIN(; A"U

intervals Ilo.....e\'cr. as a starting point we consider the heat transfer In each Inlerval
The expression we usc is

50
200

QI ""

(HXXJX250 - 200) ""50

Ql",,(IOOO+4000

10"

(81-4)

60(0)(200-160)= -40x 10'

Q" - (1000 + 4000 - JOOO

(8,1-5)

""

(8.1-6)

""

6000)(160 - 140)

80 x 10J

The other values arc shown in Fig. 8 1-4 We also nOle Ihat Ihe summation of Ihe
heal available in all the intervals (50 - 40 - 80 + 40 + 20 = -10) is -10 x
J
IO Btuthr. which IS identical 10 the resull oblained for the first law calcul:uion i e
Ihe nel dlfferencc bel .....een the heal available in the hoi Slreams and Ihat in the ~~Id
Slreams.

Cascade Diagrams
One way wc could satisfy the net heating and cooling requirements 10 each
temperature interval is simply to transfer any excess heat to a cold ulil,ty and to
supply any heat required from a hot utility (see FIg. 8.1-5). From this figure. we see
thaI we would need to supply 120 x 10) Btu/hr (40 + 80) and that 'o\'e would have
to reject 110 x 10) Btu/hr (50 + 40 + 20). Again, the differena: is the firsl-law
value.

Fe,

1000

4000

lSO- 240

3000

for each mlerval. Thus. for the firsl lhree lnlervals we obtain

,,.,

80
40
20

FIGURE I.I-S
Hal lrln'lfer In Ind I'tom ul1hr~

'"

ra. ach t~p..r.l1urr ,nl..rvaL

Of course. Ihe arrangemenl shown In rig 81-5 .....ould correspond to \'ery

poor engineering praclia: because we are Iransferring heal from Ihe hlghesl
possible temperature interval dnecily to a cold ullllly. rather Ihan using Ihis
available heal 10 supply some of the energ}' requirements al lower-tempera lure
inlervals. Thus. instead of using lhe arrangemenl shown in Fig. 8.1-5. we lake all
Ihe heat availab1C' at the highe5t temperalure inlen'al (200 10 250~F) and wc
transfer it to the nut lo.....er interval (160 to 200' F) (sec Fig 8,1-6). Since we are
transferring this heat to lower-temperature intervals. .....e always satisf~' the sct:ondlaw constraint.
From Fig. 8 1-6 we s that there is sufftcicnt heat available 10 the hi~hest
temperature intcnal to completely salisfy lhe defiCiency in the second interval
(40 x IO J Btujhr) and to also supply 10 x 10) of the 80 x IO J lequirement for the
third intenaJ. 110'o\c\ler. in this third inten'3\ wc must supply 70 ,. 10) Btu/hr from

6000

''''

-4{)

1 0 0 _ 90

-80

leqUIre<! .,

each

mltfVal

50

.~

,,.,

0:

70

40

'00
FIGURE I.t-6
CaSQIdc d~,~m

80

10

20
Tolal "'" -10

Nee cnc,&y

200

.
40

FIGtrR~' llt~

''''

50
200-

221

. ,.

-40

UOUII.fMFf'lrS

""

~rarately

(8 1-3)

coou,.oo

40
20

60

''''

'"

Mt",rWuw
a hoi utjll1y bccau~ .....e ha\e used all the: heat autldblc at hlgheHempcrature
Inlen'als. Then lhere would be no transfer DC heat bct.... ecn the lhlld and Courth
tempaature Intervals.
For the Courth lemperature Inlenal, we could eilher reJeCt the excess heat to
cold UUIHy, as shown In Fig. 81-5, or Iransrrr Jl 10 the neu lower lernpenuure
interval, as shown m l'lg 8 1-6 1 hen, Cor the lowest lelllpl:rallJre Inlerval .....e reject
alllhc remaining heat to a cold ullht}
We ~II I ig 81-6 a ~-lUf:uJ... dloJgrunt becau~ II sho.>..... s how heal 1;,l5(;3des
through lhe temperature Intervals

Minimum Utility Loud...

From Fig. 81-6 .....e see lhatlhe minimum healing requirement IS 70 x 101 Dtujhr
and the minimum cooling requlremeOi is 60 x 10] Btulhr. The difference bel .... ecn
lhese values stili corresponds 10 the firsllaw rquirement. but DOW our minimUm
heaung and cooling loads have been fiAed also to sausC} the second law

T_lOO
r .. 120

r ..

roo

140
160

T_1OO

r .. 250

HfAl1NO .."'0 COOLIIolG kEQUIU.... UO'5

". _ 0
II, .. .aoo(120 - 100) - 10.000
If) .. (lCOO f- 4000)(140 - (20) .. 100,COO
11,,, (100) ... 4000)(160 - 120) .. 100.COO
II. -(100) -t 4OJO)(200 - t60) _ 200.000
If. ~ 1t:Ul(2~ - 200) - ~,ooo

223

10.""

180,000
280,000
480,000

l30,OO)

No..........e plot the cumulative H versus T(see fIg. 8.1-7). We call thiS a compoSite
curvt' Cor the hOi streams because it includes the effect oC all the bot streams.

or course, since: the FC. values are constant, we could have replaced the
calculations Cor H ~, H J' and H. by a sing.le expression
H 1 J = (1000

+ 4OOlX200 -

120) = 40,000

Thus. we only need 10 calculate values .111 the temperature levels ""hen lhe number
oC bot streams changes.

Pinch Temper.aeure

AI the lowest temperature oC any oC the cold streams (9O"F on Fig. 8.1-4), we
1
choose the enthalpy as Ihe minimum cooling requirement Q<.i.(60 X 10 Blufhr

We also nole Crom Fig. 8.1-6lhat there is no energy transCer bet .....een the third and
Courth lemperature intervals. We calilhis the pinch um~rQclU"e (l40F Cor the hOI
streams and 130F Cor the cokt streams, or sometImes "'e use the average value oC
!3y'F), Thus, the pmch lemperature provides a decomposition oC lhe design
problem Thai IS, above the pinch lemperature we only supply heal, whereas belo\lo'
the plllch tempenllure we only reJecl heal to a cold ullhly.

Dependence on ebe Minimum Approllch

Temperaeure

If .....e change the minimum approach temperature oC IOOF that we used as our
second-law criterion, then we shirt Ihe temperature scales in Fig 8.1-2. The heal
loads in each orlhe inlervals shown in Fig. 8.1-4 will also change, and lhe minimum
heating and cooling loads will alter. It is easy 10 \'isualize these changes iC we
construct a temperalure-enthalpy diagram.

Temperature-Enthalpy Diagrams
To construcl a temperature-enthalpy diagram, first we calculate Ihe mmimum
healing and coolmg loads, using the proceduredescribcd above. Then we define the
enthalpy corresponding to the coldest lemperature oC any hot stream as our base
condillon; i,e., at T = 100 F (sec Fig. 8.1-4), H _ 0 Nexi we calculate the
cumulative heal available in the sum of allihe hot streams as we move to hlghertemperalure inlenals. Thus, Crom Fig. 81-4 we obtain the Collowmg

Approach lemperature ::: 10

..
0

2'"
240
230
220
210
200

.90

Ii .80
a 170

8- .60

.'"
'"
E

140
130
.20
110
.00

90

200

600

400
Enthalpy, 1000 Btu/hr
a_HOI +-Cold

flGUaE 1.1-1
TC'mperalllrc-<nthal"" dQ&ram (ThIS figllrC' '" d ...""" 10 I~I tnc heal
!ll~hc:sIIC'mpe:r.. turc

intcI'-aI)

In

Fi 8.1 6- ;d:kdallhc
'&
- '"

224

SR;TION II

MINIMUM H~nl'OO AND CODUI\IG kEOlJlkOolENT5

on Fig.. 8.1-6). Then we calculate the cumulative enthalpy

interval '

T_90
T_ no

11 0 .60.000

1/, _ )O(l(l( I JO

+ 6OOO)(ISO - UO) _ uo.ooo

T_ tSO

II J

T_ 190

". _ 6lXXl(190

()O()lJ

90) _ 120,000

tSOI

240.M:>

nOION I '

10

each temperature

",000
110.000

"',000
""000

These results also are pIoued on Fig. 8.1-7.

From Fig. 8.1-7 we Dote that the enthalpy of the hot streams tbat must be
rejected 10 a cold utility is Qc "" 60 X 10] Btufhr, and the arnount or heat that must
be supplied from a hot utility is QB _ 70 X 10] Btu,lhr. Moreover, wben TN _ 1400
and Tc =- 130", we see that the minimum approach temperature exists, i.e., the
heating and cooling curves are closest together. Thus, this temperature-enthalpy
diagram gives us eUelly the same information as ~'e ~nerated previously.
Suppose now that ~e set the base entbalpy ortbe cold curve equal to 110.000.
instead of 60.000, and ~e repeat the calculations for the cold curve. This shifts the
composite cold curve 10 the rigbt (see Fig. 8.1-8). We nOle from the figure that the
beat we must supply from a hot utility increases by SO x 103 to 120 x 103 Btu,lhr.
Thus, the increase in the heating load is exactly equal to the increase in the cooling
load. Also at the point of closest approach between the curves (T..... = 150F and
Tcekl = nOF) the temperature difference is 20"F. Thus, if the minimum approach
temperature had been Specified as 2O"F. tben the minimum heating and cooling
requirements would have been 120 x lOJ and 110 )C IO J Btufhr. respectively. and
the pincb temperature .....ould change from T. = 140 and T_ = 130 to T. = 150
and T..w = 13O"F. By sliding the curve for the cold streams to the right. we can
chan8e the minimum approach temperature, Q"._ and <2<-....

Approach temperature = 20
250'~-----..:.:'=:::::":=:':::::-'-----=- pe---~
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120

liD
100

9OI+----4~~-.--__,,__-_,__-,_-___,--

o
o

200

RO

Hot

Cold

400
Enthalpy. 1000 Btu/hr
Delt = 10

<> = Cold

600

Dc:lt ., 20

nGURE 8.1-8
Tcmperalurc-.o:ntllalp)' dIagram.

CUT""e bela.... the pinch (see Fig. 8.19). This grand composite cun'e dearly shows
thai minimum heating requirements arc QH = 70 X IO J Btu,lhr and that the
minimum cooling load is Qc = 6O)C 103 Btu/hr. The grand composite curve is
particularly useful for profile matching during heat and po.....er integration studies.

Grand Composite Cune

Another useful diagram is called the grand compositt cvrw. To prepare this
diagram, we start at tbe pincb condition shown in Fig. 8.1-6. and we say thallhe
beat 80w is zero at the a\erage of tbe hot and cold pinch temperatures T- 135.
Now at the next higher temperature interval, which we again define by the average
T_ 155, we calculate tbat the net heat 80w is ISO - 100 - 80. Similarly, at
T= 195 we find that H _ 80 + 240- 200 = 120, and at T ... 245 we get 11 =
120 - 50 - 70. These points are just the differences between the composite curves
shown on Fig. 81-7. calculated with the pinch as a starting point. We call lhe
results the grand composite curve above the pinch temperature (see Fig. 8.1-9).
Again, starting at the pinCh and moving to colder temperatures, at T _ 115
we let H = 40, and at T a:: 95 we let 11 -= 20 + 40 = 60 These points define the

Relalionship or Minimum Heating and Cooling to

tbe First-La .. Requirement
The first-law analysis indicates tbat tbe difference bet.....oco the heat availabk In the

hot streams and that required by the: cold streams is 10 x IOJ BtuJhr, which must
be remo\'ed to a cold utility_ The second-law analysis with a 10~F approach
J
temperature indicates tbat we must supply a minimum of 70 x IO Blufhr and
remove 60 x !OJ Btufhr. Hence, we sec that any incremental heal that we put in
from a hot utIlity must also be removed by a cold utihty. Moreover, we recognize
that if we put in more than the minimum amount of energy (sec: Fig g, \10). then
we will ba\e to pay more than necessary for both a hoI utllit), and a cold utility
(because 'Ae ""ill have to remO\'e this excess heat)

226

ncrloN II

SlClION II

.:.A~PP~'~"'~'h~"~m~pe~rn~'"~u~~:...~10'---------~

250T

50

f'

200
190
ISO

.2

70

''''

170

80

15k_-140
130
120
110

40
20

60

60

QE

""
OJ

UotSl healln, and coohnz,

9OT----,---,----,-.---,----T----,-----,--.---~~_____l
40

flCUR 8.1-11

100

20

..
~

JO + QE.
Q

'00

,OJ

~
5

40

40 + Qt:

160

227

""

240
230
220
210

tlNlMU/ol HOllNG ANO COOLl .... UQUllHIENU

80

100

120

From Fig. 8.1-11 we see Ihat ifwt: Iransfer an amounl of heat Ql across t~
pinch. we must put this additional heal iDIO the process from a hot utilit)
somewhere in the network. Furthermore, we must also reJCcl thIS amoun! of heal to
a cold utihtJ. Hence, we oblalO a rule of thumb:

EnlhaJpy

(8.1-7)

Do Dot transfcr heat across Ihc plOch!

nr.URE &.I.'

Other rules of thumb that we have developed arc Ihcsc

Grand compolll( cun'(

Add heat only abm'c the pInch

(81-8)

Cool only below Ihe pinch

(8.1-9)

Industrial Experience
Minimum heat in "" 70

Heal in "" 70 + Q

-10

Net=-IO

The calculatlon of the minimum heatlOg and cooling requirements is a very simple
lask. and yet it indicates that significanl energy savings arc possible compared 10
past practlce. In particular, Imperial Chemical Industries ID the United Kingdom
and Union Carbide in the Unlled Slales have both reported the resullS of
numerous case studies Ihal indicale Ihal 30 to 5OY, energy savings, compared to
conventlonal practice. arc posSIble even in relrofil situatIons. Hence. thiS coer&}
IOteg.rallon design procedure is a very valuable tool

Multiple Ulililies
MlDimum heat OUt "'"' 60

Heal Out '=

60 + QE

In tbe prevIous analysis, we considered thc case of a slOglc hOI utility and a single
cold utihty. However, the analysis is also valid for multiple utilities. If we shift the

If we put excess heat into the process,

we must remove this excess heal.
nCUkE ..... ,
Rdat>Olllhlp 10 fint law

D Boland IDdt:: Illlldffilllh, Hal u.chanlC'r NClworllmp.o~cmcnls..~ (/0,,,. E.NJ 1',~, 11Il(1): 47
(19&4), H uMhotf and 0 k V.edcveld, P,nch TochPook>f,y COIUQ or Age. C/o,m. IOfI 1',~, 110(7).
H (198-4)
M

228

5f:CT10J'i'I

~F("lION.l

MlJ'iINUM IlUTING ANI) coot.lNG "EQUIIlf.MErO"S

".

MINIMl'W !lUTING AND C'OOlI'<G HOUlHMf'N'T5

229

Approach temperature"'" 10

360r--------=.:=====-'-=----,.----,
350

)(J()

50

'"

330

320

70

10

80

20

20

310

".

40

40
200

340

..300

(Q\']

290
e 280
270
~ 260
~ 250
240

",.

FIGURE 1.1.12
Multi" uulillei.

230
temperature range in our previous example upward by IIO"F, we obain the cascade
diagram shown in Fig. 8.112. Now we see that as a hot utility we need to use Slcam
having a temperallHc in cxcess of270 F Also, wccould use steam at 220~F as onc
cold utility and coohng water as a second cold utility. With this procedurc .... e
would reject 40 )( 10-' Btu/hr to the steam and 20 x 10-' Btu/hr to COOling watc!.
Note that lhcre is no heat transfer between the bottom two temperature
intervals whcn v.e use multiple utili lies. Thus, we introduce another pinch, which
we call a urifil)' prnch, iDto the network. An additional utility pinch is added for
each new utility consKtere<t The effcct of multiple utilities on a T-If dIagram IS
shown on Fig. 8.1-13
Also recogmze that there arc some obVIOUS heuristics associated with the use
of multIple ullhties'
Q

220
210

200 0~~--'------:;200,-----'---4-;;00"'"""---'-----o600~--.J
Enlhalpy. 1000 Btu/hr
+ - Cold

0= HOI

FIGURE 8.I-lJ
T-H dJi!QII\-mulllrle utilities

Always add heat at lhe lowest possible temperature level rclali~'e

to the process pinCh.
(81 ~IO)

For the case of ml.ltlUres, where a plot of enthalpy versus temperature is

curved, ....e merely Imearize the graph and select fictitious FC~ values Ihat have the
same heat dUly (soc Fig. 8.114). Thus, phasechaogtSsimply increase the number of
tcmperatun~ intervals considered.

Always remo,,"C heat at the highest possible temperature level

relative to thc process pinch.

Limitations of tM Procedure

(8.1-11)

The cakulation of the minimum heating and cooling loads requires the following:

Phase Changes

Tbe

The procedure requires lhat the FC~ values of the streams be constants. We can
incorporate phase changes that take place at constant temperature into this
formahsm simply by assuming a IGF temperature change at the tcmperature of the
phase change and then calculating A fictitIOUS Fe, value thai gives the same heat
duty as the phase change: i.e., if the heat corresponding to the phase change is
F /il/G' we write
FIC~I(I)

= F MI~

where F, and C~I are the fictitiOUS values.

(81-12)

FC~

values of all streams arc known.

Inlet and outlet temperatures of all streams arc known.

(8.1-13)
(8.1-14)

However, the design variables that fix the process flows (i.e.. conversion, purge
composition. molar ratio of reactants. etc.) must be detennined from an optimi7.ation analysis. For each variable. the optimi7.3tion involves recycle costs which
depend on the heat-exchanger network. Thus, the optimum process flows depend
on the hcal-cxchanger network, but we must know the flows to determine the
network. We resolve thIS dilemma by calculating networks as a function of the
Rows to estimate the optImum design conditions

SEcnufol IJ

Vilpor

Vapor

HOI
ulilllY

Source~

FC,. vapor
Fe,. (I) = AUF

70

FCp liquid
Smks

nGURE "'-14
Pba... chan.,.,.

SimIlarly, if a heat exchanger IS used to preheat a stream leaving a flash drum

or a gas absorber and entermg a distillation column, Ihen we must include IhlS
stream In our analYSIS- Moreover, if a process Slream IS used 10 dn\le lhe: reboiler of
a dislillallon column, ral~r than steam, then lhe optimum reflux ratio in that
column will change Thus, Ihe energy imegutlon analysis is coupled with the tOlal
design prOblem, and oflen some iteratIve case studIes arc reqUired

First-Law Analysis
Suppose we consider Ihe heatmg and cooling loads for each of Ihe process slreams
as well as Ihe minimum utility requiremenls Ihat correspond to the second-law
analysis (.see Fig. 8.2-1). Now we ignore tbe ffilOimum approach temperature and
jusl consider how many paths (heal c;lchangers) arc reqUired 10 Iransfer lhe heat
from Ihe sources to lhe sinks. If we transfer 70 x 10 1 Btu/hr from Ihe hal utilit)
into stream J. we still have a deficJCncy of 110 x 101 Btujhr m stream 3. If .... e
supply Ihis deficiency from stream I, we still have 20 x 101 Btu/hr of heat available
in stream I. If we transfer IhlS excess to stream 4, we are left wilh a defiCIency of
340 x 103 Btu/hr in stream 4
The other calculations are shown In Fig 81-1, and we find Ihal Ihere arc five
palhs, or that five heal exchangers arc requlfed We nOle Ihal Ihe heal loads jusl
balance. which musl always be the case because our minimum heatmg and cooling

Sucam 2

130

400

20

110

340

231

60

Stream 3

Stream 4

Cold
utility

180

J60

60

Heat loads balance eJtaclly: results of first-law analysis

Number Of) (Number of) (Number Of)_ I
(b) ( EKchangers =
Streams + Utilities

(a)

nGuJU: U-t
Fi~ 1&". mmomum number or cubanr;cl"fo.

loads salisfy the first-law requirement. We can generalize the result and state that
nonnally

01\ + (NU~ber Of) _ I

Number Of) _ (Number

Streams)
( Exchangers -

8.2 MI [IMUM NUMBER OF

EXCHANGERS
Our previous anal)'sis allowed us to delennlne the ffilnlnlUffi heallng and cooling
requiremenLS for a heal-txchangcr nellll'ork. We use these results as a starlmg POlOt
to delennme the minimum number of heat exchangers required, The analysis
follows the procedures describro in earlier references in Ihis chapter

Stream I

70

FCp vilpor

IolINI ...I'''' Nu ...IU or EXClV.'-C;EU

Utilities

(82-1)

Independenl Problems
Equation 8.2-1 is not always correct, as we ca.~ see by ~xamining Fig. 8 2-2. In_thiS
uample we have merely increased the utility requirements. but the first law
analysis 'is stili satisfied. lf we t111ns(er lbe heal belween Ihc. sources and lbe sm,b as
shown m Fig. 8.2-2., then we require only four exchangers Instead offi~e. Ho.... e\"er.
Ill'e could also redraw the figure so that Ihere are two, compktdy mdependent
pcoblom,. 10;, ;,,1'0' g,w.1 ,,,Ull, .od mo<c ,;go,o", ,,~.~~:,:::~q).8.21 "
Number of
(ExChangers)

a; (

Number a
Streams)

Number 0 _
(Utilities)

IndependeDt
Problems

(82-2)

Loop'

If we return to our original example and consider Ihe arrangement shown in Fig.
8.2-3.... e see thaI we can still sUllsfy the heal-transfer requirements ~twce:n lhe
sources and the sinks for any value ofQ[_ Ho.....ever, for IhlS configurauon we need
SIX exchangers Also there IS a loop in lbe network (i_e., we can trace a palh through
lhe ncl... orllhat starts at the hot utilily. goes to stream 3, goes 10 stream I. goes to

232

~FCTION 1.1

"0<

Stream

utility
230

Source..~

nCTlO1'I11

J-IINIJ-IUJ-I NUJ-I~H Of &llC1INGU.lI

130

230

""

Stream 2

"" No

11.[11 ESllM1ITll

233

Exchangers '" 4 + I - I
~4

400

""

130
180

,,,,,-+__-+__

220

Sanks

Stream J

Stream 4

180

360

PillCh

Cold
utility

__

IXI
1.1()
~~~_~~_,....

'"

100

220

LI~O

(Number of Exchangers) '" (Number of Streams) + (Number of Utilittes) - I

::3+1-1::3

(a) Heat loads balance exactly; results of first~law analysis

(b) (NUrnbcr Of)_(NUmbcr Of)+(Numbcr Of)_(Numbcr Of)
Exchange~
Streams
Utlilhes
Problems

FIGURE 1..1-4
Elkc1 uI pondL

FlGLRF U-1
l~nl problelTt$

stream 4, and t~en goes bade to the hOi ullhty) Any time we can trace a path thai
stans at one pOInt and returns to that same point. we say that we have a loop in thC'
nC'twork Each loop Introduces an eJOtra CJOchanger into tbe nc"'l.ork
Effect of Pinch: Secondu"

Anal~'sis

Above pinch' N( -

As part of our calculatIon of the mmlmum heating and cooling rcquirc:ments \loe
found that thcre was a plOch lemperature that decomposed the problC'm inlo ~wo

"0<
utility
70

Sinks

Q,

110

+ Q

Stream 2

130

400

340
20-Q

Siream 3

Stream 4

180

360

60

Cold
utility
60

Number Of)=(NUmber of)+(Number of) (Number Of)_(Number of)

( E:u:hangers
Streams
Utilities +
Loops
Problems
FIGURE 8.1-3
Loo..

N.lI

+ Nu - I

_4+1-1=4

(8.2-3)

Eklow the pinch lemperalure the:re are only three streams. and so
Eklow pinch: N[ - N s

Stream I

Q,
70 -

distmet parts. That is, above the pinch \\e onl) suPpll heat from a utilit). whereas
below the pinch we only remo\e heal to a ulility. Thus. to include- the second-Ia\\
aDalrsis in our calculation of the mmimum number of eJOchangers. we must appi)
Eq 82-1 (or 8.2-2) to thC' stfC3mS abo\-c and below the ploch. From Fig. 8.24 we
seC' that there arc four streams above the: pinch for our C'umpk. 50 that Eq 8.2-1
(assuming no loops and no independent problems) gi\CS

+ N(I - I

_3+1_1=3

(8.2-4)

Thus, to satisfy the minimum heating and cooling rcquiremelJ,lS requires a

total of $Cven exchangers. However, to satisfy the firsllaw requires only five. Then,
we expect thai the network for the minimum C'nergy rcquiremenls will have two
loops tbat cross the pinch (we introduce an additional cJOchangcr for eacb loop). If
we are willing to sacri6cc some energy by transferring heat across the pinch, we can
eliminate up to two CJOchangers (rom the network. Hence, there is 8 capital-operating cosl trade-Q1f that must be evalualed.

83

AREA ESTIMATES

We have been able to estimate Ihe minimum heating and cooling requirements for
a process withoul even specifying a heat-ubanger network (see Sec. 8.1). We can
use these results to estimate the utility costs for a plant II would be very desirablC'
to CSlimatc Ihe capital costs associated wlIh a heat-C'xchanger network wilhout

234

SECI JoN I.J

Sf:C1lON Il

AIl.EA ESTIMATES

having to design a nctworl,. Fortunately, a lechnique for making this estimate has
been prescnted by Townsend and Linnhoff (which is an extension of a previous
result by Ilohmann).'

250

~A~I'~I'~,OO:::C~.I~'~"~'"n~p<:::":'~"~":...~=_:IO:..._

AlEA ES"fIMATES

235

_r";;;;'---,

~O

HOI

utIlity

230

220

EslirDitling Areas
In Sec. 8 I we developed a lemperarure-enlhalpy plot (see Fig. 8.1-7). Suppose now
that we Include vertical lines whene\er there is a change in the slope (see Fig. 8.3-1),
and we considcr thai each interval represents one or more heat exchangers in
parallel. From the graph we can read Ihe heat duty for each exchanger and the
values of the temperature driving forces at each end. Then if Ihe heating and
cooling curves correspond 10 a single stream, we can estimate the individual heattransfer coefficient for each stream as well as the overaU coefficient:
1

hi

ho

(8.3.1)

where Ihe individual film coefficients include the fouling factors. The area of lhe
heat exchanger is given by
(8.3-2)

However, if there are multiple streams in any interval. then we must develop
an appropriate expression for the o\erall heat-transfer coefficient. Suppose we
consider the inlerval where IWO hot streams are matched against two cold streams.
If we matched streams I with] and 2 ","'ith 4 (see Fig. 8.1-]), our results would be as
shown in Fig. 8.]-2a. However, if we matched streams I wilh 4 and 2 with 3, Ihen
we would obtain the results shown in Fig. 8.3-2b. The heat loads and the log-mean
temperature driving forces for each of the exchangers will be the same. For the case
given in Fig. 8.3-2a, we find that
1

u.

200

V.,

hz

h..

-=-+-

190
~ 180

~E

::
130
\20
110
100

1
Cold
l.=q~:r:~"~'~i1~iJy!..,c!;;
90 0
200

(0) Match I and 3, 2 and 4

(8.33)

u + AT.LM.,
QU

(1h; + hI hI + h..I)
z --t

(8.3-4)

D. w. Townseod and B. Lmoholr. ~Surfa"" Aru TUll"IS for Ileal E.chlngcr Nctworki.~ Ann ....1
meetIng of ttw: Instll"Uon of Chemical Enginecl1o, Balb, United Kinldom, April 1984.
IE. C. Hohmann. ~Op"m"m NClworh fo< IlUI Excb.ngc.~ Ph.D Thes.... Unive",i,y of SoulMnr
ClIW"omi.. 1911

2-

Number of cold streams

in this interval

-;c!;;;,-__.L_ _,1Yi,-_-'

.L_ _

400
Enthalpy, 1000 Btu/hr
o=Hot
+=Cold

FIGURE 8.3-1
TempcralUrc-e-nthalpy dlag...... m.

LM.,

Q
= ATWol'

ISO

so that the lotal area becomes

AT.=A.,+A.'=i\T. Q

140

-=~+-

-=-+U. , hI
h}

210

FIGURE ILJ-l
Overall heal-tllmJer coc:ffiocnls

(b) Match I and 4. 2 and 3

600

2J6

SECTIO!<.<

SECOON'"

DESIGN OF MINIMUM ENERGY MEA"! [XCHANGER N'lITWORX:S

For the configuration show" in Fig. 8.3-2b ....e find thaI

u"
Then the total area

Stream

V. ,

h,

h.

-=-+

Fe,

(8.35)

Df.5IGN OF MINIMUMENUGY HEArXOtANGEIl

1()()()

4()()()

3()()()

6000

N~ORXS

237

IS

(8.3-6)

Q,OI = 110 + 240 - 60

= 110

which is identical to our previous result.

This result is general, so lhat we can write an expression for the area in any
interval as

200

360

70

"0

(83-7)

-and we can estimate the total area simply by adding the results for all the intervals.
Of course, this approximate procedure does not give the same results as those
obtained by designing a specific nelwork (normally lhere are too many exchangers). Nevertheless, Eq 8.3-7 does provide a reasonable estimate of the area
required. This shortcut procedure is particularly useful when we are attempting to
find the effect of the process flows on the capital cost of the heaH:xchanger
network. Once we have estimated the optimum flows, however, we need to
undertake a detailed design of a heat-cxchanger network.

ISO
I ..

----f---if----+---+---+--..L-- no
Q

8.4

Q = 360

Q = 240

I'

160

Q = 120

DESIGN OF MINIMUM-ENERGY

QIOI = 20 + t60 - 120

HEAT-EXCHANGER NETWORKS

'00

Now that we have obtained estimates of the minimum heating and cooling
requirements and an estimate for the minimum number of heat exchangers, we can
design the heal-cxchanger network. We consider the design in two parts: First we
design a network for above lhe pinCh and then another for below the pinch. We
expect that the combined network will have two loops lhat cross the pinch. This
analysis is taken from Linnhoff and Hindmarsh.

Design above tbe Pinch

As the first step in the design procedure, we calculate the heat loads between either
the inlet or the outlet temperature and the pinch temperature for each stream.

90

~60

FlGUR.E &.4-t
Heal load fOI fHeaJIl1I.

Thus. for the first stream (see Fig. 8.4-1) we obtain

Above pinch; Q = Fe, d T = 1000(250 - 140) = 110 x IO

Below pinch: Q = 1000(140 - 120) = 20 x 10]

(84-1)
(8.4-2)

The results for the other streams are shown in Fig. 8.4-1.
Feasible Matches
If we attempt 10 match stream 1 above the pinch (Q" = 110) with stream J
(Qc = 60), it is apparent that the maximum amount of heat transfer that is possible
is the smaller of the two values (Q = 60). The approach temperature is just 10"F at

138

uenON 14

SEerION"

DESIGN or NIN1MUIol [NU(,Y t1UTUCHAN(iU NIn'fltOUS

DESIGN Of NINllolUIol ENUGY ltt..Ar UCItAI'lGU NOWOIIKS

Ihe plOch, so we wanl to transfer the heat from the coldest end of Ihe hot str~m,
Then If ....e calculate the temperature of the hot stream Ihat would be lhe Inlel
temperaturc to thc cllchanger, we obl.un

Q = 60

10) = fC,tJ.T- 10000TH

140)

2
FCp

1000

4000

""

(8.4-3)

T" "" 200

3000

6000

239

Smce the outkt Ie:mperature: of the cold ~Iream IS ISO F, the temperalure drivmg
force IS 5O"F and ....e ha\'e a feaslbk heat e:xchanger (:wx Fig 84-2).
Ilo....e\er, .... c might attemplto malch SlTc<lm 2 .....lIh stream 1 Again from Fig.
8.4-2 wc sec thatlhe Ilmitmg heal load IS Qc = 60 Howe:...er, when we calculate the
Inlet temperature of the hal slream, .... e: obtalO

Q = 60

10):: FC,tJ.T= 4000(TH

(8.4-4)

140)

100

Smee the ell.lllemperature of the cold sircam IS ISO"F, we ha...e violated our cnteria
for Ihe minimum approach temperature.
A violation of this type will always occur above tbe pinch If(FC,>c > (FC,)H
Thai IS, the approach temperalUre IS Just lhe mmimum value al Ihc pmch, and the
.6 Tbelwccn the two curves will always decrease if Fce,c > FHC,H' Thus, there IS a
design heun5uc for feasible matches at the plOch condition:
(8.4-5)

Above the plDch: F Il C,1l ~ FcC,c

Below the pinch: F HC,1l

Stream
1000

""
Q "" 110

100

".

(8.4-6)

FcC,

3000

4000

3000

TH - 200
Outlet Tc = 150
Malch is feasible
FIGURE ""2
Matches .bo~c the pinch

".

..

(a) PUI In the matches

(b) MiUlmlzc the heal
(c) See .... hat IS left.

'"

60

".

al the pinch
loads 10 c!lm\nale streams.

FIGURE ....)

Pinch M8tches

Q - 240

190

100

190

ISO to&O
_..1_~''',,-.,,-,le''''-_L no
1..,_-'L_L"''''-.I.~L_L..t30
t40= IOOO(TH -

Q :: 240

P'IDCb DVlcbcs

Q = 60

Q - 6O.00J

190

140)

Q = 6O,00J = 400J(1i, 1i,:: 155

Oul1el Tc = 150
Match is not feasible
Vlolales mmimum tJ.T

140)

From our feasibility critenon and Fig. 8.4-1, we see that above Ihe pinch .... e can
match slream I with eilher stream 3 or 4, and we can only malch strum 2 with
stream 4. Hence. we match stream I with Siream 3 and stream 2 with siream 4
Also, we transfer the muimum amount of heal possible for each match in an
anempt to ehminate Slreams from the problem These pinch matches are shown in
Fig. 8.4-3.
Nellt we consider the heat loads remammg. The cnteria given by Eqs. 8.4-5
aDd 8.4-6 are not applicable away from the pinch, and we know that above the
pinch we are allowed to add only heat. lienee, we must transrer all the heat
remaining in SlTeam I to stream 4, which is the only cold stream still available. The
heat remaimng m stream I is (110 - 60) )( 10J _ 50 X !OJ, and Ihe remaining
healing requirement of sIream 4 is (360 - 240) )( 10] _ 120 X IO J , so Ihal we can
IOsiaU Ihls heal cll.changer (see Fig. 8.4-4) The remaining heating requiremenl of

'<COON"

FC,

Stream

..

'000

' J__

Siream

3000

FC,

OEsl'Ol'l OF MINIMUN F.NF.JlOY HEATr.xC'KAJ<fGfll NF.'TWOUS

1000

4000

,,.

241

3000

Q "" 50

Q .., 110 - 60 = 50

t ""--:I'"

,.,

T= 200H = 70

~ 70

~_\/"\:--T

= 178

Q = 360 - 240 = 120

I--T = 170

Q - 240

,.,

..

,.o---------"--~L_-------no

r'\

,J

O--+---c,.,;;;---c,.;;;--{J'Q
.
=
,..----'----'

L __--'-

60

L __--'-__ no

FIGURE U-4
Matches .....)' f,om tile pn""h

FIGURE 1.4.5
~,,.. of 1M I'Indi

70 )( 103 which is just Ihe minimum heallO! requirement. is supplied from a hot
utility.
The complete design above the pinch is shown in Fig. 8.4.5. There are four
eJIchangers, which is the minimum required value, and we have satisfied tbe
minimum heating requirement. Thus, we have satisfied Ihe design targets. The
Slream temperatures are also shown on Fig. 8.45, and the temperature driving
force at the ends of every heat exchanger is 10"F or greater

ellchanger are largest (a lo.....("r (".lI.changer area) when the utility heater is at the
highest temperalure. although beat must be supplied at a higher temperature level.
Thus. in some cases one alternative may ha"e a lower cost tban another.

Ahernath'es
For the example under consideration. the ptncb matches are unique. Howe\er. for
the other matches away from the pinch the utility heater can be placed either berore
or arter the heal e:lchanger connecting streams 1 and 4. Figure 8.4-6u shows the
location or the hcater arter the other heal cllcbanger has been inserted, but Fig 84..6b shows the result .....ith the last two neat e:lchangers interchanged. Calculalions
show thai both alternatives are feasIble. However, the driving forces for the beal

Design below (he Pinch

We use ell3ctly the same design procedure below the pinch. For a feasible match .....e
require that F rIC,,, ~ FeC;; (Eq. 8.4.6). Therefore, for our example. we can only
match stream 2 ,,;tb stream 3 (see Fig. 8.4.7). We put in this CIchanger and
maximize the load 10 eliminate a stream (rom the problem, Q "" 120 )( tO l (see Fig.
8.4.8). When we examine what is left, .....e ha"e only hot streams thai need to be
cooled We are only allowed (0 reject heat to a cold utility below the pinch. so we
install two coolers (sec Fig. 8.4.9).
The compldc." design for below the pinch is shown in Fig 8.4-10 We sec that
the total amount of heat rejected 10 cold utility is Qc = (20 + 40) )( 103 =
60 )( 10 3 , which is identical to the miDlmum cooling requirement The number of

242

ucnOlol

OUJON

or ... ININUI.II!NU(lY

6000

1000

FC,

H/!.Of UotANGU

Slfeam

",nwou:s

FC,

6000

1000

1000

4000

JOOO

6000

,>0
~

~r

,<0

,<0

Q
Q = 50

'90

\8~

200

'90

T - 178

t5

H = 70

'00

,>0

,<0

120

90

F1GUIl.E .....

Puw:b llIalcllQ

4000

JOOO

6000

Slfe.liRl.

FC,

1000

"0

,>0

160

Q: 160 - 120 = 40

182

J.
-U

Q - 120

Q - 20

Q = 50

200

..

,<0

..

,<0

,<0

'<0

C - 20

(b)

(0)
nCURE U-6
Dc$'i" ahcmau"<:S.

c=
'-lGLRt,.

409
'00

a.....,

90

Add rookrs

SU<am
FC,

1000

4000

JOOO

6000

''''

Su~

FC,

1000

4000

JOOO

6000

,<0

''''

,<0

Q = 20

Q = 120
Q - 160

''''
,<0

nCURE .....7
Dalp bdow tIx p'ncll

J..
-U

Q - 120

C-20C(
T-IIO ___

C - 40
'00

,<0

90

'00

90

flGUR[ 8.4-10

ComJ*IC daJ.&1l ~Io"" lbc pInch

24J

244

SICTlON H

O$IGN

or

exchangers used is 3, which is the minimum number. Also, the temperature driving
force at each end or every exchanger is IO F or greater, so the design is feasible.
Thu~, we have established one design alternative below the pinch.
Q

Minimum F:nergy: Complcle Design

A complete design that satisfies the minimum energy requirements and the
minilnum number of uchangers above and below the pinch is shown in Fig. 8.4-11
The total heating load is 70 )< 103 Blu/hr, while the total cooling load is 60 x 10)
Blu/lH There are seven exchangers.

Stream
1000

FC,

4000

3000

6000

2"iO

('L

u:cnON"

I>llNlIo1UIol-E/'fElIGY HEAT EXctlANGElI NETWOllK5

DESIGN Of Io1INIMUM ENElIOY III'.ATEl[ctlANGU NElWOllKS

As we mentioned earlier, if we apply Eq. 8.2-1 to our example, we predici that

we need only five exchangers (although the minimum energy requirement cannot
be satisfied with less than seven exchangers). Therefore "e anticipated thai there
would be two loops Ihat crossed the pinch. (A loop is a path thai we can trace
through Ihe network which starts from some exchanger and eventually returns 10
Ihal same exchanger.) A loop may pass through a utility (see Fig. 8.2-3). Arter
examining Fig. 8.4-11. "'e find thallhere are three loops (see Fig. 8.4-12). Two or
Ihese loops passlhrough the cold uti lily, and we show later thai if we break ODe of
these loops, Ihe other will also be broken. Hence, there are two independent loops,
and it should be possible to remove IWo exchangers from the network sho"n ill

FC,

1000

4000

3000

6000

,.,

""

240

()
Q = 50

Q = 50

''0

,All ~

70

Q = 240

r'

"" '''''
Pinch
~~"-TL,---+--+--::-!---::--J--_--L_-,)()
c ""

20

120

'''''

FlGURE I..... tl
Comp~IC

m,nlmum energy desIgn

,;0=

Pinch
I
C
20~

""

Q - 120

C ~.o(

c~406
'00

'"

245

'00
FIGURE .....Ilo

loo,.

9Il

60

OJ"

246

SEC'lION.O

DESIGN Of MINIMUM ENUGY HEAr UOIANGU NElWORKS

SECTION..

Fig. 8.411 by supplying more energy to the process (and removing more). We
discuss thIS procedure in the neKt two sections.

DESIGN

or

MINIMUM ENERGY HEATExCHANGEr. NTWORt:5

U7

optimum value of the minimum approach temperature; i.e., as we decrease liT.. u.,
we increase the area. Moreover, this optimum value will change with the process
flows We discuss this optimization problem in more detail later in this chapter

Optimum Value of the Minimum Approach

Temperalure

Additional Complexities ill Ihe Design Procedure

As we noted earher, the minimum heating and cooling loads change as we change
Ihe minimum approach temperature. However, since the heat-exchanger area in
the neighborhood of the pinch WIll change in the opposite directIOn, there Will be an

The design probkm IS nOI always as simpk as the example considered. Thus, m
some cases it is necessary to splil streams. These additional complexities are
discussed in Sec. 8.7.

SU<affi

4000

3000

6000

FC,

Stream
FC,

1000

'so

1000

----.:

4000

3000

6000

'"'

50
200

'90

QH~

,'" Pinch
C - 20)

,'" AQ
Q = 120

C~

'so

'"'

200

"''

50

-)H

70

240

'so

.J
~

60
Pinch

""

'''' C -

201

T
C ~ 401

""

rVQ

Q ~ 12lrl
...

)
'00

FIGURE 1.4-1z.c
Lao",

70

240

'so

'00
Loop'.

')

(')

FIGURE U-l2b

~ 60

,so

SECTlOI""

8.5

LOOPS AND PATHS

LOOPS AND 'H"'~

Loops and paths provide .....3)'5 of shifting heat loads through a network.

Lool"
A loop is a set of connections that can be lraew through a nelwork that slans from
one exchanger and returns 10 the same exchanger (see Fig. 85-1). A loop may also
pus through a ulilily (sec Fig. 8.5-2). The existence ofa loop implies thallhere is an
exIra l:xchanltcr in the nClwork Thai is. If we breal the loop, we can remo\(: an
exchanger

FIGURE &.s.1

....'"

Breaking Loops
Consider the cnmple in Fig. 8.5-). The energy requirements are satisfied for any
value of QL' However, If we SCi Q ... 20, one of the beat exchangers (connecting
paths) in the network disappears
or course, the loop shown in Fig. 8.5-3 is the same as onc of the loops in our

HOI

utility

H')- 'JH

deSIgn problem, Fig. 8.4-12. We always satisry the heat loads of each stream by
subtracting an amount Ql from one exchanger, but adding it to another exchanger
on the same stream. An example where we break OM of the other loops in Fig.. g.412 is shown in Fig. 8.S.l
3

I-Ieuristics

Three design heuristics have been proposed by Linnhoffand Hindmarsh:

First. break the loop that includes the exchanger with the smaUest
(8.5-1 )
possible heat load.
Always remove the smallest beat load from a loop.

FIGURE &5-2
lDop lhroup UUhl)

(85.2)

If we break a loop that crosses the pinch, Donnally we violate the

minimum approach temperature in the revised network.
(8.5.3)

Stream I
80

Stream 2

'00

Of course, if we violate the minimum approach temperature, we must find some

way of restoring it. We use the concept of paths for this purpose.
{

Paths
A path is a connection between a heater and a cooler in a network. Figure 8.5-4
shows two possible paths for our example. We can shift heat loads along a path, as
shown in Fig 8.5-5. We merdy add an excess amount of heat to the hot utilit), and
subtract it from another ell:changer on the same stream (so that the total heat load
for the stream is unchan~), Of course:, we also reduce the heal load on the other
stream that paSKS through this exchanger 11lu5, .....e must add heat to thi't $lream
in either anotber exchanger or a cooler

120 - Q
Cold
millt)'

00
nCURE &5-3

Breakml! Ioop$

Stream 3
180

149

2SlJ

SECTION"
~l'.crJON II

UOUCINO 'nIE HUMIlEI Of EXCIIANGHS

251

LOOt'S AND 'ATHS

8.6 REDUCING TilE NUMBER OF

EXCHANGERS
We can summ;ln:ce some
(

g~ner<ll

rules concerning Ihe design procedure:

The number of exchangers required for Ihe overall process is

always less Ihan or equdl 10 thai for the minimum energy
(8.6-1)
nelwork.
If Ihe design procedure for the mmimum energy nelwork is used,
there will normally be: loops across the pinch
(8.6-2)

4000

3000

6000

S...earn

1000

FC,

".

""

( C
FlGUIitE 15-04

Pum..

Note Ihat

+W

\\'heD we add heat 10 a heater and shift It along a p3lh, ,""e must
remo\e the same amOUDI of beal m a cooler.
(8.5-4)

'I..

--2 -

SO

""

T- 200-

-I--- ,
""

pr"'.....lure always increases Ihe energy consumption of the proo=ss.

Q:2(-20

Q = 240

Q - 24O-W

Q
O-~'---O Q - Q

""

Pinch

'''' C -

20(
0-20

''''

JQ

Q - 120

~o?-T-1
110

C - 40
C-40+20
I. C,.,ll shift heat along a pam.
2. ".nsfer heat across the pinch-more heal in, more heat out
3. 11)(" to restore minimum I1T.
FlGl tU: LS-S
Shll"ll--"'l alon, a path

~ 7o
-T= I 783
Q; 50 ... 20
.........T: 170

( )H

We: .,1Ien Shlfl heal along a path 10 restore a minimum approach temperature; thIS

""

90

Break loop conulinlOg smaliesl heat load Q : 20

FIGURE 8.0-1
Break loop 111 mlmmum ene'IY dOli"

_ 60

'"

SEC'f'IOtl U

We can break these loops by transrerring heat across the pinch.

but we Will IDtroduce at kast one violation or the: specified

AT..... =

lO~F

(8.6-3)

Hence, we have a procedure ror reducing the number or heat exchangers (whICh we
expect Will reduce the capital cost)atlhc ell:pense or consuming more energy (which
Will IIlcrease the opera ling COSls). Obviously. we want 10 find the heat""Cll:changer
network (as a runctlon or the process flows) which has the smallest total annual
cosl.

From Fig. 8.4--12 we see that the smaBest heat load in any or the loops IS thal In the
where Qc _ 20 X 10'. We arbitrarily decide to break tbe loop shown in the
last diagram or Fig. 8.4--12.. Thus, we start at the cooler and subtract and add
Q~ = 20 as we prooccd around the loop (see Fig. 8.6-1). Now "'e calculate the new
heat loads and the new values or the IDtermediate temperatures: sec Fig. 8.6-2.
From Fig. 86-2 we:see that the eIltlemperature or stream I is actually 10"F lower
than the inlet stream ror the ell:changer With Q = 60; ie.. the approach temperature
is -IO"F. which 15 Impossible.

oookf".

Stream

'000

Fe,.

4000

JOOO

6000

1000

4000

JOOO

6000

= 250

T,., 250

Q = 70

\r

T = 200

""

T = 190

II = 70 + Qf
~-.;'.... 70 - QE

II .. 70
- 178.3

= 200

~-./....- T

Q - 220

AT minimum
violatioo

L~~=~:;;;=;;=~T~-~'~~~~.
-T-145

T .. 1lO

T=I30

60 + QE
/

Q"" 120
- T = 115

T - 130

)-_+_Q~=....:60=--

T"" 150

-o60 + Q
T = 110

T = 120

/ O __---"Q_-:....:.I20=-_--<J Q =
Q = 120 - QE

-T-90
- T = 100

FIGURE &.6-2
Cooler raJi()vN

(120 -

QEJ )(

FIGURE U-J
Ule path 10 1'CSl01'1: Ii. T_

120 -

-T-90

C = 60

-T= 100

ill

Breaking the Loop with lhe Smallest Heal Load

We can restore AT.... by shifting heat along a path. which

Incn:ases the energy consumption of the process.
(8.6-4)

Stream

"EDUCINO mE tNMIU Of" f.XCHANGEU

100 = 3000(110 - 90) SO QE" 60

Q,

Restodng AT....

Bruking tM Sood Loop

We restore the mimmum approach temperature at this point 10 the network by

shifting beat along a path; see Fig. 8.6-3. Since the oullet temperature of stre<tm 1 is
120F, we want the new inlet temperature to be lIO"F. Then we calculate the
amount of heat that we must shift along the path to obtain this intermediate
temperature. From Fig. 86-3,

Breaking one loop through a cooler (sec Fig. 8.4-12) has b.r~keo. both loops
through tbe cooler. However, there is still a second loop remaJOlDg ID Fig. 8.6-4
The smallest beat load in this loop is 10)( 10J Btu/hr, and so we ~ubtrar;;t and add
Q = 10 as we proceed around the loop_ The resuh is shown in FIg. 8.6-5, and the
new stream temperatures are included on this figure. For Ihis case we d~ not
encounter another violation of liT..... (although we orten do). 10 fact, ~hc mlOlmum
approach temperature for thIS design exceeds IO"F (120 - 107 = 13 f).

(120 - Q) )( !OJ = J(XX)(IIO - 90}

Q = 60)( 10J
The reVIsed network is shown

S=m

Fe,

'000

In

(8."')

Fig 86-4

4000

3000

6000

Stream
\000

T=2SO

4000

3000

6000

....--T"" 250

T = 190
H

T= 240

"

('i220;::..;.+_Q::~~Q:...::....:2::20=--

T = 110

60

120

- T - 100
FIGURE .....
Reviled nelwork.

-{J 220 + Q

Q _ '20
T - .>0-;1..
'20 + Q(("')--+~'-=.='----:::;-:--;::{J
T = 130

120 + Q

-+__

T ~..1'211:0,,+_--1'---_---,;;-::-;;;_ _
"

-T-90

c-

H ~ 130
)10 - Q

T"" ISO

- - T .. 145
Q -

-----..x)

130

_ 168.4

220

Q :
Q - \20

T - 120

so

-..-..A ...... r

1<-_ _

.::-..::60::-_-0 60 -

(')._ _~Q

6O-Q~

/T~ .30

QE

-T:90

Cc

120

-To;; 100

236

Stream
FC,

SECTION IT

aWI./CIN(l TIft !./lJNUJl Of UCHANGElS

UCTlON U

1000

4000

3000

6000

,---T - 250
Minimum exchangers - .5
Heat in = 130
Heat out = 120
Mmimum enf:rgy. exchangers = 7
Heat in = 70
Heat oul = 60
T=90~

There are some situations where our design procedure does not seem to work
However. these additIOnal complications can always be accommodated by splitting
a stream Several examples of this t)-pc are presented belo... and then a more
general design algorithm IS discussed

Number of Ilot and Cold Sareams

Consider the example shown in Fig. 8.71. The values of f /fC,H for both hot
streams are less than the FcC"c value (or the cold stream HOVoever. if ....e install any
heat exchanger. such as ooe bet.....een streams 2 and 3. tbe.n t~ increase to
1000

3000

5000

- T = 168

reduer. .G T to

minimum value

I
................. 130

T., 120

-T

'"

r'"\

142. .5 T

Q-50

+ lJ.T

I
()""'---<1
Pinch
. .---l_---.L
L--_--"

107--

"V

130

I'D

- - T = 190

120

RGURE 1171
A.

CO\Inle"umrlo:.

- T = 100
flGURE 1.6-6
Fillal dcsip-mllumum eu:halllt't1

FC,

'000

3000

3500

1500

A
Fioal Design
A final design is shown in Fig. 8.6-6. Now the.re are five uchangers, rather than
seven, but the heating and cooling requirements have been increased by 60 )(
10) Btu/hr, i.e., Ihey have almost doubled. Thus, it is essential to consider the
capital and operating costs of the ahemative net.....orks. We could decrease the
utilities requirements somewhat by shifting heat along a path, in order to reduce
the minimum approach temperature to 1000F (rom 1]OF after we break the second
loop. Oearly, we need to optimize the design.

257

8.7 A MORE COMPLETE DESIGN

ALGORITUM-STREAM SPUlTlNG

FC,

Use path to

A MOll' COMPI.UII! DESION AUXiJlilllM _~Jl'I!AM SPI.ITTII'IG

Pmch

I'D
FIGURE 8.1-2
Srlll the cold sl,u.m

- T = 130

------

130

258

Sf(.'110N 11

loIon townU~

4000

S~CTlON 11

Ut;SKiN "LOGIITHIoI_STIEAM SPUTnNG

2000

Fe,

3000

"MOI~ COMPln~ I)6KiN AlOC:ilrnllol-STJIEAIoI ~nnTlrJ

4000

2000

6000

1000

r'

(
Pinch;n

--'-

-L_ _L~

140

130

nGURt: 1.7.)

1500

130

FlGUIl[ 1.7-6
Spin a coold A~

ADolne, COWllcrnample
FC,

T: 130 " "

Ploch
140

2500

2000

3000

Stream data
al the p1l'lch

T ... 140

------

L __L_

Pioch;;;-_ _---'''''
140

130

nCURt: 1.7-4
Sphl lbe hOI Arum.

NH

y"
FC,

2000

10,000

1000
F~PH

:s: FcCpc

)
Pinch:.,,-'
140

"--

nGURE 1.75
ADOlhcr l;Ounlcrcumplc.

L _ _.L_
130

Place pioch
nlalches

NC'!

No

Sphll

for every
pinch match

y"

cold stream

INO

Split a
51ream
(usually hoi)

FIGURE 8.7.7
I)Qlgn p.occdUIC above the pmch. (From B UnnJrolf tf Q/. 1981.)

259

su.-no",

te:mperature: of Slre:am 3 will prcvcnt any match for stream I because the mimmum
approach temperature wIll not be satisfted
We: can resolve this dIfficulty very sImply Just by sphttmg Slream 3 (see Fig.
8,7,-2). IIhhou8.h we mu~t be careful that F" Cpu S "-cC"c remains sall~fied afler the
spilt From thiS e:13mple: ....e: rccognize Ihat the:re arc: ne:w design heuristics:
Abo'e: the: pmch, we must hav'e: Nil S N e .
Bdo'" the: pinch, ",e: must have: Nil ~ N e .

File,,"

(87-1)
(87-2)

H'rs-us FcC"c

As .another example: conSider the probl~m in Fig. 8.7-3. The criterion Nil < N is
c
satIsfied. but now File"" > FcC"c. which pre:vents a feasible match. However if
""e spill the hot stream (see Fig. 8.7--4) and adjust the flows such that Fe'S
FcC"c. we obtam a satIsfactory solution.
R
,,11
Splilling HoI "ersus Cold Streams
We usually s~ht a hot stream as in Fig. 8.7-4, but nOI always. Consider the problem
shown In FIg. 8.7-5. Jr we: spht the hot stream. then Nil> N e , which is not
Stream data
al the pinch

I
NH S N c?

y"

I
Fi~PH ~ FcCl'C
for every
pinch match

y"

No
Spilt a
hot stream

INo

Place pinch
matches

Split a
stream
(usually cold)

It

IIUl "''''D

P'OW'[a

INlWUlIO",

261

allowahle. Ho",e:\e:r. If \loe: spill a cold stream, We can make: a match between
stre:ams I and 4 away from the pinch and thc:reby &\'OId the: F u e,,11 < FcC"r
constraint (see Fig. 8.7-6)

General Design Pl"ocedurl'

A gc:neral dc:sign algorithm for conditions abov'e: and belo", the: plllch is sho",n In
Figs 8.7-7 and 8.7-8 Afte:r we put 10 the' plOch matches corrc:ctl). It u~ually I~ a
sImple: task to complc:te: the: deSign.

8.8

HEAT A 0 POWER INTEGRATION

According to the first law. heat and power are related Thus, it should not be
surprising that the energy integration procedure can be extended 10 giv'e results for
heat and power integration. A detailed analysis of heat and power mtegration can
be found m Towsc:nd and Linn hoff. lIere:, we only outline the basic ideas.
Heal Engines
Every lex I on thennodynamlCS diSCUSses the perfonnance and effiClCncy of heat
engines as mdividual entitic:s Howevc:r, if we lake a total systc:ms viewpoint. we
obtain a lolally different perspecrive. This systems approach was previously
discussed for gas absorber/distillation processes in Chap, 3.
Suppose we conside:1 a cascade diagrnm for the process sho"'n in Fig, 8-81
We pu! heat into the network, no heat is a1l0l01'c:d to cross the plOch. and we remove
heat below the: pinch. Now suppose that we inslaU a heal engine above the he:al
input to the cascade diagram (Fig. 8.8-1 shows this arrangemenl at the hlghcst
possible temperature, although from Fig. 8.15 we sec: that it could be a lower
temperature). U we add an incremental amount of heat IYto this engine, recover an
amount of work W, and reject the remainin8 heal QIoo 10 the network (which is the
amount of beat that we: were required to add in any case), lhen the efficiency of the
heat engine based on lhe inCI"eme:ntal amount of eoc:rgy input is lOlly"
ThermodynamiCS tals imply that the efficiency of a heat engine is always less
than 100Y. because some of the heat output must be wasted. However. wilh Ihe
arrangemc:nt shown in Fig. 8.8-1, this waste heat is just whal is required for anolher
task.. Thus., again. a systems viewpoint leads to different conclusions from the
consideration of a particular unit in isolation.
From Fig. 8.8-2 we sec: that if we install a heal e:o:,:ne below the: pinch. we can
also oblain an incremental efficiency of lOO~,.. We convc:rt some of the heat that
would be discarded to a cold utility in any event into useful power, and then we

FlGUR.- 1.,-1
DeslP ('fcaadUIIe

!odmtr the- pnch_ (F~_ B LmnItoff n aI~ J9I])

0 W To-'nKnc! and B llnllholl. -IIe111 .1Id Po-n Nc:tw<wb

A/ClrE J.19

'''1, 7-48 (1983)

III

Prooess Oarp. rarU I and

II.~

262

5teliON II

SEerioN..

UEAT ArlO !'Own ''''uo .....nOrl

1Q

Q
1

I
Heat
engme

HEU AND roWEl ISTE<:iUTIOtl

263

Q.

Energy

=d"

Q oo

E!1ergy
cascades

Pinch
Hal

engine
Energy
cascades

Purl

Heat
engine

IQ

!CI...

Energy
cascade)

Q,

+ Q - W

Q_- W
Efficiency ==
flGURE .... 1

EfficlC.nCY == 100'-'

Hell CIIl'nc abon the poadl.

EffiCiency - Stand Alone

IOO~

(b) Across the pIDch

(6) Below 1M pinch

flGURE ......1
Ileal CIIjpncl \/Cf'l'"

discard a smaller amount of heal to the utility. However. if a hc:at engine takes in
energy above the pinch and discards it below the pinch (sec Fig. 8.8-2). then we gain
nOlhing from heat and power integration; i.e_. the efficiency of the heat engine is
exactly the same as it would be if the heat engine were isolated from the remainder
of the process. Hence, we obtain this heuristic:
Place heat engines either abo\'e or below the pinch, but nOI across
(8.8-1)
the pinch.
Design Procedures (or Heat lind Power Inlegration
A design procedure for heat and power integration has been presenled by
Townsend and Linnhorr. The procedure is basically an attempt to match the
enthalpy-temperature profile of various types of heat engines with the profile for
the process (the grand composite curve discussed 10 Sec 8 I-I is used for Ihe
matching). The details of the procedure can be found in Townsend and Linnholf's
paper.

tbc ptDdt

The heat and power integration procedure is also verrusefuJ for lhe design of
utilities systems. Thus, if we energy integrate a whole petrochemical complu,
including the utility system, we can often oblain large energy savings.
Heat Pumps
Heat pumps are the opposite of heat engines. We put work inlO a heat pump to
raise the temperature level of the available heal. From Fig. 8.8-3b we see that if we
place a heat pump across the pinch, we reduce the heating aold cooling requirements of the process. However, as shown in Fig. 8.8-3c, placing a heat pump above
tbe pinch docs not provide any benefit. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 8.S-3d, placing
a heal pump below the pinch increases the energy requiremeot of Ihe process and
Ihe amount or energy rejected 10 the cold utility_ Thus, we obtain another heuristic:
Place beat pumps across the pinch.

(8.82)

264

Sf:CTION I t

~t:CTIO'" I t

IIP.AT ",..0 DISTILLATION

HEAT ""'0 D1STIU.AOO..

lb5

Heat out

Q..
Heat in
Energy
cascade

Energy Q

IV

mcode

PlOch

Column
Energy
cascade

Energy '-:;;cascade J Q

0-

Heat out

(b)
nGURE U-I

Heal in

En,,,",
cascade

Distillation Columns abOle or below tbe Pinch

Energy

"""""
Q_+
(c)

(d)

f1GURE U-J

Heal

8.9

Dlstlllanon cotumn

pum~,

BEAT AND DISTILLATION

Distillation columns are one of the major energy consumers in a chemical plant.
Referring to Fig. 8.9-1, we put heat into the reboiler and remott heat in the
condenser. In all the pn~,ious work on energy integration we plotted temperature
scales with the high temperalure at the top of the graphs. and so we will turn our
distillation column upside do.... n and consider a heat input heat output diagram, as
shown in Fig. 8.9- I b.

Suppose .... e consider Ihe cascade diagram shown in Fig. 8.9-2. We borrow a certam
amount of energy Q[ From Ihe cascade. use it 10 our distillation column. and then
relurn It to the cascade above the pinch WlIh tbis approach we run our column
on borro.... ed energy.....'Ith no e:uemal ulililies. Hence, the operating costs for the
column are reduced significantly. Exactl)' the same behavior is obained if .... e can
borrow the energy 10 fUn the column from below the pinch and lhen relurn il
below the pincb (see Fig. 8.9-2). However, if the column appea~ 10 be energyintegrated bUI il crosses the pinch. then the result is no better than if we had
installed the column as a sland-a1one unil; i.e., we must supply tbe extra energy
from a bOI utility and remove il to a cold utility (sec Fig. 8.9-3).
Of course, if a base-case design indicates tbat a column faDs across the pinch,
lII,e mighl be able 10 sbift it above the pinch by raising the column pressure or to
shift it below the pinch by dropping its pressure. Induslrial case studies at Imperial
Chemical Industries and Union Carbide indicate that substantial energy savings
can be obtained by this pressure-shifting idea.
The results above gi"e us a new design heuristic:
Place distIllation co1umns either abo"e or below the pinch.

(8.91)

B Lmnboll II Dunlo,d. and R Smnb, -Ileal Inlc&flIuon d Ouldbtton Columns mlo O>rran
~-Cltt-m

V. Sn,J3 I17S(t91J)

266

SECTION It

HEAT AND OISTlLLo.noN

5(("110"1 I t

Q.

I
Energy
cascade

Q,

HEAl AND lJoIS1t1lUtDN

267

RCC)1:k compressor
;to
Purge

r-'<

,E

Ii,
Toluene

"0

-,

Ii

RIA

Benzene
product

11 2 CH 4

FI,,.

T
Q,

Pioch

To luene
yd,

Q,
---'<

,E

Enerty

"0

a>cade

- -

'-r
nGUR 8.9-1
Cucadc dl&g"'m Iud dl~lIl1ill.on. (F,om B
LuuJ.off, H Dw./onl. und R. S"mh, C4cm.
Clog S-I.l] /17S (/98j))

Q,
Q~,

'----

y
'----

Dlphen)"l
FIGURE 8.9....
1I0A prlloCC:u

I
Q,

Design Procedure

Energy

A design procedure for the energy integration of a 'rain or distillation columns WIth
a proocss has been presented by Hindmarsh and Townsend" H we consider ,he
HDA process' (sec: Fig. 8.9-4) and develop the composlle enthalpy-temperalure
diagram for a partIcular set of flows, we obtain the resuhs shown in Fig. 8.9-5. ThiS
diagram shows that the column condensers and reboilt:rs fall across the pinch,
which ~'e said was nol a desirable situation.
To sec how to pressure-shift the columns and to best integrate the columns
wllb the remamder or Ihe proces:s. il IS simpler first to remove the columns from lhe:
process (sec Fig 89-6) and to consider Just the energy IDtegralion of the process
With no columns (see Fig. 8.9-1). The correspondmg T-II curves for the columns
are shown ID Fig 8.9-8, and we can move these curves around by pressure-shIfting

a>cade

<

Pinch

,E
"0

u
Energy
a>cade

10-

Q,
+ Q,

same as a stand-alone column

"'GURE U-]
D.stilbuoll acre- 11M: polICh [F,_ B L-~
1toJT, H o-j... J, - J R S-"A., Ooe... Iff1
&. ]] 117J (1985).)

E U".dmu"h and 0 W To,,-nloCnd. -lle.a. IDUp'lIlO11 01 O,,"llat>on Sy.u.... 11110 TouJ Flo".-~hccu
A Cooipklc Appuwdl..- P<lpcr p'Cl<CDled allhe Annu.at AlOE Mccun&. S.II Fralla><>. Callr~ 19&4
'nus cumpk .. -u dc'cloped by lbe ICI Pr<><:Ua Synlhab Tum. D W To........,Dd.l U".d"'.." ..... It
Dunfurd, A P;old, 0 (" Woodood. and A P ROSIlltr

Sf.CT10", 19

T, C I - - - Q H - - T. C

1--1

IlEAT ""'0 DISTILLATION

Reactor
pinch

,r------iI'=--'::::~ Reboilers
Condensers

Q H = 3.1 MW

H. MW

FIGURE 8.9-5

H. MW

Tol..llkl.... s~l T-I/ plOI

'-~Rtt:;;;..:.yele compressor

L
1-1 2

Toluene

H'j
Toluene _LJ'T-

Reactor

1----1 Flash

"'=oe

Toluene '-__
recycle

proouct

,--

Bc:nzcne

Toluene L _ _-,

,,
I

L __

268

----------_-1

Diphcnyl
I'lGURf.. 8.9-6
SimplJlied Bo....sheel.

Hl . CH.

H 2 CH.

, - --- -,
I

,,
,

,,
,

;.'_ _-,

L-r----~

I
I
I

I
I

I
---,

I
I
I
I
I

f------Ic}-..J

-.l..:'H

,~,d'

~_

Diphenyl
flGURE 0-7
Backgrouod process.

Purge

269

270

SEc-noN U

ncnoN I f

HLA I ANIl PIS'lIlLHlON

,-------- ----------,
Toluene
recycle

Ikn.tene
producl

H2, CH 4

e--

I
I
I

"u

:0

Dlphen)'1
~

I
I

Ral~

,II
,

level by

Ipressure

271

Q",pl

T. DC

HEAl Ai'll> OImLlAflON

slut!:

I
I

Toluene

----

Iknzene

Horizontal mOYement
Arbilnry emhalpy basis

H,MW

T. c
I

Q.."

T. C

,,
,

I--

Toluene

"u

Tol~ne 1------,

Ikoue""

-"
:0

Qoc:p 2 < Q.."

,
I

H~I

mlegrile:

Benzene

H. MW

FlGUIlE 1.9-8
T-H p1ot-Kp:an.IOI1.

H.MW

FlGURE &J..-9
IntcgrallOCl of ~ ~:aIld-idoDC~ Kp:an.uon system.

272

SECllOI'l"

RI'AT At<D l>I!iTIu.o.nol'l

SEcnoN "0

HDA phllnt

Profile Matching

I1I>A HOCUS

273

T. C

T, C

Reactor
pmch

ITOI~~I

.~ Toluenef-------,

~
_

'----t..-="::':;;::':'----.J

J1

I--===---'
Benane

:Er--.---...I(.~

Benzene

.0
,I
~

H,MW
H,MW

QK'p + Qsp

z 1.6 + 0.9 MW
= 2.S MW
Cf. base case of
3. I MW

nGURE 8.9-10
tl'llelJfllunllhe columns wltb 1M; prooas.

fiGURE 8.9-11
Fu.al~p

8.10
the columns (sec Fig. 8.9-9). Next we try to usc as much heat as possible from the
process to satisfy the energy requirements of the columns (see Fig. 8.9-10). and ....e
prCS5un:~shift ODe or more columns to minimize the external energy requirements
(sec Fig. 8.9~11). This pressure-shirting procedure is dISCUssed in detail for the
energy integration of standalone columns, or for the columns that cannot be easily
integrated with a process (see Fig. 8.9-11), by Andrecovich and Westerberg (see
Appendix A.6). The general approach is to split columns and pressure-shift the
sections to usc the full range of utilities that arc available

!'of J.

And~

IDI~If.lro

and A .... Westoerberl- A Sirlp, Synlbo:sn Me1bod on Ulilll" Bond,nJ r... Ilr:.lllAfOrE J~ 31 J6J (I98S~

OIsuDal1Ofl Seq~

HDA PROCESS

A study of the sensitivity of the total processing costs 10 heat-c-xchanger network

alternath'es was undertaken by Terrill and DouaJas." They developed a heat~
exchanger network for a base-case design (x - 0.75, Ypll = 0.4) for the HDA
process. The T~1f diagram is shown in Fig. 8.10-1. They also de"e1oped six
alternati\'e heat-c-xchanger network.s, all of which had close to the maximum
energy rcco\ery (see Figs. 8.10-2 through 8.10-7). (Note tbat the quench stream
after the reactor is Dot shown 00 these graphs.) Most of the alternatives include a
pressure shifting of the recycle column, and the oiller distinguishing feature is the
number of column reboilers thai arc driven by the hot reactor products.

D L hmD and J M

Dou~'l,

loI-f;C IUxerll..l' 6lI~ (19 11

174

tlDA 'IOllSS

SECTION 110

SECTION 110

HOA

nOC'Us

175

Purge

10
I

Gas recycle

900

Furnace

Reaclor

Water
cooler

Flash

700
Toluene
recycle

'"

"

8.

500
SCR
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
: I

II
II

300
0

AltemallYe J

30

20

10

40

Enthalpy, 1()6 W

~ I{~PC

~_ _~---------RPS

i{

PCC

-RCC

-~~~-PC-R-SC-R-------RFS
-RCR

flGURE 1.11-1
T-H dilJBM for the HDA p,ooas. PCC _ product oolUlDD ooodeDla; RCC _ rccydc oolumn
condenser, RC~ SCR, lnd PCR IR the rdxlllcn. for the rcqdc, It.bdu.cr, ud p.oduel QO/wnD$,
respectively; RFS and RPS are !.be 'UciOl feed and p,OOucillTUDll. (F,om D. L TrmJI <JNI J. M.
~las. l,fEC RC"'lJrrll. 26 68' (l98n ..ull P<',mUJion O/IM A_,koll Cltcmirol StK/cly]

flGURE 1.16-2
HDA pl"00IlU ..~th iI fced-dftuenl but uchanl'C' (Nolr The qUCndllllCilIn foDo""nl the rcae,o. 15 DOl
sJKr,r.o 00 Iba.c p1Iphs.) [From D L Tcmlf tIN! J. !If /)Quglos. IdEC Rrsnul'1<, 26 68' (1987), wi/h
P<',mWIOII 0f'lv If",..r..,,,,, Clvm,rlJl Socl<',,.1

276

SEcnON 110

/l0" r~OCESS

SECJlON 110

HOA PROCESS

277

PlJrge

PlJrge

, roed

ToluCIle feed

11oluene feed

yFEHE

~f,
E
"0
0
u

],
Diphenyl
D iphenyl

Alternalive 2
FICURE 8.10-3
EntllY Inlcgrauon allclnah.c 2. [hom D. L Terril/WIT/ J.}.f DO"g/a. /&.EC 1k~t'orC'h. 26' 68J (/%'7).
..-illr ~rm1.<JIO" of .lre A_riC'1UI Cht'miC'o/ SQC'.Ij"y.]

f~

FEHFJi"t"m",

wate~ Flash

Reacl01

cooler

rn~

J-

]"

Be=~

:c

81-

"

]
-J

H 2 CH 4

."

"-

Allemative 3
FIGURE: 1l1(l.4
Energy inlegrahon ahcrnau~e J_ (From D. L Temll DNJ J. M lJoug/IU./<fEC ReSt''''''''. 26' 68.5 (1987).
...,,1. ~rm ..... Ofl of ,he Ament',." Clrem.(01 50<:-...1)'_]

278

SIiCIION. 10

Toluene feed

Ill)" HOCUS

FEHE

Sl::CTlON 110

FEIlE

h1

Toluene
f=l

Furnace

ReaclOr

.o

nCURt: .. 1.5
Eacrty .nl"lnluon .hcm&t"" 4 (From 0 L Trmll-.l J M Dot.glaI. IdEe RrJlQlclt., 26 685 (/981).
oTtA prrrrun_ of tM Atm'lCt1tl ClwrftKill s..c...ty_J

"8u

0~

Diphenyl

FEIlE

"8

Diphcnyl

~
'p-

<5(1

FEHE

Furnace

Reactor

IIDA PI.OCUS

Water
cooler

279

Flash

1-.....,

L.......( \

II

'(

AlternatlYe 5
FlGURE &.IU
EDc:raY IllugrlllOn allcm&u", S (F,_ 0 L Tarl/1 "'" J M Do.tghu, IdEC Rtf_do, 16 685 (1981),
wuA ,..m1W_ of IItt! A""'rlc,," OwmlCm Sii!fy 1

280 st:cnot< ue

"0" 'Il:OCESS

SF.CTlON I ..

"no. '.OCU$

281

TABLE 1.1 ... 1

EMfty iDlqflltion fOf the IIDA process

'l
Toluc ~
fd

~FEHE

FEHE

FEHE

Furnace

Reactor

4cooler
(wate~ HRash
"r-

I. TAC (1:10'!yr) basc_~ fto,",-s

1. U1ilil>el \aUF {MW}, bIo~-cue
1Io~

LI.-

01
0

"0
u

l'.
u

I}.

)-r

i"..

"

J...

<
E

"0
u

'--

""

..

"8

:;

."
~

OJ

From 0 L Tt..m _1>6 J M DouI1... I&.C 11,.,_,,- 16

68~

Altemalhoe 6
FIGURE 8.1(1..7
Entrl)' Inle.... non _lltm_ti,.., 6 [From D L T,.,JI and J M Douglas, IdEC h_c".16: 68$ (1987).

7;1)

7l'

H'

TABU 1.1"'1

EMf"gy intqflltion .nd oplimiulion of HDA prOC'tSS

Ah~ri ...

I.
1.
1.
...
So

TAC (SIO'/)'r) basc-cuoe 110""5

TAC (SIO"/yr) opwnu.ed
Cost ....:mp. Yo
Utihur:s (M\\') oplU!Uttd
Utihur:s (M\\'). baK-<:asc

..

,,OJ

..,

,."
."

6.11

<7,

,
60)
<7'

'"
,.,
"
"
m
"
"
,,, "0 H' ",,-" UO "10'UO "710

...

'06

From D L Tcrnll -.l J M Dou&l_.. II,C 1I,......c.. 16 68j (l9In

Chen""..1Soaely

10}

'"'~th porm_

fro", lbe Amenan

0/ IN A_,IC_ CNmlCDI S~I}-_J

Effect o( Energy Integration

H~rsUS

Optimization

The benefit oblained from energy integration with the base-case flow rates for the
six alternatives is given in Table 8.10-1. The energy savings from the energy
integration fall between 29 and 4] %. which is in the range obtained by lei and
Union Carbide. but the cost savings an: in the range from -I to 5% The cost
savings are not as dramatic because the raw-material costs dominate the prooess
economics.
If we optimize each of the process alternatives, we obtain Ihe results shown in
Table 8.10-2. We oblain savings in the range from 21 to 26%, which is quite
dramatIC. The Impro\ed energy integration has allowed us to increase the recycle
flows, which decreases the rawmaterial costs. The increased recycle nows aClUally
increase the utilities consumption. but the raw-matenal savings more than
compensate (or the increased energy coslJ. Sitmlar results "'ere obtained by Duran

and Grossman. Thus, ....oe sec that we can trade savings flom impro\'ed energy
integration for savings in raw materials.
The relative Importance: of ra..... matenals and energy is simple 10 assess by
looking al a cost diagram (sec Fig. 8.10-8), wherC' the ra.....-materials costs are
expressed in terms of exceeding the stoichiometric requIrements From this
diagram il is apparent that raw-materials savings are mudi more important than
energy savings for the HDA process.
Sf:osith'ily of 1M Optimum S.,iogs
Some of the values for the optimum design '-ariables for the SI;1 altemau ..es, as well
as the approltimation procedure discussed in Sec. 8.3, are showl] in Table 8.10-3.
The results, for this case study, indicate that Ihe optimum flows are qulte insenSitive

M A- Duran and I E. Grossmall, AIOlE

J~]2

,
'0'

,'"
",

(1"1). "llb pem>I$.Klq from t!I< A_....n Cbe",onJ

S-,

JI

...

']I

"0

Diphe ny'

..il" IM""USIOfl

..
-,

"

... COSI saVlnp, %

,
'"
.,
" ,

'"
H.

'.06

1. E.nerc- saVlnp. %

H2, CH.

..

.-

AIt~n"lli ..

j92 (1916).

~
~
"'f~
5

;> z.

1-~l!i

~~

1
t
s-~
ii

--

".

i-i!

!g-~
h"
.; E.:

-l

~
"i

e: [

55
z

""

lIO

~ ~

"

'"
~

r-

"

51

Cs-~

Stabilizer

!'

-- "
ftn

~
~

TABLE Uo-]

Oplimizalion rf:llults for HOA process wilh diphenyl by-producl

TAC (SlO'fyT)
Annuiliud eapital
cost (SIO'/YT)

Ahema,h'

6.38

~.oJ

110

'.50

cosl (SIO'/yr)

....

<9,
1.52

".
1.4.

......,

App'odm.'t

.,

.73

'J<

3.26
61.5

l2S
67.2

,,,

483

,,.

'l<

31.1

Jl'

llO

llJ

'"

Jl9

..0

936

81.5

10

"

10

10

llS!
Il
II

IIS,7

J8

'16

91.9

II
10

l211
110

613

'30

119

".

J.~)

lS2

'"

339

].28

3.23
67.7

Number of lInllt

SllIbf/ilrr coli"""
Fraetional 1011 of
1)en1,ene (X)

0'

0'

0'

OS

0'

O'

O'

".0

98.7

98.1

986
158

989

98.9

98.9

98.9

'"

DT_CKl

Pr~U(r

(olllm"
Fractional re<XlYCry rio)

Rct'llu T.,io
Flied cooler (MW)
Ryd, col..","
Frictional recover)',
overhead (~)
Fractional ruovery.
bollonu ""
Preuure (kPa)

eJ

,."
".

.,

Anou.bud Opel'luinll

Convcraion ("4)
H J compositK>n In
JU reey<:1e ("/J
FEHE cncrlY recover)'
C/J. told llream

10

120

\45

II

10

'"

"'

"

1.91

185

'"~

'"~

'"~

16

13

..
,7<1

... .", .. ",. . . .. '".

'"~

107

'01

'01

107

From D L Terrillind J M DovIIU.IIF.C 11.,,.,,;,,, U ".,

107

CI~1~ "'Ol~

107

107

107

?,

~!='

ll:

UN

."

ii

Cl

5?

~.

'"
'"
X

I!'

Ii

."

"-

Recycle column

..

til

t<,)

o~

a~

. "x

... :

fl

...

0
'
- 0

~.: l"l

-$ -'S~
-

'01

l'C""IlI'/lfI h01ll the Amenelln ChmIonl Soc:Mi11

284

$I!CTIOM Lll

SUIo4Io4AIV. ExUCfSES, "''''0 !'lONOlCLATUaE

to changes in the heat-exchanger network, provided that close to the maximum

energy recovery is obtained. Moreover, as expected, the significant design variables
correspond to the conversion and the purge composition.

II

'"
'"

SUMMARY, EXERCISES, AND

NOMENCLATURE

<

,
;
2

~~

<

]]

..

'"

1
".s

u'"

:l

..

~
~

;;

-5",

z"

'"

""
-a>

'"
'!>

'"

"

"

""

~'"
->

..

-;. g

<

..

....

>.

".,

<

"

"'

'"

'""

<

..
.

"'

:l 8
Exercises

M-

I. Only add heat to a process above lhe pinch temperature.

2. Only remove heat from a process below the pinch temperature.
3. A feasible exchanger just above the pinch requires that FIIC,H ~ F cepe. while
the opposite is true below the pinch.
4. To eliminate a heat exchanger from a network. we prefer to break a loop that
includes the smallest heat load.
5. When we break loops that cross the pincb in order to eliminate heat exchangers
from a network, we often violate the 6 T",;. condition.
6. If we add extra heat to a process, we must remove this same amount of heat to a
cold utility.
7. If possible, always install heat engines either above or below the pinch.
8. IT possible, always install heat pumps across l.he pinch.
9. If possible, always install distillation columns either above or below the pinch.

:l;'!>

Summary

A very simple procedure exists that makes it possible to calculate the minimum
heating and minimum cooling requirements for a process. Also. simple procedures
exist for calculating the minimum number nf exchangen; required and for estimating the beat-exchanger area required. These calculations are possible without even
specifying a heat-exchanger network and therefore are ideal for screening purposes.
The results indicate that normally a process has a pinch temperature, and
above this temperature heat should only be added to the process, whereas below
this temperature heat should only be removed. Sinoc this problem decomposition
was not widely known a decade ago. it is often possible to significantly reduce the
energy requirements of existing processes (that is, 30 to 50% energy savings have
been obtained in industry).
A design procedure for heat-exchanger networks is discussed as well as the
extension of the basic ideas 10 heat and power integration and heat and distillation
integration. Several new heuristics were also presented:

,;

"~

8.11

.."

"'
N

"

<

II

.~

ili

2U
1~

,
" ..
.~
~

-~

~~

;;~-

w
~

1.:1 '"

"

c:~~

1.111. For one of the design problems that you have considered, assume a value for h T.1
and include the heat effects in the separation syslem.
(a) Calculate lhe minimum beating and oooling requirements for the process, and
find lhe pinch tempcralUre.
285

(b) 00 any of the: distillation columns fall across the: plOch? If so, pre5Surc:-shif, these

columns, and recalculate the minimum heating and cooling loads.

.~

g
v

8.11-2.

{;

u.

<i:

8.1 J.).

8.11-4.

8.115.

:;
v;

,-

-( v)-

- -

8.1I~.

(c) Design a heat-exchanger networK for above and below Ihe pinch, and calculate
the costs.
(d) 110111' many loops cross lhe p,"ch~ How can you break these loops?
Consider the f10wshecl for the hydrosuifuriullion of oil, shown In Fig. 8.11-1. From
an mspection of 1h" llowshc:el, can you suggest a way of savmg energy? Can you
oblam a Jjr~t CSlImatc of Ihe amount of energy lhal you can save? What might
pre\cnl you from r"aJlllng this energy sa"lOgs? If the hydrogen IS recycled, diSCUSS
the effect of Improved energy integration on Ihe optImum purge colllposnion in this
gas-rec.:yde loop
ConSider the slmphfied 1I0wshcct for producing ethylene from ethane' shown in Fig.
8.ll~2 The reac;uon roDditions aDd some features of the design problem are
discuS$Cd in Exercises 5.4-8 and 6.8-7. The reactor dtl.uent stream must be quenched
10 7SO c F to prevent roklng. From an inspeclion of the f1owshcct, CaD you suggest
some modifications that could be made to save energy? (In particular, consider the
reactOt feed and product streams.) Would energy savings be expo;;ted to affect the
opumum proces.s flows?
Calculate the opumum value of 1'1 T.... for the problem presented in Sec. 11.1. Assume
that the overall heat-uansfer coeffiCIent for all stream matches is equal to U = 50
BlU/(hrft 1 ."F)
For the example dISCUSsed in Sea. 8 I through 8.6, how much can we decrease the
ener@) consumption If we reduce the lJ. T from I J to IO"F after we break the second
loop (sec FIg 8 66)1 IF I'ie consider the same problem but ....e break the other loop
that crosses Ihe pinch first, do we obtain the same results? Estimate the costs or the
U1illlles and the heat euhangers for the minimum energy design, Ihe design where we
break one loop, and the design where we break both loops.
Consider these dala:

Fe"

kWrC

T... ~C

u.

'80

,>0

20

- - - - I uo.

80

T_.. C
60

30

,'"

j\f
u.

H 1'1 T _ 1000e, find the minimum heating load, the minimum cooling load, and the
pinch temperature. Design a heat--eltchanger network for the maximum energy
recovery both above and below the pinch. How many loops cross the pinch? Break
all the loops that cross the pinch, and restore 4 T.,~,

I
8. E. 8rown. A Ol.IIlIl"rr lHsu!f"..:t:,. WutunglOn Unlverslly DcsIIO Case Study No. tO,edned by B.
D. Smllh, W.... bJn&ton Unl~rSlly, St. I.oUIS. Mo~ t970.
, W L Bolle&, Eth)'lmt: Plll1Il Dr3/{J" unJ &orlOn"a. Wuhtngton UniversllY Design Cue Study No 6,
edited by B D Smith, Washmgton University. 51 LoUIS, Mo., 1968.

286

288

UcnON III

SUMMAItY. UUClSS. AND NOME1'ICl.ATlIItE

Nomenclature
A

C"

F,
H
h,

N,

N,
N.

Q,
To

u,
W
OH.
OT
.:1 TI....

CHAPTER

Heat-eJl:changer area
Heat capacity [Btu/(mol CF))
Flow rate (moIJhr)
Enthalpy (Btu/mol)
Film coefficient (Btu/(hr ft J CF)]
Number of exchangers
Number of streams
Number of utilities
Heal load (Btujhr)
Temperature (DF)
Overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/(hr ft2. cF)]
Work
Heat of vaporization (Btu/mol)
Temperature difference CF)
Log-mean temperature driving force (CF)

9
COST
DIAGRAMS
AND THE
QUICK
SCREENING
OF PROCESS
ALTERNATIVES

Our previous synthesis and analysis enabled us to estimate thc optimum design
COllditions (using a set of case studies) for a single process alternative. Of course,
our goal is to find the best possible alternative. However, before we proceed further,
we want to be certain that we understand the costs associated with the alternative
we have selected. As a first step in this evaluation.....1: need to consider some way of
summarizing the cost information.

9.1

COST DIAGRAMS

Com'cntional Approach
The conventional approach for summarizing cost information is to prepare a table
of equipment costs that is coded to a flowsheet. Similar types of equipment. i.e.,
compressors. heat uchangers, distillation columns, etc., are all grouped together. A
similar table is prepared for operating costs, and all the individual values for a
particular type of utilit)', i.e., electric power, steam, etc., are summed and reported
as a singk enlry.

289

TABU. 9.1_1

In,eslllleni lloumffllry. S
Pumps (1949)

P_I
P2
P-J

'-""
1,320

P~

1,680

PI

2.100

1,9SO

,ro

P6

14,180

TOlal

Pump' (1949). 1I.c:ludln'ipolIQ

28.160

p",mps (1969)

10.""

EJ.cballl"n (I968)

1"il,OOO
IIS,OOO

E-I
E2
E-J

'.800
22.000
26.""

E~

E-'
E-6
E-1
E.
E-'
E-IO
E-II

"""
'....
',200

16,000

17.000

,.m
6.100

E-12

--390,100

Toul

....""

bchangcn (1969)

~
U

~
+

J
11

TOlaJ
T.:lY5 (1969)

T-'
T-2
T-J
Total
Com~II969)

l~.OOO

ll,600
lS,SOO
91l.100

'-"'"

.,""
ll,200

"-""

C_I
C-2
Of\lmi (1969)

JU.ooo
23,oSO

IMtalkd CO$I summa,)

p -..
EJ.du'lllftl
RektOr
To..crs tea tra)'~)
Tn)'s
Comprcuon

F._
"""'"

IIS.COl
1,140,000

12&,000
490,000

395.000
151.000
lJO.o.Al

S23.OOO

--3,142,000

209.""
"_800

fumaca (1969)
RQClOf (1969)

f._..

Toweu (l%9)
T-I
T2
T-J

J ltecpaebad aDdl T &..1;111<'0. w............. U"'_J ~1"e..:-Slw;l1 1'<0 ',0<1"011 bt II D WIlll.

WuIw>&u", U.........
51 !Au... Mo. 1969

'J.

AD uample of a cost summary for a published case study for the dlSpropor
lionation of 101uenc is given in Fig. 9.1- t and Tables 9.11 and 9.1 2. Figure 9.1-)
shows the: ftowsheet, and each piece ofequipment is given a special label. Table 9.1-1
then gives the capital cost ofcach picoc of equipment shown on Fig. 9.1-1, where
aU similar types of equipment arc grouped together. The table also summarizes the
total capital cost for each type of cquipmenL In Table 9. 1-2 we find the tola) anoual
COSI for each typc of utility used as well as the annual costs for a number of faClors

R. J Hcnpttbd; and J T Bancbao, Dupr"PO'/>OftDf_ ofTo/wM, Waihlllgton UIIlwt'nlly Ikstp

Case Study No 8. odued by B J) SlIlJlb, Washmcton Un,vcrilly, St. L..oUI$, Mo_ June 26, 1969

291

~Mt

summary

UIIlInes
Power

,'"
,.

Slum
F~I

lJ)

Wile.

TOlal

In,"eslmenf lind
ConVC:f5IODjpan,
Pu.1'" p!I

operalin~

summary

./~

"
""

Tues. 100000rance
Repans

ISBL
OSBL

."
100

'I'

166

M..,.,n.,neous

.06

CaIIIYSI lII....nlo')"

,,,

Il

J2

Paymll d11.JeS

II,.

T....

..

".

SARE

eo...,.
T~"

2060

F..- R J Hmll"C:btd IIId I T

()pefalm~

costs. SI(l6/y.
Utiliues
Labor Ind StI~"'"UKln'
Tue:s Ind IDJurance

."
.11

Rqwn IDd IlUK'dIaneow

.])

SAR.

."

eo...,.

........................-Unt_)
e- SoDd, No

..

1.20

.06

..so.... '"

1 0 Sn.h.. w..... ~ U"'>nwtl

~

,.
No

"

SupetYWOn

193

In~eslments. SIll"

l.10.,

lobo<

Dts>p

COS'1 OIAG..... ~S

TABLE 'U-3

TABU: 9.1-2

Operating

SfXTION "

COSI OIAG"A~S

S(;l"ION JI

MOo. 1%9

Malnab., bbI 'caknd:u day {6O"F}

ToIlXIK feed
"od~

1m

8enut>e

that we have not considered as yet, such as labor, taxes., etc. Table 9, I) presents a
somewhat dIfferent summary of this information. and it includes the costs for raw
materials. One disadvantage of tables of this type is that it is difficult to visualw:
any type of capital versus operating cost trade-off. Another disadvantage is that we
10Sl': track of the cost of particular operations.

X~k-ne:s

10" Blu/day

Pr.apa1t,. b . 1__"'"
. .111110: prgducu n111Cd .,
dcpaodIoo tM loooct-1I 01110<

...... ,.. _a.

Process Alternatives
Our goal at this point of our process development is to make a judgment (guess) as
to whether there might be a process alternative tbat is more profitable tban OUt
base-ca.se design, rather thaD to undertake a detailed cost analysis. We expect that
most of the possible alternatives will have approximately the same costs associated
with labor, taxes, maintenance, repairs, etc.. and therefore we neglect these factors.
Similarly, we note that the cosls of all the pumps and the drums are small.
compared to the other items (the reactor cost is also small for Ihis particular slUdy),
which is normally tlte case for most plants. Thus. we neglect the costs of all these
items when we are screening alternatives. In addition, we lump the co<;t of the
distillation column<; and the trays. and then we combine these with the costs of the
condensers and reboilelS to develop expressions for tlte total costs associated WIth
a distillation sera ration

2000
I

1I,l'ecd. 10'" SCFO

Fuel ps.

3710

""'" '"

...., "'...., .... prod_

~. IMr 1M ._Iot)'
- . . -.d ..., _ 1
II.. oh,l'"""'1. nc-

, ItIdudin, po)
charJCS.
F.... k- J He1l8"'<'b<d:.1Id J T

ea....oo, Wn1l...,.....
0...., e- SolOdr No .. od,ca1 "" I. D
Smllh. w....... pooo UIIi....IJ. s~ 1 . - Mo. 1969

u..__ ly

Cost Diagrams
As an alternative way of summari;tjng the most important processing costs, we can
put all the costs on a fJowsheel. The annualized, Installed equipment costs are
placed inside the boxC'l on the fJowshttt. and the operating costs arc attached to the
stream arrows; see Douglas and Woodcock With this representation. we have a

J M

D.w~.15

I nd D C Woodcock. /6 EC I',oc t)eJ 0",. 27 970 ( I!J85)

SfCTlOI'l , I

~o

,;: I

f--.l------,

-"

,~

,,->C

Ul

x~
w~

o.;~N

-"'M

"-

"~

E'"'
N

"

50!

~\O

:;~

I'M
e

!0

(9.1-')

Using Design Heuristics to Check the Cost

Dislribulion

'"~~
N

"-N

+ HJ

Note that no pumps arc Included in the dIagram, and we do not calculate the sue
or costs of either flash drums or reflu); drums when ~ arc scret:niog alternatives.
Also. Since there are no side reactions, we do not include any raw-material or
product COSt For thiS example, we arc assummg that an existing compressor is
available that we can use to recover the acetone leavlllg the flash drum wllh the
hydrogen by-product, but we arc not allowed to take any credit for the by-product
stream

"
c
0+
-u~ u
5 . ~.

"-

295

visual picture of how the costs are distnbuted throughout the process. Moreover, a
diagram of this type can often be used to spot errors as well as to visualiZe potenual
Impro\ements that might be obtained by moddying the flowsbcct We dISCUSS both
problems III more detail below
tr we duide each of the costs on a cost diagram by the specified production
rate, we can prepare a cost diagram that Indicates the dollars!Xr pound of product
which each Individual piece of equipment or operating cost contributes to the total
product pritt This type of IIlformation is sometimes u~d for the deSIgn of batch
processes III Industry
A cost diagram for one alternati\e for the dehydrogenalion of isopropanol to
produce acetone: IS shown lD Fig. 9.1-2 The: zaction IS
Isopropanol ..... Acetone:

"~~
,E"

COST DlAGk,uu

tci

Suppose \loe conSider the cost distributlon for the: t\loO distillation operallons in Fig
9.1-2 We: might assume that the common rule of thumb that the reflux ratio should
be set to 20-_ larger than the minimum value '4'as used 10 design ~ach column.
However, according to Happel and Jordan,- tbe dislribution of costs should be
30% for the column, 35% for the condenser and rebOller, and 35% for the steam
and cooling water at the optimum design conditions. Peters and Timmerhaus'
present some\lohat different results based on a 6.7-yr versus a 2-yr time factor, tbat
is, 15 % for the column, 10% for the condenser and reboilcr, and 75% for the steam
and cooling "ater.
'
DeSPltc the fact that tbe: two sets of results are qUite different. it seems as if
both distillatIon column designs in Fig. 9.1-2 arc far from the optimum, l.~ the
column cost appears to be much too large. If we increase the reflux ratio. we expect
that the eolumn cost wl1l dc:crease (fcw.er trays, although partially balanced by an
increase in the diameter) aod that tbe costs of tbe condenser. reboiler, steam, and
cooling waler all wtllmcreasc (higher vapor rates). Thus, from just an inspection of

;f;

J Happelalld 0 G Jordan. C/WWW<JPrt>USJUI>ft_ua, 2d cd~ Dr.~hr, New YOI~, 197~, p.)iS

I M S Peter> aDd K 0 Tunmerhau. PI",,, lNSI(pl tINI ~ for CIonn...aJ tittilltHrs. 3d cd~
MNnwHdl, -~ Y<)r~, 1980, p )

294

296

SfClION'1

COS! I>I~O"''''S

the cost dIagram......e expect that some additional column destgn slUdlcs can
JustIfied

Using Ihe Cost Diagram to Infer Structural

Modifications
We can also uS(: the cost diagram to aid in generatmg process alternatn'C$.. In Fig.
9.1-2 if we consider the cost of the steam and the preheater (6.0 + 27.5). the fuel and
the furnatt (29.3 + I .3). and the partIal condenser and the cooling water
(3.9 + 7.6). then lI>e set' that we are spe.ndmg a large amount for heatmg and
coolmg as compared to the amount we are spending for energy integration (5.8 for
Ihe feed-emuent heat exchanger) Thus, it seems reasonable to try to make the feedeffluenl heat exchanger much larl!:er. Ho.....e...er. as we try to increase the size of this
feed-effiuent elchanger. the inlet temperature to the partial conden5(:r will approach that of the steam preheater outlet. so thai the area and the capital cost 11>;11
rapidly increase. Of course, we could a ...oid this difficully enlirely simpl)' by
eliminatmg the steam preheater Hentt. our inspection of the cost diagram
indicates that an energy mtegration analysis should be undertaken.

Use or Cost Diagrams to Identify the Significant

Design Variables
Numerous optimizatIon variables exist for the f10wsheet shown in Fig.. 9.1-2.
indudmg the con...ersion.. the reflux ratios in both distillation columns, the
fractIOnal reco\ery of atttone overhead in the product column. the fractional
reco\'C'ry of azeotrope o\"erhead and II> ater in the bottoms of the rce)'c1e column. the
fractional recovery of acetone in the compressor, the approach temperature
~tween the Dowtherm fluid leaving the furnace and the gases leaving the reactor,
and the approach temperature between the steam preheater outlet and the reactor
products leaving the feed-effiuent heat exchanger.
Almost all of Ihese optimization problems involve only local trade-offs. That
is, the reflux ratio in either of the columns affects only the cost of that column, and
the approach temperature for the feed-effluent exchanger affects only the cost of the
feed-effiuent exchangers, the steam preheater, and the partial condenser. Howe...er,
changes m the conversion caUS(: the recycle flow rate to change.. and therefore
changing the con ...ersion affects the cOst of every piece of equipment shown on the
f1owsheet. Thus, if the design com'ersion is not dose to its optimum value, we can
pay significant economic penalties, whereas errors in tbe reflux ratios are much less
important; i.e., the total separation cosl of either column is a relati...e1y small
fraction of the lotal cost of Ihe plant.

COSt diagram helps us understand the interactIons among ...anous pIeces of

equipment. Thus. it is \'ery helpful in screening alternati ...es. although the final
design of the Mbe!iC" alternati...e should be reported by using the convenl1onal
procedure_
With a cost dlagram .....e can also break costs into gas-reC)'c1e effects. fresh f~d
elrcetS-. and hquid-recycle effects. We consider this approach as y,:e look at a more
complex plant in the nut ~eclion.

9.2

cosr

DIAGRA:\IS FOR COMPLEX

PROCESSES
The new energy integratIon procedure dcscnbed in Chap 8 lDtroduces a signifK:3nt
amount of additional coupling and complexity inlo a flowsheet. This addItIOnal
complexity makes it more dilflCult to visualil.e the IOteractions in a floll>sheet
Hentt. we oeed to find a way of simplif)ing the cost dIagram

Allocalion Procedures
Suppose we consider our process for the hydrodealk)'lalion of tolu~ne (see Fig
9.2-1). When we use the procedure described in Chap. 8 to energymtegrate Ihe
flowsheel, one of the alternati...e solutions we obtain IS shown in Fig. 9.2-2. ThIS
f10wsheet has so many interconncetions that it is ...er)' difficult to gain an o\erall
perspective of the process. However. this additional complexit)' is primarily caused
b)' the addition of the heat exchangers. Hence, our first task is to remme thIS
coupling Simply b)' allocating the heat-elchanger costs 10 the indi\;dual process
streams passing through each exchanger.

AUneating Heat-Exchanger Costs

Following T ownscnd and linnhoft, we allocate the annualized capit~1 cost of the
exchanger to each stream proportional to the indi...idual film coefficient of that
stream (set' Eq. 8.3-7). These allocations are listed in Table 9.2-1 for the HDA
process. Now the flo"'sheet again appears to be the same as Fig.. 9.2-1 except that
we have established a cost for each of the exchangen.
Lumping
We can simplify the cost diagram further by lumping costs that go togetber. In
other words. for the purpose of e...aluating process alternati...es. there is no
ad...antage to treating Ihe annualized capital cost and the annual power cost of the

A Systems Vieft'poinl
The usc of cost diagrams enables us to look altbe total system...... herca~ in Table
91-2 we are constrained 10 look at mdividual pieces of equipment. Similarly. the

D W TOWTlsccnd and 8 llnnhnlJ. wSurf ..,. Arr. Tilrl!rlJ fOl Ileal Eachanger NrlwOIh: Annllal
mlInl! of tIM: tnsUllmon ofCbc:llltC'l1 fnpnccrs. Balh, Umled Klnldom. AI'1'11 1984

Purge

1.

311K
I

"''''

g89SK I

328 K

To!uene 298 K, ~

r""

89.5 K .

:I
89.5 K

ReaClOr

895 K.

r.I-

311 K

391 K _ _.J
rl

Toluene
recyde

~f--,

8~

i2

Benzene
product

H, . CH.

~I 466 K

J
395 K

FlGURE Ul
HDA prooeN. [hom J. M. DINg/tIS and D, C Wlll'dcock, IliEC Pro.:. IRJ. Df:lI.].4 470 UMS}.]

H, (eed

Toulenc feed

PtIrge

(8 & T)

600

Po"",
60

- 01

Toluene
recycle

FIGURE 9.2.2
Cost d'JITIm rOt tnetlY.,nlerl,alecl HDA rrooeu

!8

rF."", J

M "/lIN/I", mId D C Wt>Ddrn{'/r.

Idee Proc Dn

Df'V 1<4

no (/98S).]

300

SECTION U

C()$T Dl ...G .... r.4S rOil N>r.4Pu.x P.~ES

TABLE 9..2-2

TA8U: 9.1-1

AllocaCion of

he.c~xchangtT COSfS

Onllnal CO:It, SIO'/yr

5lream

..,

.. [kwJ(IlI K))
'
II1t. allocaled ar

'"

fk_l{m' K)

.69

. . _D

reboilcr

1S7

....,

",

R~~

R~~

k UdQf

emuent

diluent

efttuenl

.69

.69

I.

10

F.... J Iol 00qIu ud 0 C w"""""d, '.f;C I'rwc 0...

o.c-..al Soernr

o-~ 14

klmot/1lr

C~.

Gas

3J71

'"~

fer;yck

LiquId recycle
Toluene fttd. 271}
U , feed.. 496

"

RuctQf

.69

SttBm

SIO'/rr

ReactQr

cmuenl
10

J"

"
",

Ik=~

Stabili2u
n:boiler

",

keacto.
diluent

II., a1Iocaled COlt

"

Toluene
n:boilcr

0.69

Strum
Jr,

"

6J
Ructor

RelicCor cOSI allocalion

.69

"

'69

l6

4231

198

29

9JU(I9ISl. _h pel

......

F..... J M 00Dp.-.I 0 C "'oodcod./.t:(",,_ THo14 91'0 flQlSl. w1'lll p : _ lhoe A_10m.

n.-r~

a..-icaI_r

compressor separaldy. Hence. we combioc: lbese values into a total annual

compression cost. Similarl)'. we lump the capital and opemting costs for boch che
furnace and partial condenser. and we combitx the column, reboiler. condenser.
sccam. and cooling-water cosls for each distillation column inco a single separalor
cost value. Wllh this approach we obtain the values shown in Fig.. 9.2-3
AUOCIItion to Process Streams
We can gam e\'en more mslght inlo the nature of the interactions in the proce:ss 11'
we nov. allocate the: costs to the processing of the fresh feed. the ~as-recyde stream.
and tlK hquld-reqcle stream We base lbe allocation on the 60w rales and the

Recycle compc-essor

fractional heat loads or the various sCreams. The reaC10r allocations are given In
Table 9.1-2. and the healing and cooling allocations are 8"ial In Table 9.2-3. The
resull: of Ihis allocation procedure are shown in Fig.. 9.2-4. The raw-material COSI
listed is the value in ellcess of the sloJChlometric requirements for lhe reaction. ie_.
the cosl lI,e might be able 10 reduce by looking for a Dew process allemali'e.
Now we can dearly sec: that lhe: most apensive costs are lhe exoess h)'drogen
and toluene that we fc:cd 10 the process. Thus. any alternative that will reduce the
t:lttlivit~, losses or the purge losses should be considered 1ne nexl most expensi\e
COSIS are associated with the: gas-recycle ftow, which are considerably larger than
the liquid-reC)'clc or fresh fc:cd COSts.
Thus. Ihe COSt diagram provides a useful tool for rank-orderinJ, an evaluallon
of process alternati,'es It is also useful for the gross screening of allernath'cs, as we
show in tbe next section.

109

TolueneL. Feed and recycle

heating

H,

....

371

L. Toluene column

76

Diphenyl

I-

f-

React..

198

TABLE '..2-]

P"",oct

I-

Benzene column

174

Purge

cooling
153

I-

Srabilizcr

28

Beru.ene

FIGURE '.2.J
A Simplified COSI dl.",Rm '01 lhe IIDA l'fooe:l:S IF,om J, M Dougl"l aruI D C WfI'O<kocA, IIl/X r'(K
Del /NrJ 2-4
(l985) I

no

He.ting aDd e:ooling cost allocation

600

"'Bm

Heal 'olld,
G,,..

Gu ""'"

J9.'

l.Jquid rer:yck
Frah fttd

'.1

'"

70.

Ileal Jo.4,

SIOJ/YT

",.
Il

'"

GJ,..

SIO'/rr

..,

'60

IISO

J7I

SlJ
1>1

F...... J M. DonaJ.u.ncl D C Wooderxl. UlFC P., THs

..... h,.............", al' .... Amer_n ('1onDooo1 ~r

n..,. u

172
J9

97l)tl"S~

SECTION U

QUICK SCIUNTNG

or

'10CESli ALTU"'An~ES

303

93 QUICK SCREENING OF PROCESS

ALTERNATlVFS
1be systematic procedure for developing a process design thai .....e discussed nrher

-" g

"

i!:0O

IS 8

NOO

. "' ....
'"
"'
~

" "
~

"

~L,

.l!

~~

-~

"-

'""' "-Z '...l"

~-

.!!

i!:

Design Decisions

also be used to gc::nerate a lisl of process alternatives. All that we need 10 do is

10 leep a list of each decision thai .....c make as we proceed through the base-case
design. Then as we: change: these decisions, we: generate: process altc:rnati\'cs. We
.... ant to male some estimate of the economic Imporlance of each alternative,
rather than repeal the: deSign for each case, In order 10 minimize our design draft.
We: use the COSI diagram as a 1001 in making these estimates.
caD

" .;;;:~
6'. ~] S

!I,~

e.
.
E

~u

g:z;~.2
~~Cor'\

~
u
,

"''''~
~~

.. "' .... '"

'8

~
~

o-~

"
~

",Z...l H

",Z.J H

"

~"'~
~~

..
'"

'" "' Z...l

I
!i

II

",

", ,E
"

i8

Olo iii

..
"' .. '"

",Z...l

~'"
~:e
"0
E
,~

;2:::.

'"
N
N

:t

O~~
~

. "' .... '"

,
" 0
"
~

f-

"-

" E

The decisions we made 10 generate the base-case design for tbe HDA process are
listed in Table 9.31. We can proceed through this list decision by decision and try
to evaluate the savings associated with changing any oftbe decisions. An alternate
procedure: would be to use the cost diagram to identify the largest COSlS and lben 10
identify the decisions thai have the greatest impact on these costs.

"' .. '"

:E

"'Z ...l H

Process .altcrn.athes for the HDA pro:ss

I--

",Z...l H

OO~

'"
~

.... -

"' '"...l
",Z

OO~

~
~

" "

- ~~ ..
e"' . '"
.~

TABU '.)...1

",z

...l

Ln-d2 doc:wons: Inpul-DUlpUI iUlIClIlre

I Do nOI punlr Ihe bydrogen feed Ufam.
2. Recover, ralher than recydo:. dlphenyl &0 tbal there arc thn:c pwduct ilrelllli (pur,e. benzene:
product, dlpbenrl by-product)
3 UIoC a p i recycle and puree: Slfam
level.) dceu.IOM' Ra::ycle S1rvaufC
I UK a $IuP readnr.
2. Ute; a p.J (H. and at.) and I bquid (Ioluene) ra::)'Clc 11ram..
l. Ute; a 5/1 ",.10-...010"'" 11100 10 pteW:nt cokul,-.-unun& this 10 be: a dcsip CQIlStratnl
(althouJb 01 eoWd be rorm..lalllCl as In opc.im.ization problem).
4 A PJ'-f'eCJ'dc wmprasor IS -sed.
S. Operate the reador adiaba~r
6. Do DOl ClOtlI>da c:quilibnwa e&cta.
Levd ...... ~. Vapor I'a::1OftI)' l)'Itea
I If a vapor ra::overy 1)'IteP! UIOd., plaa: II 011 tbe: lluh Yllpor (II reqdr: ~ II loI1 10 byproduct) or the pUlJC: IIrel1ll (rllbcre IS 110 loA caused by bcm:ene rccydc)
2. Do DOl. l&1li: a vapor recovery l)'SteP!
Levd-4b dcoIiom Uqwd 1oC~11I1IOlI 1)"Ilem
I Mal.e alIlep11l11tions by daltiliallon.
2. Direct lCq noe oJ wnpk QOlumnl IS uscd-prnblblr UK of complu. columns Ihould be.
~"

.........

3. Remove the bght eDds in a Ilabilizer

4, Sc:od the blbl ends 10 rue! DO vapor recovery l)'Skrn.
Lem-S deaoas. EncrC lnlegrallOA. There arc oumerow allernatlves.
F..- J M Doql.aIIDd D C WoodoDo.l, '40C /'roc Va:

"'--'
J02

""""

Dft~

14 910 It9tS). wItII per.......... 01 tile ..... nc:u

SlCTlO,,", U

For our I-IDA process (Fig. 9.2-4), the largest cost items correspond to the
use of the excess raw materials The decisions that affect these costs are made in
level 2. the Inputoutput structure of the flowsheet, so we want to start at the
beginning of our decision list in any event. The next most important COSLS are those
associated with the gas-recycle stream, and these correspond to the leyel 3
decisions. So 3g3in we find that we want to proceed sequentially through the
decision list
Purification of thl.' 1I)'drogen F'ud Stream

QUICK JClfENlNQ

or

paocf.SS ALna"'AnVEll

305

increased flow rate. From Hougen and Watson- Il.e find that the equilibnum
constant is
K ",,0.248t685 C

The stream flows for our base-case

Diphenyl

H,

1547
2320
91
27J

CH.
Toluene
Benzene

de~lgn

(9.3-3)

are as follows'

The hydrogen feed stream containS methane as an Impurity, so that we mIght be

able to cut some: costs by removing the methane from the feed; i_e.. we decrease: the
amount ofineru thai pass through the pr~s. However. methane is also produced
as a by-product in the reactor. Heoce, there seems to be Iittk iocentiye for purifying
the methane feed stream On the other hand. if we should decide to purify the
hydrogen-recyck stream. then .... e could feed the process through this recycle
separation s)'stem We defer consideration of this alternative until later in this
section.

and

Req-cling of Oiphl.'n)1

Assummg that the costs ate proportional to the Increased tlo'" and using the cost
dIagram to estimate the Iiquld-reg-cle costs. .....e find that

Since diphen)'1 is produced by a reversible reaction, we can recycle aU the diphen)I

and let the diphenyl bUild up in the process until it reaches iLS equilibrium Ie",::! If
we adopt this approach, we chromate our selectivity 10S5eS, i.e:... the 8 molfhr or
toluene that geLS converted to dlphenyl (the purge losses of toluene and benzene are
oot affected). Of course. we lose the fud credit of the dipheoyl.
We can use the cost diagram to estimate the raw-material savings;
Raw Matt Savings = 1691(1\) - 200

= 840 (x SIOl/YT)

(9.3-1)

which is a significant value compared to the other costs. In addition......e save the
cost of the toluene column .....hicb was used to separate the recycle toluene from the
diphenyl. Again from the cost diagram we see that
Savings for Toluene Column = 76 (x SlOl/yr)

(9.3.2)

which is also fairly large.

We should recogoile that this calculation is only qualitativel)' correct
because the toluene column reboiler was integrated with the reactor effluent stream
(see Fig. 9.2-2). Thu~, the flows in the heat-cxchange and quench systems will
change. 1I0we...er, this "gross" screening of alternatives will help u<; decide (On the
priorities for undertaking more rigorous calculations.
Recycle of diphenyl also incurs cost penalties that are associated with
oversizing all Ihe equipment In the liquid-recycle loop to accommodate lhe

273 + D

n""
K '""

(DXH 1 )
(Benzene)2

1>( 1541) .., 0.24

273 2

D _ 12 molfhr

(9.3-4)

(9.3-5)

Increased LiquKl-Req-c1e Cost _

'~(4

+ JJ + 7 + 43 + 39)

_14(x SIOltyr)

(9.36)

The increased Iiquid-rec~cle flow also requires that we increase the gasrccl"ele 80w, since tbe b~dro8en.t()..romatK:s ratio at the reactor inlet is Specified
as 5/1 Thus. the additional aromatics flow or 12 mol/hr requires ao additional
h)'drogeo flow of 5(12) = 60 molfhr However, the gas-rccycle stream contains only
40% hydrogen, so that the total rccycle flow must be increased by 150 mol/hr.
Again, using the cost diagram to estimate the gasrecycle costs for a base-case gasrecycle flow of 3371 mol/br gives

i#r(158+86+109+172)-24(xSI0)/yr) .

(9.3-7)

Hence, the total cost savings from recycling the diphenyl is approximately
Tot Savings - 840

+ 76 -

14 - 24 = 878 (x SlOl/yr)

(9.3-8)

This alternative leads to significant savings and should be evaluated io greater

detail. Note that if we rec)'CIe tbe diphenyl, .....e expect that the optimum conversion
will change dramatically (up to about 9g %) because the economic trade-offs wiU
change. Hence, it is necessal)' to repeat the calculations for this case.

o. A. HOllgeD and Ie M Watson.

VOlk. 1947. P 875.

C"","~pll'tpUJJl'ta.tlplu.1ll

K"'l'llCJ ""Ii CQftl1r~iJ, Wiley. New

>H;nON ~J

Purification or the G.IlIsRecycie Stream

The cost of the exc~ hydrogen fed to the process is also very large. Most of this
excess hydrogen leaves the process with the purge stream (40% 1-1 1 ), and the
potential savings from reducing the hydrogen loss from the cost diagram IS about
II~

Saving> .... 2163 - 685 = 1478 (x SIO)/yr)

(9.3-9)

If we InSlall a hydmgen recovery umt, such as a membrane separalOr, ....e ch,mge

both the o\'erall and the recycle material balances. Suppose we purify the recycle
stream to 95% H~, the same as the feed composit..ion Estimates orlhe new process
flows are shown in Fig 9,3-1 The reduction m Ihe gas-rcc)de flow from 3371 to
1628 leads 10
Gas-Rccycle Saving = (I -OOXI72 + 109+ 158 + 86)

= 271 (x SIOJ/yr)

(9.3-10)

Stmilarl)' the reduclion of the hydrogen feed rate saves

287.4 + 273\
H 2 Feed SaVings = ( 1- 496 + 273 tl60 + 36 + 56)
=

68 (x SIO)/yr)

(9.3-11)

(Note that we do nOI mclude the stabilizer and the benzene column fresh feed
prOCCS$mg COSIS 10 thiS calculallon because lhey aTe DOl affected by the hydrogen
feed flow rate.)
The tOial savings from purifying the hydrogen-recycle stream (neglcctlng the
fuel value of melhane and the 1055 of some hydrogen 10 the purge) are
Potential Savings = 1478

+ 271

+ 68

= 1817(x SIO)/yr)

(9.3-12)

However, we must pay for the membrane separator from these savings_ Unfortunately, Ihere is no cost correlatioo available for membrane separators, and
951. H l
287.4

951. H2 recycle
1628.4

951. H2/CH.
Separator

t
Separator

Reaclor

Toluene
273

CH.
287.4

B
265

Thluene recycle

91

"-IGUME: 9.3-1
PunrYlnllhc ICCy<;1e IlIum [F'(Im J 101 Do",/IIU QTld D C W<l<Nkod', 1,fEe !',oc Du Dn1 2. 470
(l98J) ]

QUIet. SCUENI/<;(i Of PMOCI:.SS AlTUNATI"f.!i

307

therefore we cannot cSllmatc the incremental cost. Nevertheless, our qUick

estimates mdicate that we should explore this poSSibility in more detail
AI.MIliote thallhe large recycle flow of methane (60% CH. In the recycle gOb)
acU; as a heal carrier (diluent), This additional flow hmits the exit temperature from
the adlaballC reactor to below 13()(t'F If 1Ae remove most of the methane from the
reqcle stream. a.:. shown III Fig 9.3-1, we might exceed our reaelor temperalure
constramt If this shoulJ prme to be: the case, .....e would change the de>lgn of the
hydrogen purificanon unH 10 allow morc IJlCthane 10 be recycled or course. this
would also require lhal we adJusl our eSllmates of the savings

Other Decisions
We can use this same proocdure to obtain a Mgr0S5~ estimate of tbe economic
impact of changing our other decisions. In panieular, the heatiog and cooling costs
are significant, so we want to consider olher energy integration alternatives
Similarly.....e mlghl want to conSIder the use of complex diSlilJallon columns
(sidestream, sldcstream stnppers, elc.) 10 an allempt to reduce: the costs. The
estlmares arc not very accurate. bUI they help to decide whal addit..ional design
calculallOns can be: Justified

Incenthe for Changing Process Constraints

The problem statement Imposes a constramt on the hydrogen-In.-aromalics rallo at
Ihe reactor lOlet of 5/1 10 order to prevent coke formation. Howe\ler. there IS
probabl) some uncertaint) associated with this conslrainl; i.e.. it is unliJ.e1y Ihat a
chemist would undertake numerous experiments to determine an exact cokmg
Iimil for a 1A-ide range of conversions, reactor temperatures and pressures, etc.
Instead, the chemISt would probably set the rallo 10 a sufficiently high \alue that
coking was oe\'er encouotered (or occurred very slowly).
II IS desirable to esumate the economic incentive for reducmg this ralio in
order to Juslify the cost of addirlOnal expenments. This justification needs to be
accomplished suffictently early in the development of a project thai the chemist's
apparatus or the pilot plant has not yet been dismanlled. Again, we can usc Ihe: COSI
diagram ID making these economic eSlimales.
If we reduce Ihe hydrogen-la-aromatics ralio for Ihe basc-<ase desIgn to 3/1
(Rase suggestS a 2/1 rallo), the gas-recycle flow is approximately CUI in half Then
the savings arc
Savmgsfrom l-I J {foluene =0.5(158

+ 86+ 109+

172)

= 262(x SIO)/yr)

U F Ra.c, Ck"ucal R'llCla,

New

Yor~

t977. p l60

/)~~,g"

la,

!'.ucns PI""IS, yol 2 C"sr SI"dJtI and

(9.3-13)

D~s'!l"

D"I", WIley,

30S

SFellON U

HO" ...OCESS

MellON"

The operability (coking) or the plant must be verified experimentally berore any
detailed design studies are undertaken. However, now we have a justification ror
carrying out additional experimental work. (Coking data ror plant scale application are extremely difficult to obtam In a laboratory experiment. and a considerable
amount orJudgment IS required to mterpret the results.)

Gas recycle

Once "'"C ha'"C dctcmuned these screening estimates or the proo::ss alternatl\-es. ".iC
want to use our design procedure again to obtam all improved estimate orthc lotal
processing costs. We contmue to use shortcut calculations ror those reVisions until
we are certain that the project.seems to be profitable; i.e-. we must add the costs ror
pumps. reflux drums, slorage.. control, safety. poUutiOD, labor, maintenance, etc.
Om::e all these other ractors have been included in tbe analysis. we repeat all the
design calculations, using more rigorous procedures and a computer-aided design
program such as FLOWTRAN, PROCESS, DESIGN 2000. ASPEN, etc. Howe\'er, our goal at this poillt is to find the best prOCieSs alternative. or the best rew
process altematives.
or course, to compare two alternatives. we must detennine the optimum
design conditions ror each. We have used a case study approach to estimate the
optimum design conditions, but there is also an approximate optimi7;llion
procedure that we could usc. ThiS method is described in Chap. 10.

HDA PROCESS

Our gross scrccntng procedure indlcales that there is a large economIc mcenthe ror
recycling Ihe dlphenyl alld (or reco\'eriog some or the hydrogen rrom the purge
stream. There docs not soem to be a design procedure or a cost correlatioll
available in tbe literatuu ror a membrane separation system. but we can evaluate
tbe savmgs from recycling the dipbenyl using the procedures we described
previously. Of course. Wbcll we compau proocss alternatives, we "'ant to compare
them at their optimum values., and so we want to impro\'e the estimate we obtained
hy using our gross screening calculations.

RcC)"cling Dipbenyl-Optimum Design

The reactions ror the H DA proocss are

+ 1-1) ..... Benzene + CH..

2Benttne~Diphenyl + Hz

309

Purge

Toluene reed

Revising 1M B.se-Caw Design

9.4

HIlA I'IlOCESS

Toluene

(9.4-1)

If we recycle the diphenyl so that II bUilds up to its equilibrium level, we efTccli\cJy

have only one reaction taking platt Our heuristic for the optimum conversion ror
a singJe reaction is approximately :r = 0.98; we trade only reactor costs againsl

Toluene
recyde
Il<nuo<

FleURE 9.<4-1
HDA process ..,th dJpbrn~1 recyded-altcmllUvtc 1 (Fr_ D L TnT;(J antJ J M Dawgltu. I&.C
~(;h. 26 645 (198 ..... .. .,11 ~W_ of llttt A_,i(:aIt CItm!I(;.J $wtr]

reC}"ck costs. Hov.e\er. we want to check Ihis hcuristK: because conversion

normally is such an important design variable.
Sensiti"ity or the Optimum Design to Ene:rgy
IntrgTatioD

Several alternatiH: hcat-exchanger networks ror the HDA process With diphenyl
req'ck were developed by Terrill and Douglas and are shown in Figs. 9.4-1
through 9.4--5. The optImum costs for these alternatives as well as the approximate
procedure presented in Sec_ 8.3 are given in Table 9.4-1. The best altemalive ror the
case wilh recycle has a cost or S3.57 x 106/yr compared to S4.73 x I06/yr ror the
case or diphenyl recovery. which is a significant change. The optimum conversion
and purge compoSlllon ror the case with rCl;yde are x _ 0.911 and Y,.II = 0.293 a<;

l)

L Tcrnlllnd 1 M DoUlLlu. J<fEC

R~t:h.

26 68S (1987).

310

SfCllO~ H

SfcnOl'! 9<

111M P.ocess

Purge

311

HI)A rux;ESS

Purg~

GaJi recycle

Gas recycle
H 2 feed

Toluene feed
Toluene

Y FEHE ~ FEHE1l1Fumace

WaitT

Reado,

cooler

'''''

H2

l...i FEHE

hrl

~Q

CH~

,
"8 t-",
E

Be"",,,,,

r0

~
~

r=::::J .-- '---

WaterL Flash
roolerr.

FurnacetlRcaetor

,E

,
:D

;;;

~'r

..' CURE '.4-2

HOI. prO(:CU: W1th d,pboen)1 Rq'c1ed-a\l(flU,u,'( 2. (F~_ 0 L T~".II....J J M o-g/;;u. tHC
1UMwdr., 26 M1 (1981), ,..,10 pmmss_ of 1M .4........ IC411 ClwmlCai Soc.,.f,.]

H2

CH~

r-

<

<

recycle

Flash

Toluene

FEHE

~~,q"
<

"

"8

i5

l(

f~

FlGl.RE 9.4-3
HDA procas ,,"h dlphcll)1 1~"1ed .h(flUlllW: 3 (F,_ 0 L T#'rrJ! lUId J M
~ch, 26 68~ (/yj '',t .. ,,10 ~ttmJJJlM of llot .4 ....... r"" CIw""",GI SocwIY]

~hu,

IdLe

312

Sl!CTION , .

!lOA

HCIlON , .

nocas
Gas recycle

NO" nocESS

313

Purge
Gas recycle

Toluene feed

Toluene
recycle

Purge

Toluene
recycle

FIGURE , .....
HOI. prOQrM .-llh d,pbUlJI rocydcd~.IIet1l.l!V'C 4 (F~_ D. L T".nJl aNi J M Dowgltu, IdLe
k_rla. l ' 6fJ (11187). "'rllI~....uuo.. of'~ A_..(.... CItnnKtM SonrfJ',)

FIGURE '-'-5
HOI. prOl::l<SS .... Ih dlphcnyl lU)'ded .hefmluV'C J [F~_ D L TrrrJI.,J J /of Dougltu, I<lEe
IWNtJlUt. 26 6fJ (l1lI7). ."IIp-r.... wlOft of I~ A"",."'.... CltnotJcfl1 SocIf'I}'.)

compared

10 .\

= 0675 .. nd

)',11 "--

0323 for the process Wllh a

dlphen~1

by-

product..

If .....e had used the onglllat base-case: flows (that IS, X "" 0.75. J",.H = 04). the
cost would hd\C been S492 )( IO'/yr, which demonstrates the new for optImization We also note lhal the optimum design conditions arc rclallvely msenSI!l\C 10
lhe structure of the heal-cxchanger network, prOVIding lhat we: obtain c10lot 10 the
maximum energy recO\cr)

.,E

~l
0-

9.5 SUMMARY. EXERCISE, AND

NOMENCLAT R

Summary

A cos[ diagram IS prepared by wrHlng the: annualized capllal cost of each

slgmficant piece of equipment Inside the: equipment box on the flowshc:c! and by

.
cO
_ c

allaching Ihe: values of Ihe sIgnificant operating costs to the stream arro.... ~ The

cost diagram IS useful for checking heunstlcs. for mfc:rnng the: desirabllll) of
strucluraJ changes In lhe flowsheet, and for helping 10 idenlify lhe Significant design
vanables. The cost dIagram IS also useful for Obfalnlng \'cry qUIck, but nOl ler)
accurate, esumales of cOSts associaled With various proa:ss allernallvcs_

Exercise

95-L For an} of thc processes thai you ha\'c dcslgned, devclop a complclc hSI or
ahCmall\CS ror Ihc mpUl-OUlplJl SIrUf;lurc (Icvcl 2) and Ihc recyclc slruC1urc (le\c1J)
Also dc\c1op a COSI diagram for the process and dlSC:uss the economIc trade-offs
Descnbe ho.. dlC' CCOnf'mlC trade-offs for Ihc alternallves diKer from .hose ollM

base-ea.sc dcs.ln, aDd u c thc (:(1 diagram

assoaaled with one ollM altcrnatlves..

J
u

omenclature

Benzene
D

H,
K

314

Benzene flow
Dlphenyl /low

H)drogen flo ....

EqUIlibrium conslanl

10

csumale

lbe lilt\"mgs

(or !0iCS)

PART

III
OTHER
DESIGN
TOOLS AND
APPLICATIONS

317

CHAPTER

10
PRELIMINARY
PROCESS
OPTIMIZATIO

Numerous tellls discuss ngorous optImizatiOn analYSIS- lIo....(\cr, at this stage of

our designs. the goal is to compare twO or more prOttss alternatives \loben each is
-close" 10 its optimum design condillons. Thus, we defer an exact oplimizatlon
until we have selected the best altcrnatj."c and until we are <:erlain thaI we Will
proceed with a final design; Le., we only develop a sufficient amount of accuracy 10
be able 10 make the next decision in a sequence of decisions.
In Ihis chapler we descnbe an apprOllimale optlmization analysis that has
been developed by Fisher. Doherty. and Douglas. The objocth'cs arc 10 dClcnnmc
the dOIJIl"anl economic trade-offs for each design variable, 10 rank-order the
importance of I.hc design variables, and 10 estimate the incentive for optimizing a
design (i.e. is our initIal guess good enough. or should .....e try to improve il?). Thus,
.....e want 10 gel dose: to tbe optimum without necessarily determining the exact
value: or the: optimum. We: again use the shortcut dcslgn and cost moods ror our
analysis.

W II.

F~her,

M F DoMny. aad J M Doupl,

~Eqlu.llnl S,pdicul Econom~ Tradc-o&

P r _ Durp aad Slud,-Sla,c CO,lIfOt OpumlUuoa Prol>lcaQ..- AICIl./.]1 IHI

ror

(19U~

319

320

SECnol'l 10.1

10.1

SClIOl'l 101

OUION VA'-!AILES ANI> (COHOMJC TVlO'oFTS

OUION V....1Jl.LU .1.1"0 ~MIC TVlO(.()rr'S

321

CSTR; Firstorder reaction

DESIGN VARIABLES AND ECONOMIC

600,--------=:..:..:.:::..:..:.::::...::..:"------,

TRADE-OFFS
Much or the optimization literature spends a great deal or time discussing the local
versus global optima. the issue or convexity, constrained optimizations. etc. lienee:.
we need to understand the basic nature or design optimu.ations berore we
undertake any analysis. We begin by considering two simple examples. and then ....e
attempt 10 generalize the results.
E.umpk 10.1-' R"CIOt Ulmpk. Process deugn optlmi7.atl0Il5 .rc al.......,.s chal.cteriud by economic ludeolrs. For uampk. Lcvell$pielo describes the design or an
ovcBlmpli.6cd proo:::u COOlllOlOl only I reactor. For a reaction A -0 B. rree separarion 01 reactant and product, and I requirement thlt unconverted react ani Clnnot be
recyclcd. tbe total cost 01 tbe process involu~$ an economk trade-off between vcry
high ra...m.lerial OMt and a 10... reactor cost at 10... coDvef5ions baJanced .s.instlo...
n....materi.l cott and I very higb reactor COlt al high cor",erltons.. ThU$,. ..~ ..:rite a
total annual cost (TAq model as

(10.1-1)

TAC_C,F,+C... V.

os

0.3

The constrlmu 011 the system relate the production rate P to the rresh reed rate
F, Ind thc conttef5JOn

by

p _

F,~

o "" Raw material

(IOI-2)

.nd the desIgn equallnn ror the reactor (...e a!oliumc a firsl-ordcr. ISOlhermal rcanIDII
ID a CSTR) is

0.9

0.7

ConYeJSion
+= Reactor

0:

rAe

flGlJRE 1ll.1-1
ReadDf C.=IlIP'

(101-])

AD design problems hue this same structure, ic.. I cost model and equ.lity
constralnlS. Wc coukltry 10 solve the probkm as a a>nswned optimiution. bUI il is
simpler merely to usc Eqs. 10.1-2 .nd 10.1-3 to eliminatc the variabies F, and .'f: from
the problem. After Ihls drmlD.tioll OUT cost model becolDC$
TAC _C,P
_ +,~C~,~.~p~
~

kp(1

(10.1-4)

~)

The rlw-malerial COIl monotonically decreases from In unbounded value .t

_ 0 to iu smallesl possible value ...hen .:J: _ l. Also the reactor CO$t increases
monotonically rrom its smallest possible value ...heD .:J: - 0 to an unbounded value
when ~ _ I. Thus, there must be an optimum valuc or ~ which minimizes the COSl
This optimum must correspood to. global minimum, and Ihe minimum can nCVl:r be
II a constraint. Usiog the values given by Levenspiel, we obtain thc results shown in
Fig. 10.1-1.
Design problems normally are characterized hy this samc type or beh.vior. i.e..
a halanoe between monotonK:ally increasing and monotonically decreasing cost
~

fuoctJons More<l\'er. the) usually SoCCffi to be oon'~x and 10 ha'e a global opllmum
The c:<:onomic.potenl1al g.phs used for the development or a base-easc dCSlgo and an
C'Stim.te of the optlmum processing conc:htions thai "'crc JK"CSC'lted In Chaps. 6
thtough 8 a.Iso demonstr.te this type of behavior.

Example 10.1-2 Mioimom refluJt ratio ia I distillation ~om.-ComlaaI-,oI.tility

Jl"Jtems. A COSI model ror. dIStillation column in terms or tbe number or trays and
the vapor file can be wntlen as (5CC Appendices A_2. A.3. and A.4)
TAC _ C,N lVO'

+ C) VO' + C, V

(IO.I-S)

where C 1 includes the .noualiud cost ortbc oolumn shell and trays, C, includes the
annualized cost of the condenser and reboiler, and C, includes the annual cost of Ihe
cooling waler .Dd steam.
From a malerial ballnce we know tbat

(10.1-6)
For a binar)" mi.-ture with a saturated-liquid reed.
R

l.c~,piel C~Ir<lIIl".crl,,~ F."f1I~uri"l1.

2d eel ,Wiley. Ne.. York.

197~.

p. no

..

(0:

I).x,

(10.1-7)

322

SIl(.TION 1111

OUI(,N V.....IAaLfS "'NO OONOMIC TIlAV.I!_OFFS

SECTIO" 1111

and assumlnll complele recO\ery of Ihe light component,

D - FX F

(101-8)

Thus.

OfSIGN V.... I....LES ... ,.0 ECO,.OMI(: T .... DE_Ons

32.3

TABLE lo.J-1
Optimum reflux ralio

nlOljhr. JI, .. 0 SO. Jr. . . 099.1 .. 099~.

2.0. E .. 0 S. II .. IS ft, All. _ Il.JOO BUI/enol.
U." 100 IItv/lhr fl l ,." 1; .. 111 "-, p .... IS pI.a,
Feed ral" _100

JI ..

1_[ RR.
{a

1)1:,.

+I]Fx

(101-9)

,.

For muhk:ompoocnt mixtures. IIIe use Ihe results of Ghnos and Malonc (!eC Sec. 73)
for R.. alon& .....ilh lbe appcopnalC malerial balance Thus. ...c can aht.-ays ...rile Ihe
vapor rale In lemu of RIR... the feed COmposlllons, as. desired spits. elc
Whcn R IS close to R GIllJlaoo's correlalJOIl, or the appro:untallOn N :::= 1N...
gives poor results. However, for bmary systems ....e can usc Smo"e!'s equation 10
caJculalc the: num~r of Inys, .... hile for muhicompoocnl mi.llures ...e can use
Underwood's equalion (!eC Appcodil A_1). 10 bolh cascs. the num~r of theorelK:al
trays becomes uobouodcd u RIR_ approaches uoily. and tbe number or trays
decreases monotonically 10 Fenskc's solution for lbe OlIntmum Dumber tf RIR..
becomes unbounded.
The: various lerms 10 Ihe cost model arc !i.bo...-o 10 FIr; 10 1-2 for lhe values Il\'en
m Table 10.1.1. APJo Ihere IS a Jl,IobaJ mintmum. Note thai tbe column COSts also
ahlbn a mlOlmwu. Ie.. tbe height decreases but the dQmclcr n)(:reases as RIR..
ioaeases. From Fig 10.1-1 ..e ~ thallhe COILS iocruse rapldl), If ... e fall below tbe
opumum.lxlllDCt"tUe only Yef) slowly u weac:ecd Ibcopumum. For thIS reason...e

--

Smoler's equauon

320
300
2
2

':

220 200
I
I

(.. - Ip.,

V-(R+I)D

Sro<>k...s cq"'UOIl to calculale Ihco,ehQ.llrays - N r

H _H,
_

'.

H,_2(N_I) ... H.

Dr - OOI64(,/11l119M..(T, ... ~XI"l"S20Pr))"

M&S
ColulM Co.! - - (J 28)(101 1D' ........"
n, , ...
,0)

M&..S
6H ) ...
CondcMCJ~ :u.o (J29XIOI} UA~.
V-"I)

M&S

611, ) ... ....j)

Rebollc,_ 280 (J29)(IOll

Sleam -

11.250

H"
( ) X'ill
(O""X ' X
lOOJ

81S011'

-1000

-1.}4

)() "

IlSOlV

ofteo lei RIR.. _ I 1, 10 ensure Ihat ....e arc "bovc tbc optimum. bUI Ihat ....c arc shll
within the neighborhood of the opumum.

I 20
I 00

Recycle and Product Distribution "ersus Unit

Optimizations

80 1'0.
60

401-

2~~

1.2

1.4

I.,

1.6
R/RmJJJ

t-

I 40 I-

R ----

Cool W"'''r _

101.. " 92. MaS _ ISO

Column

+=

FIGURE 10.11
0punlum renUl ral'O

Conden.sor <> = Rc:b.ailer 6 = Steam

>l _

Cool v _ TAC

In the examples above we considered optimum design problems for sin.&le-proccss

unils. However, the same type of behavior is encountered whcn we con~lder r~)'c1e
optimization problems, We define a recycle oplimi~ation to be Ihe optlm~zatlon ?f
a design variable that affects the capilal and operatmg cost~ or all ~he equlpmenl m
a recycle loop. In contrast, unit optimizatIons concern deSign ~anables thaI affect
only a single piece of equIpment or a few adjacent pieces of eqUIpment ObVIously.
....e expect that recycle opttml,tatlons and Ihose that affect the product dlstnbullon
will be more Imporlanl than umt opumizalions
To illustrate recycle and unll oplimi.t:allons. wc retum 10 the HDA process.

324

5ECflON Itl

DUIGN ......ll;IULf.S ... NO l!COi'IOlollC

Eumptt, 10.I.J

Sf.cnoo;: 101

rllAu'olTS

&-,tn,k I....r-<>/f,. .. lIoe BDA

,..oasI

(a) COIfl:w-siolI Normally it is possible 10 correlate tbe product d15tnbuhon fOl a

process in terms oIlbe conve!'$ion otlhe I1mllln! reaClant (althoup

to

some Cil5C:!i

the reaclton temperature and the molar ratio 01 react.ants are abo Important). For
a filed belW:ne prodocllOn rate in the BOA process (see FiS-I.Il).2). tbe reactor

and the seleetrVity losses (from lXln...enton of OlXSli toluene feed to diphenyl
by-pcoducl) Increase monotonically as the conversion mcreases, Ho.....e"er. the
cost ot recm<:nn~ aoo lyeling the uncon"crled lolucnc dc:crea5C$ monotonically
15 tbe con.ersien Increases. The selection 01 the conversion dramatICally affrcts
the Ro .....s In bolh the liqUid and the gas (a 5/1 hydrogen-lo-toluene ratIO lS
required at the reactor mlel) recycle loops and hence Bffrcts the design of each
piece of equipment In the flowshccL Therefote, we classify thlS as a recycle
optimintion problem. There are no rules of thumb that can be used to estimate
the optimum conveT$ion for complel reactions, because the op1imum depends on
the selectivity los5C:!i, which are ...ery different for varioWi reaction systems.
(b) rurfle OOntPOSltlO1l. Wbenever there is I ~Iight~ reactlnt and eIther a ~l1gh1
impuri1y in a foed stre.m or a -light~ by-product formed (..... here ~hght- implies
havmg a 10llier boihn@ point thao propylene). it is ODn"entlonal 10 use a ~as
req"dc aDd purge stram to remove the nonreactants from the pr0CC$5.. As lhe
reactant composlUon In the purge sr.rum increa'5C:$, the raw-material cost of the
reaet.lLllt will U1Cl'easc molJOtouic:llly. Uo~vcr. as the: reactant composition in the
purge da:7casc:5. the ps-recyde lIow rite and all lhe costs associated WIth
equipment m lhe psrecyde loop ",i11Increa5C monOlonically 10 an unbounded
value. 1bcrefore. the selection of lbe composItion of tbe hght Teat1anl (hydr08en)
10 the purge stream (or lbe ocess hydroaen feed to the process) corresponds to 1
recycle optimrzatlon. Agam. there are no rules of thumb lI"ailabic for eslimatm~
the oplimum pur~e composition
(c) Molar rotio of rtar/or fuds. As tht molar ratio of react.nts (II ,IT) approaches
the stoichiometric requlfement for the reaction, the cost of eqUIpment in the
vapor-recycle loop IS mmimized. To pre...ent coling and the producrion of
undesired by-products. ho....ever, I large UlXSli of hydrogen is required (~ 5/1)
Although the selectIon of this molar ratio corresponds to I recycle optimizatIOn.
this design ...anable is often very dtfficult to incorporate into I process economic
model because: of the unknown coking kinetics. Hence. it is often treated as a
design constraint In order to avoid the oplimization analysis.
(4) PrtBWtof lite jftUIt drwnlUld rrocrlJ' prtuvre. As the pressure oIthe flash drum IS
inc:reasc:d, lhe amount of aromatics IosIIO the purge stream dcae:ases monolonlcally. However. as Ihe pressure is increased, the waJlthickness Ind Ihe cost 01 all
the equipmcnl In tbe ps-rttyde loop inaa.ses. 'Therefore.. we dassify tbe
selcction of tbe flash pressure as a recycle optimization.
The pressure of the Rash drum ob...iously is related to lhe teaClor prcssure.
In some cases, ch.nging tbe reaoor pressure may affect the equilibrium converSIOn, the produCi dlStribulion, or tbe phase oItbe reactants. lIenoe. purge losses
arc only one factor that might alfectthe optimum pressure. And the trade-offs will
change if we 1051111 a "apor recovery system
(e) Approach rem~'aturl' on ~al excltottgen There .re rules of thumb lIv311able for
estimatlDgthe optimum approach temperature In heat e;o;changers. These roles of
thumb are not always ....ltd. however, because the selection of the approach
temrcrature can lO\o1\e '-cry different econormc trade-offs for varIOus units..
0051

DUIGN "'UIAKf.S AHI) f:COt"OlollC tlADf:.OH'S

32S

The optlmlzalloll or the Ippmaeh temperature for the fttd-<,fflucnt heat

elchanger, for ellBmple. invoh-cs a trade-off betwccn the size of this Cllehangcr
and the SI1Z of both the furnace Ind the parrilli condenser (Smce only a few units
affect Ihe opumum .pproach temperature. "-c ca1lthls a urnt opllmlUtlOn.) The
appcoac:h temperature bct..ccn the feed 10 the flasb drum and the coollDg-.ater
inlet rempe-ratute to tne partial condenser. bo.e,er, In...ol\"cs a trade-off between
the size of tf10e p3rtlal condenser Ind lhe lOS!! of aromatics 10 the purge stream as
the flash telnpclature ch31ng~. (AgaIn. thIS IS a urnl optlmluuon ) The Opllmum
.d Ts for these t.. oelchan~rsdiffer by 2 orders 01 mar;nttude In the IIDA process
(1 K for the partl.1 condenser and 100 K fOf the FEtlE) C1eatly.lhlS dl5Cfepaocy
cannot be accounted for by the P\lbhshcd heuristics. or course. If a ...apor reee\er)
syslem IS Included 10 the flowshcct. the Irade-offs will change
Whenever an energy integration an. lysis (see Chap 8) 15 performed. which
is always In important consldeul1on. Ihe millimum !.IT at the pinch is all
opllrniutio n ...anable that normally m ... olves a Irade-olf bct..ccn e!l"Changc:r area
(i.e.. capllal COSts) and the uultty requlremcnls (i.e~ operal1ng costs)
U) ReJlux ratio. There IS an opumum reflul rallO for each dlStlllauon column that
balances the Incremcmal number of p4atcs agalOSl the eombmcd costs of the
column dIameter, the condenser and rebc:M.ler costs. and the steam and cooling.
..-ater cosu (see Ellampk 1012). ThlS 15 a urnt opllmlutlon. Ind ..-C note that a
rule 01 thumb 15 aVilllabk rOt csltmalln!- opumum reflul callOS
(g) FrtKfiOtlt1/ rtHKl'rln In tlunlltJIlOfl ~01l1l11lU Sif'lCe only the prodllC1 compos1Uon
01 bcruene 15 SpeCIfied. the fraeltOlial recoveries of belW:ne o'erhcad 10 the
product column and the four sphts 10 lhe srab!IQeT and recycle columns
corrcspond 10 opilmlZalJOn ...anablcs. For cxampk, the fradional rcc:o\"Cty of
belW:M In the product column m...olves the trade-off of mcrernentaltra)'li in the
S1npplOg SCClIon and the cost of recyehllg benzene bltck through the reactor we
COMider Ihese trade-offs to be unit opumlUtions. A rule or thumb of ~realer thllll
99% reco\enes IS a\-ailable, but a quick cstimate of the optimum can also be
e....luated (see Fisher, Doherty. and DoUg/liS).
Eump&r 10.1... A simplific.d ,rt"5toa of bUlaDC IlkylalHMl. We WIsh to illuslrate some
Important design variables that are not encountered in the IIDA process. For IhlS
purpose ..e consider I very simplified ...erslon of a butaneallr.ylallon process. .....here "e
assume that the onl)' reactions are

+ i-C"H 1 jC.H ..
C.II. + i-C.B .. -CUH 11i
C"H,

-0

(10.110)
(IO.I-II)

and "-e assume that the feed streams arc pure C.H. and i-C.ll lo ' A SImplified
Rowsbcet is shown 10 Fil- 101-3.
Now we assume lhal 1 < 1 and tbalthe reaction klOetlCS are indicated by the
stOichiometry The economic trade-offs for thiS eX3mple arc thell as follows:
(a) Convvsion The produCI distribution is degraded as the conversion of C.I-J I Increases, and there is abo an economic trade-orr belWf:Cn high rellC!or cost al high
conversion and la.rge recycle costs al low conversions TIlls is a rceyck ua.deolf

W R rehe. M F Oohcrlr. and J M DooII.... ~Sbort-CUt Calculluons ofOptlmal Rrxoverv

F.aetIOM lOf 1),51lll1tlOlI Cofumns.- I<fEe I'rM [NJ Dn!_ U 955 (19I~)

326

~EcnON 10 I

SEcI10N 10/

DESIGN VARJABlES AND ECONOMIC nAnf-OfFS

,~

Reactor
..
----l~~.":.J----l"8
-

'----1

~OOEl..S

rna paoa:ss

l'NiTS

327

We upect that these OptimlUltlOns Will usually correspond to a global

optimum and that normally the optimum will not be at a constraint (the exception
corresponds to coking constraints) The case-study approach for evaluating the
economic potential that was described in Chaps. 5 through 8 can be used to verify
this behavior, if necessary. The case studIes also indicate the sensltlvity, i C.,
"flatness," of the opumum, whIch is always tnformation lhat we desire

C.. recycle

2i-C..
C

cosr

Umitations of tbe Optimiz.luion Analysis

"8

For the purpose of screening alternatives, we are only attempting to get in the
neighborhood of the optimum design conditions. Thus, we use shortcut design and
cost models. We also assume that equipment sizes are continuous and that we are
not in a region where the materials of construction change as we change the reactor
temperature. Our initial goals are to screen out unprofitable processes and/or to
make a first evaluation as to whether a few process alternatives appear to be
sufficiently profitable to warrant an additional design effort.

,E

j
C O2

FIGURE 10.1-3

Simphfied lIowsh""'t for bulanc alkylation

(b) RttJl:/or ItmpvtJf ..'c. High temperatures correspond

10 large sdeclivily losses, but

small reactors, ..... berea~ tbe opposile is lrue al low lempera1l.lres The rcaclOr
temperalure is a product dislribullon oplimization problem.
(c) Mola, 'Illio afreactants. Large i-C~H IQ/C~H, ratjo~ decrease Ihe sclecllvlty losses
but lead 10 large recycle costs of i-C~Hlo, and vice versa. Again .....e oblain a
recycle optimization.
(d) Rejfw. ,alrOS. There is an optimum rel'lw: ratio for each column. This IS a unit
optimization.
(e) F,acl;antll ,ecoveries. There are two optimum fractional recoveries in lhe fir~t
column and one in lhe product column (the product composition.is assumed to be
fixed). Even though the fractional recovery of I-C. overhead in the first lower
involves a trade-off between incremental trays in the rectifying section and recycle
of i-C, back through the reactor, we often classify this as a unit optimization
probkm because we ellpectthat the optimum value of the recycle Dow of i-C, will
be quite small (ie., we npect tbal greater than 99% recoveries of i-C. arc
warranted).

10.2

COST MODELS FOR PROCESS UNITS

Once the material and energy balances have been estimated for the process, we can
usc shortcut design procedure~ to calculate the equipment sizes. Then we can usc
Guthrie's correlations (see Appendix E.2) to calculate the installed eqUipment cost.
We can put these installed costs on an annualized basis by using a capJlal charge
faclor, say,! yr, and we can calculate the utility costs. Thus, we assume that we have
completed a base-case design.
To mlOlmlZe the amount of computation required for process optlmizalion,
we use variable elimination and the appropriate design equations to write the
annualized capital cost of each ~slgnificant" (i.e., expensive) piece of equipment
and each operating COSt in terms of the process flow rales. Next we use the
approximate material balances described in Chaps. 5 and 6 to relate all the process
flows to the significant design variables. Several examples of cost models of this
type are presented here.

Hear Exchangers
Guthrie (see Appendix E.2) indicates that the installed cost of a beat exchanger can
be written as

Significant Design Variables

The most significant optimization variables involve product distribution or the
recycle trade-offs. They include all the design variables that affect the process flow
rates (conversion, purge composition, molar ratios of reactants, and possibly the
reactor temperature and pressure). Unfortunately, there are no rules of thumb to
select any of these variables. Thus, an optimization analysis of some type is rquired
to fix the process flow rates.

J A)'."

C.c = CA'liI,\A.c

(10.2-1)

We include the capital charge factor of! yr in the base cost so that all quantities arc
on an annualized basis. The heat-ellchanger area can nomlally be calculated from
the equation
Q = FC~AI = VA AT",

(10.2-2)

SI!CTlON ICI.2

For constanl v.lues of C, and U. we caD use Eq 10.2-2 10 eliminate A from Eq

10.2-1 to oblaln

In

a tubular reactor, the design equation is

(10.2-3)

or. Jf the Siream lemperatures are fixed,

329

Isothermal Plug Flow Reacior

For a firsl-order isothermal reaCllon

Flul'J.T
C,.-C,.
--~ ) ' "
...{.1.T",Fac Af-e

CO$T MODU reI. ,.l.ocu:I ID<Jl1I

V=-In-kp
I - x

(102-13)

1be ,"stalk<! cost of thiS reactor can be wriuen as

F)'"

(102-4)

C,. = C"'\Fw:

Thus. we have a simple model for heal-exchanger costs

In

lenns of the "ows.

C Il

CIl'-{I'~':J06J

,",

(10.2-14)

We can relate the COSI of the reaCIor for any con\ersion 10 the cost or the reactor at
base-case condllions as follows'
(102-15)

Heal-Exchanger UtilitK-s
For cooling water We can write

Ccr=Ccr. (~)

(10.2-5)

\For.-e

Furnaces
Available cost models for direct fired heaters relate the inslalled COSIIO Ihe furnace
heat dUly onl) For example,

Then from a heat balance we find

(102-6)

Q, )'"

en. =

(102-16)

C,.".IK ( Q,..IC

and thus we obtain

The (sensible) heat dUly for the furnace is

(10.2-7)

(10,2-17)

Q,. = FC,dt

so that our cost model becomes

which relates the cooling-water cost to the "ow and temperatures. Again. for fixed
temperatures

Ccr = Ccr.-{r:)

(10_2-8)

So

0'

Cr =

(F)'"

Cr'''\F-e

(10.2-18)

The installed cost for. compressor (camp) can be related to the required brake

W,
CSTM 8C - -

(10.2-9J

Q = FC, At = Ws dH s

(10.2-10)

W S. IC

and

F t., )'"
F IIC AI IC

Compressors

The results for steam are similar:

CSf...

C,.".... C,."..

cITW ~CSlM.

Ft.,
K

AI

(10.2-11)

horsepower (B bp = power/efficiency) by

j B )'""
C_,"C_"\~
The power required for iseolTopic compression of an ideal-gas stream is

Power 3.OJ)(IO-SPleFI'[(P_)' I]
~
1)("C.
=

or. for filled temperatures,

(102-12)

(10.2-19)

where

)'

(('. CI"

60p

P_,

(10.2-20)
(10.2-21)

330

SECIION 107

COST NOOEU FOl ~lOCESS UNITS

COST "'OPEU fOl ~aOCl:'SS UNITS

Sf{110N 101

I( the gas composillon IS constant and lhe inlel and outlet pressures are roughly
collstant for a fixed nowsheet, then the cosl model bec;;omes

Jr we also wish 10 optimize the reflux ratio, we can use the approximate design
model of Jafarey, Douglas, lind McAvoy
N:

(102-22)
For gas-recycle compressors, both the "apor flow rale and composition may vary
(if the purge composition is opllmlzed,. In thiS case, lhe ratio of heal capacities r
may also be mcluded In the cost model

JJI

In 10:/[1

p~

where

10 p

--

CRR

..( ;""I )jC;("'R"/R~.")]'" "')

I

+ ru,-)(RjR ..

- xf )

(RR. _ 1)2

(10.2-29)

(102-30)

although N should be corrected SO lhal N::::;. IN.. when R R. = 1.2

The iostalled cost of lhe column reboiler aod coodeoser can be wnlleo as

Distillalion Columns
C.

The Installed COSt of a distillation column shell (trays or packing) can be wnllen as
Cd-CM.

- N )' " ' (Om

-) " "
N IC
Dia K

(10.2-23)

The column diameter vanes as the square root oftbe column vapor rate, so we can
write

C.. -C...
The vapor rate

III

the column

IS

N)""(- V)....

YK

""K

I)D

(10.2-25)

If lhe outlet compositions are optimized but the reflux ratio is fixed (at, say. 1.2
limes the: Immmurn), then the COSI modcllS
=

lin SF )0 101(~)0.Sl3

C~ln

~-A.-)'"
A,), ..
~c
A . at:

-A

IC

SFIlC

"K

(10.2-27)

V)'"

(10.2-31)

'"' Cc:. ~V)'."

-

(102-32)

Ca. ~-

VJIC

VIC

the ope:rallng costs for sleam and cooling water can be wrinen as

CSlN -= CSlN

C e..;; cell.

(102-26)

Similarl~,

(10.2-24)

For reasonably sharp spillS With tbe hght component taken overhead, the dlsullate
flow rate is approximately xFF. If tbe outlet composition and reflux ratio are not
optimized, the number of Irays for tbe requlfed separation is essentially constaDt.
For thiS case, our model becomes

C,.

Ct; = Cr:.

gl\en b)
Y={R

-{ ::)

.c( IE)

(10.2-33)

(102.34)

Thc= vapor rale appearing 10 these CApressions IS gt~en by Eq 10.2-25 and the
material balance for a penect spltt The reflull ratio in Eq 10.2-25 can be calculaled
by using Unde,.....ood's equauons or the appro:umations ofGlinos and Malone (see
Appcndu A.2). We can rdate the feed composition 10 these e:l[preSSioDs to the
ute:nt of reactions by uSlOg Simple: male:nal balances.

Total Annual Cost

Once the COSts ha\e been wnncn 10 tcrms of the stre:am flows, we can usc the
simplified material balances illustraled 10 Chaps. 5 and 6 to relale the flows 10 the
design \ariables. Heocc, we can oblam SJmple cost models in tenns of lhe deSign
variables. A model for the total annual COSt of the process is then sllnply the
summallon of the mdlvidual capital and operating costs. We usc these models m
our approximale optimization procedure.

where the separation factor SF is

SF_(

x. )(~)
I - xD
x.

(102-28)

A hluey. J M DoUlll.. ~ and T J McAVOy. ~Shon(\J1 Thmques rot D,snllallon Cotumn Deslsn
and Conuol,M l&!.( PH"" LHs Dn. til 121, \1/1U1l11/1

332

SI!CTlO~ 10

"COST ~ODI'.L

ro. "

SI!CTIO~ '01

SlMrtz ...OCESS

10.3 A COST MODEL FOR A SIMPLE PROCESS

To illustrate the use of cost models in our approximate optimization analysis. we
consider a particular eumple described by Fisher. Doherty. and Douglas. A
flowsheet for the sImple reaction system

A-P- IV

"COST MOOI'.L fOR" SlMnf; nOCF.5$

333

different assumption is used for the column design calculations). Th~ de5lr~d flow
of the product stream is P, and Ihc amount of product contained in this stream to
obtain a product purily X o IS

(10.3-2)

(IOJ-I)

is shown in Fig. 10.3-1. Component P represents the desired product, and Wis a
waste by-product. The kinellcs of both reactions are first-order ....Ith activation
encrpcs E1 < E z The relative volatilltlCS are such that llA> ll,. > ... and \';e
assume that the direct column sequence is favorable. TIle product stream flow rate
and composition are specified, bUI the composition of the waste stream corresponds to a design optimization variabk. The otber optimization variables we wish
to consider are the reactor conversion and temperature as weU as the reflux ratio
for the product column. Several other design variables are available for tbis
prooess, which we have fixed using rules of thumb to simplify the analysis.

If we let 11',. be the amount or product lost in the bolloms of thc product column,
then the fractional rcco\ery of the product f, is

(10.3-3)
We also

ddi~

11K sclectlvily S as

s _ Moles of P in

Reactor Outlet
Moles of A Convcrted

(103-4)

From an overall material balance, we know thatlhe frcsh fced rate of A must be the
sum of the flows of the exit streams

Process Flo1'\s and Stream CoslS

We assume that a feed stream containing pure A is available and that all A fed to
the process is recycled to extinction. That is, for the material balance calculations
we assume a perfect split between A and P in the recycle column (although a

(10.3-5)

F r . A = P -I W

and we are assuming Ihal no A leaves in cithcr Ihe prodUCI or lhc wastc strcams

Th",

S=

J.r-- P

TL..-_w

(10.3-6)

We can comblDC these equations to obtain

,
"8
L.--j

P,. + 11',. P,. + "',.

=
P+ IV
FT,A

_ P,. + W,.
S

1,.1 -

P,. Px"
I,.S - f,.S

(10.3-7)

W=Fl'A-P=~~-I)

,nd

(10.3-8)

Stram Cos15

Assume thai tbe slream costs are

FlGURF. IOJ.-I
Flowshoel for the reaction sysll:m A _ p ..... W [F,om W. It FUM" M. F. DaM..)'. aNi J. M. Doo.gku.
AIClIE J., 31. IJ..M' {/98j}]

Product - (S20/mol) (P molfhr) (8150 hr/yr)

Fresh Feed = (S15.5O/mol)[(Px olf,.S) mol/hrJ(8150 hr/yr)
By-product Value - (SI/moJ)[p(>:o/f,.S

W JI r,sher. M F Doherty, and J DousJas, AIC" J~ 31: 15J8119SS).

(10.3-9)
(10.3-10)

I) mol/hrJ(8ISO hr/yr)
(IOJ-II)

334

SECflON 10 J

A COST l.tOlJEI. fOX A SIlo'lPlE

I'.oa:.ss

SEClION 10 I

Stlecli"ily and Reaclor Model

A <.'QST Io'IOOL fO. A SIIo'IPLE ,.oeESS

335

An approxImate expressIOn for the mllllmum reflux ralio is given by Glinos and

We assume Ihat the rate expressions for firsl-order reactIOns

tubular reaClor are

In

an isolhermal

Malone-

8S

I) (10.3-19)
(10.3.12)

.....here

xr.=I-:t

""xS

X r I'

X, '" = (I -

S)x

(10.3-20)

From Sec. 10.2. Ihe appropnate cost model for thIs case (we use a fixed number of
trays) is

where

k l _46lxlO ll

If ..... e solve the rate equations.,

\'t"C

exp
(-52,500)
RT

(10.3-13)

(10.3-21)

hr- 1
The column vapor rate IS calculaled by

find Ihat

k '- ) (I - x)">JI. - (I - x)]

S = -I ( - x 1. 1 - 1. 1

II : (I.2R.

I)D

= (I.2R.

1{(I-:)Fr . A ]

(10.3-14)

(10322)

1lIc recycle column condenser and reboiler caplIal COSIS arc given by
(10.3.15)
I' ) ' "
Co = Co _- { ~
LK

From a recycle balance .... e obtam

F,

F~=

(I0.3-23)

(10.324)

(10.316)
The associated opera ling cosls are, for cooling water and steam.

and .....e assume Ihat the reaClor COSI IS gIVen by

(103.25)
(10.3-17)
(10.3-26)
Recycle Column
We arc not mlcresled jll opllllll;ring the design of the recycle column (the rCnllX
ratio and fractIonal recoveries) in this case study, but we want to include its cost in
tile economic model We as~ume that the design reflux ratio is 1.2 tllllCS lhe
minimum and lhat lhe theoretical number of trays is about twice the l111nimUI11

No-=2N=
..

2 lD SF
EolnaAI'

Proclucl Colunlll. The dcsllcd ceononuc model for the product column shell is also of
the foml

C.~2 ...

C.hJ.Jt< (

NN )""( I'V] )' '"

lie

l,K

(103-18)
K OlmoS:llnd M ,.

M~;)n~,/dt"C

P'oc /Hs

()ft).2J

764 (l91l4)

(10.3-27)

SfCT1Of<t IOJ

In thIs casc, we use the desIgn model of Jafarey, Douglas, and McAvoy' to esllmate
the optimum renux ralio and the product recovery fraction Thus, we lei

N
-In{o:/[I
where:

5F-(
P=

In /IS
I)/(R/R..)]O S}

(A 2-47)

X~)
X.

Xo

1-

+ (0:

-=
(RIR.. _

TABU IOJ-1

Oasc-<ase calculations

mol"',. ",.-om, " .. 08.

r..-WF.I._099.5 RR -12..nd 0 .. 08

UI 1'_100
From Eq IOJ-H,

'..

(10.3-28)
I -t llXF)

..

mo",'

0390 hr '
-52,~
, - ',r "'0" up I 987(460
--003789hl
+ 90)

(A.2-48)

1)1

F,om F...q 100J.I

The dIstillate composition for lhe product column is filled. and the bottoms
composItion is calculated from
(10-3-19)

011)0 "' ..... _ (I

F.e.h Fttd _

100(0 \199)

Eq 10.3-7Eq IQ.H

WUleFlo'"' .. 110.67

I)D

Eq IOJ9
Eq IOJIO-

Prod. Val..., .. 11_5(IOOXUSO) _ S9 J1~ 10"/)'1"

Similarly, the vapor rate becomes

' (0 J90 OJ'"

s .. oil
003789) [(I

+ I]P

R/R",
(;7""

08)J .. 0901

r.odUCI no... 1' .. 100

x.,, = (Ix - .,fr)XD,rS

IrS

_[

337

\"8

(R/R .. - xFXR/R ..

1'1'" (R

... COS'! l<otOO!. fOIl ~ ~Nrt.l "'UU.5S

'A

11061

100 .. 1061

Eq lQ.J-1I

Feed C~I .. (! 5(11061X81.50) _ S1.666 x 1000jyr

8)'-p.odUC1 V.lue .. 1(l067XSI.50) .. SOOll7 10"1yr

Eq IOJ16

Flo_ to RQCI

Eq 1OJ-15

Rae!. \ oIumt - - - _ "

(10.3-30)

I)S

0\195(0907)

The condenser. reboiler, cooling-waler, and steam costs, respecti,-ely, are gh'en by
(10.3-31)

O.

~ .. 6

(10.3-32)

110..61

D8 J

l)SJ

0)9(0.1)

I - 08

It14 fl'

'

t~ - C~i)L~ - (~X)o:

Dx - {(WxXl1Hlj"

.. 5J2 fl

L~ - 6(5.J2) .. JI9 fl

(10.3-33)

Reat'lor CO$l-Quthnt eoue.lallon for a pressure "e$$d

(10.3-34)

Summary

""WIlt
Me _ 60rcrovtr 0\19.5 of A ovtrne.d and 0991 of P In tlK bot 10m-.., 0 .. 0 '' . A' _~' . ....

A base-case design and a sct of cost cakulations are presented in Table 10.3- I. The
cost functions are developed from tbe basc-case conditions x = 0.8,
= 9<rF.
I, - 0.995, and R _ 1.2R",. We usc this process cost modd to describe: our
simplified optimil..ation procedure.

r.

Sepuauon Faaor - -I.- -I.

t -1.1-1.
f.q IOJI8 N,
f.q 0'\3-2

I A Jafar~y. J M Dougla~.nd T J. McAvoy. /dEC Proc Dtj J),r~ III 121, 197 (1979)

09950991 .. 66.1J.(

Q.Ol).5 0 OOJ

21n66.Il<l
O~ In] -641

Towullc,pt If,

2J", .. I.IJ

Eq rOJ20"JA_' '" I 011-02

K,.-..-S .. 08(0907)_0726
"', .. (1
S)x .. (1-0907)08 00144

- ..'

338

SEOIO.. 11IJ

"con

TA8U 10.3-1

TABLE 10.3-1

Ba.se-c:ase calcul.,iOllS
Eq 103-19.R.,_ ( 4
R,"

2 ~2 + o
2}..,
02

nil)

00744

X ..

-.I)

(57

-t

11067(1-081
08

_ 27 67 .. D
Eq 11.1-48

ft..

)79(60{S05;'~J'... 2.15

(R,R.-.,)(R R.- 1 .,.H,I

t RR
I)!
(1.2

".-

Cost O/Columll .. G:o'1019 X2.l5)"N'(147J)I _

~0.9(3)(1,2

I .... 2(090)))

(1.2 _ I)'

APJN:lldlJ' 0.2

OW9(IOU)

~"

0999 I 00469
Eq 10319 S~ ... 0001 0(1469 -10.300

1)2767 .. 185 S 1lIOI-'ll(

Eq A 3-1S DwDc:lCf'" OOI64(185.S)'l

(contll1ui'd)

IlJ-llo~P-'- "'0999(100) t 1067. 0903

"02(4_0"'OS

12R~-12(475)~ 570

FAI

v, -

BaSot-<ast alculalions

(COI1t1I1IU'J)

Re<:ydc now 01 A .. -''';;-' _

x
Eq 103-22

.. COST loIlOOt:l 10.... SJM~l[ PIOCUl;

St:CTlO.. 101

),lOau. Fa.: " SIMPLE PIO',:fil

- 1489

In ,l(Sf)

12.61

O-S"'ujl+(2

3 ;.

Eq 11.2-23

S79,7(0)r

COIwlcn$C' A5SlJmc lJ./1 A- 13,JOO BIll/mol, 11f1~ ... 14,400 DIu/mol, and

ToA ...

I SO' F 11Ien

2 In SF
0.5 In..

1)'12]

~6461

05(019)

In 2O,JOO
ln2

'-~--'---~5123

5123
COfTecllon faclor for mIn, Eq A2-47~6467-08844

120 - 90

I1TL. . .

",~[~(l~"''''' 90)/(150

Qc.I3,

". - O1l844(0467) _ 5123

12Q11" 412

I, .13,)00(185,5).2467 .. 10- Blu!b,

Eq A J.2

Ii~l&h'

Q..
H67" 10Ana U 11 T_ 100(432) ... 571 fl'

Appcn.ll~ Ii 2

ClK'. G~)IOI 3X571.0,(3

Eq A 3d!

CooIWalcrCosl_

D.

8341b
1

14.~I'S.5) .2.671

Q.

(-'-_-'-'-"

'n"IX~O."'''"'3) - I 107

R- RJR_.

')r

I 2'(1.101) - 132

Eq IOJ-22

I:' .. tR - I)D _ (132 .... 1)100 _ 232.9

Eq.AJ-IS

+
Dlam~l~r - 0.0I64Jnl.9 379(60) 200S20

AppcDdu D 2

Column Cost _

---yj"",185.S)8ISO

<00]'" - ) 24 [,

G~'1019)(3.240""X13l6'

_{1;')

" 10" Blulbr

- i142.SOO 11

2611 .. 10"

Eq AJ-13

A". 11.15U -!ITso

Appcndu E 2

COlI. G:oJIOI 3)(237" 0 1

Eq AJ2S,

Sleam Cost_ ( IOOOlb

52 OJ

R'

519,

.. SJ:!OOlyf

( "'.. X',., X",300\,

100011

_ 2.3(S123) _ 1316

.231 fl'

CondcllJef

3~) .. Slll.9OOIyr

X14.<oo\,
933 tIBSS)8ISO - S65,JOO/yr

Aoau....-I11I, _ 14..00 aDd 11f1 15.SOQ Btu/mol.

120 - 90
1I To, - In ({100 _ 9ON'(200

120)) - 94 2"F

Qc" 14,400(2329) - 3.3S4 " 10- BI""'.

J JS4 " 10"

A,_ 100(942) _3S6fl'

.. ~... Z. 1111 .. - 15,SOO Blu:'mol, 1;., _1OO'"F,

Eq 10331

XI.'

M~

.. 60, aDd

(1- 0995)(0999),0907)
"0"999 _ o.99~9(1) O~69

Il,.~.

0999 ThUli

('onl

C~}IOI JI(3S6"-f;)

$73,200')1

CooI-Wllc,n~t-(~~X ~XI4:f!)2J19)8I~ ~)l

339

340

R<:TlON 10+

""'.OXI .."'TI! OPTI .. lz,ol'lON "'N"'LYSIS

SE<:TIOl'lIO+

TABLE: 10.3-1

B.~se

c.kul.lions

Q,

)610 ... I<t

11.2 J

Cost

(:~IOI

Slam CO$l -

Tot.

up. Cost .. React. .. Col.1

T~

J)(J2Q).

Of:') _

IIO.900,y.

1
:;j2J2.9X81SO) - S8II,JOO,)'T

.. Cond. 1 .. Reb. I

- 29.100" 79:700

Blulbr

no n'

(::X

of- 29.~ of-

+ Col 2 .. COP<ll + Reb. 2

11,000 .. 142.500 ... 7J.200 + 10.900 _

$.365.9OO,yr

+ Slea... 1 .. C~nl 1 .. SICIllI'I1

3100 +- 65.100 +- ~ + 88,
_ SI61,2O'l/yr

UIII CoM .. Coolanl I

ProM_ Prod
8.H

'"'

Feed +- By.pradUC1

Tot. Cap. -

T~

Ulil

- 7.666.100 .. 86.'100 - J6s.,900 - 161,.200

SI.16~.soofy,

boom Feed .. 8

, P,.
-J.S

EJor:ss loral cou. _

TAC .. EJ.or:ss Feed
TAC _ 7)9)1(10

IIxfudm, 1M 'Ioochoomelnc reed 'equlremenl

By producl .. TO! up +- TOL VIIL

After we develop a base-case design. we can change the con~ersion slightly and
Ihen calculale the incremental cost for each item in Table 10.3-1 divided by the
incremental change that we made in the con~ersion These resulls are shown in
Table 10,4--1.
In the first column ofthist3ble, we see Ihat as we increase thecon1fersion. we
produce more by-product (the wasle cost decreases because Ihe fuel \alue
increases). but .....e are required to supply more reactant. The reactor cost increases.
bUI the costs of the req"CIe column decrease because we recycle less reactan!. The
product column (;()Sts increase because the rdlu. rallo must be IDcrea$ed (smce .....e
are feeding morc by-product to the column).
Howc\cr. when .....e compare the positi\e costs in column I, \\C note that the
feed cost is much more important than the reactor cost and the costs of the product
column. We use our trick of neglecting all costs that are ao order of magnllude
smaller than the largest cost, which indicales that wc can neglect the efTect of
changes in coD\'ersion on the reactor and lhe product column costs. When we
compare tbe negati\'C costs. W'e see that the cost$ ohlle column shell, the condenser.
and the steam in the recycle column are Important lienee. in subsequent
optImization calculalions we can neglect all but lhese Iargcsl-cost lerms.
Now if we return to the base-case condition. change the temperature slightly.
and then calculate the incremental cost of each Item in Table J04-1 dl\'ided b~ lhe
temperature change that we made. lOoe obtain Ihe resuhs sho\lo':1 in the second
column of Table 10.4--1. The ",crease in temperature causes more byproduci to be
formed. so we require more feed to make our desired amount or product. bUI v.e
obtain a fuel credit for the b)-product (i.e.. the waste cost decreases). The reactor

86,900 +- 3M.900 .. 161.200 - Sl,ISO,OOO,yr

TABLE 10...... 1

Gndienls
lTAC

TAC

10.4

APPROXIMATE OPTIMIZATION ANALYSIS

..= ....

In a conventional optimization analysis. the gradient for each design variable is

equal 10 zero. For our simple example .....e would require lhat
OTAC

ax-::

341

Dominant Trade-offs ror Each Design Variable

(C(JnflnllCd)

1~,500(lJL9l-l60" 10"

A.

", aOXI ..... Tt OI"TIMlZAfiOl'l .. N"'LYSIS

OTAC
ilTJII -

OTAC

ilJ,.

.0=

OTAC
0
iJ(RIR_) =

(10.4-1)

Ho.....ever, for scrccmng c.,lculallons we prefer to simpliry the analysis. I n particular.

we would like to identify Ihe dommant Irade-ofTs for each design variable, lhe 1I10si
important design variables, and the mcenlive for optimi7.alioll. We diSCUSS each
below,

By-produel

'~m
Column I
CoDtkmeI I
CooIanl I
Reboiler I
Sleam I
Column 2
Condensel 2
Coolant 2
Reboiler 2
Slum 1

-.-0'

"

2.8139
-O.JJI
O.lHl
-0.011
-0.023

0"

<TAC

<TAC

- - 0 ,0'

- - 0 ,0'

001.9
-00019
-0.0009

-16916
+09Qj6
-00112
-0.0426
-0.0126
-0.00)1
0.0011
-0.06j6
26261
00419

ar.

'f.

<TAC

---0'0'
iJ(R/It.J

0
0
0
0
0

0068'

0
0
0
0000'
0000'
00006

0.01~

0.0001

0.001
0001
00)]2

0001~

-0.1166
0.0J41
00021

00010
0Q909

001S4

~0006

-OOIl
-0119

OOOOl

0
0

O.tX133

SECOON 10.

cost decreases., the cost of the recycle column IllCreases (I.e., we need a larger rdlu).
rallo because the reactant IS more dilute), and the cost of the product column al~
Increases (i.e., the product is more dilute)
Examining the positi\e \'alues in column 2, we see that the effects of
temperature changes on both of the column costs arc negligible, except for the shdl
of the rt:Cydc column (the fc=cd composition decreases so that more trays afl~
required). Also, the change in feed cOSt is fairly small The fuel credit of the wa:.te
stream and the reactor cost arc bl>th Important. Thus, only three (or four) co!>t
terms need to be considered for temperature changes.
Similar effects arc obscned for changes in the fractional recovery of the
product overhead in the product column and for changes in the reflux ralio In the
produci column (see the last tlo1'O columns of Table JO 4-1). Using Ihe same orderof-magnitude arguments for the positi~ aDd negatne terms separately, we find
that we do not need to calculate all the procesSing COSts. HenlX, we can sIgnificantly
simplify an optimization anal)"sl5 by considering only tbe dominant COSIS in each
trade-of[ In many cases we can ehmmate 75 y. of the calculations, although for the
sake of illustration we retain most of the marginal terms in subsequent calculations

...""-OXI ..... IE

o..-n..u..o.noJol ....'...USIS

343

TABU to..4-}

Scakd gradients
Scak fan..
10

60

iJTAC

i'TA-C

"

".

--0.

Fd
By-pnldUCf

2.S 139
-0-3]10

R~m

Col_I
,,-,,-, I

S'eaJD t

CoI_2

"-"-,1

0.0412

-0.011iO
-00U2
-0 119~
0.0681
0.01~1

Rcboikr 2

O.llOU

S~2

OOB]

.,
P,

H.

14982
-0116]
-O.0>4S
0.()()41
0.001<4
WlO7>
00360
0.0366
oOln
0.0177

].S4~

1.1i07

0678

014~

'"enc
'I.

'J
oJ,

00769

000>

-0"""
-0.0001
-0.0006
00261

-0.0009
o 116
0386

~T1(,

iJ(RIR~)

,R)
R.

0
0

-o.Olj()
0.0104
OOOtO
0.0226

0.069

0<,,,,

Rank-ordering ,he Design Variables-The Most

Important Design Variables
There IS no ...."ay of companng the vanous columns m Table 104-1 because the}
ha\e dIfferent units, i.e.., the first column is in (S/yr)/conversion ....hereas the second
IS ID lS/}"f)/"F. So .... e ....ould like to find some way of pUlling each olthe calculations
on the same basis. To do this, .... e IOtroduce scale factors, where the scale factor for
each design variable is the m.U.lffium range for that \'ariable. For example, ....e
expecl that the 0pllmum ,'alue of R/R. will be III the range
R

1<~<1.3

R.

(10.4-2)

50 that we use a scale factor of 0.3 Similarly, we expect the optImum fractional
reco\'ery will be 10 the range
0.99 <

J, <

1.0

(10_4-3)

so ....e use a scale factor of 0.01 The optimum con\ersion will be greater than zero
and may bc bounded abo'e by lhe equilibrium conversion, the conversiOn
corresponding to the maximum yield, or x = I. Depending on how much information we have or how much dforl we are willing to ~xert, we can select an
appropriate range and a scale factor, We ask the chemist for a best guess of the
range of temperatures (or pressures, if applicable) that are reasonabk 10 consider,
and we use this rllnge for the scale factor
Table 10.4-2 shows the results for the dominant cost terms when ....e add the
absoluu values of all the terms III each column and then muluply the sums bt the

appropnate scale factors Fisher, Doherty and Douglas called thiS result the ram..order parOtI'WUr

liITACI

' ... " .

- AJ
I'-oy
.'

(10.4--4)

This rank-order parameter IOdicates whether we are trading large positive inc;n:mental COSts for large negatIve incremental costs or $01all posllne incremental
costs for small negallve !Dcremental costs. The units of each of the rank-order
parameters are S/yr,
The rank-order parameters in Table 10.4---2 indicate that the opllmlzauon of
the reactor converSIOn and the temperature arc an order of magnitude more
important than the opumiutlon of the fracuonal recovery, which IS about an order
of magnilude more Important lhan the optimization of the reflux ratio in the
produci column The results Imply that we will pay only a small penally if we
neglect the optimizallon of the reOux ralio. They also Imply that ....e caD obtain
reasonableCSllmates if we Simply optimize the reactor conversion and temperature
-and then, if we have lime available, optimize lhe fracllonal recovery. Again, we
find that w~ can simphfy the problem.

...... R FIliMt-M f' Dobeuy,.llndJ Doull:UAfCIo~J JI IH8(l98S)

344

SECllON 10..

~fCTlON 10_

APPROXIMATE OPTIMIZATIoN ANALYSIS

Proximity Parameter-Incentive for Optimization

1,200,000

Initially we said that the criterion for an optimum is that the gradient of each
design variable be equal to zero, but we have not used tbis information yel. The
gradient is simply the sum of all the terms in each column of Table 10.4-2. By
inspection we sec that the positive terms might balance the negative terms for the
renUl\: ratio, but the positive and negative terms are far out of balance for
conversion and reactor temperature. Hence, we ClIpect Ihat our base-case value of
reAull ratio is close to the optimum. but the base-.case conversion and temperature
arc not.
To develop a quantity which characterizes the incentive for optimization,
Fisher. Doherty and Douglas defined a proximity parameter as

1.000.0Cl0

I(L OTAC/oy)/6y,1
Pi =

(10.4-5)

L IfffAC/oyNAYJ

1.000 ,000
900 .000
800 .000
700 ,000
600 ,000
"
.000
;';500
400 .000
300
200 .000
100.000

....

20

;.
000
"" 600,
400,000
200,000

0.2

0.3

flGURE Ill.A-u
excess COSl venus

F"IGURt: 10.4-1
beha VIOl

06
Conversion .x

--40

50

60

70

80

0.8

0.9

000,..r5100 x.

(10.4-6)

Of course, unless each of the significant design variables has a proximity parameter
less than 0.3, .....e must optimize all the variables. Also, as we proceed toward a final
design, .....r might require that the proximity parameters be less than 0.1 or 0.1.
From Table JO.4-2 we see that the proximity parameter for reflux ratio is very
small, but Done of the other variables are close 10 Iheir optimum values.

-t> Oper.

... Tot.

0.80
0.70

"'--

~ 0.60
~ 0.50

"-

"-

.~ 0.40
E 0.30
.;;:

"-

0.20

30

0.7

Whenever the proximity parameter is less than 0.3, there is

littk incentive to optimize.

90

0.10
0.00
0.1

02

Temperature. OF

eMl

0.5

0.4

less than 0.1 Hence, Fisher. Doherty, and Douglas proposed a heuristic for initial
screenings;

g
...Cap.

345

--

800,000

0.90

---

'-

TOll.l

This el\:pression is merely Ihe absolute value of the scaled gradient divided by the
summation of the absolute values of the scaled components of the gradient. The
proximity parameter is equal to zero al the optimum because the gradient is equal
to zero. As we move far away from Ihe optimum, the proximity parameter usually
approaches unity because the total cost becomes asymptotic to either the total
positive or the total negative cost components of the gradient (.see Fig. 10.4-1).
The proximity parameters arc shown in Table I 0.4~2 for the base~case design.
Figures 10.4-2 through J0.4-5 show plots of the total annual cost and the proximity
parameters for each of the design variables. From these graphs we note that we are
in the region where the optimum is fairly Aat whenever the proximity parameter is

APPROXlNATE OI"T1MIZATlO,. A,.ALYSIS

0.3

0.4

I\..

0.5

"

Conversion .x
tlGURF. IQ.4... l/l
Proumity paramele. x

0.6

/'
0.7

0.8

0.9

346

ncnoN Ill'

APPtOXIMA1EOpnMlZAnON A"'Al'rSlS

SEClION 10'

1,400,000

8OO,CXX>

1,200,000

795,000

1,000,000

... 800,000

5:

"'"

h::

<' 785,000

780,000

400,000

775,000

200,000

0,

20

35

80

50
65
Temperlilure, of

770,000
1.02

9'

347

190,000

600,000

AP~ROXIIolATE Ol'lIMJZAnON ANALYSIS

----

"-.....

1.07

1.17

1.12

1.22

1.27

1.32

1.37

RIR...
FI G UR 10.4-4<>
T olal uocss COil versus RI R~

FIGURE IO.4-lA

TOlal ucess cost versus lempo::lalure

Comparisons
Calegorizing Design Problems
The rank-order parameters and the proximity parameters for our example are
given in Table 10.42. We can categorize each design variable as follows:
I. Conversion-important design variable, rar from the optimum

2. Temperature-important design vanable, far from the optimum

3. Fractional recovery~less important design variableS, fairly close to Ihe
optimum
4. Reflux ratio-unimportant design variable, close to the optimum

0.90

0.80

:;
U

0.70

......

" "-

~ 0.60
[" 0.50

/'

'E"

/'

.~0.40

"\
"\
'\

.~ 0_30

. 0.20

'0

7
~ 17

0.10

0.00

To illuslrate Ihe errors involved in an approximale optimization analySIS, we

compared the results of several case studies. In our simphfied model, we deleted Ihe
COS! of the condenser in column I and the cost of the reboiler in column 2 from Ihe
previously simplified list given in Table 10.4-2. Thus, we considered only the eight
most expcosl\'e pieces of equipment as representative of the dominant costs (see
Table 10.4-3).
Table 10.4-4 gives the results for the base-case design, and case I is Ihe result
for a rigorous optimIZation when all the costs arc included in the analysis. We note
that the optimization leads to a 73.3 % reduction in the costs. In case 2 we minimize

20

35

'0

6'

80

95

o. 8
o. 7
o. 6
O.

o. 4
o. 3
o. 2
o. I

'"

r--....

1.02

1.07

Temperature, OF
I-IGURE 10.4-).
Pro~ln"ty parameler, lempo::ralure

1.12

'"

1.22

1.17
RIR",

flGUkE 10.4-46
P,o..im,ly parameter

RIR~

../"

----

1.27

1.32

1.37

348

SECflOI'l 10'

",,,,..O"(IMATE Ol'TlMtZATlOtf "'''''''LYSIS

TABLE IOA-J

800.000

Domin.nl cosis-sc:altd gr.dtenls

79S,OOO

&-

,. _.

........

f- ........
78HXXJ - -

,...

"- I'---.

780,l.XXJ

ns,ooo
0.993

0.994

0.995

0.996

0.997

.~~

00412

00'10

0.998

0.999

Column 2
Colllkn"", 2
Sleam 2

00'l90
0
0
-0 ....

0"""

..'"
00012

0068'

00263

0.0082
0.0611

OOIH
00H2

-f.

-00169

o.ron

_0119'

Sturn I

8,'

14988
01163

OHIO

C04umll I

n"AC

<T.

211'9

By I""<>dUCl

'------..

770,000
0.992

mc
__ or.

mc

790.000

-0()()l)9

n"AC
i'{1I:1I:.J

-n
11:..

0
0
0
0
0
-O.OJSO
00104
0.0226

Fractional recO"ery
FIGURE IO'...S.
To...l ucas cosl ~ntl. f...cfoonal ,ceo......,.

TABLE 10......

o
o8

o7

RIR..

Deip mllR

T. F

Domananl

"

'E 0 4

""-

o. 2

Cue

/
1/

r----....

O. J

10'

I 19j

0-1

e-,

e-,

0.62

0"

0"

"

I lIS

0....

I .. ",.,..OU. Ofl"If\lQhOl'

1.19

0'"
'I'

m
0

"

"

""
m

0....

000'

0006

~"

"..,

0.99$
ill

'"

1.29'

">clud,,,O ,t>c 000"

Cax 2 .. opUnuu.loon "'.- dom"'"n....... 10. oJl.bc cl<slll' ...... bI...

c... J .. opum """ 01 "., domlnln. cos," w"h R/R. .. 1.2
C&x"" optim """ 01 ,"" cIom'DlInt OM" ..."h RjR.... 1.2 Ind I." 0.991

o. 1
0
0.992

CDSI.5 "

TAe" 10"
6TAC, %

"

,.o.
"

0.99$

f.

O. 6

It 0, 5

.-

Results of optimi1..1'ioo sludits

10.5 SUMMAR\', EXERCISES, AND

NOMENCLATURE
Q.993

0.994

0.995
Fractional

0.996

0.997

0.998

0.999

~ry

nGUIl:f. ItA-56
ProWlUI,. parameter, frK:l..,.w rccoCf}"

only l~ dominant cost terms (see Table IO.4-3) for the four design variables, and
then we add the costs for the other items. In cases 3 and 4 we repeat the
optimization for the dominant costs, but fix the values of the least importanl
variables at the values given by the common design heuristics. We see that the
errors introduced by considering only the dominant cost terms or by fi:a:illg the
values of the design variables with small rank-order functions are quite small Thus,
al the conceptual stage of a process design. we usc the rank-order funclion as a
gUldclme for delermlnlng ho"" man) desIgn variables we need to consider

Summar)'
NonnaUy only a rc", cost terms dominate the economic trade-offs for each
optimization variable.. 8y identifying these dominant trade-offs. we can greatly
simplify an optimization analysis.
We can further simplify the oplimi7..3lion analysis by determining the rankorder function for eaeh design variable Y"
rJ -

L IOTACI
oYj liy;

(10.5-1)

where the dYI arc scale factors based lR the range: of a dcslgn variable within which
we expecl 10 obser\'c the optimum We negled to opllmi1.e any design variables
whose rank-order function5 are an order of magnitude smaller than the largesl

SECIION 101

ranLordc:r functIon Normally. the !>Igllllicant design vaflablo,;~ are those thaI affttt
the product dl)lnbutioll or the pr(X;C!o~ Ilow).
We COIn esllmate whether an mllial guess of a design variable IS close tt> ItS
optimum value by calculatlllg a pro.lllllllly parameter

PI =

IL lTfAC/oyJI
L ,.TfACICY/I

(105-2)

E.Ilpcncnc(; indicates that If PJ < 0 3....... are in the region where the optmlUm
rdau\-dy flat. although lIoe can requIre J. lighter tolerance.

1$

CSTN ' CS- Ul

Ct. C l C,
D

I,
F
few, Fe,.

F,
f,
F,

Exercises
10,5.1. For any process des-Ign that you h;)\-c conSIdered, calculate the nanL+ocder fUllClions
and the prollmll} paramelers. U!oC the rC'ults to Idcnufy the dominant economIC

lrade-offs DISCUSS lhese:: opllmlZ3u,.n probkms.

105-2. Consider lhe eumplc given In St..... 10]. acepl coMlder t..o tirSt-ordet-. pa~Ud
reaCllon~ m5tQd of conSCCUII\c ,e.RIJOns. (Also. oeglect lhe opumlZauon of tbe
rd'iuJ. rallO and tbe fractIOnal r.,.:o...1") ID bOlh columns.) ulculale lhe rank-order
furw;:lIons and the prOJ.unlly pana.nclcn. and find the Oplimum design con<htlOO$
PIOllhc proli/mll} paRlll<:ICn ve"u~ Ihe de$lgn vanablcs.
105-3.. ConSIder lhe o:ample g1~'en III Sec Ill.i. bul consider Ibe mdlrect column sequence
rather than the direct sequencc. (Nc):........ tthc opllminlllOn of the fractIOnal recovef)
and the rellul ratlos in bolh column._ J Calculate the ranl-order funcllons and the
prnJ.lmll} puamelers. Fmd the orumum design oondllions 110'" do the resulu for
the dlrcci and lhe Indlrecl !M;jeucn.:o '-umpare" What do the ~uenCing beunsllcs
indICate al lbe opllmum 110"5 (Of c." h ca..e?
105-4. For the cyclohCJ.ane pr(l(:eSS de>oenhn.lln Eaerases 5.4--7 and 6.86. how many design
vaflilbks are encountered ill Ie,-el ]" Cakulate the ran.k-order funeuon to delermme
Ihe relall'e Importantt of Ih~ "lnables'! Also. esltmate the optimum desIgn
conditions al level J

fI,

k
k l > J.. l

M,
N,
P,

P
p.... p-

P,
P,
Q
Q,. Q,

A, A.c

B..p B.. p . 1IC

C.t> C,
C A , C..... IJC
Cc CC K
C-.p C._p,1IC
Celt" Cew. 1C

"R
R,
S

Cf
Ct'/i'

C ,N . 1Ie

C,
CR , C.flC
C GR IIC
C.... C."M:

SF
lIeatoCxchanger ar.J. J.nd base--case value (ft l)
Brale horsepo.....er "f compressor and basc--case value (hI')
ConcentratIons of ..., 'mponeots A and P (mol/ft')
AnnualIZed COSI of heat exchanger and base--case value (S/yr)
Cost of condenser ;1nd base--case value (S/yr)
COSt of compressor and basc--casc value (S/yr)
Cost of COOling .....ater and base--casc value (S/yr)
Raw-material cost lS- mol)
Cost of furnace and rose-case value (S/yr)
J leal capacily rBw lnlOl F)]
Cost of reaClor ($ ~ rl
Cost of reoolkr anJ h.1se-case value (S/yr)
COSI of dlstlllatlon ....'lumn shell and base-case (S/yr)

TAC

T,
U

U,
V
V,
W
W.
IYs Ws,.e
x,x"'"

x.

x,
Y,

Ie

NOMEIliCl....-ru.l

351

Co)t of steam and base-case value (i/yr)

SpeCIfic heat at con~tllnt ..olume [Blu/(mol "!-1]
Annualized reactor CO)t [$/(fl) yr)J
Cost coeffiCIents
DIstIllate flow rate (molthr)
Overall pl.lte elliClency
Fra<:tion recover)' of the hghl.l..ey o\'c:rhc:ad
Flo.... rate (mollhr)
Coohng-water flo ..... ratc and basc--case value (mol hTl
Fresh feed rate (mol/hr)
Flo..... to reaClor (molthr)
Feed rate to compressor (molthr)
HClght of column sump and vapor dlsengagtng space (ft)
ReaCHon rale conSlant (hr I)
Reaction rale constants (hr -I)
Molecular ......eight of dlsllll.ale
Marshall and
lrt Index (see Cklrl/col EngJn~~,mg)
umber of Irays
umber of Iheorellcallrays
Proximity parameter
Production rale (molthr)
Inkt and outlet pressures for a gas compressor (ps:ta)
Flow or desired product (molfhr)
Column pressure (psia)
Heat dUI)' (Btu'hr)
Furnace heal duty and base-case value (Blu'hr)
Rank-order function (S,'yr)
Reflux ralio
Recycle flow (mollhr)
Minimum reflux ratio
Seleclivity
Separation factor
Total annual cost (S/yr)
Dlstillale lemperature ("F)
Overall heat-transfer coefficient [Btu/(hr ftJ oF)]
Condenser overall heaHransfer coefficient [Btu/(hr ft l , oF)]
Vapor ratc (moljhr)
Reactor volume (fl l )
Total flow of waste stream (moljhr)
Amount of product in the wastc stream (mol/hr)
flow rale of steam and basecase value Ob/hr)
Conversion and base-case value
DIstIllate composition
Feed compoSition of light key
Design variable

s.. .

M&S
N

R.
Nomenclalure

flC

C,
C..

~UNMA.r, UUa~ES_IlN[)

G.1Pd; 'lm....

..

~H.

6.Tu O'

~H.

P
7

Heat of vaporu.atlon of IIgbt key (Btu/mol)

Temperature change CF)
log-mean temperature driving force (eF)
Heat of vaporization of steam (Btufib)
Relative volatility
Stt Eq 9.2)0
(C,IC" - I)/(C,/C,,)
Density (moJjft J )

CHAPTER

11
PROCESS
RETROFITS

In aU previous discussions we assumed that we are designing a new process.

However. euctly the same techmques are useful for retrofitting a process. By
retrofiuin& we normally mean making minor changes in tbe interconnections
between process equipment, the replacemenl of one or more pieces of equipment by
some other equipment. or the change in the sizes of one or more picas of
equipment in an existing process. The first type of change involves structural
modifications or the flowsheet, whereas with the last two types of change the
60wsheet remains the same.
Some examples of where we might want to retrofit a process arc to increase
the production capacity (debollieneck: a process). efficiently process new rawmaterial feedstocks when they arc cheaper. utilize new process technologies, or
reduce operating costs, because the optimum operation conditions have changed
SIllCC the plant was originally buill (This changing economic environment IS the
reason Ihat most companies did not usually allempt to optimi7.e proces~s in the
pas!.) The last goal is valid fOi a ~'ery large number of eXIsting plants, and therefore
there is a great interest III retrofit proocdurcs We describe a systematic procedure
for process retrofits in this chapter

'53

354

SEcnON II I

... SYSTEIotAnC PROCEDURE FOl "lOCUS u:rROFlTS

sEeno,," III

... SYSTEIotATlC PROCEDIJlE rOl PRC1CES5 lnO~TTS

355

11.1 A SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURE FOR

PROCESS RETROFITS

Estimate the Economic Incentive for Replacing the

Exisling Planl

The systematic procedure for process retrofits discussed here was deveolped .bY
Fisher, Doherty, and Douglas.- The analysis is limited [0 single-product, conlin
uous processes, which are [he same restrictions of our other design methods.
Moreover, many of the steps in the proe<:dure are identical to the steps that we have
completed previously.
. .
The retrofit procedure also proceeds through a hierarchy of decISIons:

One of our options is to completely replace Ihe ellsling plan!. ThIS optIon WIll
correspond to the largest capital investmenL Also, if we do not change the process,
this calculalion will indicate thc profitability position of one of our competitors if
they built a process just like ours.
We call use the hierarchical decision procedure descnbed 10 Chaps. 5 through
8 to estimate the processmg costs. With the shorlcut ma[erial and energy balances,
equipment design procedures, and COSI models, it should be possible to complete a
design in about 2 days by hand (or 1 to 3 hr if software is available). One major
advantage of using this hierarchical decision procedure is that it simplifies the task
of generating a complete list of process alternatives to be considered.

I. Estimate an upper bound on the incentive for retrofitting.

2. Estimate the economic incentive for replacing the existing plant by using the
same process f1owsheet.
3. Estimate the economic incentive for replacing tbe existing plant with a better
process alternative.
4. Estimate the incremental im'estment costs and savings in operating costs
associated with changing the existing process.
S. Refine the retrofit calculations.

aearly, the first four steps in this procedure focus on the same ty~ of screening
calculations that we considered earlier, and for this reason .....e descnbe the retrofit
procedure before we consider the use of Simulators to refine design or retrofit
calculations.
We discuss each of the le...e1s in the hierarchy above in more detail below.

Estimating an Upper Bound of the Incenti\'e for

Retrofitting
Our goal is to reduce the operating cost of an existing process. and so. our first step
is to prepare aD operating cost diagram. That is, we prepare a cost dlagr~m of the
type described in Chap 9, except that we do not include any of tbe capital co.sts.
From this operating cost diagram, we can see the total costs of the raw matenals
lost in the fonn of by-products or lost in waste streams. Similarly, we can see all the
energy costs that are supplied to tbe process. An example ofa diagram oftbis type
for the HDA process was given in Fig. 8.10-8.
For a large number of processes, such as the HDA process, tbe ~sts of the
raw-material losses will exceed the energy costs, which means that we will need to
examine the possibility of changing the process flows. If we change the Bows, we
will also need 10 change the heal-cxchanger network. Thus, nonnally we must
consider the behavior of the total process.

Estimating the Economic Incentive for Replacing

lhe Existing Plant by a Beller Process Alternalive
Estimating the profil potential of the best" pOS5ible process alternative will
indicate whether one of our competitors could drive us out of business by building
a process that yields ~shutdown ~ economics better than ours. We can usc Ihe
gross-screening procedures described in Chap. 9 to evaluate all the process
alternatives, to see whether a bener process ex isis. If we find a better process, thclI
we refine the calculations, using the techniques descnbed in Chaps. 5 through 8 to
estimate the optimum design conditions for each alternative.
This identification of improved alternallves also indicates the changes in the
flowsheet that we should consider when we examine the retrofitting of our existmg
process. The savings in both raw-material and energy costs that correspond to
these structural changes in the flowsheet can be evaluated. Thus, there is a
systematic way of selecting structural modifications for more de[ailed evaluations.

Estimating the Incremental Investment Costs and

Savings in Operating Casu Associated with
Changing the Exisling Process
Our initial retrofit analysis sbould focus on screening calculations 10 sec whether a
more detailed retrofit study can be justified. Of course, if we eliminate a piece of
process equipmenl in our retrofit analysis, we still must continue 10 pay for that
equipment (unless it bas been totally. depreciated). Thus, the retrofit study should
focus on incremental annualized investment costs and incremental savings in
operating costs.
A systematic way of screening retrofit opportunities is to
1. Elimmate the process heat exchangers.
2. Identify the sigmficant operating variables.

W. R. Fisher. M F Doheny

I&C Rest"'.,,,, in press

lnd J M

Dou&las, KScrOCIl.lD&

of Proa:s.s Reuo61 Ahemallvcs,w

3. Identify the equipment that constrains changes in [he significant operating

variables.

4. Remove the eqUIpment constramts by addmg e"cess capacity until the 10cremental annualized investment costs balance the incremental savings m
operating costs.
S. Evaluate the oplimum energy Integration for the new process flows, and check
the sensitivity of the optimization to energy integration changes.

6. Retrofit the heat-.cxchanger IlCtwork

EUMINA1E '1I1E PROCESS IlEAT EXCIiANCERS."The process flows and
product dlstnbutlon usually dominate the process economICS, and thC'refore we
initially focus on estimating the optimum flows. To accomplish thiS goal and to
avoid encountenng constraints on heat-.c"change equipment......e initially negkct
the heat e"changers (although .....e IOclude the operating costs for fuel. steam, and
coohng .....ater in lhe analysis). Once we have removed olher equipment constramlS
and havC' estimated new values for the optimum flows......e will resolve the energy
integration problem and retrofit the heat e"changers.

WENHFY Tin: SIGNIFICANT OI'ERATINC VARIABU:s. The

number
of
operatmg variables is equal to the number of deSIgn degrees of freedom IIllnUS the
number of equipment sizes that have been fixed by the design. However, somc of
these operating variables must be fi"ed so that the process conslraints (e.g.
production rate, product purity, molar ratio of reactants at the reactor mlet_
reactor mlet or outlet temperatures. etc) can be satisfied. The remammg operallng
vanables should be tixed by an opl1mi7.atlon anal)"sis.
We can detennlllC which oftheoperaung \ariables are the most Important 10
optimIZe by eakulating the rank-order function (sec Olap. 10), except for thIS
analYSIS we include only the operating costs

'J'""

aroc
-I
I
'-I

L -,--'

~J._.

we can gain an IndicatIOn of the Incenllve for optimizing the significant operating
variables; ie.., unless PI < 0.3 for all the operating vanables. an optimization is
justified (sa: Chap. 10). Then we change the Significant operating variables lD a
direction opposite to thC' sign of the proximity parameter; ie.. if the gradient is
positive, we decrease the operating vanable to look for a minimum. As we change
the operatmg variables In lhese directions. normally we encoumer an equipmenl
constraint.
Note that the operatmg costs often he on an eqUIpment constramt e\en for
the optimum design of a new plant That IS. the mimmum of the lotal operatmg
costs for a design (for the type of plants we are considenng) nonnally is al lower
values of the operating variables than the minimum or the total annual cost (which
mcludes equipment as well as operating costs); see Fig. II I-I. Thus, after the
equipment sizes have bttn fixed and the plant has been built, if we try to move
toward the lowest posSible operaling cost. we will encounter an equipment
constraint. The addition of eXIsting equipment capaCIty to remove thlS constraint
dunng the design of a process by definillon will cost more than the savings m
operating costs, which IS wh) we fixed thc design at Ihe nllmmum total annual cost
However. the operating cOStS change over the life of a process. so that incremental
capital costs may be justified ror a process retrofit.
REMOVING EQUIPMF:f\, CONSTRAINTS. Once we encounter an equipment
constraint. we add capaclI) until the incremental annualizC'd capital cost jU'it
balances the incremental Sa\lOgs in opt:raling costs Thus, we detennine the Dew
optimum relroti, trade-offs for Ihe significant design variables. or cour<;e, if we
encounter constraInts in mOfe Ihan one piece ofequipment. we merely add capacity
10 both umu until the lIlcfC'mental capital costs balance Ihe Incremental savings in
operating costs. (If time pennits and the retrofit economiCS appear promising, we
might also consider the optlmlZ3l1on of the other operating variabks that had
smaller rank--order fuoctlons.)

(III-I)

vXj

Any operatmg variable whose rank-order functIon is an order of magmtude

smaller than the largest rank-order function is then dropped from further conslder+
ation dunng the Initial screening. Thus., we obtain a set of significant operating
variables.

IDENTIFY TIlE EQUIPMENTTIIAT CONSTRAINS THE SIGNIFlCANT OPERATING VARIAHI,FA If we calculate a proximity parameter (except that we retain the
sign of the gradient)

900.000
800.000
7oo.<XXl
60('-000

~ 5OO.<XXl

,-L, I ilTOC,ax, I

-.......

30

."tGUME 11.1-1
COIlS

~ersus

..... Opcr.
.... Cap.
-Total

[7

400_000
)()().000
200,000
100,000

20

(111-2)

./

lemre.alUle

40

70
50
60
Temperature. OF

80

90

358

SECTION I U

HO'" PROCm

SECTION III

ENERGY INTEGRATION. From the analysIs above, we obtain new t:stlmatcs of

Ihe oplimum process flows, assuming that no constraints in heat-exchange
equipmenl are importalll. However, the new process nows correspond to a new
energy integration problem. I-Icnee, we use the procedures described in Chap. 8 10
solve the heat-exchanger network design problem for the new ltows. Sinee Ihe
optimum flows depend on recycle costs, which depend on Ihe heat-exchanger
network used, it might be necessary to lIcralC a few times to find a new oplimum.

359

TABLE 11.2-1

Optimum design v....illbles for exisling phllll

RaClor con'emon
H, rurlle compo'ltlOn
Inlel lempe-rallHe 10 pilrllJI

0.75
~onJenscr

OU1Jel Icmpcr.ature from paMial condenser

R.....,ROFIT TIlE HEAT-EXCHANGER Nt-"'WORK, Of course, we can decrease
thc retrofit investment by using as much of the exisling heat-exchanger equipment
as possible. Thus, we readjust the flows and heat loads in an allempt to estimate the
optimum retrofit conditions. We are still screening the retrofit opportunity, so that
our goal is 10 get into the region where the optimum is relatively flal, rather tban to
find the exact optimum.

HO'" PROCESS

Bcnunc reco'cry In produc! column

Rcnu~ ratio In prodUCl column
Toluene reco>ery In recycle coJumn
DJphcnyl rceo>cry in rcqclc column
Recycle r;uio m rocydc coJumn

'"428 K
31 J K
099

"

0 986
0801
10

FrOID J. J MeK ...., ""fC/ortll", ofC~m><ol PrQUUI1lfJ ""J

LHJI9rt, yol . Do:llcr, Nt... yo,l. 19n, p 182

Refining Ihe Relrofit Calculalions

If the economic incentive for retrofining a process is large, we mUSI refine our
screening calculations, just as we must refine the screening calculations that we
used for process design. The use of computer-aided design programs 10 accomplish
this task is discussed in Chap, 12. Before we consider this refinement, however, we
present an example of our retrofit procedure.

Gas recycle
11.2

b-----------.--?urge
Compressor

HDA PROCESS

As an illustration of our retrofit procedure, we consider the retrofining of an H DA

process. The original oplimum deSign variables, as taken from MeKella," are lisled
in Table 11.2-1 for the flowsheet shown in Fig 11.2-1. The steps in the systematic
procedure are discussed below.

IFEHE

Flash
drum

Furnace

11:2: feed
I.

Prepare

litD

Operating Cost Diagram

Quench

An operaling cost diagram is shown in Fig. 11.2-2. From this diagram we see Ihat
raw-materials costs are much more imponant than energy costs, Thus, we want to
modify Ihe process flows in our retrofit analysis.
2.

Design a New Plant Using tbe Same Process

An optimized design for the HDA process with diphenyl removed as a by-product
was discussed in Sec. 8.11. The smallest total annual cost was $4.7] x 1QoO/yr, which
included an annualized capital cost of $1.47 x IOoO/yr and an operating cost of
$].26 x 1Q6/yr. This optimum operaling cost is lower than lhe values on our cosl
diagram, S4.62/yr, but the investment is large.

I-T:==-""i
Toluene
Toluene

recycle

[oed

ElICylo~d,oofC~,,"c{J1

Proc,u,"fJ and DtJ,gft, vol 4,IXllcI, Ne.... York, 1911, p 182

'8
u

I
Diphen~ 1--{'}-'

F1eURE t1.2-1
J J M.::Ketl3.

,E

IIDA process 60\nhcel

Benzene
"

~
"'1-----'

Vi

360

SECTlON 11.1

SECTION 1I.l

HDA n0CE.S5

-0.6.58

H2 reed

t.
FUmlOl' fud
Compressor po",..,r
Product column ullHUts
8c'nz IOfi In prod col
PurE" losses

2.163
Toluene feed
1.691

Sclecuv;ty 10<56

Retyck col utillllo

iJf.lih

iJf.Ja',II

-1134
-125

-1156
-201

311
5571
-)82

7135
0

Cooting walt' pan cond

ToluellC
recycle

.,
"

0.01
<

E
-0
u

"

Be=~

",

U~

'"
0.11

.,

075

'SO

.'"

0.46
01

'SO
077

iJf.JQF,.

aj",JR rc

-.

'"

-'54

II.

SO
SO
0

W
.1
JO
0

FIOCII W R Fllbel. M F OoI><I1Y. _I'd , M Doulla. Sa..... U\A Proass Rouo61

AJtanlllJv<:s, ~ I"'-C Il:u.",c/\. 111 pres!, 1981, ..'nb pt_i&sJoo from the Anxoaa
Cbcmi<:aJ Socie1y

-0.20
Diphenyl

"

0.004

361

TABLE 11.1--2
Significant opera ling '.rillbles

Purge

Gas recycle

HDA nOCESS

"-

0.20
Operating costs
Alternative 1

fiGURE 11.2-2

Operaung emt diagram. [F,om D. L Tnnll (md J AI Douglas. fHC ~arc1t. 26: 68$ (J987). "'U},
1W,m~JWnfrom 1M Amt"cQIl Clttmica/ $",,)",]

3. Find the Best Process Alternath'es

An optimum design of the HDA prOttss with diphenyl recycled was presented in
Sec. 9.4. The total cost was $3.37 )( 106/yr, which includes an annualized capital
cost ofSl.27 x 106 /yr and an operating cost of S2.30 x to 6 /yr. We could probably
find an even better alternative if we recovered some hydrogen from the purge
strea.m. as we discussed in $cc. 9.3. Also. we sbould evaluate the other process
alternatives discussed in Sec. 9.3.

.... ELIMINATE THE PROCESS HEAT EXCHANGER$. We eliminate the feedeffluent heat (:ll:changer shown in Fig. 11.2-1. although we will repeat an energy
integration analysis after we have revised the process flows.
4b. IDENTIFY THE SIGNIF"ICANT OPERATING VARIABLES. Values of the
rank-order function and of proximity parameters are given in Table 11.2-2 for the
largest operating costs. The results, as we might expect, show that the conversion
and tbe purge composition arc the most important operating variables (i.e., their
rank-order functions 8re an order of magnitude larger than the values for the other
two variables). Also,the large, positive values of the prollimity parameters indicate
that we would like to decrease the values of the conversion and purge composition.
Of course, smaller values of conversion and purge composition Correspond to
larger recycle flows. We might not be able to obtain these larger recycle flows
because of one or more equipment constraints.

4. Estimating the Incremental Investment and

SaYings in Operating Costs

IDENTIFY THE EQUIPMENT CONSTRAINTS. The equipment most likely

to constrain the recycle flows includes the gas-recycle compressor. the recycle
distillation column, the furnace, and the partiaJ condenser. Howeyer, we do Dot
oonsider constraints in the heat-exchanger equipment (we defer lhal consideration
until we energy-integrate the process again). Also, in the original design. there was
a considerable amount of excess capacity in the recycle column..

There are at least two altcmatives to consider. ie.. removing and recycling the
diphenyl. To illustrate the procedure. we consider only the case where diphenyl is
recovered as a by-product (although thIS might not be the best solution). We follow
the procedure presented In Sec. 11.1.

J J McKelll. E..qlo~1D n{ChtoOu,al P'ocus",g aM

ok

D~Jog.. , vol.

4. Dekhr. Ntw York. 1977. II t82

362

SECTlON 11..1

HOA'loa.ss

Thus, for our problem, the gas-recycle compressor constrains both of the
operating variables, Lower purge compositions correspond to higher gas-recycle
flows, which are constrained by the compressor. Lower conversions correspond to
higher liquid-recycle flows. However. because of the 5/1 hydrogen-to-aromatic
ratio requirement at the reaclor inlet, an increase in the toluene-recycle flow must
be accompanied by an even larger increase in the gas-recycle flow. Hence, the gasrecycle compressor also, indireclly, constrains an increase in the liquid-recycle Row.
Because Ihe gas compressor capacity constrains both of the significant operating
variables, we consider this retrofit problem first. The dominant operating cost
trade-off's in Table 11.2-1 for both significant operating variables involve rawmaterials losses balanced against fuel costs for the furnace, so tbat energy
integration will also be very important.
The cooling-water flow rate to the partial condenser and the reflux ratio in
the product column are less important operating variables. Moreover, these
variables can be adjusted to obtain their optimum values with the existing
equipment. that is, Pi = 0 for each. The cooling-water flow rate primarily trades
utility costs for purge losses, and the only retrofit policy possible to reduce these
costs would be.to increase the area of the partial condenser before the flash drum.
The reflux ratio in the product column trades product losses in the bOllom (which
get recycled) for increased utility costs to increase the reflux ratio. Possible retrofit
policies would be to use energy integration to reduce the utilities requirements or to
increase the number of trays in the stripping section to improve the product
recovery (which we consider to be impractical).

REMOVE THE EQUIPMENT CONSTRAINTS- Now thaI we have identified

the equipment constraints, we want to remove those constraints. Since the gas
compressor constrains both of the significant design variables, we consider this
constraint firsL We merely add compressor capacity, and the incremental cost of
this capacity, until the incremental annualized investment balances the incremental
savings in the operating costs; see Fig. J 1.2-3. From this graph we see that the
incremental savings are balanced by the incremenlal investment when we install a
new compressor with 56% of the capacity of tb~ original unit. The incremental
capital cost is S55,OOO/yr, but the savings in operating costs are S480,OOO/yr. Of
course, the large increase in the process Bows will also exceed the furnace capacity,
but we consider th~ energy integration later.
We could also add another beal exchanger in series with the existing partial
condenser and tben trade tbe incremental capilal cost for the savings in purge
losses. The results of this calculation are shown in Fig. J 1.2-4. At the optimum
conditions, the new exchanger should have 1.5 times the area of lhe original unit.
The incremental capital cost is S75,OOO/yr, and the savings in the purge losses are
S410,OOO/yr.
The new values of the optimization variables are shown in Table 11.2-3.
Obviously, the changes in the most significant design variables cause the process
flows to change, which will change the energy integration required.
4d.

SECTlON 11.1

IIOA raDasS

363

4.9

4.8

"

'"

4.7

"
<

4.6

';;
"

..

4.5

{!

"
~

4.4

4.3

0.1

.E.

56

10

20
30
4<l
Compressor ovcrdcsign, %

50

"u0

..

0
60

FIGURE tl.2-3
Esumallon of lhe opl1mum relrotil pohcy Co. rhe gali-'ecyclc compussor. (F,om W R. FuM" M F
[)oM"). and J. M. Doug/lU, ~ Se'H,"ng P"xus Relrofit AlIe"'tlrn~.R /&.EC Rewtl,rlt. In press. /987,
""lilt petm<ssi(HI from 1M Amr,klln Clwmktl! Soclfly.)

ENERGY-INTEGRAn: THE RE"TROFJ1TED PROCESS.. The 7:H diagram for

the original process is shown in Fig. J 1.2-5. The wide separation between the two
curves indicates that there was a significant incentive for improving the energy
integration. However, the T-H diagram for the parlially retrofitted process is given
in Fig. 11.2-6. Now, we see that the changes in the process flow rates have
significantly increased the incentive for energy integration.
The evaluation of various heat-exchanger network alternatives was discussed
in Sec. 8.1 I. The results indicated that all the network alternatives had about the
same costs. Thus, we begin our energy integration retrofit analysis merely by
adding excbanger capacity in series with the existing fecd-effluent heat exchanger. The incremental capital cost and savings in operating costs are shown
in Fig. 11.2-7. At the optimum conditions, we need a new exchanger with 68%
of the area of the original unil. The capital cost is Sl60,OOO/yr, while the savings
are S250,OOO/yr.
4e.

5ECTIO'" II)

4.4,------------,

..

'!>

"

I"

i!

4 1

"

800

;;

4.0

"
0.2

3.9

400

200

r----J
20

40

60

neal dUlY.

OL---L----.;1001.r--,I50jo-->2oolio--'-~Ji300
CondeMer O'\Ierdesign. '"

TABLE 11.1-3

Optimum opn1Iting conditioM

onc-l ....
RcKtor c:onenioa
PIlrp evmpo.,itiort

Coolin, Wiler 10 pin. condo

rl. of dtsip value)

Refh,,;
Fum

365

1200

4.3

$I

HIM. PROCESS

Iio ret;y. col.

dilly (10" HTU/hr)

F,OIII W L F

."
0."

ROJfFIIfiI .....

0.69

"'0127

110

11.9

'"

ptUl.

1911.

106

100

120

Blu/hr

nGl."Jl.[ 11..2-5
Tnnprratu""""nlhalpy d'.aram for 1M IIDA process It base-caJl':; opeTaunt mndillOm. (F,om W R
r~. M F ~I), " " " I M o..,hu, -/S<.trrting P,as Rt/,o.{i, AItNI'IW.-,HC ~OTdt. '"
prrJJ. 1987 ..../" pv~-'/'~I~ A~,~_ ClotmicQ/ Soc""y_)

4t RETROFIT TIlE UEATEXCIIANGER NETWORK. With Ihis optimum retrofit of the rced-effllKot heal exchanger. the rurnace load is decreased 10 within
lOY. ofils design value. One way tbat we can resolve this discrepancy is by adding
area to the fccd-effluenl cxchan~r. which according to Fig.. 11.2-7 will Dol lead 10 a
large increase in costs. AnothcT altemaLive would be to go bad: and to restrict the
process flows so that the existing fumaa: capacity is adequate. Similarly, we could
add a steam healer before the reed-effiuc:nt heal el{changer. or, belter, we could look
for more complel{ networks (pressure-shifting the columns, etc.) that would satisfy
our requirements.

OJ,

..36

tot F DoM:rty, and J M Doup.. -Sa....."'. 1"1'.-.

R~ro6I A1t~
~. f&C JlDIr1rcIl,.
tbe ........,... o.o-c.l Socdy

80

0I'1th"......--. from

Discussion of the Relrofit Anal)'sis

Our retrofit analysis indicaled Ihal we can save SI.140.000/yr wilh an annualized
investment of S290,OOO/yr. We could decrease the investmenl required by deciding
not to retrofit the partial condenser. Now we can compare these savings and
investment to those corresponding to building a new plant. Of course. we still
might not have determined the best retrofitted process because we have nol

5I'CllOl"l IU

HD.A ...CXDS

361

4.0

'200

"'

~
~

1000

u.

-,

l!.

l!.

"{f

,; 800

;;;

E 600

"E5

.>i

3.9

38

3.7

3.6
400

0.3

200

00

0.2
20

40

60

80

'00

'20

'40

160

;;;

0.'

Heat duty. 106 8m/hr

FIGURE 11.1-6
_~
I a d I\CW optImum
<hoi,> d ,"rim for_~.the IIDA
pfOCltlo" "'lib ,euo lieu cqlllPmc.n
II
~
Temper;lIurc.cn
__ J J M
_._laJ - Sc,ltllUlfl P,oc.eu htMfil AII~Nl"~l.
110""1. (F,,,,,,, W R- FuN,. M F
"i.-
.
IdEC RlS'Il'~"'"pt~iJ. 1)187. ,,-ult p#muJ_f''''''' 1M A"""ic"" C/turow:41 S#>cwIY)

"'

~
0

."0

68

20

40

60

100

80

Exchanger overdesign.

12<>

nCURE 11.1-7
Estl.al*II01l olrbl: opUrnl,Ull R:lrofil polJr.:J rOllbe 1Ccd-dlllM:DI beal c..o.cM.n&t=r (F,_ W Il Fulln. AI F
~ty. Q/ld J M [)o"gw, - Sc'U"UItJ P,oass Rcuofil AIIUNl'fW,- IcfEC /UNa,"..... pten, 1911,
..ilil fH""UJIOft from ,~ "IP.or,le"" Clwmit'Q/ $Dc""y.)

368

g;cn()",

IIJ

SU........... y ... ~D UUCJSES

considered the reC}'c1e of dlphenyl or the rcco...ery of any of the hydrogen In the
purge stream
Once \l;e dcci~e on a retrofit poliC)" \Ooe must also refine our !iCrccllllIg
calculallons. The UK of computer-aided design tools is discussed In the next
chapter

11.3 SUMMAR' ANI) EXERCISES

Summary
We ha\'e described a s)'stematic procedure: for retrofitting processes that uses many
of the met hods descnbcd carher. The retrofit analysis proettds through thiS series
of steps:
1. Estimate an upper bound on the incentive for reuofitting-prepare an operating
cost diagram
2. Estlnlate the lIIcenll ...e of replacing the exlstlllg plant with an Identical s)~tem
uSC: shortcut calculations and generate a list of process alternatives,
J. EstImate the inccnti\'e of replacing the existing plant with the best process
ahematl\e.
4. Estimate the lIIcremental Investment cost and the savings In operatlllg costs
associated with changing lhe existing process.
Q_ Elimlllate the prooess heal exchangcrs_
b_ Identify the Significant operating variables.
c. Identify the equipment that constrains changes in the significant opcratlllg
variables.
d RemO\'e the equipment constraints by adding excess capacity until the
Incremental. annualized capllal cost balaooes the incremental savings in
operating costs.
~. Energy-integrate the process.
f Retrofit the heat-cJ(changer network...
S. Refine the retrofit calculations. if justified.
6. Find the best retrofit alternative.

Exe:rc:ises
11.3-1. Retrofit the HDA process by recycling the dipbenylto extinction.
11.3-2. For any process that you have designed. look up the original case study and
compare ,he nt._material aJ$1s, utlhties COS!s.and M&:S indu "'ltb current values
How would you apecllhe optimum design values to chaoge n the economic ractors
chao!e1 Calculate the ranleorder runctions and the proximity paramelers. using
current pricc:s bUI the ori"n01.I ca.<;c-study values or ,he optimum de~ign variables
Retrofit the process.

CHAPTER

12
COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIGN
PROGRAMS

Our preliminary design (screening) calculations enabJe us to sec whether more

detailed design studies can bcJustilled_ln addition. they help us to selcct the thrc:e
or fo~~ f1owshc:cts that arc the most promising and to estimale the: optimum design
condllJOns for each of these: process aJternatives. i.e. the compositions, temperatures. and pressures of e\ery stream as well as the equipment sizes. However our
screening calculations were based on a variety of apprOllimations Hence. if our
scrc:ening indicates that a more detailed study can be justified. we need to obtain
more rigorous solutions to our design equations; i e., we need to derive a set of
material balances that are rigorous, we need to account for losses of reactants and
products, w~ need to use more rigorous equipment design equations, etc. We use a
computer-aided design (CAD) prograin for Ihis purpose.
Numerous CAD programs are available commercially, including FLOW_
TRAN, PROCESS. DESIGN 2000, ASPEN. ChemCAD. HYSIM SPEEDUP
elc. In a~d.ition. ";'any companies have Iheir own proprietary progra~s. Since mor~
academ~c lDstllutlOns use FLQWTRAN than any other program, we use FlOWTRAN III our examples. 1I0\Ooe\er. the other programs arc fanly Similar In their
general structure. FlOWTRAN was developed by Monsanto Co at the expe:nse of
60 worker-fears of effort and a cost of more lhan S2 million
369

370

SECTION 121

Gll'ElAl STlU(.T1,lU 01 (.UMPUnlAIOfU I)UI<.N

~.<>UKAM~

(110 ...,..... 1>1)

12.1 GENERAL STRucr RE OF

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
PROGRAMS (FLOWfRAN)
Computer-aided design programs all hlJ\C essentially the $arne componenlS:
I. An cxecull'o'C: system

2. A physical properties dalJ. ban\.

3. A thennodynamics properues pad.age
4. A collectIon of design (and cost) subroUtlnc:s for a \'ancty of process unHS

TAIIU_ ILIJ

fLo\\rrRA
TITLE

PROPS

Any lillie Iv odenllf) lhe (:ilK SlUlI!

FI~e numen.; <ounsl;anu. lhe fiol conSllinl IIldlC'illCS lbe D1DIIb:! or compo.>neD~
;a!kllbe nc.ll fOUl cOflnpu..J 10 lbe d>o..:a of lhe 1""1R0<>d~01'1_ In Tabk

PRINT

12 12Ti'le Slre.llm 1:0)"" fe.r Ihc SOIUllUn ClIn be ponIed In;a .allel) ol urulJ. lib moL br I, rile

FILE
RHR
I'AIR

The curren! trend is 10 add optimization rourines, process dynamic capabilities,

and a friendlier user interfacc.
The executive system reads the input data, controls the order in which the
equipment subroutines are calculated, pnnts the results of the calculations, ctc. The
physical propertIes data bank in FlOWTRAN contains data for 180 chemical
compounds, including molecular v.cighlS, critical constants, heat capacllles. acenlric faclors, ctc. These pur~-cornponent properties ar~ used by the. thermodynamiCS
packag~ to calculat~ gas and liquid densities and ~nthalpies, as well as vapor-liquid
equilibrium relationships. for th~ process SHearns In the plant Then the equipment
design subroutlDCS usc this information on the stream properties to cak:ulate
equipment sizes (and costs) for the various process units, i.e., furnaoc:s, heat
exch:mgers, compressors. distillatIon columns, etc.
Our diSCUSSIon of CAD programs will not ~ adequate to use these programs
efficiently. Instead, our goal is to descnbe the deSign mfonnatlon that is reqUired 10
use one of these programs, 10 diSCUSS an approach for solvmg design problems by
using these programs, and to give examplc:s of some results. In addition, .....e c1ariry
the relationship between our preliminary design estimates and CAD calculations.
To accomplish these goals, we restrict our alte-ntlon to design problems
where lhe basic FlOWTRAN routines are adequate for solving the problem. The
program is much more flexible and powcrfulthan our examples illustrate, and an
interested reader slitould obtain a user's manual.

Executin: Routine:
The executive routine reads the mput data, iniualizes the variables used in the
calculations, arranges the order of calculalJODS to correspond to the connections of
tbe process units, calls for the thermodynamics package as it is needed, converges
the recycle calculations, prints the output results, and repeats the calculation
procedure for parametric case studies. The fonnat for the input data is given in

"J. D. Seader, W D Selda, aDd A C. Pi.... FWWTIUN S......""'_ All Irurotl""liotJ. CAChE
Corp~ CambridJC, M&H~ 19n (a'all:tbk 'rom Ulncb's Boot- SI()f~ Ann Albor, MICh.), J P.:lcr Oarl.

cd.. EnrclStf uo f"roc:ns 5_'"",,,, Us"'l1 FI..OH TR.AN, Ibid, R R Uu&bcs. CACJt Uw of
FWWTR.AN

UCS,

Ibtd

input dala

NEW BLOCK
lILOCK
PARAM

MOLES

dcf4ull UDIl). lbc 'llc.. m cUnnttllOflS fOf lhe lkt.... ha:1 an be pnnlcd. lbe "'pur o,I.. la
Oln Ix reprod""".!, Jon.! '0' 1M phu"':tl prUrrrl) d;al:t rr<;Old; can Ix pnnred
t 'SCIlla reln..e d..14 rno"h flom pn, .. re hlc,
Used 10 Idenrrfy Ille cbel11""I.:ompounJ, used In Ihe UK Sfud) (sec Append" D)
UiiCd 10 supply lJquldphllK lIcll~lly COCffic~J1IS .... ben .elular solurron Illeory II nOI
Ippltcable_
Used 10 enlel oc:w cqulpmem Sub.oullncs
Idcnufics Ibe Iype 0( dnrl" C<juarrOll. and Ihe ol.eam rollnccllOllS followrll' lhe
krnnalS III Append 0
pa.Itne:ICO fOI act> cqu'pmcm Subroulme follOO""II"" formll~
III Append!>. D
Spcofic:o tbe flo", fllcsol cadi componcnlln lhe Inpul S(.cams and mUlal esumlln ul

Spcofic:o the des'JIl

ryck

TEMP
PRESS

NOFLSII
END CASto
END JOB

Sflams.

Spcofic:s lbe lempelllllle of uc:b ked sr.ram "ncIlJ1lll.lll CSllmll"S ollhe lempc:uI...u
or rydc u.ea,,"
Spcafics lbe preu"re 01 cadl feed scream:tn(( Imllal CSllm:ttcs ntlhe l")Ck ouc...Da
USCIlto .... pp.CS& a !Losh calarLllUon _
Pllamclnc casc .ludlCli

a Ia:~k Slream

f ...... J D $tIde<...... D
Cambndr<, lola.. 1971

Table: 12.11. The SlalemenlS used in other programs arc slightly dIfferent, bUllhe
same lype of mfonnation is reqUIred
Physical Properlies Data Bank and
Tbe..-modynamics Package
One of the most tedIOUS tasks in process dcslgn IS looking up data for tM phySIcal
properties ~f I~e com~unds of Interest and then using these properlies to compulc
the vapor-hquKl relatIOnshIps, the enthalpies of the process streams elc. Computer.aided design programs ha\'e much of thIS infonnalion slored lD'dala banks
for numerous compounds, so thai these routine calculations are greatly SImplified
For example. FLOWTRAN contains the values shown in Table 12.I.J for the 180
chemical compounds (see Appendix D I) It is possible to add similar dala for other
compounds and 10 delermine Ihe conslants of inlerest dIrectly from experimenlal
data (Ihe user's manual" should be cOllsulled for Ihese procedures)

372

SECT10N ll-'

GENE""l 5TllUCTUlE OF COMf11TEIl_"tDEO varON PIlOGIlM'IS (TLO""-lIAN)

SECTION 'U

GF.NEI.AL STIlUCTUkE m- COMP\JTEI._AIDF.O DE$ION Pl<XJIlAMS (TLOWTIANI

373

TA8LE 11.I_J
TA8LE 12..1-2

PhJsicl1 propert)' data record

FLOWTRAN lhermodynamics options

Key wOld
Number of ehemic:alap:o'" (25 mutmum)
Vapor pressure optIOn
I AnlOine: equation
2. Cavell equallon
V.por fugacily option
I l<kal.!a5 equation
2. Ro:dhch-Kwon~ equatIOn
Liquid fugacity option
I Vapor pressure; Chao..Seader ,f ,uperalllcaJ
2. Ro:dhch-K wong and Poynllng equal1ons;
Chlo-Seader if 5upercrilical
J Chao-Seader equalion (used ",ith components)
4 Grayson.Streed equation {used wilh
compone:nts, T_. < 9<XfF)
5 Option 2 uctpt P",,,,nil2-Sh,,,. fo upc,cnhcal
N J , CO, AR, 0" NO, CII.
~uid activtty coelflO"nt equal,on opHon
I. Ideal solution
2. Regular soluuon
3_ Wilson
4. Van Lur
5. Renon
6. Reno" ""th regul:u solullon fo. unspcatied pans

Common
s)'mbol

PROPS

Basic
Molar ... e,~ht
Normal botllng po,nt
Cnl,caltemretBIUle
Cnl,cal rressur~
Cntlcaloompres.<ibihty
uquid v<.tlume oo"'I1.1nl
Liquid v<.tlumc (6O"F and 147 psia)
EDlhlolry
L>quid ~nthalpy COnSlantIdeal_g.u heat capacily constanlS
Liquid enlhalpy constants
F..quillbna
Solub,lIty plI"'m~l~r
E_pan"on ranor'
Aoentnc faclOr
Anloin~ ,'apor pressu", const.lnU
Cavell vapot pressur~ COnstanta

FLOWTRAN
slmlool

MW

MW

T
T,

lC

.,0'
"'..

NBP

p.

PC

'.

ZC
Vl
lDEN60

pll(lb mol)

III
<J" . , <J,

",.".,0,

..

" ".

CP(i)
LlI{i)

Btu/(lb mol 'F)

DELTA
EXPF
OMEGA
VPA(i)
Vl'C(i)

(calfml)'/J

psla -F
psia. OF

f'ropnctot) Mon... nto coos...".. compu.ed by PROPTY

''''f'' J 0

Seadn, W D Sndcr.lInd II C
Cambr>d,., M ...., 1917

p~uts.. FLOWTRAN

5...."I,,'

An In"""""" ..... CACbF.Co'l'.

From J. 0 Seader, W D Se.du.and II C Pa ..... FLOWTRA~ S...,../<:r_ _A.. , .. "oJ><r llD ",
CIIOlE Corp.. Cambnd,." Ma... 1917

Equipment Subroutines
These: data for pure components are adequate to predict the th~rmodynamic
properties of the mixtures encountered in process str~ms, prOVided that the
mixtures satisfy tbe assumptions of ideal or regular sol.utlOD theory (DO ~ydrogen
bonding). For more complex mixtures il is necessary e~ther to supply esttmates of
the liquid-phase activity coefficienls or to supply ex~nmenlal da~a.and to us.e the
correlation routines available in the program to estimate the activIty coeffiCients.
.
(Again the user's manual should be consulted for these procedures.)
The options available in FlOWTRAN for estimating the t~ermod!namIC
properties of streams are given in Table 12.1-2. For ~he purposes of iIIus~ratloD. we
consider only the simplest case where regular solutIon theory should give reasonable predictions. However, the program is not limited in this respect.

J. D. Seade" W D Seidel. and A C. raub, FtJWTRAN Sl/...J<JI ..... ~A" I""oduc"o... CAChE
Mus. 1911.

Corp~ Cllmbrid..~.

Another time-<:onsuming feature of process design is the calculation of the sizes

(and costs) of the process equipment, once the stream (low rates, temperatures, and
pressures have been specified. This effort is even more tedious if we must usc trial..
and-error procedures to determine the stream nows or temperatures because of the
presence of recycle loops. However, the computer can solve these:. trial-and-error
calculations relatively rapidly, so that it is the ideal loal to use to improve our
estimates of Ihe material balances and to solve complicated sets of equipment
design equations.
Three kinds of information must be supplied to the program to use the
equipment subroutines: the type of design equations we desire to solve, how the
various prooess units are connected in the process flowshcet, and design parameters
for the particular unit under consideration. A list of the equipment subroutines
a\ailable in FlOWTRAN is given in Table 12.1-4, and some of these subroutines
are given in Appcndi.x D.
We note that there are no equipment subroulines available for calculating the
size of reactors, for the shortcut design of plate absorbers or extraction columns, for
the shortcut design of distillation columns when the relative volatility is not
constant, and for the detailed design of coakr condensers (when the vapor and

]74

s.ECfIOI'l n.l

Gfl'lfMl STIuctUlU: Of' COMfVTEl.AJOEO DE$IGN Pl.OGIlAMS (l'LOWlIA"'1

TABU 12.1-<4

IFLSII
AFLSII
BFLSII
KFLSIl
FLStIl

OlSTL
DSTWU
SEPR

AFIlAC

,......
(f-RKB
CABSR

I~bcrmal Ib~

Adllibil.K ftuh
Gc:nefal-purpoK Ilalih
1!iO.hennal .hree-phasc: f1a5h
Ad,alnlie,'l101hennal.h,a:-phtic 1I h

CClNI

EXCIII

MIX

SPLIT
PUMP
MULPY
GCOMP
PART
SlfQm

P...led abwrbcr ",-1

Heat-ue/uncer <:OS.

('[XCI

CEXQ

CEXCl

CTABS

Pump <:OS.
Compresso, CO~I
Tray Ilorbcr emt

CIlETR
8PROD
PkODT
RAWMT
PRon

B)'_prodll" 'IOlIlue
Product ~lrum val ....
R... -ma.cnal JlIC
Profirab,II.) lnat~'us

crUMP
CCOMP

RigorolU dLSuliallOn (KB melbodl

Shoncut dlst,ll~tlon (Edm>n5Ier)
Sboncut dUllllallOn (Winn-Underwood)
Const3.lll spill '",CIIO<l sc:p.anmon
Rigorous dutlilatlOll/ablorpuon
(1IUI1rII ""'Ihod)

AbIorpuOfl ;~npp'nl
ABSBll
Othe. scpanuon
EXTRC

CLCNI
DESUP
IlEATR
EXCII2
BOILR
IITR3
EXCtIl
M'>Oel1~neous unll opcrallom,
ADD

]75

FLOWrRAI' subroolioe!i (CUflliIlU..J)

Dll,llll~uon

FRAKB

... ATU.Al IALANCE CAlCUU:noI'l5

TABU. 11.1""

FLOWTRAN svlwoulioes

.....

5fCTlON lJl

Heu~lchanlt'cool

R,pon
SlMRY
TABLE
GA\1X
SbonCUI bot uchan,ef
Sboncul cuok, wndrnsc:r
Sboncut desupc.hc,J,l(,
Heal .equllemenl~
Shoncu. p,amll/totIJ uponzcr.. oondenscr
Shoncu. ,ebo,ler{mlelcooler
Thrcc-phuc: heller/coole,
SlIOncuI be,,! euhaniler

Strum adduJ04
Stream alkiruoa ..ub no pllasc dung<:

Sf'R''T
AST\1
CLRVE

Stream OUlpul edllor

Componen. plr)'YCal prOpclllCS table
UqIlIdaCII\lr~..codficJCnu; u,bIc
S"um pnnl bklcl
ADl.J~IIQJ d~lll!.allon of a stream
HUlin. InJ coollog cu~

Reacuon
RIoACT

ARE"C
XTNT

ChcmlCll ,UClO'
Adllb~l', llJd-.ubrract ,eaClor
ChemICal rUCIO/ (elren! of rUChon model)

From J D Sude,_ .... D Sc><lr, Dd A C P.llb. FLOWTRAN.s-t<u_

1..",,,II,,,r-. CAClIE Corp.. ul1Ibnd.... Mau.. 1911

A..

51fClUD ~,

Ccu.rifupl pump SlU aDd power

Sueam mwupl>caUo.. by a pa<amcter
Coalprcswr aDd tllrt.lIe
~nJ.purpoK S1raD1 ~p1illCl'

liquid phases are nOI in equilibrium). I I IS possible to develop subroutines ror these.,
and olher, problems and to add them to FLOWTRAN, but we do nOI consider
probkms or Ihis type.

Ol)Qw:fFDOC

SCVW

Bounded WCplelD tuum coavaCUOl:

CNTRL
pcV'

Muluplc-par1lJllClef CD.IItIOI bIod.

DSPLT
RCNTL

Dwlllale I'a:d rorwud control

RIIIO, slim and dli'rell:tlCC feedbild;- eonuollt:r

CAFLll
CFLtIl
CIFLII
CKFUI
CAFRe
COSTL

Flash drum Ot

Conol
F~lHId: CD.lllIolkr

D'~lLllah<>'" column OM!

12.2

MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS

In Chaps. 5, 6, and 7 we discussed shorlcut procedures, ror eSllmalmg bolh overall

and recycle material balances. We used these shortcul calculalions 10 help fix Ihe
struclure or Ihe nowsheel. One struclure Ihat we discussed III delail for lhe HDA
process is shown in Fig. 12.2-1, all hough, as we diSCUSsed m Chap. 9, this slructure
probably does nOI correspond to lhe best design However, smce our goal here is 10
demonstrale how CAD calculallons can be used 10 refine our approximale
calculations, we develop a more de131lcd solullon for the ftowshcet 81veo

12.2-1

In

FIg.

376

UCTION IU

10101" In

MATUIAl. ,AUlI"Ct: CAl.CUUlT1Ol'lS

p,,,,e
Compressor

r
H

Flash

-'0'

Mixer

Quench

To l!ene

IkT

H2, tH>I,

ne

Tower 3

T..- 2

I-

Tower I

Simplified Flo"sh( for

Cakulations

MATfUAl. UUltfCt: CALCUUlflONS

377

1aterial Balance

Our process f10wsheet (\\Ithout an) heaters or coolers) is sho...n in Fig. 12.2-1.
Ho\\c:ver. to perform a set of matenal balance calculations, we need to consid~r
onl) thC' umts where Ihe component f1o .....s change, i.e~ the reactor, the phase spliller
(flash drum). the columns, and stream mU:lOg or splilling. I n addition, we consider
the locations wherr pressure changes take place. because: most of the equipmC'nt
subroutines require that the pressure be: specified. For our example, we assume that
the feed streams are at 535 psia, that tht: pressures of the gas and Iiquid-reC)de
streams are raised to this level, that the reactor operates at 500 psis. that the
pressure in the flash drum is 465 psia, that the stabilizer pressure is 150 psia, and
that the product and recycle column pressures arc 15 psia (we should use 20 psia
for final design calculations, but here we wanl to check our shoncut results).
Our simplified flowsheet for the process. which shows the unilS needed for Ihe
material balance and pressure-change calculations. is shown in Fig. IU-2. ote
that we must i"dud~ unils \\here strC'am mixing and splitting lake place: (\\'hich In
practice mIght onl) be a tee). and .... e lOcfude vahes that are used to drop the
pressure if a phase: change: mighr occur

Sequential Modular CAD Programs and Stream

Tearing
Dlphenyl
FlGURF; 12.1.-1
HDA rl~ block f\o"Sh1

General Approach to CAD Calculations

Once the structure of the flowsheet has been fixed, then the conventional approach
to developing a design IS to calculate tbe material balaooes, calculate the energy
balances, calculate the equipml;nt sizes, cakulate tbe capital and operating costs,
and evaluate the process profitability. Most of tk CAD manuals imply that all
these problems can be solved simultancowly, but they recommen.d the g~dual
development of a solution by breaking the complete problem down Into a senes of
smaller problems, The reason for this evolutionary approach is that it ~s ~y to
make mistakes entering the input data, tbe codes have fairly large runmng urnes.
and It is both expensive and tediow to make numerous rUDS that fail.
Our goal here is to use a CAD program to evaluate tbe approximations we
made in our screening calculations to verify our selection of the most promising
process alternatives. We based our matenal balances on thecomplele reco\"~ry ~f
all valuable materials. along With some Olher approximations ror varor-hquld
splits. Smce the energy balance calculations and the calculations or equlpme~t SIZes
and costs all depend on the material balances. our approach IS to revue the
matenal balance calculauons firs!..

Man)' of the CAD programs that are commercially available (PROCESS, DESIG 2000. ASPEN. etc.). as ,",ell as FlOWTRAN. ha\"c a sequentIal modular
structure. Thai is. if we know tht: mputs to a process unit, the equipment
subroutines will calculate the outputs. Thus, if we 6x the feed flow rates of
hydrogen and toluene and if we: know the gas- and liquid-recycle flows for the
(10\\ sheet shown in Fig. 12.2-2, we can calculate the reactor feed conditions. Then
.....e can calculate the reactor product stream. the split tbal takes place in the flash
drum, Ihe outputs hom the valves and towt:l$., the purge split, etc.

Strtarn Tearing
Ho...ever. we do not koow the gas and recycle flows initially. So if recycle loops are
present in the f1owshecl, we must lear the recycle streams. That is, suppose we tear
both of the gas- and liquid-recycle streams (s~ Fig. 12.23) and we guess the
component 80ws in each of thcsc: streams as well as the temperatures and pressures.
Then ....e can calculate all the outpuls from every unit, and eventually We can
calculate all the component flows in the gas- and liquid-recycle streams H we
change our guessed values until they match our calculated values, we will have
obtamed a converged set of material balances Thus. the sequential modular codes
mclude convergencc blocks that wlllilerate on these guessed aod calculated values
until they agree wuhm a loleraoce spc:cified by the user.

378

SEcnON IU

.....TU.lAl , ... UNa CAlCUunO/'1S

SEc;lI".... In

Purge

Compressor

Purge

I
CH,

CH,

L
Mixer

Flash

Ileac'",

IotATUI"'lIlAl...:'CE U1Cl/UlIOI<S

Compressor

Purge

379

Purge

I
Mu,er

Reactor

r (

F1a>h

Tol ~""

Tol"one

Denr ne
Tower 3

Pump

V.J""

Pump

Tower 2

H 2. CH.

V.J""

Ih.

Belene

.1

V.J""

fo-

T""",

Dlphenyl
ncURE 11.2-2
HDA pn'IOXa. lknnbcd: shOWlllI allwuu-

Coovrrgeoce

Of course, convergence is obtamed much more rapidly if tbe iniual guesses are
close to being correct. Some inellpenenl%d users stan by guessing zero values. Even
though the CAD programs usually con\trge witb zero starling values for the
recycle flows, a very large number oriter.nons nu. mally is required (i.e., it takes a
very large number of iterations 10 build up large recycle 80ws from a zero slaning
value). However, we can use our shorteul material balances 10 supply "good"
starling values.

Minimiring Ihe Number of "Tear Streams"

After some thougbt, we might realize lhat 11 IS very inefficient to tear both the gasand liquid-recycle streams. If, instead......e ttar tbe stream entenDg or leaving Ihe

Tower 3

"II-~-

CH~

Valve

Tower I

0; ph< y
" I
FIGURE I1.J,.J
HOA Pfoc:csa. 1eU11l' ro;ydc 5oUcanll.

reactor, v,e brea.. both recycle loops (see Fig. 12.2-4). Most CAD packages mclude
an a1gonthm that v,"!U indlcale which streams to tear to minJm~ tbe number of
convergence blocks that need to be !Deluded ID the 8owsheet. We can also use our
shortcut calculations to obtaIn good estimates of lhe feed to the reactor or the 8ash
drum.

Cbeck tbe Physical Properlies

We prefer to choose Ihe stream enlering the flash drum as the starting polnl for our
calculations It 15 essential to ensure Ihal the physical property dala provide
realistic prediclions for the process under consideration, and therefore II IS always a
good Idea 10 millate a CAD siudy by undeTlaklllg some 8ash Clliculallons. In
addmon, SPCClfYlllg Ihe fc:e:d to a 8ash drum In a t10wshcct almOSI always breal..s

Purge

Compressor

~g'

Com puler Informalion lJia~ralll

H,. CH.

I
Reactor

Mixer

Tol

modification of FLOwrRAN). whIch use equipment subroutmes but con\crgc

all thc rccyclc oops simultaneously These newcr types of codes also makc it
possiblc 10 optimIZe thc f10wshect at the same: timc as thc rccylc loops arc being
con\crged. Thus, Improved codcs should be availablc In the futurc.

v-

A"h

!ene
Valve

Pump

Benr
T~r3

H 2o C11 4

nc

Tower 2

I
f--

Valve

T~rl

DlphcnyJ
FlGURE 11.1-4
HDA ptootlS, allemal~ 1e1lnDI xheme..

one or more recycle loops. Moreover, starting with the foed to a flash drum allows
us to evaluate somc of Ihe decisions we made concerning the liquid separation
system.

Other Types or CA 0 ProgTa.ms

There 3fC CAD packages

The milial step m dc\clopmg a CAD program is to translatc out process flowshcet
mto a computcr mformallon diagram The compulcr information dIagram is
essentially thc samc as thc flowshccl. cxccpt that wc must show all mlxcrs and
splillcrs and thc location of our convergcnce block(s) In FLOWTRAN wc must
number cach of thc strcams from SOl to S99 (iflcss that 10 strcams arc prcscnt. wc
number them from SI to S9). Moreover, we give each unit an arbitrary namc of up
to six Icltcrs and numbers (slarlmg Wilh a IcHcr). and .....c indicalc thc lype: of
subroutinc (sec Table 121...4 and AppendiX D) Ihat wc will use for lhc calculation A computer lIlformation diagram for HDA material balances is shown III
Fig 12.2-.5

(SPEEDUJ~. QUASI LIN.

ASCEND II) that are based

on an equation-solving approach. That IS. they 311empt to solve all the equations
describmg the flowsheel simullaneoll~ly These programs should be much more
efficient if there are a lar~ number of recycle loops. because the sequential modular

programs suffer if there are many nested iterations. 10 addition. SlInultaneous

modular Iteration schemes hne been dt'veloped (FLOWPACK and a rcecnl

Starling Values-Approximale Malerial Balance5

Using thc apprO\lmallOn proclures descnbed in Chaps .5 and 6(and in AppendIX
8 for thc HDA plant). \I,'C can estimate the o\'erall and rec)'clc material balances
For a ca~ .....here the dcsltcd production ratc of benzenc is 265 mol(hr. lhe
convcrsion IS l: = 07~ (thc selccll\'ity is S = 0.9694). the purge compo<;lIlon I'>
J~ = 0.4, and the molar rallO of h)'drogen to tolucnc is .5/1. \I,'C obtain the Slream
flows shown in Table 12,21. Thcn in Chap. 6 we descnbed a shorlcut procedure for
flash calculations. and the revised flows arc shown III Table 12.22.
We note from these ren'iCd flows that we do not meet the desired production
rale specification (sec thc flash hquld now of benzene) because so much benzene
.....ent o\'crhead Vlllh (he flash vapor. We also notc that the gasrcC)'de flows no
longcr balaJICC and that a SIgnificant amounl of benzene is recycled wilh the gasrecycle stream. Of course, the errors arc not as bad as Tabk 12.2-2 seems to
mdicale, becausc the benzene in the gas.rccycle stream will be recyclcd through the
reactor and be flashed again. Al this point. the amount of benzene in the nash
liquid will increase. We could try to solvc this iterative probkm by hand, but
inslead we use our CAD program
It probabl~ .....ould be undesirable to recycle this much benzene 10 the reactor
because a substantial fraction of this benzene would be converted 10 diphenyJ (if .....c
had recycled alilhe diphenyl. the benzene rCC)'C1e would not be a problem because

v U t.anJ, I I B..,..... and I E G'(>$5m.ann. ~S",,"l,aneou'l 0rtrmoza,... and HeIIl lnlep.".".

.,Ih rroca:l' 5unulatJon.~ rare' nt' 72'" 19lt6 Annual AIChF Mee1lnl- ,..haml Be.ch.. Nomloo 19~
...balIlled 10 C_,."J'" (~..I "9-'"

SECTION

Compressor
GCOMP

...Eo

Purge
SPLIT

521

S02

S I.

S !3

Reador
REACT

CONVG
5CVW

~,

'"
0
0
0

Olp/lcn)l

S03
Valve I
AFLSH

Pump
PUMP

T......

4619

II,
Cll,

A"h
IFLSH

SI2

,...

II,

''''

Tol~lle

ADDl
ADD

0
0

jS

I)(h,

Ruefof
n,;l

H,

- 269.1

ISC87

CU,
Il<=M

2734

23230

265,0

2UG

TolLXnc

-273 4

Tower 3

Tower 2

SEPR

SEPR
5!l9

1'E-

Valw= 2
AFLSH

IFlSH
S04

l,l~
506

511

subroulm~

13500

0
0
0

0
0
0

rucliOll

.,

I .........
~,do

20250

Compoocol

D1pbo:nyl

Ob
nerd..

2H4
0

"

t
SIO

."t..-!'OCI' C"lcuun<)NS

"

fb,h

,,.~

~,.,

liquid

15487
BUO
0
0
0

'"
0
0

,."
'"
"

...

Rac:lor
lllf)'i
~96

J."
0
00>
Puree
1987
29110

0
0
0

rK)CW

IlSOO

20250
0
0
0

(sec .'\ppendu; 0.2). The computer Information diagram IS

sho.... n In Fig. 12.2-6. This diagram IS .dcnlical 10 lhe flash ullil (hal has bttn
isolated from Fig. 1:2-2-5.

Program Inpul
We follow the input formal in-en

In

Table 12.1-1, and as a title we choose IIDA

FLASH. There are the components in (he feed stream (hydrogen, methane,
benzene, (oluene, and diphenyl) and we decide to use the AntOine equallon ror
vapor pressure (opuon I In Taole 121-2), the Redlich-Kwong equalloD for Ihe

fiGURE 11.1-5
HDA proc:as., lIo.,uu 5ubrOUllDcS.
TABLE 12..1-2
f1o~'s ~i1b

Stnam
there would be DO selectivily loss). t-Iowevc:r, our correlalion for producl dislnbution (tbe selectivily data in Appendix B) is based on a pure toluene: feed 10 the
reaclor. so that wc: cannot eslimale the loss of tbe bclUene 10 diphenyl because of
tbe recycle.
If we bad installed a vapor recovery system on tbe fLasb vapor stream, our
estimates oftbe process 60ws Y<ould have been more accurale. However, il should
be a good test of our approximate material balances to compare Ihis worst-case
condition shown in Table 12.2-210 a rigorous CAD solution. Hence, we use the
values shown in Table 12.2-2 as lllltmi values for our CAD runs.

Flash Calculations
We slart our CAD slUdy by Just conSidering the flash drum, I.e., we want to ensure
Ihat the physical properties are reasonable We call the umt FLASH, and ""e usc an

383

TABL ILJ,.I

Il<=M

~-\'UI"'L

Slream 80"'5 (or perfect splits in flash drum-Ie,e1 J

c_,
SI5

'u

Bash-Ie'el 4

,...

"-"'
H,
CH.
8<ToIlM:DC

Dlpbalyl

-4619

".
0
0
0

Deh.

COOlpoaeal

.uclioa

H,
CH.
Il<=M
ToI_

-269 2
271.4
265.0
271..4

Dlpbnr.)1

,...

T......

II,

.,

0
0
0
27H
0
Relcu..
u.il
1S4' 7
2l2JO

26S0
911

"

0_

u,.w

.ee,'a.

"",-

11SO.O

0
0
0
911
0

20250
0
0
0
F'..,

'.po,
1S47.0
2112.0

,..
J6
0

,a..._

..

t816.9

""

,."0

Oh

A.~

liquid

.,.
II

US<

"

rurtte

1985

"..
J8

"'
0

."d,
1148 S
201S-4

'51

"

384

$.fCTIO'" ILl

HCTlO," 111

~ATUIAI 'AI..A~ CAtCIJLAllO"'S

MATEI.IAlU ..... NCf CAlctlLAnom

385

We USC' our earher estimates of the stream Row rates (see Table 12.2-2), and
l\e enter the flo~s Tn the same order as they appear 10 the RETR statement
S02

MOLES

IFLSH

FIGURE 11.1.-6
Fl..h calc\ll.lion

vapor fugacity (option 2 in Table 12.1-2), option 5 for the liquId fugacily, and
option 2 for the liquid activity coefficient. Hence, the TITLE and PROPS
statements arc
TITLE HOA FLASH
PROPS

PRINT

INPUT

All lhe components of mterest arc listed In the ph}"sical propertIes data banl (sec
Appcndlll D.l for the component list and the allowable names to be used in the
program). Note that FLOWTRAN uses biphenyl instead of dlphenyl. a possible
source of conrusion which exists elsewhere in the literature. Thererore we can write
the retrieve statement as either
RETR HYDROGEN METHANE BENZENE TOLUENE BIPHE YL
0<

BZ

TOL

B-P

The block statement associates the unit name that we sclected. FLASH. with
the equipment subroutine ill FLOWTRAN, IFLSH. and identifies the illput and
output streams. From Appendlll 0.2, we see that the block stalemenl for an IFLSH
subroutine should be
BLOCK

265

91

FLASH

IFLSII

SOl

S03

502

Similarly. if the Rash drum temperature and pressure are lOOT and 465 psla for lhe
first case. and we desire to print the K values (the FLOWTRAN K values w;lI be
diITerent rrom estimates using the Hadden and Grayson correlatltlllS 1II AppendIX
C.I). we write
PARAfl.1

FLASH

TEMP

501

tOO

PR ES5

SO I

465

is
PARAM

FLASH

480

because l\-e are changing only lhe Sttond eo try in tbe PARAM statement (see
Appendix 0.2).

5 2

We decide to print the mput program along with the results. so that l\e can
maintain a r~rd

H2

2323

and this compleles one case

To conSIder the behavior of the Rash drum at other pressures. we introduce a
new title statemenl. a new PARAM statement and a new PRESS statement, and
another END CA$Ecard. A program for operatioll at lOO"F and both 465 and 480
psla is shown ill Table 12.23. Note that the PARAM statement for this second case

S03

RETR

1549

The temperature and pressure statements for the feed stream are

FJm

SOl

501

100

46:li

Program Output
There are sc\eral parts to the computer outpul, including a stream table and an
equipment summar)'. which gives the heat added or removed rrom the drum

TABLE IU-J

Flash caleulaliollS

TITLE UOA FLASH DRUM

PROPS 5 1 2 5 2
PRINT INPUT
RETR HYDROGEN METHANE BENZENE TOLUENE BIPHENYL
BLOCK FLASH IFLSU 501 503 s02
PARAM FLASH 1 100 465 1
KOLES Sal 1 1549 2323 265 91.1 4.2
TEMP sOl 100
PRESS 501 465
END CASE
TITLE HDA FLASH
INCREASED PRESSURE
PARAM FLASH 2 480
PRESS sal 480
END CASE
END JOB

...
o

,'"

IaJ

lIowevtr, the output of pnmary mterest is shown 10 Table 12.2-4. These are the
same values that were used to compare the rigorous and approximate flash
calculations in Table 7. I ~ I.

r-r--, COeD

:>\D,.,ONO
..,)\DO~\DO

...'"o

0(000,..,0

:> .

'.-100

10\0000
1o::000N

'"

000

UUl'Ol"'Ol"VlN

O"O'I,... .... NOI

0\ CO <0 VI 0'>

... . .

WVlCON .... O

OOO'Ol"\ONO

"'M'"

..;:..-'"
.'" "
o:i
I

..J ..... r-O,.,'Ol"

(""It",

,.,,...0\
....
"""'Ol"0'I0'\'Ol"

"0

.,.,
,.,

>'Ol".-I \ 0 0
Ul ,., a:l .. 0

.-INN,.,
I

"''''

."M"
...'"

:e ....
,::>
-,"''"::>

~O

....

o
M

'N

""'''"0.... .
.... MNO'I'O:I'

111

M
0\U'l 'Ol"

I
OOr-ONr-r'l

0''''''') l/UIl ...,.

'.-4 _ 0 -0\
OUl 0\0\\0 \0""
010 .r- '.-4
.... ..,.0'Ol"0....
~

r~
~

",0

- ::>
" ~""
.
I

11'1

Ul'Ol"ONNOr-r-rl

0"''''' .

I f-I'Ol"NUl

o",~

'"

rl
oCl)

'l'""lCl)
'Ul
NO
NlI'I
N ....
..,.
lIPD
0 \0 N

r l .... NCI)'CI'

100'1'"

0"''''
ON
0"'"
0"'"

0
'Ol"

,...,.,..n"'O'IO'>N,...'"
'0
_1Il0\ _...-<I . . .

,.,,...O\\O\O

I..JOOOOO
1<00000
I fol .. 0 0 0

ON

,.,0 rl ON 0

"<7 O\r-\O 0'1

0"<70'>
.., '0,0 .....

'"

0",

0
11'1

0-

"'0\00
W .....
..:1..:1

.. .-l

,...0

..

0::00\0,...,... ....

~>

'U'lU'l

IOr-Oce

o(r-NNMO

.",

N CO 10

P;:'Ol"OcDO\rO\OChNNCO
Po 'Qf"'l""

0",

lnN\oo\""
alNN\DO\""

O
....,....,.
'\0

p:;Q)\O\O ....

:C,...

'.VlCQ

FLO\VfRAN Program for Material Balaoce

CalcullitiOl13
The: computer IOformallon diagram we Ulie for the material balance calculations IS
given m Fig. 12.2-5 However, since It IS easy to make nlistakes in developmg any
CAD code, it is always a good Idea to bUIld the program in small pieces and to
debug each of these smaller porlions. Thus, we might develop separate programs
for the liquid separation system, i c.., from the flash drum through the pump shown
in Fig. 12.2-5, and another program for most of the gas-recycle loop. i.e.. from the
flash vapor stream back through the reactor. We can use our approximate stream
flows gh'en in Table 12.2-1 or 12.2-2 as staning values for the two slTeams.
A program for the calculation of the material balances is given in Table
12.2-5. We use SEPR blocks inltlally for the dlsu.llallon columns. because they
provide the simplcst way of estimating the component flows for specified fractlonal
recoveries, ane we use the conventional rules of thumb to fix these fractional
recovenes. (If necessary, \lie adjust these spill fractions to satisfy our product purity
requirement) The feed rate to the flash drum is taken from Table 12.22. The
PARAM statement for the SPLIT block on the purge stream requires that \lie
specif)' the spilt fracllon. We can Ulie our approximate material balances (see Table
12.2-1 to esllmate this value)
199.7 + 298.0
(12.1-1)
Spht Fraction for Purge Stream :co 1548.7 + 2323 = 0.1283
The PARAM statement for the recycle compressor requires lhat we specify
the exit pressure and the efficiencies., while the PARAM statement for the REACT
block requires that we specify the conversion of each reaction. These conversions
are related to one another by our selectivity correlation. Again, we use our
approximate solution to estimate the appropriate values

"

-OW::>
::t:U)QO

..'" " ..
="''''''
.'"..... ..
~I<E

.... Of-otaJ

-IaJIl(O::

:=Vl

'"

"'
''''
"'"'
..."" '"
0",

"' ...
......
ESES
~f!

364.5 - 91.1
Conversion I = ~.-5- - 0.75

Conversion 2 =

273.4 - 265
2734
= 0.0307

(12_2-2)

(12.2-3)

The ADD block requires that we specify the component ftow rates of each feed
stream (in the order in which tlley appear in the component list m the RETR
statement). The MOLES statement for the fresh feed toluene IS
MOLES

SI3

4 2734

SFrTlON In

TARU: IU-5

IIOA planl mal""rial b.laMe'i

TITLE HOA PLANT - MATERIAL BALANC~S - CONTROL SYSTEKS

PROPS 5 1 2 5 2
PRINT INPUT
RETR HYDROGEN "ETHANE BENZENE TOLUENE BIPHENYL
8LOC~ FLASH IFLSH 501 503 502
BLOC~ VALVI AFLSH 503 60 sOC 0
8LOC~ TOWRI
SEPR 504 506 505
8LOC~ VALV2 ArLSH 506 60 507 0
BLOC~ TOWR2 SEPR 507 509 508
BLOC~ TOWR3 SEPR 509 511 510
8LOC~ PU"P PUMP 510 512
BLOCk PURG SPLIT 502 520 521 5.0
8LOC~ COKP GCOKP 521 515
8LOC~ TOLFO KULPY 530 513
8LOC~ r"I~ ADD 512 513 SIC SIS 3.0 516
BLOCk REACT REACT 516 6.0 517 a
8LOC~ CONVG SCVW 517 0 0 FLASH 501 0 0
8LOC~ PCONT CNTRL 508 TOLFO 1
BLOC~ "CONT RCNTL 516 516 PURG 2
PARJ\.K FLASH 1 100 465 1
PARJ\.K VALVI 1 150 0 1
PARA" TOWRI 1 1. .995 .003 22.0 1
PARA" VALV2 1 15 0 1
PARA" TOWR2 I 1. 1 . . 995 .001 21*00
PARAM TOWR3 1 1. 1. 1 . . 995 .00520.00
PARAM PUKp 1 535
PARAM PURG 1 2 .128 .872 5.0
PARAM cal'll' 1 535 0 1 0 .8 .8
PARAM TOLFO 1 .6625
PARAM REACT 1 1265 500 0 2 4 .75 -1 1 1 -1 21.0
PARAM REACT 32 3 .03 1 0 -2 0 1 7C.0
PARAJ'I CONVG 1 3.0 21 6.0
PARAft PCONT 1 6 265 1 .3 0 .001 0 0
PARA" "CONT 1 4 1 5 1 .5 .05 0 .001 0 0
"OLES 501 1 1549 2323 265 91.1 4.2
"OLlS 530 4 400
"aLES 514 1 461.9 24.6
TEl'll' Sal 100
TE"P 530 100
TE"P 514 100
PRESS 501 465
PRESS 530 575
PRESS 514 575
END CASE
END JOB

MATU1Al Ml.AHC'E CAlC1JUTIONS

389

becau5"" this stream contams only toluClle. which is the fourth component in our
list
RELATIONSIIIP 8t::T\\EEN OLR

Af'PROXI !AlE MAn::RIAI. BAUr-.Ct:s

A""D TI-tE FtO\\TRAN INPlIT. We used our approllimate malerial balances to

estimate the fresh feed rales 10 the process. the split fraclion for the purge stream,
the reaclor conversions for Ihe 1....0 reactions. and as a slarting guCS$ .... hen ....e tore
the recycle loop at lhe feed 10 Ihe flash drum lienee, our approllimale material
balances provide a good starting pOlnl ror lhe more rigorous analysis. It i~ nOI 3
simple mailer 10 make -reasonable" guesses or the values required for lhe
FLOWTRAN input if these approllimate So[utl0ns arc not available.

Need for Feedback Controllers

Also nole thatlhe FLOWfRAN input requires different infonnation from what we
used for our illltial desiJ!.Il That IS, for the FLOWTRAN Input we must specify
both fresh reed rates, the r<:aClor COn\-efSIOn (we can U5"" our 5""lcctlvity correIalion
to calculate the con\'ersion of the by-product reaction). and the split for the purge
slream. In contraSI, In our shortcut calculations. we based lhe desIgn on a
Specification of the production rate, Ihe r<:aClor conversion. the purge compositIon
(which is cqui\'alent 10 Specifying lhe fresh feed hydrogen flow). and a constraint of
maintaining a 5/1 hydrogen-to-aromatics ratio at the reactor Inlet.
To have our FLOWTRAN prograT:l produce the desired production rate, ....e
willnccd to add a rccdback controller to adjust the toluene fresh reed rate until the
benzcne production rale matches the desired value, Similarly, we will need 10
adJusl the split fractIon ror Ihe purge stream un Iii the hydrogen-to-aromatics ratio
at the reactor inlet mll\ches the desired value of 5/1. Each of these feedback
controllers introduces a new level or ileration. l-knee, we normally dder adding
these controllers unlil after we ha ve obtained a converged 5""t or material balance.s.
The order in which FLOWTRAN undertakes the calculalions is the same as the
order specified ror the BLOCK slatements.

Including

F~back

CODtrollers- ested Iterations

When we atlmJpt 10 install a reedhad: controlkr that will manipulate the

fresh feed rate of toluene 50 that the Row rate or the benzene product stream is
265.0 mol,lhr, we find thai the CNTRL block can only manipulate a parameter in a
block stalernent and cannot adjust a flow rate directly_ To resolve this difficulty. we
can add a MULPY block to Ihe toluene fresh feed stream and then adjusl the
stream multiplier: see fig. 12.2-7,
We also wanl 10 add a feedback controller 10 adjust the split fraclion of the
purge stream, to keep the hydrogen-to-aromalics ratio equal to 5/1 at the reactor
inlet_ However, the RCNTL block will allow us toconlrolthe hydrogen-Io-toluene
flow. bul not the ratio of hydrogen to the sum or the t-c:nzcne and toluene. We could

390

nCTION III

MATUIAL SA1.<ONCE CALC\JL>\TION3

sEn ION III

521

Compressor
GCOMP

...Eo

Purge
SPLIT
/

515

'i'

FMIX

ADD
513

TOLFD
MULPY

530

512

r---I
I
I
I

Reactor
REACT

RCNTL f-_/ /
RCNTL

~ CONVG ~)
5evW

Flash
IFLSH

503

Pump
PUMP

I
PCONT
CNTRL

502

S04

Tower 3
SEPR

I-

Tower 2
SEPR

S09

511

I"

Valve 2
AFLSH

Tower I
SEPR

391

an altempt hl ...:onlcrge Ihe product now controller. This nested Iteration procedure
is oonllllued ulllil both Ihe SCVW block and the CNTRL block arc converged. At
this point. a change IS made to converge the RCNTL block. Then the whole
procedure SUHb again unlil both the SCVW block and the CNTRL block arc
con\erged, a/llithen a second change l~ made to allempt to con~erge the RCNTL
block
Clearl~, nC3ted Iterations WIll greatly increase tile computer tIme (and cost)
required 10 obtam a solullon Therefore, we suggest that illitlally tile convergence
tolerances be sel to 0.001 multiplIed by the desired value of the property being
controlled, rather than lhe default value ofOJIOOOI.
l\"1aterial Balances for Ihe Base-Case Flo"'sheel

Valve I
AFLSH

SO,
510
-------

M... TEIIAl S... l.ANCECAll"1Jl..... nONs

The S1ream flows calculaled by the program given in Table 12,2-5 are given in
Table J 22-6. Of course, we could decrease the error in these material balances by
requiring a lighter tolerance on the controller blocks. However, the results are
adequate for a second-level screemng of Ihe process ahernall\'es.
It is interesting to compare the stream flows shown in Table 12.2-6 with the
apprOXimate results we obtained in Table 12.2-2 (see Table 12.2-7). The approximations gi\ell in Table 12.2-2 correspond to a worst-case condilion, where we
made no attempt to correct for the fact that a significant amount of benzene leaves
Ihe flash drum "Ith the vapor stream. Desplle this error, most of the approJlimate
stream flows are "uhln 3 ~o of theIr more eJlact values, whIch is adequate for
screening calculallons We base our error anal)'sis on the totat flows because most
or the heal loads and equipment sizes depend on only the total flows.

506

nCURE 1U-7
HDA oontrol sysleIIl$.

overcome this difficulty by writing the code for a new block that would sum the
toluene and benzene flows al the reactor inlet and then using a ratio controller.
However, since our goal here is merely to illustrate how a CAD program can be
used to refine our approximate material balances and siDec: we probably would not
want to allow this much benzene to be recycled, we simply add a ratio conlroller for
the hydrogen-to-tolueDe flow; see Fig. 12.2-7.
When we add these feedback controllers lD FLOWTRAN, we nest the
iterations required to converge the calculations. That is, suppose it takes five
iterations to converge the material balances, i.e., the SCVW block. After these
calculations have converged, a change is made to altempt to converge the product
flow rate controller. After this change has beeD made, it might lake another five
iterations to converge the SCVW block again, and then a second change is made III

Malerial Galances 'o\hen Benzene Is Recm'ered

from the Flash Vapor Siream
If we include a vapor recovery system on the flash vapor stream (see Fig. 12.2-8), we
obtain the results given in Tabk 12.2-8. Now if we compare the stream flows in
Table 122-8 .... ith the results of the approximate balances given in Table 12.2-1, we
sec that the errors are quite small, i.e., within a 2 to 6% error. Errors of this
magnitude can easil)' be tolerated when we are screening alternalives.

Discussion of Ihe Approximate Malerial Balances

Hopdully we have demonstrated the magnitude of the errors that can be expected
from using our very simple, approximale material balances. We use these approximations initially to see whether the process has any chance of being profitable or
whether the project should be terminated. If further design elforl can be justified,
we use the approxImations to identify promismg alternatives. However, we would
always use a set of more ngorous material bal:lnces obtained by using a CAD
program for final design calculations. Our improved balances are still not rigorous

ill
N

TABLE 11.1-6

HDA plant mlltrl.1 b.l.n~n

HDA PLANT - MAT!RIAL BALANCES - CONTROL SYSTEMS

STREAM NAM!:
1 HYDROGEN
2 METHAN!
3 BENZENE

4 TOLUENE
5 8 I PHENYL

TOTAL LBMOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/Hft
DEGREES

PSI"

D!NSITY, La/rT]
"OLE

ruc

VAPOR

STREA" HA"E:
2 "I!:THANE
3 BENZI!:NE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LB"OL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
O!GRE!S P
PSIA
ONSITY, LB/PT3
/'IOL! rRAC VAPOR

STREAM NAME:
1 HYDROGEN
2 I"lETHAN!
3 BI!:NZENE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LBI'lOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
DI!:GRI!:ES P
PSIA
Df:NSITY, LB/Pr3
MOLE PRAC VAPOR
STREAM NAME:
1 HYDROGEN
2 METHAN!
3 BI!:N7.!NE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LBMOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
OEGREES r
PSIA
DI!:NSITY, LB/rT3
MOLE rRAe VAPOR

501

502

LBMOL/HR

LSMOL/HR

1577.14

1575.66

2399.24
296.602
92.8057
4.61002
4370.40

74096.5
71543.00
1265.00

2388.12

29.7555
3. 47663
0.00040
3997.01

44131.3
2808.79
100.00

503
LBMOL/HR
1.48202
11.1190

266.847
89.3291
4.60963
373.386
29965.3
-4621.20

500.000
0.4543
1.0000

465.000
0.8637
1.0000

100.00
465.000
52.2572
0.0000

SO.
LBI'lOL/HR
0.05560
266.046
89.3291
4.60963
360.040
29722.3
-794.97
370.21
150.000
42.6642
0.0000

507
LB"'OL/HR
0.05560
266.046
89.3291
4.60963
360.040
29722.3
-794.97
193.69
15.000
0.0000
0.5458

Sl1
LBPlOL/HR
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.44620
4.58658
5.03278
748.361
-14.09
405.12
15.000
54.2040
0.0000
51.
LBMOL/HR
1851. 30
2121. 32
27.4550
311.221
0.02340
4]71.32
14112.6
-1072 .83
126.11
535.000
0.0000
0.9111

504
LeMOL/HR
1.48202
11.1190

266.847
89.3291
4.60963
373.386

29965.3
-4621. 20
98.89
150.000

505
LBI"IOL/HR

1.48202
11. 0634

0.80054
0.0
0.0
13.3460

242.996
16.24
142,49

0.0202

150.000
0.4292
1.0000

508
LB"'OL/HR
0.0.5560
264.716
0.08933
0.0
264.861
20685.5
-2663.32
168.83
15.000
51.0575
0.0000

S09
LB"'OL/HR
0.0
1.33023
89.2398
4.60963
95.1796
9036.72
-814.03
234.37
15.000
49.2994
0.0000

510
LBMOL/HR
o. 0
1. 33023
88.7936
0.02305
90.1469
8288.36
-752.64
231.20
15.000
48.6827
0.0000

512
LBI"lOL/HR
0.0
0.0
1.33023
88.7936
0.02305
90.1469
8288.36
-752.64
231.20
535.000
48.6827
0.0000

S13
LBMOL/HR
0.0
0.0
o. 0
279.375
0.0
279.375
25740.0
-3821.65
100.00
575.000
5].1678
0.0000

514
LBMOL/HR
467.900
24.6000
0.0
0.0
0.0
492. 500
1337.92
34 3.96
100.00
575.000
0.2543
1.0000

515
LBMOL/HR
138].40
2096.72
26.1247
3.05241
0.00035
3509.30
38746.4
3157. 50
124.65
5]5.000
0.9497
1.0000

517
L8MOL/HR
1577.47
2399.74
296.695
92.8054
4.61146
4311.]2
74112.6
11719.65
1265.00
500.000
0.4543
1.0000

520
LBMOL/HR
192.261
291.398
].63016
0.42422
0.00005
487.714
5384.89
342.73
100.00
465.000
0.8637
1.0000

S21
LBMOL/HR
1383.40
2096.72
26.1247
3.05241
0.00035
3509.30
38746.4
2466.06
100.00
465.000
0.9637
1. 0000

S30
L8MOL/HR
0.0
0.0
0.0
400.000
0.0
400.000
]6853.6
-5411.70
100.00
575.000
53.1678
0.0000

0.0000

_ , IOU,., . . .

..... , ...""L .......... NCI. CAl CUI.A lIONS

TAill t: IU-1
SCream composition!!> .lIDd

A......o.illl.llt

C_..-

COnlpo6itiotl

II,
CII,
Il<=M

Toll>t:lloC:
o.p~n~1

TOlalllow

0-..-

COnlpoUl;o.

,...
II,

0"
00'
0
0
0
492.j

Ra..
~,

..,.,

II,
CII,
Il<=M

Toluene
o.phtn~l

TOlalllow

,...

T......

reClck

0
0
0

0 ..
000
0
0
0

"'"
....
...... ,liquid
......
0
'2134

0.]66

OJ96

.06'
0021

0'"
0008
0001
0

0001
4232

Gu

'"l

H1S

0006
003'2
o 'OJ
0.246
0012
JlS

n.owrRAN

C_..-

tomlJ'O'il.....
Il,

CII,
Il<=M

Toluene
D'phcn)l
TOll" 110.
&ror

10

80... %

0 -......'

COfI\poMlioa
II,

ai,
SenuIM:
Toluene:
o.pbtnyl

TOIaillow
Error III 80.... "

,II,...
0"
0-05
0
0
0
<192 j
0

RUtlOf
~,

036'
0'"
0068
0021
0.001
4371

,.,

,...

T......

0
0
0
100
0
119 ,
L<

....
......

0)9'
0600
0001
.001
0

""

L8

..

0
0
0
100
0
"1

0'"
0'"
0
006.
0
4231

.......
0001
0

0.01
0

Liot..
r.t}'ck

"

0
0
0.15
09115
0

""II

0"'"'
0010
0715
0239
0.012
37)4
10.2

))<J'

..

""'r
0".
0-597
0.007
000'
0
487.7
l.J

sr

,r----I
,
~

0423
0485

0.006
0""
0
4371

"

_/

ADD
513

Is',.

ReaclOr
REACT

S02t
CONVG

SCVw

512

TOLFD
MULPY

Pump
PUMP

SO;

BZREC

SEPR

FMIX

530

RCNTL
RCNTL

Flash
IFLSIi
S03

518

Valve 1
AFLSH

510

PCONT

CNTRL

S08

i'

-------

RutlOl'

G..

Flub
~uid

0.391

.000

r)-d.

"'19

Gu

5'5

cyck
O.H
0.008

G..
.39'
0'"
0007
0001
0

RuOf

0.391
..".

'"

t 519

rftyd,t

Liot-

~O

Purge
SPUT

521

Compressor
GCOMP

Bo~s

Tower 3
SEPR

Tower 2

SEPR

S09

1;;<'7

Valve 2
AFLSH

SO<

Tower I
SEPR

S06

511
FlGURE I l l "
HDI< prOOllSS wllh bc:nzcnc

reco~u)'

~,...

0.391
0594
0.008
.001
0
J39J

because we are DOl ocreain Ihal we can design d,stillallon columns Ihal bave exaclly
Ihe splil fraclions thai we have assumed.
An inspecllon of our approxImate and exact resulls Indlcales lhat Ihe major
error in our approximale calcul.uions IS caused by the flash drum; i e. our
shoncul calculations are based on a perfect vapor-hquld spilt. so Ihal we did not
properly aecounl for the benzene and toluene leaVing In Ihe flash vapor and lhe

hydrogen and methane dissolved In the flash hquld. However. our shorl~ut flash
calculations did correctly indicate the magnitude of Ihis error, although II would
ha"'e been tedious to converge the flash caleulalioDs by hand. Despite the error, Ihe
sboncut calculalions arc: sufficiently accurale for screening purposes.
A second source of error in Ihe approximate balances was due to the
assumption of complete recoveries. The losses depend on the column sequence we
choose, as well as t~ design of Ihese columns, which is Ihe reason why we neglected
the losses in our illJlial calculations. However.lhe losses are only a small souroe of
error in our screemng calculations.
. .
Now th~1 we have developed an improved set of material balances, H IS slil1
oc:cessary to check lhe approlumallons ....e made (0 calcul..te the energy balances.
Ibe equipment sizes, and the equipment C051S. We briefty diSCUSS these problems In
the remalOder of thiS chapler

SECTION I!J

12.3

..

~-
...
-~
... c ....

..

...

... - ....... ~"'aa~

"!

.~

~:

.....

i.

<

<:>

cc>oC>=~

ooe-c-

g
"

..i

<

q~

"

00000"'-'

~~

>D

0:<:000--'

~
~

.lI

-00

ciooc>e~

3%

Some examples of the ly1X'S of studlcs thaI norma III are useful 10 undertake
arc: discussed below. Then we discuss a program for the complete !fDA proce<;s

ooooo~....:

00000--

COMPLETE PLAI'o'T SIMULATION

small subproblems

H
-

"

397

Once we: have completed a SCI of material balance calculations. v.c can work on
de\'cloping a simulation of the complete plant. Again. it is advisable for a begmner
to pUI the program together in small chunks and 10 debug these small chunks
mdlvidually, rather than allemplmg to immediately solve the complete: problem
We: use the results of Ollr material balance calculations 10 til the nows for Ih~

oc:coc@

;:;:g

COMPLETE P'LANT S1MUU.II0"

-~
0
0

ooooo~o

DiSlillalion Column C.kulalions

Our material balance calculations were based on splil (SEPR) blocks to describl=
Ihe behavior of the dlsllllatlOn columns. With these bloch "'e merd} specify the
fraction of each component taken overhead, so the results will not necessarily
correspond to the distributIon of the nonkeys that we would obtam with more
ngarous models of dIstillatIOn columns Hen~, as the next step 10 the de"e1opmenl
of a complete simulation. we might de,-elop a Simple program for Just the
distIllation seclion. "'here '''..e replace the u~ of split blocks by FenskeUnderwood
Gilliland routiDC5 (or lheir equi,alenl): see Fig. t2.3-1. The Fenske-Underlo1.ood
Gilliland calculations (called DSTWU blocks in FlOWTRAN) will also ghe us an
estimate for the column de5igns lhat we can use to check our shortcut calculations.
lbe Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland design procedure is limited to syslems
ha,-mg a constant relative "olaulny Thus. the calculalions mIght be ~nousl) 10
error for nonideal mlll;lurcs where there is h}"drogen bonding aDd where the activit}
coefficients are large. Similarly, the assumption of a constant rdali,-c: ,olalility IS
valid only when allihe components in a mixture have essentially the same heat of
vaporization (i.e_, are c10~ boilers). Thus. there are often cases where we want 10
check Ihe accuracy of the Fenske-Underwood-GiJliland estimates by using rigor
ous column models.
Most of the rigorous. lray-by-tray programs are simulalton programs. That
is.. the number of trays atxn-e and below the feed must be specir~ as well as the
reflux ralio. and Ihen the subroutine calculates the splits. However, when we are
designing a column, we are trying to detennine the number of trays that we need to
accomplish a desired split. Therefore, normally we need 10 usc an iteralive
procedure when simulation subroutines are used for design.
Experience in<!lcates that these traybylray subroutines are orten slow to
oonverge (i.e. they have the longest running times aDd require the most iterations
of all tbe subroutines availabk). For this reason, if we include rigorous column
models in a program that is also using ileration to close the material balances
calculations. the computing costs are orlen excessive. )lence, in sequenlial modular
simulators, we usually use the tray-by-tray routines in separate programs; i.e.. lo1."e
use the results from ngorous dlstillalion calculations to adjust the split fractions III
slITlple models in a material balance program or complele planl simulation

398

UC'llOI'" IJJ

Sl:cnoN IU

COIotI'IUI! .. L.. ...rr SIIotUl.ATION

521

Compressor
GCOMP

...2o

Purge
SPLIT

COMPlETE PUNT SIIotUlAnot<

399

(a) FJowslJ<:<:1

Produci
Recycle

515
S02

I'

ReaClor
FMIX
ADD

5 13

Reaclor

51

REACT

CONVG

5CVW

~L

A",h
IFLSH

512

S03

Pump

Val ... 1
AFLSH

PUMP

510

(b) Computer mfonmlion dIagram

r-

SOB

1
5

TO'M:r J
DSTWU

_, IT~r2 I

w~

S07

Val... 2
AFLSH

By-product

S04

~~

L5~CVW~~--J

SEPR

Tov,cr I
~
DSlWU
Product

Recycle

S06

511
FlCUR

l2...>t

HDA p r _ WIth colwnn modds.

By-producl

AnOlher approach that we could usc: is to develop SImulation programs that

avoid including rigorous models for dislillalion columns as part of any matenal
balance recycle loop. That is, any time we have a distillation column in a material
balance recycle loop, we can double the flow rate of Ihis stream (using a MULPY
block in FLOWTRAN), IheD spht the stream in half (using a SPLfT block in
FLOWTRAN), and lhen usc a SEPR block to connect one of the exil Sireams from
the spliller to the recycle portion of the f10wshcet and a rigorous model on the
other half of the stream. Since we can COntrollhe order in which lhe simulalor calls
the subroullnes, we can usc thIS approach to complelely converge Ihe material
balances before we call the rigorous dislillation routine. A Simple example of tillS
type is shown in Fig. 12.3-2.

FleURE 12.J..2
A .wmpl( planl

Energy B.IIl.IInces and I-Iut Exch.llngers

In the material balance computer information diagram in Fig. 12.2.7, we neglected

the quench stream thai uscs flash liquid to reduce: the temperature of Ihe reactor
c
effluent to II50 F. An lOspcctioll of the flowshcet wilh the quench stream included
indicales thai the quench sHearn merely provides a recycle loop arouod the flash
drum. Thus, If we mal.e a material balance from the reactor effluent 10 the flash
vapor and the pressure reduction valve before the stabilizer, i.e., if we IOciude lhe
quench-recycle loop completely wlthm this balance, Ihen the process flow rales will

400

Reno,",

I1J

COM .... nE PL",n SlMUUT)()fol

SECTlO!'I IlJ

S02

Re3CIOT

S06

(SI7)

Q miJ.
ADD

S07

CONVG

TE~

SCVW

/QCONT

SOl

Flash
IFLSH

S03

~ontTOI

SIl5

Q split
SPLIT

COIolPLTE

PlANT SINUL\T'I()l'I

401

Complete Plant Simulation

AfieT we have used simple studies to make certain that OUT simulator subroutines
WIll converge and will give the correct predictions. we can put these subroutines
together to generate a plant simulation. Table 12.3-1 gi'o'es a program for the HDA
process that contains a fced-effluent heat eJ.changer{see Fig. 123-4). Since we ha\e
already calculated all the process flows. we can teaT as man) recycle streams as we
desire in this flo ....-shcct, and "e do Dot need to mclude any controllers. With this
approach, "e can calculate the equipment SIZCS and the required utility flows with a
mmimum of computational cost. Of course, if we want to change the processing
conditions (i.e.. the values of the design variables), we must include the controllers
in the program.

Cosl Models, Process Profitability, and

Optimization

S04
flGURE Il.3-J
QurrdI C2kulal>oa

not change. However, the heal dUI} of the parllal condenser will depend on the
quench now rate.
To calculale the qUl'nch flov.. rate, and the load on the panial condenser, we
must adjust the flo" r3te of the quench stream to decrease the reactor uit
temperature to 1150~F. Thus, we need to lDstall another controller that \\'111 soh'e
the problem Ilerativel). sec Fig, 12.3-3. Again. a beginner is advised to solve this
problem separalcly and to make certain that convergence is obtained before
attempting to add all iteration loop to a large program. We use our shortcut
calculations as a stanin~ point to con\'erge the calculations.
CAD programs also make il fairly easy to geocrale the temperaturc:-enthalpy
curvcs for each process S!ream that are needed for the energy integration aDalysis.
In particular, whell there is a phase change in a stream containing a miJ.ture, the
temperalure-enlhatpy calculations are tedious to undertaJcc by hand. In the initial
simulation of a complete plant, we would illclude only heaters and coolers on the
streams and then design the heat-exchanger network using the procedure described
in Chap. 8. However, I proocdure for incorporating the heal-cJ.changer design
procedure into a sequential modular simulator has been presented by Lang.
Biegler, and Grossmann

\' D. Lang. L T B~lIn, end t F GrOWllollrta, Stm\lh.eneow OphmwotlOQ end IIul Inl~&retion
W'nh PJoa:ss Sim\llation.- Pern no 12b. t986 AIIIIUlI AtCbE Medin" M\f.m. Bcadl. No'lTfll~' I98&,
$\lbmJU~

10

e-,..'<'n;" C/wmiC..1 "fI'~

Many simulators, including FLOwrRA N, include equipment cost correlations.

To use these correlations, normally It is necessary to include a factor that accounts
for inflation, such as the Marshall and Swift indeJ. that "'e used in our models.. By
supplying the: unit costs for cooling water, steam. etc.., it is also possiblc to calculate
the costs for the utility Slreams. The capital and operating costs along with the cost
of labor, maintenance and repairs, lUes and insurance, elc.. (see Chap. 2), call be
combined to obtain an estimate of the profitability of the process.
Each Simulator run corresponds to a single set of design variables. One way
that we could estimate the optimum design conditions is to make a set of casestudy runs that correspond to the rallge of the design variables where our shortcut
dcslgn cakulations indicated thai the optimum was fairly flat. Many simulators
also include oplimizalion routines Ihal caD be used to find the optimum.
Remember thai costs change over tbe years, and Iherefore the optimum
desigll conditions will change. Thus, at the end of the 3-yr period, or so, thai il is
required to build a plant., the optimum design might be differenl from the final
design that is approved: for CODSlrucUoD. For this reason, some: Ihought needs to be
giveD to the tkJoibility of tile process to meet changing conditions in the economic
.
environment.

Whal Remains to Be Dooe

Dooc a set of CAD calculations bas been used 10 verify the seleclion of the best
process alternative, the conceptual design effort has been completed. Howe\'er, it is
still necessary to de\'elop a control system for the process, to consider the safelY
aspects of the process, and to add a significant amount of detail associated with the
final design. Safely and conlrot problems Ihat arc discovered might require the
basic flowshcet 10 be changed again. For this reason, our initial CAD studies
should focus primaril)' on finding the best prOttSS alternative and the cost penalties
associated with other alternatives. Some additional discussion of safety, control.
etc_. is given in Sec. JJ.3

T" aLE 113-1

I-IDA process

TITLE HDA fLOWSHEET

PROPS S 1 2 S 2
PRINT INPUT
R~TR HYDROGEN METHANE BENZENE TOLUENE BIPHENYL
BLOC~ FLASH IFLSH 501 503 502
BLOC~ Q5PLIT SPLIT 503 504 50S 5*0
BLOC~ VALVI AFLSH 505 6*0 506 0
BLOC~ TOWRI DI5TL 506 508 507
BLOC~ VALV2 AfL5H 508 6*0 509 0
BLOC~ TOWR2 DISTL 509 511 s10
BLOC~ PCOOL HEATR 510 540
BLOCK TOWR3 DISTL 511 513 512
BLOC~ PUMP PUMP 512 514
BLOCK PURGE SPLIT 502 530 531 5*0
BLOCK GCOKP GCOKP 5]1 517
BLOCK FKIX ADD 514 SIS 516 517 3*0 518
BLOCK FEBE ~XCB3 518 52] 519 524
BLOCK FURN BEATR 519 520
BLOCK REACT REACT 520 6*0 521 0
BLOCK QMIX ADD S04 521 5*0 522
BLOCK CONDS BEATR 524 525
PARAH fLASH 1 100 465 0
PARAM Q5PLIT 1 2 .2805 .7195
PARAM VALV1 1 150 0 0
PARA" TOMB1 1 .7 6 5 2*150 .0357 .020~ 0 1
PARA" VALV2 1 15 0 0
PARA" TOWR2 1 1.8 24 12 2*15 .735 .5458 0 0
PARAM PCOOL 1 100 ]*0 1 0
PARA" TQWR3 1 .1 4 ] 2*15 .9472 0 0 0
PARAIt PUMP 1 5]5
PARAM PURGE 1 2 .122 .878 5*0
PARAR GCOMP 1 535 0 1 0 .8 .8
PARAM FEBE 1 1100 20 10 15 2*0 2
PARAM fURN 1 1150 15 0 0 1 0
PARAM REACT 1 1265 SOO 0 2 4 .75 -1 1 1 -1 21*0
PARA" REACT 32 3 .03 1 0 -2 0 1 74*0
PARAR CONDS 1 100 5 0 0 1 0
MOLES 501 1 1577.53 2402.98 ]92.33 124.8 6.24776
MOLES SIS 4 279.375
MOLE5 516 1 467.9 24.6
KOLES 523 1 1577.53 2402.98 ]92.33 124.8 6.24776
TEMP SOl 100
TEMP 515 100
TEMP 516 100
TEMP 523 1150
PRESS sOl 465
PRE55 515 535
PRESS S16 535
PRESS 523 500
END CASE
END ,JOB

402

it::l
.5l

.t~".J

.<e;

~:z:

E~

u.!:

~
0

i-"2-

'"

'"

5l

r.~

'"

.u.
><

0'"

:8

:t- 5l -:z:
0. .J f - ~~

Cl

EO

r-;:;- 0<
N

'"

"''''
~~

oUJ

u:z:

'"

N:Z:

t~

"0
~U

~"

'"

8t<
~~

~t"'"

5
u.:z:

'" ~

.u.
><

.J'"

UJ

~~

~I

"''''

:S~

5l

"<
~UJ

"~~

~5 r-

Hj

-.J
"t-

p:;

N.J
"t-

'"
0

~5

T
f-

UJ~

:I::I:

UJU
u.~

'"

1~
.~ Q

Eo

u.<

'"

'"

..

~I

~~

E::1

'<'"
~

'"

;;

~.J

"t-

~5

f--~

'"

403

11.4

SUMMAR\ AND EXt-.N-CISES

Summar)'

The large CAD programs. such 11\ fLOWTRAN. PROCESS, DESIGN 2000,
ASPEN, etc., are f'Olo\erful tools. tout lhey are somewhat 1lIousto usc. It is easy to
make mistakes in the mput data. :md lhesc= mIStakes can be costly In terms of
compuler lime IIcOO'. the best ;'rproach to de\'e!opmg a CAD program is to
conSIder only small porllons of the plant at one time and 10 debug Ihe code
correspondmg 10 Ihls small part ..I the plant Then we add another small portion,
and gradually we generalc a code rllr the: complete process.
To use these programs effioClltly, I.e., to minimize the number of iterallOns
requIred, it is usually necessary III ha\'e good estimates for recycle flows, the splilS
in purge streams., reactor conver.;iulis. etc. We use the results from our shortcut
,calculations to prm'ide these estinwlt:S.

":xerc.ises
12.4-1. Dc\'dop a m3lcnal balance r ....l/-lam (usin& ellher FLO\VTRAN Of" another CAD
program that you mlghl ha\"C' ",,,,lable) ror the IIDA prooess'" Ith dlphenyl rttJckd
11.... 2. For one mtne f"Il)C('S5t:$ thai ~"u ha"e deslgned.de,dop a ngorous matenal balana:
program Also. de'"elop .I CAll rrogram rOt the distillation sequence. and then
develop a program ror the ....n'rJete plant Ho,", do the n!orou~ cakulallons
oompare "'lIh YOUt shortelll arpl,,,lmatlOOS'

CHAPTER

13
SUMMARY
OF THE
CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
PROCEDURE
AND EXTENSIONS
OF THE
METHOD

We havC' described a systematic prlJlCedurc for the cona:plual design of a limited

class of pt:lTochemK:a1 processes. i.e. conllnuous, vapor.liquld processes that
produa: a single product. Of course, many other types of processes could be
considered. Moreover, numerous other types of design studies need to be undertaken to complete a final design
Unfortunately, It 15 oot poSSIble (0 cover all this matenal to a one-semester
cours<:. Petrochemical processes an: selected for consideration because IhC'y are the
most common Smularly. lhe emphaSIS is placed on conceptual design becau<;c
the equlpmenlused In the process and the Slructure or the nowsheet are filed altlll~
stage or thc design :tctIYltv; 1C'_. all the other design actIvities depend on the re~ult ..
of the coo~ptual de"i~n

406

StCfION Il'

TilE lUUA1CWOl. Ole'S'ON rIOCI'OU1" fOI PETltOCllUI!CAl HO(:uns

The syslematic procedure v.e used to develop a concc:ptual desIgn was

hierarchical. A brier review or this procedure is gi\'en in Sec, 13.1 Drier outlines or
hierarchical procedure!> thai can be used 10 develop com:eptual designs ror sohd~
processes and batch proces.-.es are given in Sc:c. 13.2, Finally, some olher types or
design problems that need to be solved berore a final design call be dcvdopc::d are
briefly discussed III Sec. 13.3.

SECTION ll'

TABLE 13.t-l
Design de4:isiom. for conlinuoUS
Lc~d

407

proce~

8illdl '~n.u~ COnUnuOw. bek>,..,..~ w""dcr only COnllnl>OUll prOClCSKS

Inpul-Otllpul SH1Klllr~ 0I11o"'$~1
I -Sh~uld we purify .be r~ ...-m;al"nal $!reams be(ore lhey ar" rcd 10 Ih~ r<:Klofl" If lhe

l.cnl I
2

,mptlnllcs .'c lIlul, tberc .r~ no quanllla"'e heunstla.

l ~SboWd ~ ,cycn.lbl~ by prodUCI be n:co\ered or recyc\cd 10 ClullCtlOn1 - No quanUla1JVl:

beumllc 'I aYll.lllb~

.." need las rcqck and ptlfJC

~Do

Ilf"a-tn'~ A quaDII.all~e beUtullC ~d 10 be

aYOll!lbIc bcfor" lhe rceo:nt In.'cntlQIl
-.nbrane KpantJOIl prOCC-I$CI 10 $rj!MalC
pseous mUlufrl
.. -II 01 from au 01 H10. rcKllnt .hal 1$ nol recovered and ra::ydr41~(AD ucas amoulll

13.1 REVIEW OF TilE HIERARCHICAL

DECISION PROCEDURE FOR
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESSES
To Simpliry Ihe conotplual design or a process. we decompose Ihe problem
1010 a hierarchy of decisions. TM decision levels Ihal v.e consKier are gl\en m
Table 13 I-I The decisions lhal need 10 be made al each le,'e1 ror petrochemical
processes are given in Table 13.1-2.
The mpul-oulput ill!ormallOn requued 15 presented ill Sec 4 I. and the
beurislIcs that are available: 10 help male .he dcasions presenled ill Table: 13.1-2
are discussed in Chaps. 5 through 8 Jr no heunstics are a,allable to male a
decision, we merely make a guess. We go through lhe complete design procedure m
IbIS way, 10 generate a base-case design. We try to develop a complete des.gn as
rapidly as poSSible to soc whelher there IS some reason why we should ter:TlInale all
.....orl on Ihe projecl.
As \loe procec'd through the base-casc design. v.e kocp Irad. of the dCClSIOns
....e male In addition. we prepare a COSI dIagram ror Ihe base-case deSign (!\.CC: Sees
9_1 and 92) as an aid IIlldenllf)mg Ihe mosl expenSI\'e processmg costs Then we
allempt to evaluale hov. changes m one or more or our original deciSIons Will atree!
the procc:ssmg COsts; see 5ec. 93. We continue to evaluate process ahemall\.esin
IhlS way until we oblam the besl process allernatl\e.
It mIght be necosary 10 change tbe flowsboci correspoodmg to the besl
process allemative because or sarcly, sian-up. cootrollabihty considerations, etc.

IIII' IIlUUCIllCAl DEClS,ON PIO<;OUU tOl rnOCllEMICAl. PlOCSSES

or

musl be spcaficd.)

Levd 3.

5 -Ho"" m3Dy produci suuml WIll there bel~ Rc:uonablc:

uccpl for r1lc: ...... 01 a 1"~~BlbIe by-prooUCIRa:ydc ilt1lClun:

heuns~

""",m 10 be anllablc,

runy fcacror $)'51rrDS alc ,cqwrtd1~ T'bc heUrlSUai aern to be (UIOIUIbIc:. -Ii IIxre
an) IoCp",allOll bel....ec. tbe ruclon'~ Uluall)' I deowon r:an be made bued 011 Ibr
dIan~r'l dala
1 -Ho..- man)' 1CCJC\oc ,nama I'C lherc1~ lleurul""'lr" available.
3 -SlKKild..-c ..... an C.u:Gi 01 one rcac~n."w Normally u..: ~'s dal.ll .... mdK:::Ile lhe
am;"e'
I -H_

4 -Ii a lura:ydc c:oroplUMl' ICqullad"~ A brunsllC iii "-aJlabk.

5 ~SbauId lhe lcacror be oprraled .chabllllcall)'....llh dum bcaWllL (or coobnlll. 01 a
d~ucnl (but carlKf) ncc&d'~ Some calc:u.btlOlU.arC na:ded 10 U$r the bcuftillC
II -Do .. e ... anl 10 Ullf he equl1,bnum coaYCBKNl1- Calcub._ Ind jtId
nl alC
fc-qw,cd
.... ~d ~
Srparallcn ')ilna
I -What 1i.IM: ~lnK'U'e 0I1he ~apor and liquid rCCQ~ery Iyslem'- H"UllSIIQ lie ..'&liable
.... ~d4cl \'apo' ,rco~"'l' ,),.em
I
'hal '111M: ~l IocaIIOn (>f.he VlIpor 'CCO\cry ,YS;lem"~ A heunsllC 'Iava.ilabloc
2
lUll u 11M: bQI IH'" oI.-.po, fcalYCry ')'Rail to
No heunmcs arc l~allablcLevel 4b lIqwd ....pal1lllOn ~)sl"m
I - ...."ha, Kparauon~ call be made by dlliuJlauool- A heunsllc that Uiua.ll)' ""Of~t III
"'lIJ.i.l1b\oc.
2. -Whal seqUCllDl: 01 dtllll""on c:olumm ,bould be uocdl- TIle publllIhed halnst"" arc
bmllcd 10 ihatp ,pllli of ldul mu,lurco to. I IInS'" rctd. but ,n man)' arKS thcydo nOI kad
10 the bQt ocquencc Thus, ClIlculauonl arc required.
3 Ho.. ,hol,lld lhe hahl cnd. be remo~edl~ Calculations. and Judgmenl arc reqUited
4 ~Should lhe: Irghl cnd. be ~ellied. Knllo f"",l 0' rcc)'cled to the vapor fceo""')' S)lI(IJI'Calculanoru and JudiJfICni ale requm~d
S -Ho.. ihould wt: aa:omphih lhe other $rplltaIlOlls'- No heuriillcs arc available
lc~c15
Hcal-c.chanlCr DCl"'OI~ a deslgll proc:edurc iii a~atlablc (KC Chap. II)
k

w.c'-

TABl.E 13-J.1
Hierarchy of decisions
Le~cl

Le~cl

Balch ycrsus conlmuow

Inpul'OutptlllUUCIUre of.h"

1l0wWccl
3 Il:ccyck ilructurc of 11K llowlhcrl

L.e~c12

Level. Gcneralllruc1ure of.be scparlnoll syslem

a. Vapor leco~cry sys'em

" LIqUid rocovery syilern

L.evcl5 EncllY mlci,anou
F,am J M Oou&l... A/CAE J. JI. Uljl9.Sj

F.OIll W "
R~cA

'-Uobc

,nl"<

M F Dobor"y. and 1 M

Doualu.

kSc,ec..".

c(

P'C>CUI R~,,""" Ah.....

".a,"

/.a.tC

Moreover. the accuracy or the prdlnun:lIry desIgn calculallons oc:cds to be: refi~
to oblaln more accuralr estimates or the costs. SImilarly, other c:quipmc:nl such as
pumps. drums, storage tanks. etc.. nud to be added. Thus. the conceptual design IS
merely a startmg poinl ror other design ~tudles

13.2

DESIG

OF SOLIDS PROCESSES

AND BATCH PROCESSES

Changmg economIC conditions normally cause changes In the types or prOtt<;scs
that .....e bUild. At pr~nt there is a growing Interest in the: design or batch proct'sses
ror both speciality chemicals and biotechnology. The design or bioprocessc:s is
discussed by Bailey and Ollis.- A review or their chapter lIon product recovery
opera lions indicates that solids prooc:ssing units (crystallization. filtration. and
drying) are very common. Similarly, solids processing steps are commonly encountered in polymer processc:s.
In this sectIon. we present brief outlines of systematic procedures thai can be
used ror the conceptual design of solids prooesses and batch proccssc:s The
prooc:dures are arranged mto a hierarchical structure, similar to the procedure
presented in Sec. 13.1. Howe\'er, new types or economic trade-offs are encountered.
and orten new types or constraints must be: considered.

Solids Processes
dIscussions up to thiS point ha\e bc:c:n hmited to \apor-liquid processes
Ho.....e'er, some petrochemical processes mclude solid processing steps in order 10
isolate the product. For example. thc separation or lIylene Isomers IS orten
accomplished by using crystallization inslead or distillation because or the close:
bolhng points or the component~. Similarly. Ihe production or adipic acid includes
crystalh7.-3tlon steps. Of courSC'. If a cf)'Slallization step is presenl, nonnally
filtralton (we consider the use: of a centriruge as an a1temath'e) and drying are also
rc:quirro.
To include solid processmg sleps lD our synthesis procedure. it is nocr:ssary 10
moclJfy the structure or the separatIOn sp:tem, level 4. 10 include liquid-solid splits.
Actually. to make Ihe procedure even more general, gas-solid spilts and IlqUldliquid splits should be included (e.g.. gas-phase olefin production requires a gassolid split). The: process alternatives for crystallization (and/or precipitation), soildliquid separation (filtration, centrirugation_ settling, etc.). and drying. as well as the
unit operation modds, and cost correlations must be: added
An initial rramework ror a synthesiS procedure ror solids processes has been
published by Rossiter and Douglas.! The rocos or this initial work was on
OUf

.} E Balky and D FOllIS., R_""""",sI F.na"""...... FuttdtJMmltJ1s. 2d cd. MeG.a.. 11lI/, '.,.. "ork.

'986
'A. P RowIC!.nd} M

Dou~I .....

(""""- Cttg

R~'

Drs.'" IH (1986)_ 60t I'" (19861

TABLE IJ.l..I

Input inrorm_tion ror soltd processes

I. ProdUCl$
D Duucd p<odll(:l!Of1 ralC' ~nd porny
II DemrC'd .... rl,ck sue (and dislnbol,onl and bul~ propertld
( p~ of produn. 01 pntt vasus punly
, Valuabk byJ'fodocts. rf .ny
1. R.w mall:nllls
Compoontron ~Dd rb,lIM;:111 SC.. lt of ..11 raw rn,artoak
II Pnee clach ra" m..'_/' tlr pncc ",,"us punl)
J. Solid, IFnrr"lIotl
D A,,.jl..bk rntlbods for IFntIlIun, sohd product or des,~ c:hara<:tm,lJC:II
b Solubility d..l.. fo, product ..nd pouibk impunues
t. Reaction a'olchtometry (if any) .. r>cl 1It:1u:ti~;ly dal..
'*- P'<>COSSInl COn!IU&1IIlS (Ihex wilt vary f,om ploceP 10 p'OCZ5a, but Iypically indudt)
... Producl Innp"rahu't connraiob due 10 tbtnnaI ....tabihl)'
" Crystalhz:tr (pncprlalor) dulTJ' dnosrl)' Iimilal>OllS due 10 a da::lioc ill producl ql....lIt)' or poor
propertleS.1 Iu&b IOblb cooo;arlrauon
5. Plaol and Slle dala
D. COSI cl uhlJl~-fut:1. steam Inek, ooobn, .... Ia. rd'riIF"'UOn. dc.
" Wasle dISposal f..cilllles .nd OOSlS

no-

moderate- to hlgh-tonnag.=, conllnuous, morgamc processes that produce solId

products rrom liquid and/or solids feeds. The Input information required is
presented In Table: 13.2-1, and the decisions required are listed In Table: 13.2-2 An
example: or the application or the procedure to a design problem has been
published by Rossiter! and an application to a retrofit study was given by
Rossiter. Woodcock. and Douglas.!

Balch Processes
The design of batch prooc:sscs was discussed in Sec. 4.2 The: design of batch plants
rc:quires not only that we select the units to be used in the process and the
interconnections between these units, but also thaI we decide whether we want to
merge adja~nt batch operations into a single vessel and/or to replace some batch
units by continuous units. Hence, the: design of batch prooesses is more dirrlCult
than the: design or a continuous process.
To simpliry tbe understandirtg of the: design of a batch plant, we start by
designing a continuous process, using the techniques presented in Chaps. 4 through

r ROSSIter. (",.,., btg /',oe. ~J. 6'1 191 (1986)

tAP ROSlUIa. 0 C. W<><.>dcod:. and} 1-4 Dou~ U"'" aI .. lh.,.....dual ~ Procedure fC>!
Rroolil SlI.La or Sahib P!oor:sses,- Paprr preS.'llltel .. I lilt 1916 Anmtal AtCbE M""'hns. MIolIIDI
Beadt. Ncnembc: I~

II

410

SfCTION III

I>f.SION 0,. SOLIDS l'aOCE.';SU "''''0 IlATCll PROCUSU

SECTION 111

OUIGN

or SOUDS I'R()(;USU

AND ....TCH PROCUSI!S

411

TABLE 1J,,2..2

TABLE 1).2..-3

Hierarchiul desision procedure for solid processes

A hienlrchical procedure for Ihe cooccpluill design of dNicaled balch JWocesses

I. Balch v~nus conIlIlUOU' prClCal we Q)MJdcr only CODllnL>QUS proc:c:sKS

1. Illpul-o<llp.lISlrUC1l."~
G Should We punty lbe rllw-malenaJ st.eams bc:fore P/ocesaD& Or should

I. Design a oonlJOUDUS ptOOCti lir$t (If VOSSlbk). l>Slnllbc procedure: dc:scrihcd lD Scc. 13 I U~ 1111.
p.ocedure 10 !lad lhe besl prOCCM Ille/nluve aad to .dc:oufy lhe domiOll-ilI desip va"lbIes If
ronunl.lOWi umts Ire DOl a ullble fOI WlIDC p.-ot;a",nl sleps, SIll" wltb the bestgucss of a lIo..-shccl
Ihal showli C&l:h pt~og step IOlhww:lIll.Uy
2. Repl.. cr: eacb c:onunuoWo IIn.1 by. balch uml
ll. Include onI) an .mcrmedlile .Iora.., Iinl. fOI rccyc:Jc
" Calculale the Dpumum C)cle IUllC$ fo. I:aCh unll by IDIIl1mIZlIl' lbe 101al Innlll.l COil of lbe
complete process
(I) T1w; calctibuOlI prowrda I. bound (HI the C05I fOI the case wbcu the IDtamedllte slonlC
rcqutrCd tD sdxdule the plant IS free.. (If lbe plant IS DOl profil.l.bk WIth free IiIOraIC> II "111 ftOt
be profitable .-ben SlonolC IS mdudcd.)
(1) 11le resulll will proVIde IOInc measurc of the """"",,",IC" '1ICCII1IWC' for modaf)'Ul& tbc chemrsfs

w~

pr()(lCS4; tbe feed

unpunud~

" h a purge strum requIred"

c. 110Ilol mlIoy ploduct ~trcams ate rc.qllucd1
~

What IS !he ce:ollOauc poleDtW (I ~ produet value rwnus raw-mlltenal C06t OlJIlUS d"pog.l QKt
for ptuac aDd was~)?
). Recycle ,tfUelllre aod aysl&llun oolWlkn.uons: (wcll,dl.llg rcacuon, If any)
.... What l)'pC 01 eryl&&1lu.ct ihoWd be wed?
" Should the prodl>Cl-fof1lllJll reacuon (If any) tab plaa .... lhJD the aysr.aIluu. Of ICparalcly'
c. How lDUIy c:rysllllu.u clrccts Of lIap a.rc rcquucd?
~. How lDUIy rccydc 1Itc&lDS aK requucd7
~ Whal IS the :oPOaUC: ptMeaual (I~ the cconoauc poImU&l at level 2 IlI.lDUi rJ>c, SIlD1 oIlbc
U1Duahza;! C&pw aDd lbe opcrall.lll C05I 0I1hc c:rysWlua)7
.. xparaUOll ~YSlcm 5Jl'C'QficabOll-lCvcraJ sobd-bqwd 5oCpar.lUODS rmghl be ~
G. flow cao the pnmary Pfoduet be rcal.erall
" What lypc:I 01 sobds recovuy S)'Slems e.n: reqwr-cd?
c. How dIould lbe wule-lOIod scparaUOOI be aa:omploshcdl
~ Arc aoy bquod-bqwd lC~raOODS rcq... nd7
LocaUOol of ..,,.nbOll UDIU (pur. or r-yclc IUItlUI>S Of boc.b}l
f Whal lithe cconomM" poIclllAl (1.c..1hc CCODOIDX poIe.mal1.1 levd 3 mlllltS Ihc KpRnUoa S)'Ileal
(I.olluakud) captaland opcntrng """ minus bqUOf 1oI.s~1 DlInw. .."Ulunl aODllI.lrud Coplll
aod opa;tlwi c:ow)7
So Produci dtyull
G. Whal 1)'pC 01 dfyc:r sbouJd be 1>ICd1
" What Ioucs call be c.peclcd~
C Whal. tbc
polC!lIW (i.e.. lbe level 4 cc;onolWC pol~uaJ OlJnu.s the aoDuaJu:ed capolal
and opctl.1l1l1 CUIi of the df)'er)1
.. EDell)' s)'SIems
G. Wball.t~ lhe llUllltIl,ull hcaUOI and cooblllllWl(h~
b HDw lll.IJly helll ucban&en 01 whal JU.C ate rcqwtcd?
c Whal J:S the ccollOfllic polc:oual {i.e~ Ihc kvel S CCOIlOImC porcaualllllDus lbe alUluahud (:lpnal
lind DflUlIUlll 0061) of lbe bu.t..,achan&<=1 OC:lwolfr.?

_Ie

=1"(3) NomullY. lhe"," of Adl opcrabOllllllbe opUJUUd t..1dl pnx:as will uODCd rhc CO$! oltbe
c:orrupood-inlllDll In lbe conr..._
plnl
(4) Tbc RSll-l1i arc used lala as I. I l l . 10 mupl 1lDlts.
c CaJadate the oplUIlUlll da:lp by SCII'IlIlhc cycle umcs of every UOlI equal 10 each <Mbcl
(I) nus cakuLalJOll pro~-.dcJ I. bound fOI lbe t:mI .,ben there IS I IDUtlDUlIl eqWplDCll1

......

(1) Ho.~er. rhcrc ....n be _ lIc:llbtbty III the: dowp

(3) A....... I lQC:;UUrc: of tbc _
lDCICnll.-a; lot dlaOIPQI; lhe c:baausI'S/CIDPC IS nbllLlDcd

3. CoIUo>dcr D>CIPI adjaCCrll baldl UIl.IU for tbc dalp 111 2b

..

S.
..
1.

... Merll< lUlllS "Ith SUIUlaI cydc: IUlXS a.od SIU ba~
ComjM-te the CO$l$ oIlbe 1nC1.,ed IIIUIi Wllb lhe QKIi 01 the compatabk oollUllllOllS UIUIS.
(I) If the C:OSIl 01 the ooOI1ll"'OUS lUUlI arc ebc:llpa. Ilfcll.lII Ihc: COIIUOUOlIS \l1UlS.
(1) 0rJ>cr,0.__ I.p rbe mcracd balc:b WIlli
c, COIIua...,- 10 mer.,. IIIUIi 110111 the (:0$11 u:l':rc:aa.
Cnw;odcJ the usc of ~aIlcIIlDlUi (<< parallel mer..,d IIIUII).
c The aoaJ Ili 10 lDCIQ$C equlpflloCnt IlIWuUOIl.
" The rauo oflbe o;ydc IUDa mWit be lIIoIlcbcd 10 the Inverse: tal.rO 01 the Ilwt:lher of UIU~
c. NonnaJl). USC 1.1 _ I Ih/ce parallel IInliS
Add Ihc lIucnocdll.le tr(>nle - t a l 10 schedule lhoc planl and opumw: lbe dc:i.J.pL
Opuouzc the bett fto",st-t aJlcmallVC: IllChlodtDJ IIcraFChcd Ihc opcrabilllY 0I1bc PfDCall, lISlnla balch SIDlulalor

F.1lm M F Maloot. penoa.al

9. Then we use the systemauc approach developed by Malone and coworkers- that
is given in Table 13.2-3. This procedure is also hierarchical, so Ihat a series ofsmall
problems can be considered that eventually lead to the best design.
OTHER STUDIES IN Tl-IE DESIGN OF RATOI PROCESSES. The design of balch

processes is expected to take on growing importance in the future. and for Ihis

""""."IIQUOIl,

reason we are including a survey of some of lhe previous work. Most of these
studies consider fixed cycle tImes for the batch units, which makes them different
from Malone's approach.
Kelner- developed a procedure for mmimizrng the capilal cost (by using
linear cost correlations) for single-produci plants with a fixed flowsheet that
contain bolh balch and sc:mlconlinuous units. The cycle limes and size faclOrs of
the balch unilS were held constant, and then Ihe lrade-olf lhal balances lhe balch

0 lnbanell and M F Malone, -A Syslemallc Procedure for Barch p/ocr:as Synthes,s," Papel
p.-escnted 1.1 the 1985 Annllal AICbE Meetmg, ChlClgo.1Il ; C M Mynllbcas, MFlcalb,ltry and TallCU
fOI Balch PrClCal Dulgns.M M S "T'IIQ\I~. Umvcnuy of MusachrucrUi, Amherst. 1986.

S. Kelner.

eM,.,

EnfJ~

121 (AUI 12, 1960)

412

UCTJOt< 03

SEcnot<

oruEl. SIOt<lrlCA,n ASPECTS 0' ritE Of.SIGt' P"O.I.EM

equipment sizes agAlnSI lhe continuous equipment SizeS WAS evalualed Loooicar
and Robinson- considered the same problem, but used power-law e:Jtpressions
The}' also ellended the resuhs to multiproduct planu..'
A ht'uristic procedure to fil lhe sizes of the batch onilS in a muiliproduci
plant ha\mg filro c}"cle tnnes and filed size factors was de\doped by Sparrow.
Forder. and Rlppen I The number of unus in parallel was also used as an
optimization \'anAble In this stud} Introducing parallel units changes the structure
of the f1owshccl. and a very large number of possible solutions can be generated
Grossmann and Sargentl related the C}de time constraint. bUI assumed that the
C)'cle lIme ....as a function of the batch size.
Tnkamatsu. Ilashlmoto, and 1lascbc' noted that the SLtc of each batch uml
had to be delermined by taking into account the schedule of the complete plant in
addition to the productIOn capacity. Both single-product and multiproduct
processes with intennediate storage tanks and parallel units were considered, and
the scheduling was used as an additional optimization variable. They also derived
an anal)'tnl elpression for the mimmum \'olume of a storage in terms of the batch
sittS entenng and leaVing Ihe tank. Karaml and Reklailis l developed analyhcal
estimates and bounds for the limiting storage volume for plants composed of
:!oeveral collections of batch. semicontinuous. or continuous operations.
Simulation programs for balch planls have also been developed by Sparrow,
Rlppm. and Forder;-- O\'enur[, Reklaitis. and Woods;tt and Rippin.:: These are
panlcularly useful for checllOg final designs.
Flau" presented a shortcut prOttdure for calculating equipment sizes for
multlproduci plants, for generating prooess alternatives, and for estimating the
optimum conditions corrc<;pondlOg 10 standard equipment sius. ThiS procedure
most resembles Malone's approach_

13.3

OTHER SIGNIFICANT ASPECrS OF

TfIE DESIGN PROBLEM

The goal of our conceptual design effort was to decide whether an idea for a DCW
process was suffICiently promising from an economic point of view that a more
detailed study could be juslified. If the results of this study appear 10 be promising,

Y I...oonbJ and 1 0 Robulson.. Irw! ~ Or.... 1'rou lJG. Drr~ 11, 166 (t970)
'J.O Robmson and Y R. Looabr. Pro TnII. 11I_,-t, 11 861 (1972) R. E. S~"ow.G. J Forckr, and 0 w T Rl~n. INJ EIIf Clemo. P'fKQ3 Drs. ~~ 14 191(1975).
'I E Grossmann and __ W II Sar,enL 1M. bog Cltmt PrOUH DttJ. Dr... II' 34) 0919)

, T TlkI"""uu.1 Ha.sh,moto. Ind S Hnebe. C"""P"f", _dC~ EIIfI~ J. 1115 (1919); 1",/
Pr",O.., fX~.11 4)rlr9U)andlJ '10(1984)-

E1tg CNm

I A I K lml and G. V R~kll'"'' AICh.J~ 31 1516 (19115) Ind JI 1528 (1985).

R C- S...... Qw. D \\. T R,pp,n.,d G J. Forder, 1~ (Min En{f. P 520 (1974)
.t

B W Overturf, G " R~klalhs. Ind J M WQQl!s. Jr.d Jog.

e........

PHKUf lH, lHi~

"0 W T R'pl"n.Cl1<'If'",/", ....d(h,... FtIq.1 1\7(1981).nd146J(19lUl

W nlu_ Clontl JtQ P 11 (I d. 2~. 19l1fl) and p m~ (July 11. 19l1)

11 166(1978J

".J

mItEl. SIOt<lflC...m

ASPECTS Of rHE OEs.lGN I'kOUfM

413

It is common practice to unpro\e the accuracy of the calculations by using on~ of

the CAD programs., such as PROCESS, DESIGN 2000, ASPFN. etc,. that we
bnefly discussed in Chap 12_ Ho....e\er. man} other aspects of the 101.11 design
problem stiD remain to be considered
I. Environmental coruilralOlS
2. Control of the process
J. Start-up. shutdo'o\n. and copmg With eqUIpment failures

4.
S.
6.
7.
8.

Safety
Site location and plant layout
Piping and instrumentation diagrams
Final design of equipmcnt
Planning for construction

Each item on the hst nonnally inlroduces new costs, and these additional
costs may make lhe process unprofilable. I-{CDCC. il is important to try to estimate
when large DCW costs rna} be incurred. Unfortunately, there is not sufficient time 10
a one-semester course to oo\'er aU these topics,. but a brief discussion of some, as
.....ell as some refereooes Ihat may of be inlerest, are gi\'en below The diSCUSSion
emphasizes the factors to be considered just after the conceptual design has bC'Cn
completed_
En\-ironmental Constrainls
The problems aSSOCiated With the release of chemicals into the environment ha \e
received so much attention in recent years that almost everyone is aware of the
importance of environmental conslraints. Hence. it is essential 10 consider the
processing costs necessary to meet any environmental requirements. At the
conceptual stage of a process design......e include a rough estimate or these: costs by
associating a pollullon treatment cost with all the streams tharleave the proocss as
waste streams.
That is., sup~ .....e estimate the annualized. installed cost of a pollution
(realmeot facihty and add the operating cosls of this facility_ Next we aUocate the
total annualized cost of this laci.lity to all the process streams that it is Clpectcd to
handle where thiS allocation is ba.Cd on the amount of each stream that is handled
and the biologJcal Olygen demand of the materials in that stream. If thiS
infonnation is avaiJabk, then we can relate the pollution treatment costs 10 each of
the waste streams leaving a particular process in a plant complex. Moreover, as
uperience is accumulated, we should be ablc to prOVide lalrly close esllmates of
pollulion treatment costs These arc the costs we look for when we are developing a
conceptual design.
Of course. II we underestimate Ihese costs. our conceptual design results may
be very misleading Thus. it is essential to consull an environmental elpcrt in the
company at the bcglOOIng of a conceptual design study Similarly. after the

414

SUTIOt. II.J

TARtE IJ.J.I

A hierarchic. I .pproMcb 10 conlrol s)'sl~m :lo}'lllhcsi:lo

Sindy-~Iale oon~lderlt,on~

If .. e ClIn ldenllfy Ind ellmln,lIe f;onlrol ploblem. by u''''I.lead) ,.I_le

modd> (whICh arc m .... b IoImpkr llun lhe dylLln"" mooklJ.), we: <;an mHumJ. OUr dCSlpl dolt
A !;:lenllfy the loI&nlfi<3.,1 du.lu,b..11CC>
I Tho>oe Ihil al'l'c:a the pro.:ess OOCbI ....nU
2 Thow: lhal Ilka the Up.".UII,-..I:..

3 If dl,ru,hlflOCl; do nul IIn~ a .rlI"fiam eflecl 0" euh(r I 0' 2 4bo'e, r~no'e lhem from
fortller ronslderallon lhrs SImplifies Ihe probltm
8 Make o:na,n lhat the malllpulalr"e \anablcl. l\adable In the RO>"lihccl arc adcqWlle (borh In
.. umbcr and iCnslllvlly) 10 be able 10 ..atlily the prl)CC<i.!. ron'''.lnl. and 10 opumue lhe
DpUaUn& Ylr13blcs oyer lbe OOGlplete (.c:uonable) '1IIp' otlhe dlSlurbances.
I IT the DUrnbet' ot m&D1p"bu\IC .alues IS AOI Idcquare, the proccs~ n. DO( CODI.ollabk2. To renore conltolbbllu), we Cln
" ModIfy the Rowshed ro ,nlroduoc mo.e malllpuhurve ... n"b~"
b. Modify lhe cqulp<llenl desllI" 10 lhal lOme c.oD$lralnl$ OC\IC' bc:<:omc af;U'e 0111:1 lhe
oompkle r.nge of the dl$lu.barlCtS.
.c.. Ne&illhe: kaol "aport....1opllCllWllloa v.. nabla.
C See ... helhc ..... y cqU.pnlClIl consualnu afe encouflle.cd thai p,ncDf lbe chaDllb 10 lhe
~Ipula"ve vanables from Atul),nl lbe pr.x;c:liS mmmunb Of opumwng the opa..un,
vanabk~ ove. the mmplcte (reasonable) range of lhe drlilulban~
I If the process roosfrarnlS annot be Audied. lhe conlilralned equlpmenl must be ove,de
...gncd. 10 rafo.e lhe operablbty otlbe pror:ns
2. lflhc prO<XSli IS operabk .. ha1 doc.e lIe cqUlpmcrll ~.alDu, lbe .....n.. 10 opefatmr; taSts
by mtroduanl c:<:jUlpnwnl overoo,,.. 'n ocdcr 10 .erno"" cqulpnwnl CO[ll;(/aJnl> 10.&111 be
ceononuc:ally JUs"hcd
o UiC hcuru,llCIto 5C1ca the ronlfollcd '.. n.bIcs .u"h lhatthe S1cad~-'latebchln..,r oflhe pfocesS
""Ill be f;IQIlC 10 the oplimum slelld)"III~ pcrfomtan<:ct~ W R fIsher, ~1 f Dohcfl), and J
M DouaJu, P,OC'ttdtngl nf llr~ AIlV"''''' COtI"'H C""f~u"cr, P 293. Bo,lon. June 1985)
E Sdecr pamngs oellle manlpula,,'e and eo,mollcd ruhla fu' ~m&lc-loop conI/oilers.
I Cntena
G Hip StlUltrVIIJcS.
" Small dead limes. I.e, dme loarther on the no.."bcc1

conceptual design has been complcled, it is essenllal

10

II

2 Eva.1oale pamnls
11_ Rdalr~e plO array
b, Smllular value decompoSlflon
J EllmlOale p;lJnnp .. lIh lI,ac. InletaClKHIt
4 Scve~lalfemauyc conti'" syslCfRI may bc dc'fdopcd
"'ormal dyumlC rC$pOlhC-snull perturbluoM and b""ar ptnox::>s dynam113
A RcqUlletlW'tltS 10 build .. dynamIC rnodd
I All equ,pment capaCll1CS m... t be: SpeCIfied, I e~ lbe holdup III the fUbes Ind lbc ~Ui of adl
he31 e:>.chanler. lhe holdup on the tra)", rn a dlliullatron column, ell;.
2 The: $UC$ of relluJ drums, <;<>Iumn sumps, n,sh drums, mlennc:d,ate ~IOtale ~cuc:ls, ere.. mllSl

be .pcctfied
B Assomc pafcel k~d c:onllollO any 1I00f ",hefe there lIe IWo-pba.w: fIllllUflS.
C. Eva.lUlte the ~bihty otitic unconuo&d aDd coauollcd prOOC$$CS..
D Usc It_I d)"l1llDUC models 10 evaluate lbe ucady-alle pllnl collirol systam. baVlnalhc fewest
IOlel'.(;1I0n$
UK lhe differencc bel""een Ihe lotal ope,allnl COlil of Ibc oplllllom ,ludY-Sflle oontrol
rcsponK Ind tbe dynanuc rcspollSC or tbe controlled planl IS I performlUlQC tneUurc to
compile conlrol s)"Slem a.1fcnl.llivcs fof In U!l;umed plflem of d,oslurbaoca-dlcck the
ilClWu...ly oflhe fCl.ulu 10 lJIe dullarbaDIX lIAtlenl
2 E..lu.afe the robo.Ili~ al ihc COfll.OI .)Slefll.1 If lhe dynalWC response IS I>Ot $llIIlaaory,
o:l Change tbe oonlrol S)'Slem
b ModIfy lhe I\o... shcr.!
E Desrgn the level COllllollcn, and .Cl;beck lhe perform.. nce.
III Abnormal dynamIC operatIOn brae JlCnu.bauons Ind nonbflC.1l' dyn.amx rClopnme.
A Sian-up and s.huldo...n
t !'Ionnall)," l\ollibec:, sbo",-m& an mlc:rmcd.ate SIOfile ,,1.I>Cd as .. Uarona powl
2 The 1I0.. ,h...1 should be dlcckc..land mo.i11icd to oorrcspond 10 lhe: ~lIn-up ~UalCl)
J The conlrol sy~lems rcqulled (01 planl ,Ia..t-Up ..nd ~huldo.. n a.e dlrrcr~~l from the f;onlrol.
used fo. normal opt',al1on

B Failures.
1 A bilore al1lllysa. of lbe 1Iows.1tcc1 DCCds 10 be undc:nllm.
2 Spc:oal ronllol J)uelD$ to bandk failures mlpt be 1lCCdotd.
IV Implcml'n1ltlOn of lbe connol
A Sho..ld dmobuled conuol be ulied? 110" ~
B Whal kind of COnlpole. ronlrol-human Inlerfaoc Ili requIred?

consult lhe ell\'ironmeDtal

C-lIpen again, i.e.. after tbe best flowshttl has been detennined and beller C-Stlmates

of Ihe process Rows have been oblamed.

AliO il may be necessary 10 deSIgn a new pollution trealmenl faCility for Ihe
process, and time muSI be allowed so thai the construclion of this facility malches
thai of lhe process. Similarly, we could undena.ke a conccplual design for a DC"
pollution Ircatment facility and then de\"dop a more detailed deSign laler m Ihe
development of a project.

Process Conlrol
The conceplual design and ("en a ralrly ngorous optImum design using a CAD
progmm are normally based on lhe assump1l0ns that the connections between Ihe
process and its environmenl remain constant. lIowe\'er. the demand ror the
product nonnally changes With time, Ihe compositions of the feed streams will also

fluctuate, the coohng""-aler lempcrature returned from the coobng towers chan~es
from day 10 nighl and from summer to winter, the composition and the heallOg
value of the fuel supply will vary, Ihe pr~ssure and lemperalures of Ihe st_eam supply
will flucluate, elc. Thus, as the conflC(:tions between lhe process and liS envlronmenl ehaDge thcsechangcs win dlslurb the beha\ior oflhe process, The purpose of
a control sy;tem is to ensure Ihal the prOOC:SS will operate ~satisfactorily." despile
Ihe fact Ihat these disturbances occur
A hierarchical approach 10 synlhestzing control systems for complete processes has been proposed by Fisher, Doherty, and Douglas. The slepS 10 the
hierarchy are listed In Table 13 3-1 If Ihe process can not be contrOlled, if start-up

Wilt r~hCf, M F l>oherty, a;1d I M Dou&JlI!i, CIltnt Enf} Rn On',,63 lB (1985)

416

SECTlON lJJ

OTHU SIGNlrK'A"'1 ASPECTS Of THE [)SIGN 'ROIILOoI

is \ef)' difficult, or if the pr0tt5s becomes unsafe because of a faIlure In on~ or more
pIeCeS of equIpment. then it may be necessary to change the flowsheet or ~\en to
aban~on the proJeCt: SlOce flowshect modifications normally arc \-ery expensive, II
IS desirable to identify any potentIal control problems as early as possible In the
de\dopment of a design. From Table 13_3-1 'o\e sec that a steady-state control
study can be undertaken as soon a<; a conceplual desIgn has been completw (i_e__
\Ie need to have a flowsheet avaIlable).
Statl-up Consideralions
The conceplUal design produces a small number of process flowsheets that should
be considered further. Normally, these t10wsheets arc not complete because tlley do
not !Delude all the minor equipment needed to operate the plant, i.e~ we would
~ .to a.d~ intermediate storage. pumps., reflux drums, column sumps, etc. In
addlUOI1..lt IS usually necessary to add special equipment to be abJc to start up the
plant easily. For e:-:amplc, if .....e consKkr an adiabatic, exothenmc reaclor with a
feed-effluent heat e:-:changer (sec Fig. 13.3-1) wherc the reactor e:-:Il temperalure IS
~uffiClCntly high that there is an adequate temperature driving force at the reactor
Inlet. then the process can operale satIsfactorily at steady-state conditions. Ilow~\'er, there is. ~o way to start up the process, and a start-up furnace must be
IIlstalled. to IOmally supply heat to the reactants Similarly, a special piping system
IS oflen lDstalled that makes it poSSIble to fill reflux drums and reboilcrs WIth the'
appropriate materials (pun;:hased malerials., if ncoessaf)').
Thus, a complelc Dowsheet should ~ de\eloped fairly earl} III the life of a
PIO]Cct. and some ~nsideratlonsh(luld be gnen to de\'e!opmg a stan-up stn'ltcgy.
B} maklllg a prellmmary e\'aluallon of a slart-up stn'ltegy earl}. It IS oflen poSSible
to Identify changes III tnc tlo\lshttl and the deSign that might be required. With thIS
approach .... e can avoid the vcr} large costs associaled with o\ersighu that can
occur laic in Ihe developmcnt of a dUlgn project. A preliminary starl-up evalua tion
of thIs type also simplifies the mOle detailed start-up study iliat musl be undertaken
during the construction of the plant.

Feeds and recycle

1000

"'''''''
.----

FEHE

Rea<to<

I-

IJOO

f-

u;cnON l)l

OIllU SIONfHCUlT ASPECTS 0' THf DESIGW ....OILEa.!

417

Safely
Safety studtes should be undertaken throughout the life of a project The 100tiai
study must be carried out by the chemist, 'o\ho needs to recognl7.e the nature of the
materials being handled In partKular, it is necessaf) to know which raw-material.
Intennediate, and product components arc flammable. unstable. to:-:ic, corrOSI"'C,
highly reactive. esrecialJy sensitl\-e to Impunties, etc_, to be able to handle these
materials safely In the laboratory
The' propertIes of the' matenals also l1e'ed to be con<;idered dunng the
conceptual design If al all possible. we prefer that the design correspond to
conditions outside the e:-:ploslve limits for any stream in the process. HOIll'e\er, we
also need to eumine whether changes in operating pressures, temperatures.
compositions, et~ will cause a stream to mo\e into the uplosive range_
Similarly, if the presence of corrosi\"I': components means that special
materials of construction will be needed for the equipment that processes Ihose:
components, we might want to modify the dcslgn to miOlmlZC the amount of
expensi\'e equipment required For highly reacth'e materials or situations where
the reaction rates are "'cry sensitive to changes 10 impurities or process parameters,
we also might want to modify the design.
When the intermediate storage units. or other units having capacitances, arc
added to the Ilowshect, we want to minimize the inventory of any hazardous
materials and to consider special safety systems that will ensure safe operation As
the design prooeeds. we must add pressure rehef syste'ms on the prooess ,'essel<;. to
be certain to avoKl hazardous operations. In other words, 'o\e want to ~ able: to
predict .... hat might hap~n If something goes 'o\rong with the operatIon of the
plallt. and .... e want to be absolute!} sure that '0\-"1': ha\e a safe situation .... hen
something docs go wrong..
An excellent set of gUldellllcs for a safety evaluation was developed by Datelle
laboratories for the AIChE. Table 13.3-2 decribes the potential hazards, possible
Imtiating e,ents, the propagatIon and amelioration actions, and the consequences
of accidents. Figure 13.3-2 shows a flowsheet that describes the steps in a hazard
evaluation. Note that this figure indicates that design changes might be required,
and. if possible. we want to identify these design modifications as early in the life of
a project as we can. Several checklists that are useful for safety studies arc included
III the manual

Site Location
Sile locatioD also has an impact on conceptual desIgn because the utilities available
on a site, e.g., cooling~water temperatures, will depend on the geographical
location. Similarly. the costs of raw materials will reflect the transportation costs.

To separallt'll systC'm
nCURr I l l i
,--r:al-dnuml heal ndl.n~

/_

G,...""rw~
"liZ Erolll'''''' 1"0."'. pt""pan'll by''''' Rall"tk CoIuml>us I)msot,n for I""
Cnln for C'hmlicat Pr~ SakIV_ AtC'hF."'"" YNk. t98~

.,
!

p
< !

.E"

,K

4'8

4'9

.u~

..."

hUA"'"
Hazards
Jdc:ntifil

Revise design
or procedure

Step 2. Estimate
consequences
Consequences

SECTIOt" IlJ

I
Consequences
deemed acceptable

not IlCCCpOIble

OpportunltlCS

~ Identify opportunities

Identified

10

reduce consequences

No obvious
opponuniLies
~~ ldenlify accidem
inrtialing CYenlS and causes
Initialing eveniS
and causes identified

~ Estimate probabilities
of initiating cyc:nl$

Probabilities
not accepLabJe

Opponuniucs
Identified

deemed acceptable

~Identiry acei<knt

rYenl sequences

I
~ Estimate probabilities

....,.......,

FIG lJRE IU2

420

~ Identify opportunities
to reduce probabilities and/or
COf1SC:IlIUences of eYeDI sequences
No obvious
opportunities
~

10. Procttd to more

quantll.111ve hazard

evalualJOn analysis

mE !>SIGN 1't000lHl

421

dependmg on where these materials are produced Moreover, I he: site location rna}
depend on the major uses of the product
For eumple. most plants thai produce benzene are located on the Gulf Coast
of Texas. The benzene product is often u<;ed to produce ethylbcllzene, by reaeling
the benzene with eth}lene Often Ihe elhylbcnzcne is deh)drogenaled 10 make
styrene The Gulf Coast IS chosen for all these: proor:sses because there IS a large
suppl} of tolucne (from crude oil) and a large supply of ethylcne (from elhanc
cracking plants). Both ethane and ethylene would be qUite cxpenslve to transport
elsewhere in the countr)' Styrene i<; also produced on thc Gulf Coast. to minimi7c
transportation costs
However, most of the plants thai produce polystyrene are located in the
northeast. Most of the fabricators who use polyslyrene as a raw material are
located In the northeast, so thai the polystyrene planls are located dose: 10 these
fabricators. Thus, the overall costs are mmimized when styrene monomer is
shipped, but not the otller materials.

Othe:r Design Problems

of initiating CYenLS
No obvious
opportunities

Opponunities
identified

or

ProbabilIties

~Identify opportumties
to reduce probabilities

and consequences
of ~I sequences
Probabilities andlor
consequences no( acceptable

OTHU SIO/'llfk .....,. ASI"ECTS

Probabiliues
and consequences
deemed acceptable

The other desIgn problems. e.g_. final equIpment design. pIping and instrumenta
tion dIagrams. plant layoul. project engineering, etc., are conSidered to be well
beyond the scope of this text. All these problem areas arc very important to the
success of the commercialization of a proJed, and each area poses many new
challenges. An understandmg of the process. howe~er. is essenllal 10 de\'e1opmg
successful solutions In each area. and lhat basic understanding is most closely
related to the: conceptual design

PART

IV
APPENDIXES

423

APPE DIX

A
SHORTCUT
PROCEDURES
FOR EQUIPMENT
DESIG

Normally \lot' usc shorteul equipment-design procedures "'hen .....e scrn process
alternatives We want 10 focus on Ihe most expensive pieces of pro:ssing
equipment during !.his screening activit)', and therefore we usually focus on gas
absorbers, distillation columns, heal exchangers and furnaces, gas compressors
(and refrigeralion systems). and reactors. Some useful shortcut models (or most of
these: units an pr~nted in this appendix.
We do Dot include a discussion of reaclon; because they are so dependent on
the reaction chemistry Thus, ont of the many tuts on reactor design needs to be
consulted 10 develop a reactor model. Also, note that our list of shortcut methods is
DOl complete. and other models are available in the many texts on unit operations
and design.

A.I NUMBER OF TRA YS FOR A GAS

ABSORBER
The design of plat~ gas absorbers and that of distillation columns have many
similarities. Therefore, y,e decribe the shortcut procedures for finding the number
oflrays reqUIred for each type of unit, and th~n we present a procedure that call be
used for the desIgn (i ~, length and diameter) of both types of uniu.
425

n:CflO,", Al

Sbortc~1 Procedures for .be NUlU~r of Theorefic..1

Plafes 10 II Gas Absorber

:Id

Ls=oL<I-x}

y
I-y

X =

--.!...-.
I-x

Accordmg 10 the defimllOIl of a theoretical plate, we assume thaI equlhbnum

IS established on each plate For moderate pressures P r of, say, leu than 50 10
100 psig, where we C<ln consider Ihat Ihe gas mlxlures are ideal, lhe equilibrium
relationship can be: .... rillen as

(AI-2)

yP'

p - - =0
I + Y
Pi"

0'

'1r X
X
_m
PT I + X
I + X

x=o~

In general, lhe activity coefficient y will change with both composition and
lemperature, and the \apor pressure po will change with temperature throughout
the column (the temperature Will vary because as the solute condenses in Ihe
solvent, it gIVes up ils heal of vaporization). Hence:. the eqUilibrium relationship is
nonlinear on a Y-versus-X diagram Because of this nonhneanlY, normally we need
10 employ some graphical or numerical procedure 10 soh'e the: design equations.

(A.I-6)
I

N -I

L
mG

where

---

or

r..

N+ I

=0

In[1

(A _ IjYi.~
mX",)]_I_
\y_ - m.:c:.. In
A

B.ck-or-Ibt-fA~'t'opt ApproJ:iJnll!ioL

---

Order-of-magnitude arguments can be used (0

N~ln[(A

I)('.O)];(A
y_.

I)

(A.I9)

or, if L/(mG):::::: lA,

/If I 2:::::610g Y,.

y_.

(A.I-8)

simplify the equation (sec Sec 3.3)

(A.I-7)

A~~

A graph of thiS expresotion is shown In Fig. A.I-2.

x.

G, Y,n

(A 1-5)

KREMSER EQUATION FOR PLATE TOWERS. For dilule mixtures the problem
becomes much simpler, and we can oblam an analylical solution of the design
equallons The result IS called the Kremser equation, and II can be: wnllen as

(A I-J)

and we 30CC that the operatlOg hne .... ill al ....'ays be: hnear on a Y =0 X diagram

(A I-I)

We denole Ihe composl(lOn ofbolh lh

number.
e gas and Ihe liqUid leaving a tray by Ihe Ira}

G, Y.-

GS<}~

(A 1-4)
y}

Similarly, lhe relalionship between molar ralios and mole fraclions is

y -

427

A mateliaJ balance around tray n in hg_ A I-I Si"'t30

In general, v.c expect that bolh Ihe gas and liquId II

change as Ihc solUle IS Iransferred from the
o....~a:b i.n a gas absorber .... 111
wherc Ihe solvenllS Domolalilc and thc car. gas 10 lIquId Slrcam for ca~
molar ratio30 10 describe lhe composlIions tert~as,ls n~ncondensible, v.e often usc
terms of moles of solule per mole of sOI\e' lC.' e lqu compoSHlons are glYcn 10
rcla~ionshlps belv.un the 10lal gas and II a;d sln~'arIY for the gas SUeam The
carner flows Gs and L are
q
o .... s, and L, respectl\'ely, and the
s
G~-G(I

NlJJ04I1El O~ ....,,'~ lOll A GAS AIISOU

L.

FlGURE AI-l
PIale &;15 absorber
A K,em""r, \",1 1',,,01 \too,. 21(21) .2 (19)0)

(A 1-10)

..28

A or IfA

08
0

0.3

<

""

~ !

;J ";..

~,

",

,;,"'~

04
03

0.8

02

0 1
008

Applk-bilil} of 1M Kr~ Equtioa.. We can usc our approximation procedures to

den\'e a criterion for e... aluatmg lhe applicability of tM: Kremser equation:

{ [2(A

li. 1+

dH: JG,}
4 sO.1

2A u )+ RC,.TI

11

(A 1-11)

where All and A 21 are the Margules constants of the solute and sohcnt,
respectively, at infinite dilution.
We obtam this expressIon by first writing a material balana: similar 10
Eq A 1-3 around the top of the lower
(A 1-12)
Also. we arrange: the equilibrium relationship given by Eq_ A 15 to obtain

.95

006

l' _

('P")(~
Y\X ~ mX
P
I + X}

(A 1.13)

0.Q4
003

c"

0.5
0.
0.7

429

NllotllUor TUYS rOll A GAS Amoalflt

I. 0

...

MJM.IIU Of f u n f'Otl A (lAS AI050UU

s.EC1l0t< .... 1
~CfION A'

1.0

002

1\

1.05

1.1
1.2

If m is essentially constant. then both Ihe operating and equilibrium lines will be
linear and we can wrile the: Kremser equation in terms of molar ratios and molar
flow rates. Hena:, .....e ellpc:ct the Kremser equalion to be: valid .....hene...er m is
essentially constant.
To tcst the constancy of m, we ellpand it in a Taylor senes around 1M:
conditIOn of mfinite dilution:

L3

x _0

y=o

TL

Inlel LiqUid Temp

and at these conditions .....e let

,,.><,,-

fOPO
P,

(A.I-14)

mo=-The Taylor sencs expansion gi\es the result

IIA {stnppln

(A 1-15)

From the definition of m,

am
I ['OPP" (~
1
aY~=
T

)J I

o=m o

Similarly,
FIGURE .0\.1-2
umhn oI,heor~lC3Illta~Co< COUnlCrcv.tT'O'nl caJCadoes. WIth IIcnry'sb.. equiltbnwa and COftSI.l.lll
abIorpIlOrl Of sl"Pf'lnA factors IAftn lIac""',,'1o - ' 1'<POt" C","". Jog rrog'~ 48 j1J, j;,(}, 617
(191]) ]

(A.I.I7)

If ......e assume that the activity coefficient is given by the Margules equation
In y - "(~[AI2" 2x 1 (A 2I - A IJ )]

('\.1.18)

and let
;0 = eXf1

All

(A 119)

n.CfION A I

eml
oX

2m,,(2-t u _ All)

till)

(A 1 20)

80th y and P depend on temp.:rature, bUI for most )ubstanccs the lemperalUre dependence of the "Cll"lt) coefficient is much less than that for vapor pressure,
thaI IS, d(ln i) J1 is proportional to the hcal of mlxlOg, whereas d(ln P-)'JJ I!>
proporuonallo the heat of vaponzation I fence. to simplify our analysis, ""e neglect
the temperature dependence of r O,er moderate lemperature ranges, we assume
Ihal Ihe vapor pressure dependence on temperature is gIven by the C1auslusClapeyron equatIon

po

"p[_

and we find thaI

For multlcomponenl absorpllon wIth dilute SOIUllOm. \O\e can use the Kremser
equalion to descnbe each componenL The slope of lhe equilibnum hne for eal,;h
component will be dIfferent. and lhe absorption factors WIU be different
A =

(A 128)

+ I = In [I + (Ax

(A 1-21)

II YX.h. -

m..:x..:. I _ ) ]

\Yx....., - m ... xX,bo

_'_

In Ax

(A.I-29)

where K refers to the key, Then the recoveries of the other components can be
delermmed

.lJ._ - ",JxJ.... = A j... ,

(A 1-22)

J'J._

mJxJ.bo

With these apprOJumalJons. Eq A 1-15 becomes

2(lA I l

~ A!I)X + Ml"
RTf (T - Tv ]

(A 1-23)

We would M.e 10 obtam a criterion Ihal would mdlcale the maximum

poSSible difference between m and IIlO' For thIS reason, .....e wrile Eq A.I-23 as

L
m G

We estimate the number of trays required based on the recovery of ale)'

component, I.e. normally we want to recover 99 'Y. or so of some component:
N

MI, (.: _ -'-)]

R
T TL

i'ml_
MI,
iJT - mo RT l

m{

4JI

~fuiticolllpollelli Abs<.lrplion

then we find that

11I_

NU"'U 0' 'hYS (0 GAS .. &$Olin

+ Y;. + 2(A ll - 2A I1 )X_, + ~~i CT...., - TL)]

However, if we expecllo design the absorber for

99%

(A 1-24)

recovenes, Ihen

AJ - I

(A 1-30)

Of course, Ihe design probkm becomes much more difficult If heal effects arc
important
COLBURN'S MEll-jOD. Colburn has presented shortcut procedures that can be
used even when the equilibrium and operating lines arc curved. He de\<c!oped these
e.xpresslOns by using order-of-magnitude arguments to simplify the design equations for paCKed columns. and thcn he wrote the cxpressions for plate towers by
analogy. In addition, he lists the results for stripping, distillation, and extraction as
well as absorption. His results are given in Table A.I-1.

(A.I-25)

G s Y;.,::;:- LsX_

ornER PROCEDURES. $c\'eral other shortcut procedures for estimatmg the

Similarly, if we assume thai the heat released when the solule condenses appears
onl)' as a senSible heat change of the liquid, lhen

Gs Y.. t1H, = C.Ls<,T_ - TJ

(A 1-26)

number of theoreticallrays have been presented in Ihe literature I In general, these

olher procedures are more ledlOUS 10 apply, but they give more aCC:urau: predictions. Also a number of computer programs are available for lray-by-tray solutIons
for absorber problems.

Thus, Eq A 1-24 can be wnllen as

rnm = I
o

+ 1';.{
I +[ 2(A H

MI, ]G,}

2A u ) + RC. Ti Ls

(A.I-27)
c",lbllrll, S'mpllfied Calcuhlllon of D1rrUSlOnal PrODtSSCS,- h.d tAg C""m~ JJ 459 (t941).
'G Horton _net W B FraQ~Jln, -Calculallon of Absorber Pt:rformancc: and Dnlp,M fnJ Eng Ch,m.,
31 1)&4 (1940), W C. Edmmer, -Design for tlyd.ocarbon Abwrpllon and SlnpPlQg." ImJ &lg Cltrm..
J5 837 (l94)1. B 0 Smllh. Drs.q" or 1:~"Jllb,,,, ... Sraqrd 1"(J("rJW's, Mc(i'a.... H,Il. Nc... Vocl. 1%).
chap I, T K 5hc.... OO<I, II; L P,gk'"l.,,,,d<' R W,lle. M<U. TrwuJtr, McG""-Hlil, New Yo.l, 1975,
A. P

Of course, If the second h:nn IS very small, say, less than 0.1, Ihen m ::;:- ffl Oand
the Kremser equlltion will adequalely describe the system lienee, a crilerion for
the applic3blhly of the Kremser cquanon is
(AI-II)

chap 9, and U V S'ochr and C R W.lle. ~RI&<>rOll~ and Shof1Cu. Dc:sJp C.lclIlal'otlS fo. Gas
AbsorptIOn tnyolyn,s Lar&C Uca, EIJecu 2. Rapt<! 51101'1-<...' tksilf' I"oo:dl)re for Paclal G...
Abu>rlx,.," I"J

I:AtI OIlM

Fund. 10 9<t {19711

-,

~-

,,..'

, ",

ili?*~~
1 _

E 1<11:

"

..
,

--

-- E

<

>

>

>

>

Ii

'i

1 1
,~~~
--

<>

-,,

~I';:;:~I'"
I, : + +
-

c,
,,

<>

i I'; i'1",

IE-

~~} ;-

:;.;;;
_I " .. r..

~,::~~,:::

,,
-,><
E

i?

-':::-:;
I

~;~

j~-

';~<II:llo(

JIJ

E' _1E,~
_I~ ;;;0-

>

>

>

-,

"0

"0

;;
8

;;
8

433
432

"l-M"~Otl"'Y$fO."G"S"8SO.lE.

liUllO"',,1

435

;.
0
0

"

"-to,

0
0

f~

.,

"
~

EEl I
I I _ ~
~~~

Ifl..,:'

.."

'0

'I"" .
E ID:::

20

--

IE

.:r

Absorbers

0.1

0.5

.5

10

50 100

500 1000

(m~)(M.J(PA..l
Plio.

J
.

= Relative volallilly of kty componems

Molal average: viscosity of feed, cP

Molal average VISCOSIt) of liquid, cP
Mil = Avenge molecular weight of hquld
PA = Liquid deosuy. Ib/ft)
", ,. Mole fuadH>n of solute: in gas In ~qullibnum
with liquid/mole fraction of solUie in liquid
1' .,

I'll

""

3\

= At average: column lcmper<:llurc: and pressure

HGURi.. A.l_J

O'Conndn cOllelallon for ove/all lIl)'

c~nCl~. [From 11

OCtJIlMlI. TraM AICIr/::, 42

7J/(/946))

AClual P)IIIe5-PJate Effidencies

",

..

,~

. ,

Unfortunately. our assumptlon of equilibrium on each tray IS seldom mCI in

practice, so \lot must find a relationship ~t .....ec:n the number of IheorclK:a1 trays
required fOf a separallon and lbe: number ofaClUaltrays. This relallonship Involves
the plate effiCIency of the column There are a variety of ~ays to prcdlct platc
efficiencies, and these range from \'ery simple. qUId. cslJmates to ..cry detailed,
computational procedures
For prcllminary process designs, we normally usc the simplest method
available (although 11 is nOl very accurale), which corresponds to O'Connell's

R H Perry and (' It CbIlIOn.

p 18 Il

434

C~,.,,",.J fJt(J'''HT'J

lIlUlt1boo1t..

~.h

nl , McGrn. HIJ~ New Vorl. 197),

436

SECTION

AJ

OlftlLLAnO,"

nxUM"'~ JoJUWIU or UAYS

SH;TION U

correlation -(sec FIg. A 1-3). If lA'e fit a straight line to the graph fOf gas absorbers In
the range from JO to 6O~. efftciencies. we find that

0'"

0.377
0-'09
(mAt LP,JP,J

(A 1-31)

or course. at

latcr stages in a process development. we would use more ngorou~

procedures for calculating lhe plate efficiency
Once lAC ha\e C$timated an overall plate efficiency. the number of actualtra)'s
reqUIred is
N

N
--

- - 0

To complete the desIgn......e must find the tower height, the lower diameter. and the
cost. We diSCUSS these calculations in Sec. A.3.

A.2

DISTILLATIO

COLUM S,

NU~IBER

OF TRAYS
A varlCty of desIgn procedures for distillation columns, rangmg from shortcut
mel hods to ngorous tral-b~-tray calculations. are descnbed lit numerous books
Spaa' 1IIIlIIatIOns pr('dude a detailed review of these various technique" Inslead.
we present only a bnefsummary ofsome ofthcsc procedures and a short discussion
of some related material.
O\erhead and Bolloll1 Compositions

OlsnLLHION COLUNI'<S

l'ol'NIU OF r.... YS

437

the vapors e\en on hot summer days. so we assume that cooling lAater IS avaIlable:
at 90 F. Also. the design of the cooling lowers is based on th(' as~umptlon Ihat all
the streams returned to the tower ha\(' temperatures of 120 For IC'ss, because the
scaling and corrosi\e characteristics of lAaler be1::omc 'ery pronouncrd aOO\'e that
temperature (ie.. calcium and magne~ium salls are deposited on the exchanger
walls).
H the buhhle POIHt of the overhead IIlIXtur(' frOIll the column IS greater than
130 F hleh allo....s a l('mperature dri\lIIg force of IO~F atlh(' conden~r outlel.
then e can use a total cond('nscr and operale the column at atmospheric pre"sure.
(Actuall) ..... (' .... ould opera Ie the column at an excess of amb~nl pressure. sa)'
25 psI&, so that any leakage would be to.....ard the outside of the column.) lIo.... e\er.
If the condensing temperature of the overhead mlJ:.ture is less lhan I(XTF. we prefer
10 Increase: thc column pressure until we can condense the o\erhead at 115"F or so.
(We reduce lhe eXit lemperature of the cooling water in order to keep the tower
pressure as low as possible rather than using a refrigerated condenseL)
In some cases. e.g.. ifhydrogen. methane. or similar lighl malerials arc present
in the o'erhead ..... e usc a parllal condenser The product is taken as a \apor from
the Rash drum. and lhe column pressur(' is set suffICiently high to obtalll an
adequate supply of renux Also. for a fe .... Slluations. e g.. demcthaniHrs. dcclhanizc:rs. and cr)'ogeoic systems. we are forced to u~ both high pressures and
refrigerated condensers In cases where the o,erhead bubble pomt exceeds 267 F,
.....e operate the cond('nser at atmosphenc pressure. but we generate steam Instead of
usmg coohng water.
If a reasonable operating pressure will condense the overhead between 100
and J30-F..... e nexl check the bubble point of the OOlloms stream at thi~ pressure,
to C5l1mate Ihe temperature of the sleam required for the reboller Dependmg on
whether thl~ lempcrature is slighty abo\e (that is, 2S to 70 F) the temperature of a
steam suppl) in the plant. for exampJe. 2S psia = 26TF. 115 psia,., 338 F.
420 psla = 450~F, 1000 psia _ 545"F (although a pressure this hi,!!h mi,!!ht not be
available). we might decide 10 rcduce the column pressure somewhat 10 accommodate a lo.....er-pressure sleam supply to the reboiler. For bubble points above 400 to
5(X)F. depending on the sleam supply available in the plant. we might operale the
distillation column under vacuum conditions or use a furnace as a reboiler.
For most distillation column design problems, the selection of the operalmg
pressure for stand-alone columns (i.e. not energy.inlegraled with the fest of Ihe
Pfooes~) IS a relatively simple and straightforward task: the primary consideration
is the condensation lemperature of the o~rhead slream. Howe,er. in some cases
the costs of high-pressure steam musl be balanced against lower temperalures of
Ihe overhead. or refri,!!eralcd condensers are required. For these sltualions lhe use
of heat integration techniques often prove to be particularly advantageous
n

In many cases enher Ihe o\erhead or the bonoms composHlon from a dlstillallon
column will be fixed by product punty specifications. If this is notthc casc. then the
('nd compositions repr('SCnt opllmi7..alion prohlems. and the) depend on lhe
process economics. For preliminary designs. .....e uSC' Ihe rule of thumb thai we
desire 99.5~" recoveries of the light key 10 the o\'crhead and 99.5% of the heavy key
in the bolloms. Also. we assume that allihe components lighter Ihan the light key
are taken overhead and that all components hea\ier than lhe heavy key leave wilh
the bottoms.
Column Pressurt
The operating pressure for a distillallon column nonnally IS filed by the economM:
desirabilily of using a condenser supplied ",ojth cooling water from the cooling
towers. We want to ensure thatlhe condenser .... 111 be sullkiently large to condense

H. E O'COllllCll
(I~).

~ Plait:

EKlCJ<"ncy 011 TXt_ling CoI_ and AbsoIbc,s..- Tt-u AIO,F.. <12 1S1

C S Robf_ and E. R Gilliland. EkmitrtU t>{ f'act-J Dut"""1Oft. <llh cd. Mc<n-aw-lltll. "'",'

Yorl.

t9~. p

161

43S

Sl'CTION AJ

OISTll-lAnON (Ol"MN~ r-U.. IlU 01 I"".

SECTIO'" Al

Eslimating Bubble Poillls lind IJCIo'l Points

For preliminary designs, Iol.e Iol.ould IILe 10 have a ~horlcut procedure for eSllmallng
lhe bubble pollli and Ihe de"" poInt of lIluaurcs For mosl hydrocarbon mUilUfCS
(I hose Ihal do not uhlbH h)drogen bonding) we "'rilc Ihe eqUilibrium expressIOn

..

I, =

K,x,

(A 2-21

we can also v. rile I:.q A-2-1 as

(A 2-3)

Now if we dl\ide bolh the numerator and the denommator by the K value or the
heav}' key KIIII. and dcfine Ihe relative: \'olatihty as

Kill(

",X,
._-

(A 2-4)

then Eq. A_2-3 becomes

j

C'OIUMNS M!JolIU Of

r.... YS 439

ca>e ""here: the: rc:lali ... c: volatlllly b reasonably <:onlliant, we: can use a \lane:IY of
methods to bllmalc: Ihe: numlxr of Iheorellcal trays re:quire:d ror the: sepanlllon
The constant value: of CI used In these cakulalion~ IS normally taLen to be the
geome:tnc mean of the top and bottom \aluc:s
(A 2-7)

CA2-1)

Slna:

, = _K '

Dlml1..... TION

bpcnl>l\c column:. ("'hll-h dorl.': those: v.e want to dl>lgn most .Jccuratel)')
normall) I.':orre:spond to close: bolhng mall.':nals, and for close boiler:. 0:,.. IS usuall)
close 102...,_. and both arc: In Ihc r,mgc: from I to 2. Whclle\er the: boIling points
or the: o\'erhead and bottoms are widely separated, CI'op IS often much gre,Hcr
than lboo'_' The assumption of conSlant CI is 110t valid for Ihese: systems, and
the assumption of constant molar o\er-flow is not usually \lalid. However, slO~ Ihe
spllts are easy for these cases, nonnally there are not many lrays and errors 10 Ihe
prehminary designs do not ha\le a greal impact on the tOial processing COSIS. Thus,
In man) cases we can oblain a reasonable firsl eslimate by using Ihe smallest \alue
or CI 10 Ihe shortcUi design equauons
A cmenon Ihal can be used 10 C:SlLmate the effeCI or \ariauons III :J IS
prc:scnted later in thIs appendIX
Eslimaling Ibe Number of Theorelical Tra)" for
Sha.rp Splils in Simple Columns

. L',X,

BUBBLE POIl'oIS. To estlmate the bubble pamt fo.>r a specified liquid composttlon
)., (.... hich v.e: eSl1mate frolllihe column material balances), we simply calculate

and then use one orlhe K value correiailons, such as that given in AppendIX C.I, 10
find Ihe temperature at the specified column pressure_ Normally. we calculate Ihe K
value for the light key to estimale the lempcrature.
DEW POINT. A simple CJ:pression Ihal can be used to estimate the dew paim can
be derived in a Similar fashion:

Initially Iol.e consider the case of sharp splils belween the light key and the heavy
ke)' (IC., no componenb betV.C'e1l the le~s) and SImple columns (i.e., one o\crhead
and one botloms stream)_ BOlh empirical and analytical procedures are discussed
Then a shortcut procedure for sloppy splits is presented. Shortcut procedures for
evaluating column sequencing are presented in Sec. AA, complex columns are
considered In Sec. A.5. and Ihe energ) Inlegratlon ohland-alone column sequcnces
is dlscusscd m Sec. A_6.
FenskeUnderMood-GiIIiland Procedure for
Esrimaling tlte Number of Theoretical Tra.fs
One: of the mosl commonly used procedures for oblammg quick CSllmalCS of the

(A.'-6)

number of lheorelical Ira)'S requIred for a dlstilialion separatIon IS called the:

Fenskc-Underwood-Gilliland procedure

Once we eslimate K( ror the hghl Ley, v.c use a correlation 10 find tbe temperalure.

GILUUND'S CORRE(.ATJOl'o, Gilliland- developed an empincal correlation for

Relalh'c Volalility

Ihe number or theoretical trays III terms of Ihe mlllimurn number or trays at lotal
reflux N.. , the minimum reflux rallO R... and Ihe actual reflux ratio R, sec

Once we have eSlllnaled the bubble POllltS of the o\crhead and bottoms streams
(we eSlimate the dew point of Ihe overhead ir we use a panJaI condenser) at the
operaling pressure or the column. Iol.t: can calculalt: the relatl\le voialilily of Ihe
components Iol.llh respect to the hea\'} It:yal both the top and the bottom For

C S Rob,nloOll Ind F R Glthland. -Fkmenl\ of Fracl100a1 DIstlttallon,- 41h ai, ItGlI.... -1I111, "'.....
Yori. 19~ P l-l1

)"=K =~
x,
'L }'d::z.,

1.0

SECTION U

OImU-AnOl'l COLUMNS NUMIIEIl Of TIV.YS

Fig. A.2-t A simple: equation for Gilliland's graphical correlation was developed
by Eduljee

0.8

N-N

[(R-R)'''""]

~=" ~ 0.75 1- - - "

N+I
R+I

0 .

t' ,

0.'

FENSKE'S EQUATION FOR TI-IE MINIMUM TRAYS AT TOTAL REFLUX

N... For constant-a: systems, Fenske derived an expression for the minImum
number of trays at total reflux. The result for binary separations IS

0.2

00

0.2

N", =

0.4
0

0 .

0.8

In {[xo/(l - %D))[(1 - .x.. )/x",]}

In,

In SF

(A.2-9)

10 ,

where the composition ratio in the numerator is ortcn called the separatiQIl [acror
SF. The analysis is valid for multicomponent mixtures, and the separation faClor in
Eq. A.2-9 for these systems can be written as

1.0

SF ~ (X,.,,)(x

(g)m'"

Q+I

XD.IlI(

.",)

x .... u :

(d")(H:"') ~ (~)('~)
dlU;",u

rue:

(A 2.10)

'HIe:

where X f = mole fraction. d, = distillate Row, WI = botloms now, 'i = fractional

recovery. lK = light key. and HK = heavy key.

I .0

o.8
o

UNDERWOOD'S EQUATION FOR TilE MINtMUM REFLUX RATIO R For

a binary system with constant a. the minimum renux ratio corresponds to the
common intersection of the operating line in the rectifying section of the tower

o.4
o.3

R...

XD

(A.2-ll)

y=---x+--R... + I
R", + 1

o.2
~~

(A.H)

Hence, we can calculate N aftcr we have estimated N.. , R.. , and R.

~~

~'I~

441

the equilibrium curve

y~~=~
1 +(a - I)x

o.1

0.08

and the q line representing the feed quality

0.06

'.

q-I

q-I

(A.2-13)

y~--x---

0.(><

0.03
0.0 20.01

(A.2-12)

where q is the heat required to vaporize I mol of feed divided by the heat of
vaporization. Using these expressions to eliminate y and x. we find that
0.02

0.04 0.06 0.10

0.2

0.4 0.6

1.0

~ - (~)~"
o +

R... z,
R..(I - z,)

+ qxo
-t

q(1~ =

(R ..

a[xo<:q - I) + z,{R... + I))

+ IX' Zl") -+ (q IXI

(A.2-14)
xI

FIGURE A.Z'
Gilbland co"dalJon. (From C. S Robuuon orod E. R. G,'ilf<Vld, Ef~"""fJ of F'(KlrOtlol DUI,flOlion. 4111
~d~ MeG,oM' Ifill. N~M' I'o,k. 19j(J, l' 349)

440

fl E. Edulp. ~ EqUllion5 Replaoo: G,llJlands' PIOI.~ 'h'd,oca,bmt P,oc~ 504(9) 120(Seplcmber 1975).

SECTK' Al

For thc case of a SlllurauJ-lllluid fe~d whcre q = I. this cxpression becomes

R.

~ (_'

\fx. -

a-IJlx,.

>(1 -

x.)]

x,.

(A.2-IS)

Moreover, for high-punly separallons .... here xv"'" 1.0 with reasonably well.
balanced columns (where 0.2 < x,. < 0.8) and moderate values of a, we see that

a-lA.y,.

l-y,.

of thumb:

Thc operallng reflux ntilO is chosen so lhat RIR. "- 1.1

Similarly. (or a saturated-vapor feed where q _ 0, Eq. A.2-14 reduces to

(_I\fax. - (~)J -1

1
- I
I)y,.

(';I

number of case studies, GiJliland nOled that when RIR ..... 1.2.
In SF
N-2N = 2 -
In CI

(A.2-18)

Underwood's binary equallon for Ihe mlOlmum reftux ratio gi\'en abovc aJso
provides a conservative (although often a very conservallve) eslimalc for the
minimum reflux ralio for muhicomponenl mU.:lures:

R...

(_I_XXD,u; _

oxo.",,)

a- I

x,.,....

(A.2-19)

X T .""

However, an exact solulion for muhicomponenl s)"stems wilh CODslanl a can be

obtamed by using another of UDdeNcod's equalions. For the case of sharp
separations. firsl we solve the equation below for the \"alue 0(0 beween the 11 values
for the light and heavy keys:

'" .a.Jx".i
L
.--=I-q
J-I

aj-O

(A.2-20)

Next, we substitule this value of 0 mlo the equalion

ox
R.+I=L~

i-' Cli

(A2-21)

SIMPUFIED APPROXIMATION Of GILl.Il.A.ND'S CORRELATION. From a

(A.2-I7)

and wilh Ihe same simplifying assumplions. we nOle Ihal

R :=::

443

correspond to more cxpensu'e condensers and rebolkrs, along with hIgher coollDgwatcr and sleam costs. Thercfore, therc is an optimum reflux rallo for any specificd
separation.
However, expericnce has shown Ihat the value of thc opllmum rdlul ratio
normally falls in the range 1.03 < RIR... < I 3. Furthermore, the slope of Ihe cost
curve is \ery Sleep bellow lhe optlllllun, but relatively flat above the oplJmum
Hence, II is common pracllce to select an opc:rallllg reflux ratio somewhal above
the opllmum, and for firsl esllmales we often use the rulc-of-thumb valueRuf~

R. -

OISTII.LATIO/'I COLUWIG NU'OU ot TlAYS

(A.2-21)

An CIaet solution of this pair of equations requires a lrialand~rror procedure.

Some approximatc solutions of these equations are presenled later in Ihis
appendix.
OPERATING REt"l.UX RATIO R, As the reflux ratio is increased above lhe
minimum, the number o(lrays required for a given separation decreases. so tbatthe
capital cost o( Ihe column decrc:.ases. However. increasing the reflux ratio will
incrcOise the vapor ratc in lhe lo.....er. and, as we show lalcr, blgher vapor rates

(A.2-23)

This fC$uh provKJes a \ery simple preocedure (or eslimaung the number of
theoretlalll tra)"s required for a specified separallon_
MODIFICAnONS OF TIlE
FENSKE-UNDERWOOD-GtlLlLA I) PROCEDURE. Inslead of Fensl..e's equatlOll for thc mimmum Ilumber of lrays at total
reflux. some ;n\estigators use Winn's equation.' This approach leads 10 good

prediclions o\'er wider ranges of the relalive volatility than FellSke's equation.
Similarly, man)" IOvestigalors prefer to use Erbar and Maddox's correlatlOn l for
the number of lheoretical plates inslead of Gilliland's. All these techmques give
quile good predictions, providlDg Ihal lhe value of Cl is relatively constantApproxim.le Expressions for (he Minimum Reftux
Ralios
Glinos and Malone' have developed approximate expressions for Ihe minimum
reflux ratio that can be used inslead of Underwood's equations, Eqs. A.2-20 and
A.2-21. Tbeir results for ternary mixtures are givcn in Table A.2-1, and the
expressions for four-component ffilJ;tures are given in Table A.22. They ha\e also
proposed a sel of lumping rules for the case of more than four components.

c. S RobiID~n and E.
York, 1950, p 350

II;

G,llIIand,

~nfJ 01 F,acflonal OU/llfaflOll,

4th ed, McGrawHln,

N~w

F W WlIfn. MNn. R~llIl1v~ Volauilly M~lhod ror DiSldlat,on CakubllOf1J.~ "tlro! Rtfinn, 17(5)

216

(l9~).

J H Erbn and R N MaddoA. "mol R~. ..0(5) 18) (196J>IILG"_ _ "" F Mak>nc.ld.tCPNK ~J Oft, D 7641'98<1).

TA8U: A.1:-1

TABLE A.1-2

Minimum reRux ratios for lernary mixlures

Minimum rreflux r.lios for four-compoMnI mi'lllllrrs

AjIlC

ABCD

~J.~"

R~ '* :r:l(_.

+ ~.)
lIeXc
~.
_.1 + :r.,(~A ~) + :r.,(:o.-=--fj
~ .... + :rei
.~.
:r
-.: + ~. -.:
;;::-1 +- ;;=I
:r.)[1 + "..(Ie"" ,,_)) +;r. (x,"" 1'

2c-'.
AB,C

Il~ ~

( .... +- .>:e,K".. - I) +- "A;/(~.oc - I)

(1 .. +- 1.,)(1. " ..,1C')

AnalYlieal Procedures for lhe Number of

Throrelic.1 Trays-Ideal Mixtures

"

All'CD

R~ '*

ARC/BCD

Il~ - ~ ..... + '".-'. +'"<;"c + _

h, ...

In addilion to the shortcut procedures for calculating the number of trays., there are
somt analylical procedures for the case of Ideal miuures.
SMOKER'S EQUATION FOR BINARY SEPARATIONS- Smoker de"elopr:d an
exact anal)tical solution for the case: of bmary mixtures. The requilibnum rdation-

ship

IS

Similarly, for the stnpping section we modify the expressions above and lei

"-nllen as

JU, + qx o - R + qx.

m~

}' =

~I~+~('=-'-I)X

(A.2-24)

Then for lhe: rectifying SCCllon .. e cakul:ue lhe number of tray$, using the
algonthm below:
R

(R

+ I)x, + (q

(R

b_

Bere k

IS

R+l

(A.2-JJ)

+ q)x.

(x,- - x,Jx a
I)x,

(q -

I)%D

(R

(A.2.34)

+ q)x.

the same quadratic requation as for the rectifYlllg secllon

xo - x. - II

(A.2-25)

m~--

- 1);0:0 - (R

(A.2J5)

(A.2-J6)

b=~
R+I

%0

(A.2.27)

%D

k = -[m

+ b(1l -

I) - ]

J[m + b(<< -

I) ~ Il]! - 4bm(<< - I)

2m(2 - I)
(A.2-28)

whcreO<k<1
~"'" I +(Il-I)Ic

N.

An approximate solution of Smoker"s requatioD has been developed by Jafarey,

Douglas., and McAvoy.- The: result for the: rectifying section is

N.. =ln

(A.2-JI)

II

('n {x. [' - mD x~

Approximale Solution of Smoker's Equalion

(A_'-29)
(A.230)

.x;, = J(~

and N s is the same expression as for N ... For the case of salurated-liquid feed,
x,: otherwise, x. represents the intersection of the: q line and the: rectifying line.

.... =

I-

mc(ll

E.1l Smoh TrtIIU AIeA'}4

16~

m<')]})(,n ~)-.

I)x;,'(. 1)"'0/(2 - mc 2)

(19311).

me

(A.'-32)

= In

A Jafan:y. J M

{( '-X,)[R(.-IJx.-I]}[ .r
x. )(1 ~X'\fl-I/R('-I)X']}(
JL
{(
1-"'0
I _ x

R(1l

----:;;-

Doupu. and T J

l):c,-I

R )].

In,R+ I

I _ I/R(a: _ I)...,

McA~oy. I<!F.C P,oc. Dt~. Dn~

DR )-.

In R

18 197 (1979)

(A.'-37)

446

SECTION .. 1

DIHU.....TJON

COLI,JOolN~

PIST1l..UlTlON COlUI<lNS. tlUloIaEi. OF "BAYS

Nu .. aEI. OF T ..... n

This expression resembles Fenske's equallon at total reflux, except that there are
reflux correction teons in the numerator and denominator. As R becomes very
large, Eq. A.2-37 reduces to Fenske's equation.
If wc use Ihe simple approximation for the minimum reflux rate given by

R _
..

(~ -

I)x,

the operatmg IJIles and the equillbnum IJIles will be ~sscn~iall)' straIght, and the
Kremser equation should provide a reasonable approlnmatlon for the system. The
denominalOr terms In Eqs. A.2-37 and A.2-42 correspond to the absorption and
stripping factors for the two ends of the column, that .is, A. = L/(mV) = aR/(R + I)
for the rectifying seclion For nonnal column operation, I.e., when. RIR.. - 1.2, we
expect these terms to be more significant than Ihe refl.u.x corrccllon terms III the
numerator Therefore, we SImplify our solutions by wntmE

we can wnte Eq A2-37 as

Xo )(' - X')

aR )"
(
(R+ I
=
I -

'0

Nil = -'--"-=,",",~-dc-'--~=-'-L.J

(A.2-39)

Now we see that the number of trays becomes unbounded as R approaches R",.
lienee, Eq. A.2-39 has the correcl limiting values.
\
The equal ions for the stripping column arc developed in the same way, and
Ihe results arc

aCR + ')")"
Rx,. + I

XI>

~ (~)(---",-)
X

(A.2-43)

--;;-

(A.2-44)

I - x,

Multiplying these two solutions and assuming Ihal Nil - N s = Nfl, we oblain
=SF
(Rx,.Rx+ )'.' (X )(' - xw)

.Y

1 -

xI>

N--C-C7~~~

0'

- In (aiJI

(A.2-45)

X ...

10 SF

(A.2-40)

447

(A.1-46)

I/Rx,.)

This simple e;l;pression nonnally gh'es predictIOns that arc wlthm a few trays of the
e;l;aet solullon.

where
For the case of a saturated-hquid feed and a sharp separalion, thiS Ix:comes

Behavior Near Minimum Reflux

'0

N s = -"--=c:'c'i;-;;--c~",~'--;--'-!'c;i---'-----""-

If we retam the reflux correction terms m Eqs. A.2-42 and A.1-45 but assume thai
(A.2-42)

Nit = N s = N12, Ihen we can derive the equal ion

This expression also reduees to Fensl.e's equation as R becomes very large and
predicts thai N s becomes unbounded as ll. approaches R...
SIMPI.IFIEO APPROXIMATE SOLLrrION. We expect that the approximate
solution presented above will be quite cooservathe, because the assumption used
to obtain Eq. A_2-37 is equivalent to drawmg the upper end of the rectifying line
through the point YI> = XI> = 1.0 (that is, we set XI> = 1.0 in Eq. A.2-28 to simplify
this expression). Thus, the operating lme is moved closer to the equilibrium line,
and more trays will be required.
For expensive columns wllh numerous trays, wc expect that most of the trays
will be located ncar the ends of a McCabeThlcle diagram. In these regions bolh

N =

where

fJ

In {[xnf(l - Xl>)l((l - xw)/xwl!Jl

In [al(1 + lIRx,.)1I 2 ]
(RIll. .. - x,.XRIll.. - I
(RIR",
1)2

+ aX,.)

(A 2-47)

(A.2-48)

We can use this result 10 estimate Ihe sensilivity of the change in the number of
plates as we decrease the reflux ratio below RIll... = 1.2. This result is expected to
be conservative. We can "tunc" the approximation by using Eq. A.2-47to calculate
N when RIll.", = 12, and Ihen we compare the result to Eq. A.2-23. If we introduce
a correction factor mto Eq 2-47 to make the resulls agree when RIR. = 1.2, we WIll
probably obtam a more accurate estimate.

448

SFM10"l.u

UNDERWOOD'S EQUATIO:,,/ FOR MULTICOMPONEf"o'TSYSfEM5. Underwood

ha5 .1150 proposed an expre$5lon for calculating the number of tnaY5 for mullicomponent mlJ:tuTeS. At the operating vapor rate of the column. we sol.... for the values
or 8 and iT satisfying the expressions

,1I,DlC,D
V- L

Rcclifpng section

",

_''''''''1:

Stoppmg

"'u....n. or n.AYS

449

Since the arilhmetlc mean is

(I,

Ct,

(A 2-S1)

1;[ ""

we sec that Eq. A 2-56 will be within IO~~ of the arithmetiC mean if

'(J sO.I(ld

(A.2-49)

(A.2-S8)
(A 2-59)

(s 04

0'

,8>:,.

Hence, a criterion for the IWO kinds of mean~ 10 be approximately the same is

a, - 0'

Then \Ooe use these ..alues to calculate Nit. and N s from the ClIpresslons for Ihe
rectIfying section

a,-ar SO.4

(A.2-60)

",

(A_2-SI)

EFFECT OF VARIATIONS TN a ON TilE COLUMN DESIGN, Gilliland's correlatIon predicts Ihat the number or trays required to ach~ve a particular
separation i5 approximalely equal to twice the number of Irays at total reflux:

(A.2-S2)

(A 261)

and the slripping seclion

If \Ooe let

A Critl'rion for Constant Rl'lalhl' VolatililY

(I

Most of the short-cul procedules for eSlJmallng the number of theorcllcal trays
reqUIre Ihat the relallve \'olaUhty be constant. To de\'e1op a criterion for constant a,
firsl we evaluate the relative \olatihties of the hght key with respect 10 the heavy
key at the top and the bottom of the column
(I" ==

DISlllt,AnON COLU .... NS

stenON AJ

I>lSTILl.AllON COI.U .... "'S NU .... RFl OF nAYS

(K,)

then

= (1:.,(1

+ ,p)

A.2-62)

21nSF
.., In (1.,(1 + ) - In

Q'

2lnSF
+ In (I

+ ) --

2N.
I

+ In (I + t;)j1n Ct
(A.2-63)

However, for small changes in

Q'

we can use Taylor series expansions to write

(A.2-S3)

K l "."om

(A.2-64)

'"(1+';)-';

Then it is common practIce: to estimate an a\'erage volatility as the geometric mean

.;

+ t;j1n Ct..

in a

~.;.,;-- _ I - -

(A.2-54)

(A.2-65)

so that Eq, A.2-68 becomes

RELATIONSHIP BE1WEE."'l TIlE GEO;\fETRIC lEA .... AND TilE ARITliMETIC
MEAN. To Simplify the analysis, ....-e write the: a\eragc volatility 10 terms of the
arithmellc mean rather than the geometric mean. The relationship bet....een th~
quantilles can be estabhshed by leuing

(A.2-SS)

and then usmg a Taylor

~nes

expansion of the: geometric mean to obtain

(A.2-SG)

N _ 2N (1
""\

_~)

(A_2 66)
0

In a

Thus, variations in a will introduce less than a lOY. enor in the column
design if we require that

q,

(A.2.67)

S 0.1

In a.,
Artcr substItuting FQ A.2-62 with a "" (1:, and the definition of
becomes

Ct

Eq. A.2-G1

(A.2-68)

450

StC"l'ON 4J

DlnlLLArlUN COLUMNS NUMUJIl ()~

ncrioN 4J

TUts

which provides a simple cnlenon for eValUJlJng the efft:CI of vanalJons

column design.

McCabe-Thiele
Binary

Diagram~-Ideal lind

In a

on the

IHSTILLAriON COLUMNS "'UIoI8U

or

T....n

451

ratio untd we reach a pomt where we oblaln a sharp AB/Be split. The value of the
mInimum reflux rallo for Ihi) AB/BC split is

R - LIl,X,.,-

Nonide:.lol

~plilTations

..

At thIS condition the fracllon of component

The McCabeThiele procedure often bUsed 10 calculale Ihe number of theoretlCd.l

Crays (or bmaf) mlxlures., particularly when Ihe relalne \'olallhly IS nOl conSlant
In addlllon, by lnlroducing fklluous molecular .... elghts, the McCabe-llue1e
melhod can be used 10 describe heat clfeus caused by laTJ!:e dlfferenas In Ihe heals
of vaporization of the l..eys. To account (or heal of mixing effects, II IS necessary to
use the Ponchon-Savant techOlque, a method deeribed b) Kmgln and Doherty,
or a computer program that sohcs the tray.by-lray malenal and energy balan~s_
The details of the PonchonSavant procedure or compuler roultnes arc available
In texts on distillation.

Sloppy Splits
MOSI of the research on column desl@n and shorlcul procedures has been limned 10
sharp splits in simple columns. lIo\\,ever. Ihe optimum fraellonal recovery for any
stream leaying a column, except for a product stream, represents an economic
trade-off between adding more tra)s In the end of lhe column (I.e., the top OJ the
boll om) where the Slream of mlereSI lea\cs the column balanced against ellher a
decrease m the loss of malerials In ",aSle or fuel streams or a decreased cost 10
recyclc the material through the reaClOr s~slem Shor!cul procedures for cstimating
the optimum rccoyenes ha\e been propo~d b) Fisher. Dohert). and Douglas' In
addition, a case study Ihal IlIu~lrales the dcslrabillty of ma},;Ing a sloppy spill (i.e.,
nOI a high fractional ra:u"ery) halO been prescnted b) Ingleby, R0lOSner, and
DougJas. 1
A procedure for cstlmatmg the O1lfllmum reflux ratlO for sloppy splits of
ternary mixlures has been published b) Glmos and Malone' and IS prcscnted
below They noted thai Underwood's equalloD (Eq. A.1.21) for the mlmmum reflux
ratio can be wnllen as a linear funcllon of Ihe o\erhead composilion of Ihe light
key x"p. providing thai only A and B Iea\c o\crhead_ Ifwe merely flash Ihe feed, we
obtain a lower bound on the dIstillate composition X"p, which corresponds to
R.-O.
Then when we add a recufYlng secuon aDd contlnue to increase the reflux
ratio, we will increase the purity of lhe O\erhead as a !lnear funcllon of the reflux

n m the fttd that IS recovered o\erhead

OIK -

I- radlon of B Rcco\'ered O\'erhcad ... !. = - - I

(A 270)

"~-

SO .....e can calculate the composiuon of A o\'erhead X AD Then if .....e merely draw a
straight hne connectmg these points., we can estimate the yalue of R. for any value
of x AU thai falls between the values calculated abO\'e; see Fig. A 2-2
If we continue to increase the reflux rallO, .....e conllnue to increase the pumy
oflhe overhead as a linear function oflhe reflux ratio unlil .....e oblain a sharp A/Be
splil. We can estunale tbe minimum reflux ratio for this case where l"p = I, usmg
Ihe approximale results given in Table A.2-1. Then we merely draw a straIght hne
connecting the yalues for the AB/BC and A/BC splits (see Fig. A.2-1), and \\,c can
estimate Ihe values of R. correspondmg 10 any Olher value of lAIl. The figure also
ghes a plol of lhe ratio of the fraclional recoyenes of 8, !'h to the fractional
recovery of A,!", overhead, but these results arc nonlinear.
GlInos and Malone also considered the cost of sloppy spirts in lhe 0011001 of
a column. Agam, the results for a SImple flash, tbe ABIBC splil, Eqs. A_2-69 and
A.2470, and an ABle spill, Table A_2-1, prOVide Ihree points that define twO
slTalghtlincs. The graph IS SImpler to construct If lhe reboil rallO S IS us.cd Instead
of the reflux rallo (see FIg. A 2~2), bUI the Ideas are exactly lhe same.
Actual Tnl)'s-Plate EfficieoC)'
A simple, but not \'ery accurate, techmque for estimating o\'eraU plale effiaeDOCS 1$
use O'Connell's correlation for fractionators; sec Fig. A.I-3. If l\e wnte an
equation for the curve in the range from 30 to 90 ~~ efficienClCS, we.obtalD
10

0.4983

0.5

(A 2-71)

Eo = (cr:IlF)O lU - (cr:Il,)II.

Also, if we conSIder columns haying saturated.liquid feeds, and If we usc the result
that the viscosity of most liquids at their nonnal boiling points IS OJ cp, Ihen
(A 2-72)

'J R Knll'" and M F Doheny. IdtC '''''''.25 27<;1 (1986)

'w

's

R hillel, M F Doherly. and J UOU1141. IdEC P,or fN$. 1'In

Inlkby, A P

ROSSIler, and J

Douglas, (Mm Itj/ Rn Du t>4

I K Ghnos and M F M~lollC, I&.E' P'o< ~J 1I<'t

B 164 (198<1)

24 955 (1985)

24t

11986)

R It Pen)' and C It Chdlon, CNmuaJ I:JtglniU"s U",,<lI><wA. 51h cd, ,,-kG....... IILII. Nu ... o.~,
1911. p }-246

SfCTIOfo/ "1

AI8C~

PUK>N Of" GAS ....SO,UUS "'''0

The number of aClUal trays

In

the column
N

ThIs value is needed to calculale the tower

A.3

hel~ht,

453

then
(A.2-74)

N..,. - Eo

ABIC

as ..e discuss now

DESIGN OF GAS ARSOR8EH.S AND

DISTILLATIO ' COLUMNS

ABIBC

IS

OI'ITIu.... nON COLUWO;S

Guthne's correIa lions (see Appcndi:l F I) gillC e:lJlle.~slons for the cost of plate
columns in tenus orthecolumn height and the column diameter. lienee. we need to
dCllelop a procedure for calculating the height and dlamet"-l. Both the gas
absorbers and distillation columns ale described by the sam..- models With the
Clceptions noted below.
5

To'fter l'leight

fiGURE A.l-2
Sloppy .plJt$ Dn.hnal~

RorS

Of botloms oompollhon MQ rdluK 01 rtborJ ntio aDd fatio d fnctioDal

Datk arde$ IDdtcal~ 1M cntocal cood,tJooI for a dw'p lpiit. [F
K. GJit.s lINi At F
IdLC 1', On. On. 23. 764(J9M). .lIl, ~ of flw A
0tnruc.tI Sorry J

In Sees. A.I and A.2 we de\'eiopc:d ellpressions ror the number or plates In a gal'
absorber and in distillation columns The most common tray spacing used ror plate
lowers is 2 rt. Hence, ror our initial designs, we assume a 2-rt spacing bet .....een trays
TOen the: height corresponding to the trays is 2(NIEo - I),
II is oommon practice to include some addilional space. say 5 to 10 f1, at th..top or the tower as a vapor-liquId disengaging space (.....e may even install demisters
at the top or the tower to prevent the carryover or liquid droplets). Similarly, it is
common practIce to Ifldude spatt atlh..- bottom orlhc: to.. er for a liqUid sump. The
hquid slream kaving an absorber or a distillation column orten is red Ihrough a
heat elchanger and lhen to a distillallon column_ Irwe want 10 ensure Ihal the f~
to another distillation tower is not interrupted, we maintain a 5-min or so supply of
liquid in the bottom or the tower. Th..- height or the sump required to hold this 5min supply ofliquid obviously will depend on the hquid now rate and the oolumn
diameter; but to simplify our preliminary calculations we assume that an additional 5 to 10 rt at each end should be adequate.
With this simplification, we can write that the tOlll'er helghl IS

1'UlO>'CntS.

Atm-.

Costly separations correspond 10 low values or a. but for a range or ct from 1.3
10 3,the e~ieDcy predicted by F..q_ A 2-10 only changes rrom 63 to 51 % Hence. the
overall effiCIency IS relatively insensitive to ct. and we can obtain a conservative
design estimate rOI atmospheric columns by assuming that
(A_2-73)

H..,

2N

E.

+ Ho

(I\_J-I)

where //0 includes Ihe space at the ends of the column ror vapor disengagcment
and the liquid sump. This expression is commonly used ror lower designs.
As an approximation. "'C could express the additional space at the ends or the
to...er as a pcrcentageorthc height that contams trays. For our studies we include a
15~ allowance for thIS excess spaC('. and .....e write Eq 1\ 3-1 as
(A.3-2)

454

SECIION A J

DESIGN 01 (.OAS ....SO... HS Atol> [}1~nll"'TION COll1MNS

Plate spa. ing

0.7

0.'

o. 5

241'

0.4

18"
12"

o. 3
Q.

~ O. 2

--

"'3---

~.

.. CURl. AJ-I
EnlralRma>1

This should be a reasonable esllmate for large: lo.....ers .....uh many trays, bUI II
probably will be 100 low for smaller lo.... ers. We use Eqs A.3-1 and A.J-2 for bolh
gas absorbers and dlSldlallon columns.
Flooding VelocilY and To"cr Diaml.'ler
The lower diameter usuall) is selecled so Ihat Ihe upor ~'e1ociIY is belween 60 and
80% ofille f100dlRg \'e1OCllY. The early sludy of Souders and Brown- assumed Ihal
f100dlllg .....as caused by the eDlrammenl of droplets carned along wllh the gas; see
Fig. A.J-I When a small droplet IR Ihe lo....er IS stationary, 115 .... eJghl will be
balanced b)' Ihe drag force el.erled by the flUid
tIfR)(PL - PG)g = Co<ihl1)nR1

(A 33)

For lurbulent flo....., Ie., large particle Re)Dolds numbers. the drag coeffiCient IS
conslant, I CD = 0.44, so Ihat the \clccit)' is

v=

fSiRJPL

.J3(OMj

PG PG

Constanl

II PClf)' ~nd

I:"-

,,

~
I

20.3

0.5

2.0

1.0

.-IGURE A..l-2
Flo\>4lnI t"D"" for bubbk-e.ap ud pcri'<>r1llM p1aIG t..:(j_bqwd_lo-ps.au nuo al JIOIlll 01
COllSMkJauoa. (J R. Fau, I'mo CWm. Itj~ DUO) 4j (Slp'~ 19t1/).)

G.-\S ABSORBERS-FLOODl G VELOCITY. A more rigorous f100dlRg correlation de\'eloped by Fair- is shown in rIg A.3-2_ NOI~ that lbe dcnslty ~oups
appearing 10 IhlS correlallon are the same as those oblalOed abov~. If we wnte the
group appeanng on the abscissa In tenns of molar flow rates and IOsert our rule of
thumb for a gas absorber that Lsf(mGsl = 14, we sec that

~ (PG)'" ~ L, M. (PG)'" _I4m M. (!-'.)'" _1.4 ('P") M. (PG)'"

Gs M G PL

Pr

MG

PL

M G PL

(A 3-7)

Normally absorbers are designed 10 operale at lemperalures well below.lhe

normal ~iling poiDls of the solule, so P"/P T =s; 0.5 or so. The liquid phase aCllvlly
coefficient otlcn is in the range from I 10 10; and if we CODSider qlSCS whcre the
solute is being recovered from an air stream IDtO waler at Slandard conditions, we
find thai

(A.3-5)

_
L ( Pi!.)'" -1.4(10)(0.5
G PL
(A.3-6)

This constant F faclor provides a quick means ror eSlimaling flooding vclocllies

, It

--- -

(A_3-4)

Also, the densities or mosl liquids are about Ihe same, so \o\.e can wrile

,~nd

0.06
0.05
0.1>1
0.03
0.01 0.02 0.03 0 05

v = KoJpdpG

M Sowu!., h

0.07

S P

We can use thiS expression 10 estimate the vapor ~'elocllY such that all droplels
larger than a gIven siu will fall back onto Ihe tray.
Except ror s)'Stems operating near Iheir cntical poinl, PG -c PL. Hence. we can
write Eq. A.3-4 as

v..fP,; ~ F =

o. I

--

G G 8ro,"'II. M!Xs'ln of FracllOnallnl! Col.. mn~,M lnJ CItjI eM.... 26 98 (19).1)

C II Chilion. ('MmWJ' blgm'J lIdnJboDJc. McGn,.H,Il. Ncw Yor1l., 1973. p S62

_
- - - O . Q('P")
) - -0.15
{18)f/f!-379
29
62.4
Pr

(A.J-8)

However, we see from fig. A.32that the ordinate does not change very much
for (LjG)(PG/PLl ill in the range rrom 001 to 0.2. Thus, we should be able to

J R. Fair; ~ II. H PcrT)' and C II Chillon, C},~m~al Ellu,"~dl HUIldbooJc. jlh cd., McGraw-lllli.

New Yor1l., 1973, p 111-/1

456

SECTTON A J

SECTlON AJ

TABLE A.J-l
Vapor t"cJocilies in

0'

~olumns

T,ay SJ*=III&. r,
On:hnalc

'0

3D

flood,n&. ~~V p<; - F,

60% of "OO<I,nl:. F

0425
3,24

0.33

'"

151

...

2.~1

(A,J-14)

'0

.26
"

."
,.,

"'

017

J II. r.u ...., II. fl I'.,n.nd (' " nullon. -Chr""".1 F".,~,-.
lI.ndl>onl.- loth l M<G.... llill N~ .. V<>rk. 19" f' I_~

obtain a rea~znable esllmate of the flooding velocity by selecting the values at

= 0.1 These values arc listed in Table A.3-t The ordmate on the
graph can be wnnen as (If \lie assume that PI.. _ 5SIbjft' and 0 _ 20)
(UGXPGiPJ

, /20) " (

)IIZ _v,

P,

PI.

'\ 0

OSlGl'I 0.- GAS ,,1S(M.IEU ",..0 OISnllATlOl'I COL".....NS

PG

{P;; _ v,J;;; _

Vh

J58

D T = 0.01 64

F,

J58

1..5

=:

c';;;' = IJjM G P..

fi [ 379M

(A.3-9)

Then If wc consider that lAe desire to operate at 60'~ of the f100dmg velocity, we
obtamthe other values listed in Table A.3-I. Most of our preliminary designs are
for towers wuh 2-ft tray spacings, and we assume that

F=

The dIameter IS retaln'ely ino;ensith'c to changes in the operating temperature and

pressure.
SinCt: Ih~ yapor rate in a distillation column is different abo\'c and below the
feed Iray, we need to c\'aluate the tower diameler for sliIls at these two locations If
the Iwo values arc nottoa dlfferenl, lA'e design the tower to correspond to the larger
diameter Assuming Klcal-gas behavior and salurated-IKIuid reeds, lAe can IAnte
that

(A.l-IO)

T.
( 5~

X"'--j;--))'"

(A.3-IS)

so Ihat the largest value of D J will correspond to the key component for whrch
Mr; 1; is largest When the two estimates of the tower diameter arc significantly
different. we bUild a lower, called a SYl'cdge: ~olumn, in two sections ha\'ing the
appropriate diamelen. We prefer to a\oid these swedge columns. howe\er, as they
arc more elpcnsi\e 10 build.

The: same: result is obtained for dislillation columns, and so we usc thiS elpression
for both gas absorbers and distillation columns.

Limitations on the Design Conditions

TOlAcr Cross-Sectional Area and Diameter
To find the tower diameler. first lAC convert the molar flow rate of vapor 10 a
\olume:tnc flow Q = (Vmollhr)/(p.. mollft'), and then we dhide by the \'elOClty:
AT

V'P..

J.5(3600ljM P", G

v~
1.5(3600)

(A_3-1I)

Actually. the cross-sectional area mUSI be larger Ihan this value because about 12 %
of the area is laken up by Ihe downcomers. Hence, we write
0

AT 0.88(r.~)3600 VjMt;/p.. =
Z

2.1 x 10-"

y'

V(::G 2

(A.3-12)

.
Once: we have estimated the column area, it is a simple matter to calculate the
diameter

_(4',)"

0, _

...... B D Sm,th. -I)mll" 01

rqul1.o"'",", Slit""" r,ooesoa.- Mc<ira...lldl.

CA.]- J])

cw Yorlr. 1963. P

It is undesirable to build very tall and skinny to.....ers because the towers will bend.
and might buckle, in strong .... Inds. A design guideline often used is that the column
height should be less than about 115 ft, bUI a beller dcslgn guideline is Ihat the
height-to-diameter ralio should be less than 20 to 30
Plate low-cn are seldom used If the tower diameler IS less than L5 rt.
area .., 1.77 ft z, because it is not possible to get inside the tower (through manholes
placed every five trays or so) to clean the tower. Instead, packed towers arc used if
the diameter is small. Either plate or packed towers are used ifthe column diameter
is less than 4.5 fl. area "'" 15.9 ftz, although the tray spacing normally is less than 2 ft
in this range. Similarly, if the required height is above 190 ft or so, we might
redesign the tower with a smaller tray spacing.

Shortcut Cost PrOdure for Column Trays and the

Sb<1I
Once we have ~alculated Ihe tower height and diameler. we can use Guthric's
correlations to estimate the tOlAer cosl; Le., we cost the shell as a pressure vessel.
and then we add the cos! of the" ays. As a quick approximation, we m,~ht assume
that thc cost of the trays IS about 20'. the cost of the column shell (assuming that
e\erything IS carbon steel)

REBOILEM A 0 SlUM SLPPL"I. If we us.e steam to supply the heat to produce

Distillation Column AU:l.iliarie!.

V mol/hr of vapor at lhe bollom of the lower, a heat balance gJ\'es

For dlsllllalJOn columns, we also mUSI design lhe condenser and reboiler. In
addition, we must find Ihe coollllg-waler and steam requirements
COLUMN CONDENSER AND COOU1"oiG WATER. We consider the case of a
tolal condenser, which is the most common situation Then the condenstr heat
duty is the heat required to completely condense the vapor passmg o\'erhead Wilh
coohng water available at 90 c F and bemg returned at 120F, heat balances give

120 - 90
90)'(16

Oc=J1HvV=UcAcln[CT.

120)] =

M.

c C,.(I20-90)

O. _ MI., P

0&

UIIA. J1T....

Us Mis

.
be k
t be conslraJllC'd to be: less than
The t~mpcr3Eure dn\'lI1g force In the re I r mus
.
.I
f
be t 301045' F to prc\'i:nt film bOllll1g. We expeci to obtam a \'~ry high \a uc u
au,
.
bol because W~ have heal lransfer
the overall heat-transfer coeffiCIent 111 the re I cr
h
"._
'd TI
we ex.....ctlhatl ere WI .....

I
between a condensll1g vapor and a bol Img IqUl. lUS,
,-a hmlting heat ftux III the reboiler, and we assume thai

(A_3-16)

(A3-23)

We nonnally assume that an overall beaHransfer cocffident for the condenser

U c = 100 Btu/(hr ftl. <>F) gives reasonable results. Hence, the required heat-

Iransfer area for the condenser is

Mlv
A c = [ 30(100)1

r.-90J
16

(A3-24l
(A.3-I7)

120 V

and Ihe reqUIred steam supply is

and the required ftow of cooling water is

(A 325)

wc=e'~I')V

(A.3-18)

If coohng water COSIS SC." 10) gal, the annual COSE of coolmg water

Ann.

VI,U

be

1000131

= 3.26 x

--

--

30

8-341b

hr

8150yr

SC,

Ann. Cost = 1000 Ib

(A.3-19)

1O-C.. i1HI'V

Similarly. we can find Ibe capital COSI of Ihe condenser by using Guthne's
correlation (sec Sec. EI). To develop a shoncul model, we consider an exchanger
with 1000 fl 1 of area, so Ihat the purchased cost is $8900. The cost exponeDl is 0.65,
and we consider a ftoalinghead CJlchanger, carbon-steel conslruction, aD operaung
pressure of less than ISO psis. aDd an inslallalion factor of 3.29. Thus, Ihe inslalled
cost

For the case of25-psl Sleam, where Ts = 267"F, MIs = 933 81ul1b, and the
co~t is SCs /t0 3 lb. lhe annual stcam COSE is

C (SOOIC,.)( "")(0", v-'b)( h')

051 =

With Ehis approximalion the required heaHransfer area is

= 8.74 x 10

CA

280

'\3000

-r.

90)0.)

~
T. - 120

S} {

(M&
280

328 __
OH I ) ' "
11,250

P=V+F(q-l)

(0-20)

Afler subsiliuling Eq. A.3-17 inlo this expression, we find Ehallhe installed cost can
be wrillen as

C s 6Hp P

(A.3-26)
A.3-20, and we

va "s

(A.3:H)

The vapor rate in Ihe bouom or the tower depends on the quaIllY of the reed II

(~:S}328AOU)

C _ (M&S\.328/AH, In

P IbX81SO hr)
hr
yr

find Ihat

ell

0'

933

The mstalled capllal cost of the reboiler can be estimaled flOm Eq

IS

c,. _ (~:S}3.29X8900{I~)0 '5

(Ml~

ItO.'

(A 3-21)

(A 3-28)

(A.3-29)
where
IS lhe heal rcqulred 10 convert I mol of feed
lhe molal lalent heal of v3ponzauon

VI hlCh

10

a saluratcd vapor dl\lded by

460

S~nlON

"J

Vt51UN Of a ...s ... aso..IlUS """0 I>ISnll....rlON COlUMI'fS

SECTION...

Summary of the Cosl Model

Ifwc combIne the expressions above, we can write a model for the total annual cost
(TAC) of a d'stiliallon scpar;lIlon (i.e,. a capital charge factor of! yr is used to
annuahze the lII$tallcd eqUIpment cOSt) In terms of the design variables:
TAC "" Column Shell and Trays + Condenser
+ Cooling Water + Steam

I (M&S\
(t.
3 280 ,1201)1 11 )(2.18

+ 3I (M&S\,
280 f 101.3)(229 +

of

+ Reboiler

fd

Fd(A~ II'

A: II~)

(2',.":' +

M&S (101.3)(229 +
+ )(280'--

Fe

COL8LRVS COST MODEL An

6S

11.250

alternate cost
Colburn The form of the cost modd IS

17

model

was

de\elopcd

b)'

where C IN IS the cost olthe column shell, C J mcludes Ihe cost of the condenser and
reOOiler. and C) mcludes the cost of the steam and cooling water. An eumple that
illustrates the applicatlon of the procedure IS gIven in Happel and Jordan.' USlllg
Taylor series expanSIons, \\,e could reduce Eq A.3JO 10 Eq. A.331.

Cosl Model
For lhe sake ofsimplicit)'. we consider ternary mixtures. and we ...-antto detennine
whether it is bener to use Ihe direct sequence (i e.. splil A from Band C and then
split B and C) or the indirccl sequence (i e, splil C from A and B and then split A
and B); see Fig.. 7.3-3. We base our deciSIon on the lotal separatIon cosls of the two
sequences. and so we need a cost model for a distillation separation. We use
Guthrie's correlations (see Sec. E.I) to estimale the capital costs of the column,
condenser, and reOOiler, and then we add the cost of the sleam and c'ooling water
Thus, we writ~ the cost of a single column as
TAC=C(tN~el'0' "C,VOII~+CJV

PICked Versus Plate Toft'crs

For prdmunary process design we are concerned primarily with the most
expensive pIeces of equipment We expect that the expensive towers will have large
vapor fates and dIameters grealer than 45ft Hena:, normally the expensive towers

A r Calb",n ~C()lllftl "nrero an lh~ T ~ach",~'" ~nll<:al rn"n<>t,;nlt-~ ASn Sum",.. , "ich''01
l)

use

(A3.3D)

(A.331)

fa. 11K Teachmg uf l'herrllCllIIn(l.llltt,mg,

DISTILLATiON COLUMN SEQUE CING

7.3 ",.

--'-

1O~)Cs6.Hr

Ptnn~yl~.n,a S,ale Urn~etslly.

(A.3-32)

In Soc..
~ discussed the
of heuristics and computer codes for selecling the
best sequence: of dIstillation columns. I fowever, as an alternative approach. we can
use our order-of-magmtude arguments 10 SImplify the problem. By Simplifying
problems of this tnlt:, we often Impro\"e our understanding of the most important
features that dominate thc design The procedure we present here is due to Malone
et al. I

{611 )"" v""

+ 126 x 10 C.. MI, V+ 874 x

'J Ibprel a,,.]

IIQG _ 2.0 fl

A.4

90)"" ~<O

461

ThIS estImate should be reasonable for pacling <;izcs from 0.75 to 1.5 in. and for
gas now rates in the range of 200 to 1400 Ib/(hr ftl)

11 0 ) "

M&S
/611
T.t
+ 3(280) (101.3)(2 29 + Fe\~ In li. -120

SEOUENCTrora

will be plate columns. Tray towers arc preferred when the solvent flows are small,
i.e., packing .....ould not be welled uniformly, and where internal cooling is desired
BUI packed towers are used when the materials are highly corrosive or foam
badly, when low-pressure drops are required, and If the to.....er diameler is less than
2 ft. The height ofa packed tower is estImated by calculatmg the number of transfer
units and the height of a transfer ulllL Often, shortcut procedures such as those
given in Table A.I-I Will gIve reasonable pre<hctions for the number of transfer
units. The height ofa transfer unll can be predicled by a variety of correlations that
ha\'e been re\'iewed by FaIr However. to obtain a quick eslimate of the tower
height. Jordan' recommends lcnmg

+ Steam + Cooling Water

- ;2~:) (101.9)(218 + Fc){OOI64JV[379M'{5~XI~~J.}

x

OlSnU.AllOroI CO~UMN

1936

C, J""t~n. O,,,.,,rnl r",."rJ, Ir"''''''''~J. 2d o:d~ o.,Her. N..", YOf~. 1975. p lK'

(A.4-I)

where Co is the annualized cost coeffICient for the column shell, NT = number of
theoretical trays, V = vapor ratc., C l is the annualized cosl coefficient for both the

R H '-.. rry and C II Clullon. CA"mi<>,,/ ":;"g",u", I/n"d/IaoJI.. Slh o:d. McGr.",.1I1Il, Ne'" York,
1973, KC. 111.
10 G.Jordan. C'wmfrQI "'<>Un IkwWpm"",. vol ,. Inle,~r>tt. New York. t96ll. p 4SI.
'M Jo Malone. K Ghnos. I f Marque!,.OO J M

1>O"ltU, A/CAE J. Jl 68J (19115).

SECTION A'

462

SEcnON A'

DISTIu..TION COl 11),11'1

OISTIu..noN COlUMI'l SEQUENCING

nQtJEI'lCING

condenser and rcboiler, and C 2 is the annual cost coefficlcnt of the steam and t.he
cooling water. If a base-case design is available, we can use a Taylor senes
expansion 10 wrile Eq. A.4-1 as
TAC=Ko+K,N,+KlV

Vapor Rate
The vapor rate in each column can be related
material balance

II; = (R;

(A.4-2)

This is the cost model thaI we use 10 eva!llate column sequenceS. Now if we
considcr the difference in cost between lhe direct and indirect sequences, using

N~tI

+ K2(V~1l -

+ N~c -

V~1l

the reflux and distillate rates by a

(A.4-8)

I}D,

R,

I.2R._ 1

(A.4-9)

along with the approximate material balances that correspond to perfect splits
(rather than greater than 99% recoveries)

Nk)

V~c -

10

H .... e usc the rule of thumb

Eq. A.4-2, we obtain

,HAC = K,(N~~

"k)

(A.4-3)

NUMBER OF PLATES. According to Gilliland's correlation (see Eq. A.2-23),

when R - 1.1R...in ,

(A.2-23)

NT - 2N m n

D,X,.D = FXiJ

(A.4-1O)

Ihen it is a simple malter 10 estimate the vapor flows given a knowledge of tbe
minimum reflux ratios.
The common procedure for calculating reflux ratios for constant.volatility,
muhicomponent mixtures is to solve Underwood's equations

where Ihe mimmu.m number of plates is given by Fenske's equallon. If we :-v rite
N . in tenns of fractional reco\'ery of the light key overhead '1 and the fracllonal
recovery of the heavy key in Ihe bottoms '" lhen for the AlB sp It,

_.

(A.4-II)

,.

_ 21n

A' -

{[r.. /O - ,.. )][,./(1 - '.}

In

463

(A.4A)

(A.4-12)

.nd

QA'

Howe\'er, the fractional recoveries for the AjB split will be lhe same for both Ihe
dIrect and indirect sequences (Fig 7.3-3)
(A.4-5)

For the direct sequence, we solve Eq. A.4-11 for the value of lJ in Ihe range
< lJ < tX.cand substilute this result into Eq. A.4-12to find R.. ; for the indirect
scquence we determine the 0 in the range O:BC < 0 < I and again use Eq. A.412 to
find R . The minimum reflux ratios ror the remaining binary columns can be found
by using lhe shortcul approximation of Underwood's equation for binary mixtures
!%AC

The same result will be obtained ror lhe BIC split. Thus, nonnally Eq. A.4-3 reduces
I

R ~~-'c-_

(0: - I)x,-

10

(AA-6)

This result corresponds

10

where we use the appropriate IJ and feed composition for the last column in either
the direct or indirecl sequence (sec Fig. 7.3-3). i.e.,

the well-known heuristic

Selectlhe column sequence based on the smallest total vapor load.

(A.2-16)

(A.4.7)
1- x c ,-

LIMITATIONS OF TilE VAPOR LOAD HEURISTIC. Of course, we see from

Eq. A_4-3 that this heuristic will be valid only if the cost coefficient K I is tbe. same
for each column. However, if C were a corrosive component, bolh columns ID the
direci sequence (Fig. 7.3-3) would ha\'e to be made from expcns~ve materi~ls,
whereas only one column in the indirect sequence would req~lr~ corr~slOn
protection. Thus, the cost codlicients would not be the sam~. ~Imllarly, If the
columns operate at different prcssure le\<ds m the dlrecl and I~dl.re~t sequences,
then COSI coefficients will be dIfferent Thus, the vapor-load heunsllc IS not always
valid. Also note thai Fenske's equalEon is limlled 10 mIXtures ha\-ing constant
relative volatilities.

(A.4-13)

Instead of using Underwood's equations for the ternary mixturcs

(Eqs. A.4-11 and A.4-12), however, we prefer 10 use the approximate expressions
developed by Glinos and Malone so that we can obtain an explicit expression for
the vapor rate; see Table A.2-1. Their results indicate that for

A/Be:
where

J = I + r/sox.,-

(A.4-15)

464

Sf('"lION ...'

SECHON ...

OlnllUl flOJ' lUlU ...N SEQUENCING

R =

AB C

+ Xn)/(cr K

+ XAFf(crlK: .
(\:iF + x.FXI + XAFX CF )

..

- I)

I)

(A.4-16)

\
\

(9. 3. 1)

x.

x.

V,

"

I
I

I
II

\
\

'I'\
D

,
I

x,
la)

The rc:suh. Eq. A 4-11, plO\"Ides us with an approximale, explicit expression Ihat \loe
can usc 10 determme the best column sequence as a funclion of lbe feed
compo'tltlon to Iht dislillatlon train. Thus. "'e can use Ihis IC5UIt in place of the
heunstlcs; Stt Sec. 7.3. Malone: et a1. present a comparison of Ihis expression to Ihe
pubhshed heurislics as wdl as discuss Ihe sensiti,ity of the solulion. That is. the)
descnbe Ihe conditions under which Ihe wrong cboice of lhe column sequence
corresponds to large cost penalties. This type of sensilivity information is often
more usdul for prdlmlllary desIgns Ihan obtaining a rigorous solution for a
particular case

x,

"

(0)

(9.6. 1)

x.
D

Ar~ume-nls

In anolher study, Glinos and Malone' ploued lhe line where the total vapor ratc:
for the direct sequence was c:qualto the lolal vapor rate for the indirect sequence: on
the plane of the feed compositions; sec Fig. A.4-1. The relative volatilities are
shown 111 parentbeses, and Underwood's equalions for sharp splils were used fOl
tile calculalioDs. From an Iflspeclion of Ihese diagrams, they proposed lhese simple
cntena
(A.4-18)

Use dlrecl sequence when

1\
0" ,

I.l

Calculate the vapor rate if

>

xA

+ Xc

> 1.

(A.4-20)

they lise bounds to develop \'ery simple expressions for some ca~es.

l}(>uSlu. AIO,F J~

~1 611\ (19R~)

K (;l1nOl and /It F MaloTK ~()r/ltWlll" R~,OIU fo<' (~ ... Col""", Alrnnarn"" ." Du""...."'"

submlllW 10 (h"..

fttq R...

V,

x,

FlGURt: A.4-1
Bounds lor the dircd and lad"cd sequences (F,,,,,, J( GI_...J M. F M"'-, ~O,,_f"I'1lI900ruf"

Oo,.1u,1"", SIJlf'>OtJ. ~Ild ID Cw-.

u.,

Rn ~~ 19/17)

(A_4-19)

Use the I1Idirecl sequence if

M I ~t.tOIK. K GhnO'l. I r "blql.iC'l_ and J

Va =

Ie)

C ~ Coluwon Alrmwllll't'J '"

.' ill"'....: r-~l

(9. 15. l)
\

I a=

0
Discussion

Va =

\
\

Whenever Ihis result is negallve, we prefer the indirect sequence.

\
\

(A.4-17)

Thu~,

Now, if we combine Eqs A 4-6 and A.4-8 through A 4-16, we oblam

Using Bounding

46.

and for
(.\:Jf

OISTIlunON COLU... N SEQ!JEI"ClNG

INJ.

19117

It IS Interesting lhal Eq. A.4-18 agrees with lhc: heuristic to selecl Ihe direct
.sequence when the arnounl of the lowest boiler is smaiL Also, Eq. A.4-19 is a similar
result for the indirect sequence when the heaviest component is a large rraclion of
the feed. However, for 8 case where lite volalililies are (9, 3. I) and the reed
composilions are .x.. ~ XII '" 0.15 and xc'" 0.7, Fig. A.4-1 shows that the direct
sequence is still favored Similarly, we see rrom Fig. A.4-1 that the region where the
mdlrcet sequence is besl shrinks as the AlB spilt becomes more dIfficult than the
Die split. which contradicts the common heunsllc "do the easIest splits first and
leave the difficult splits until lasL" This result again shows the danger of using
lteuristK:S.

SfC1~ '"

A_S

COMPLEX DISTILLATJOi'\ COLUMNS

(a)

Normally we do not consider lhe: use of complCl dl)ullatlon columns in our mlllal
design, except for the USt- of pasteunlauon columns to remove light ends from a
product stream (sec Sec. 7.3) Instead, 1Ioe: first look for the OOt sequences ofsunple
columns, and we evaluate the profilabllllY of the: process If additional design effort
can beJustified. we examine the posslbl1lty of replacing two adjacent columns In the
SImple sequence by complex columns, 10 see whether we can reduce the separation
COSIS Remember thai if we can reduce lhe recycle: COStS of a reaClant for a reaction
system where Ihere are slgmficanl b}-product losses, Ihen 'he might be able to
translate these: separation s),stem savmgs to rallo-matenals sa vlngs If we reoptlmlze
the process flows.
Mosltexls: about umt operations do not include very complete diSCUSSions of
complex distillation columns Thus, a boef introducuon IS presented here for
sidestream columns, sidestream strippers and rectifiers, and prefractionators and
PetJyuk columns These results are laken from various papers by Malone and
coworkers

DIrect

COMI'LU OImUATlON COU'IotNS

467

A.B,C

(b) IAdirccl

Sideslream Columns
We: can someumes usc a smgle sideslfeam column 10 replaa: two columns m either
Ihe dnect or the indirect sequence; see FIt! A.5-1. If the mdirect sequence IS favored.
we say that Ihe "primary" separatIOn corresponds to Ihe ABle split, and we
replace the two-column sequence b) a single sldeslfeam above the fecd, see
Fig. A_5-2 Ho....c"er. if the direct sequence is favored, wc say that Ihe "primary"
separauon corresponds to the AIBC spill. and we replace the two-column sequence
by a single column with a sidcslrcam below tb~ feed
For a sidcstre:am above the feed (or below 11). we DOte from Fig. A.5-2 Ihat
th~re are: only three column sections compared 10 the four sccllons available ID Ihe
indirect (or direct) sequence. We also DOle that the AlB (or Blq spltttakes place in
only the upper (or lowcr), single-column section. Hence, this "secondary" separation is limilcd by the vapor rate required for Ihe primary separation.
Moreover, since we have only three column scclions, we can no longer
achieve any purity that we desire:_ The recoveries of Band C or the composlllon of
Ihe bolloms can be specified arbitranl)', and Ihe composition of A 10 the distillate
can be fixed at any value. However. Ihere is a maximum concentration of B (and a
minimum conoentration of A) Ihal will be oblained 10 a sKlestrcam above lhe feed
even ifan infinite number of trays is used in the upper iCClion. Glinos and Malone
showed that thiS minimum concentration of A and the maximum concentration of

A.R,C

FlGURE AS-t
Cot..mn scquc:nccs.

B can be estimated by using the expressions below for the case of.a high-punly
o\crhead

(A 52)
where R 2 is the reflux ratio that corresponds to the primary split (AlJ/c) at the feed
plate

." Glmos and M F Maloac. J&C /'roc

fJrj Dr.~

14 1011 (I98S) aDd

13 764 (I9S4)

(A.5.J)

468

nello", '"

COMf'LL'C l>lsr,UHlOt< COLU,,""'S

v,

SFCTIQI'l'"

X,.J}

I,

I.,

L,

X,.P

I'

X"F

I,

L,

I,

L,

,I

PASTEURIZATION COI.UM....S. For the spec;al caseorsidestream columns .....here

lhe desned product IS the tntennedlate boiler and there is a lIIoaste or fuel byproduclthat is either mueh h(!.hter than the produet (so ....-c rcco\cr the: product asa
sKlcslream abo\'e the feed) or else: is lIlueh heavier than the product (so lIIoe reco\el
lhe plOducl as a sldestream belo.... the feed), Glmos and Malone- find thaltheyc:m
obtam very simple solullons_ For the case where CI .. c J> ClK and the sldC"lream is
above the rettl.. the IIllnlmUm amount of Impurlly m the product ~tdcstrcam will be

I'

t,

469

plan to recycle thiS stream back to a reactor and that the Impunlles do not affect
the product distribution). we can select t:.... :: 0: XC.II "'" 0; either the overhead
punty of A. t: .. n or the fractional recovery of A overhead (but not both); the purity
and the fraclional reco\ery or C in the bolloms: and the composition or the
hEhtest componenl of A in the sidestrcam, t: ...5 NeJ[t .... e cak\llal~ R,,_, using
Eq A 5-4. and then we let R z "'" 1,2R z._' Now. we can evaluate x AS...... by \lslOg
Eq A,5-I. and ....e sec .... hether our SpC'ClrJCalion of x,,$ cxceeds lhls value_ Ir It d~
not......e must chanEe our spcc1fication ror x...5Assuming lhat lhe desired pUrlly can be obtained. Gllnns and Malone .....ere
ahle to pro'<e thaI a column .....lth a sKlestream ab<H'e the feed ....ould al .....ays be
cheaper lhan the correspondmg two columns lor the indirect sequence. About 10 'Y.
fewer trays were required, and vapor savings up to 30% can be obtained. The
largest savings correspond to balanced volatilities, although the sKlestream punly
decreases, For low values of X .. r. high-purily sidcslreams can be obtained, but lhe
\apor savings decrease,

L,

COMPIVl ounU"'O'IIO.... COLUIolNS

X..,(Cl ac

FlGl.R r. A.5-2

Sl(\nl,um

"

.bo.'c lhc rd (I "I'" K GIUOO1 and

/It F MalON. fiOpl/malm RnjllHl' (0' Cr>mpla

X,II

Column A/lrtIfQIll'CJ In DUlIlIll"lI'I S,"c ......- Jub

","'rd'll Cltr", Eng RCJ Dr.'. /981,)

t: .. s,

....~ = (O:lK X .,.

- I)

+ xc,-)(O: ...

1)

(A 5-5)

and the minimum vapor ralc is given by

(A.5-6)
The value of R 1 . ..,;_ can be estimated by usmg Undcr.....oods equations or the
apprOXImate ellpressions ofGhnos and Malone- (see Table A.2-1) for the: ABle
split
R1

. . . ,...

t:.. r!(7- AC -

(x..,.

I)

+ (x" + XO)!(ClIIC
-

+ x.,.)(1 + x..,.x c ,)

I)
-

(A.5--4)

The approlllmale ellpression is usually Wlthm 4 ~ or Ihe euet result, which is

adequate for screemng purposes
DESIGN OF" COI.UMNS wnll SIDESTRf..AMS ABOVE TIlE FEEl>, If ....eha e

ca~

where a high pUrity of lhe sidestrcam IS nol required (c g. suppose thal

From Eq. A_5-5 .....e sec thai if CI... J> I and/or if x ..,. is small. then we can obtain a
product with high purity as a sK1eslream
The correspondmg results for sidestreams below the feed are
a.,u{x..,.
,t:cs, ~ "'"

:I... X .. ,.

R """ x..,.

+ X.,-)
+

x.,.

+ x.,.

..

xAf(a.c - J)

x.,. +- x c ,-

(A 57)
(A 5-8)

"c,-/x c ...-

xcs/x c..'

(1\5-9)

470

UcnON" I

roMI't..U IllrnU-"lION COLU/>tN~

5EcnON ,"-I

471

Thus, we have falfly simple expr~siom a\'allable for lhe preliminary d~signs of
pasteurization columns
Sidesfream Strippers and SidClltrcam

COMI'l.EJr IlISlIU....TIOJ' COlUMJ'S

X"D

R(:Clilicr~

If lhe pUrity reqUIrements of a siJestrcam column are not sallsfactory, we can add
a column secllon, as ellhe:r a sidestream stripper or a Sidestream rectifier (!iCe
Figs. A 5-] and A.5-4) Now we agalll have fOUf column sectIOns, so that any
spc<:ific:d recovencs and purities can be obtained.

V,

F
SII)ESTREAM STRIPPERS. For the <:onfigurallon shown

In Fig. A.5-J, we use the

specifications and overall malcnal balan<:cs to fix Ihe: c:\ternal flows. Then, to

V,

V,

t v,.

X, ,P

X"D
4

L,

V,

V,

L,
3

x"w
2

fiGURE A5-f
S,deslream rccufu:r. (From K. Glinol and AI. F. Alolo~. -Opumaltfy Rt(J'fJft1 fm C<>mplt< Column
AlftrrrOli~ Uf Dilullaua" SYltems,- wbmtlltd ItJ Ch,rn &g Rn 0trJ, J9IJ7)

estimate the internal flows VI and V3, Glinos and Malone developed the
expressIOns
4
(A.5-IO)

(A.5-11)

nGURE A.5-J
Sldoueam Mnpper (f,om A Glmos and AI f' M"I""" ~Op"",,,IIIJ Il"lWIU (", C_,plo Cmu"'''
AI/e,,,utllJ<!S '" Oi.mll"tlm, 5,.1'trr<1: sYb"'mtd 10 Clotm En" Rrs Or, . IWJ7 J

Ii: Ghnos and M F Malonr. I&t-.:c P'M

f)es

Dno. 24 1087 (t985) and 23 164 (19114)

472

SEOIOW .. ,

where 0 1

lS

COMPI.P.Jt OISnu.ATJOlII COLUMWS

SECnOl" ... ,

cxn.. "nx

OISnI..LAIlON COLU"'''''

473

the fOOl of Underwood's equation

(A.5-12)

in the range !lac> OJ > I For (he case: of 5aluratcd-liquld feeds, they also
de\ldopcd approximate solutions for Under-".ood', equalion $0 that no Iteration is
requIred Also. a procedure for c:sllmalmg the: number of trays \Olas dc\<doped by

Gllnos
SlDESTREAM RECTIFIERS, For the confi!uratlon shown In Fig. A.S-4, Ghnos
developed an upres.sion for cSlimatiog the mlDtmUm vapor rate
4

(A.5-13)

~-p

where (J. IS the root of Underwood's equation In the: range (lAC> 0. > el!IC_
Gimes and Malone found thai for tbe case where q = I, the 10lal vapor
gencralcd fOf the two rcboilcrs in a sidcsueam stripper is cuetly Ihe same as the
\'apor requirement for the singk rcboikr io a sideslream rectifier The operating
costs may differ. ho.....ever, Sllla: Ilk- reboiler of lhe sidestream stripping section
operates at a different temperature and tlk-rerore may usc: a less expensive utility.

POTENTIAL SAVINGS. GllIlos and Malone' proved that these sideslream

columns require less total vapor than either the direct or indirect sequence. In
addition, they showed that the vapor savings are alll-'ays large when x. r is small,
whIch agrees with tbe results of Tedder and Rudd (see Sec. 7.3). The maximum
savmgs possible is 50%, independent of the \olalilities. and tbe maximum savings
is obtallled when X.tr" (<1.11 - 1)/(<lAc - I) and X. r approaches 7.ero.

Thermall)' Coupled Columns-Pt'llyuk Columns

For a ternary mixture A. B, C. the easiest spin possible is bet....een A and C, letting
8 distribute between the top and bottom of the column. Then either we can split
the AlB o\erhead and the BIC bottoms stream in two additional columns, or we
can combine these columns mto a single column (sec: Fig. A.,SS). With this
arrangement. we need only one condenscr and one reboiler for both columns: i.e..
the columns are thermally coupled since: the reboi1er from tbe downstream column
supplies the \'apor for both columns and the condenser on the downstream column

nCURE A.5-.5
PW}U colWlllL {F,,,,,, K GfonoJ DNI /of F /ofalOit', -0"1..-1,,, Rrflt/ftS ffJl' (:""'1"0 Col-

AI_,OWl '" DuJJJa,_ S)"Jlrm$.,- ~"'rd la 0",.. bog Rn. iNt'_ 1987)

provides the renux for both columns. ThiS configuration is orten called a Pell)'Uk

columll.

Del.,,,, and Symt.e.l< of D""IIHh<>n

K Ghnos."11 010ball1pp'N1ch to the l'rchm,na'l

Thet:IS, Un,,,,,,,,,y of /l.bspchuO'lll. IImhenl. 1984

I ,a",,: I'h

I)

K (ibn", and M F Ma1on~ 01""",,/"1 RrgI(JPI$/tJ< ('omr1u Cal""", AII..."""'......n Dnrdlauon

f"" RrJ Dr.~ 19S6

STJlrfftS." f'&['C' submJlled 10 Cltnro

If we make a sharp Ale split in the first column and fix the product nows to
match our specificatlon<;, tben two mternal nows must be fixed 10 be able to
calculale all the other now~ If we deClca~e I. J , we will c\'enlually reach a limitlTlp'
condllion al eHher the upper feed or the lower feed or the dov.n~trcam column.
dependmg on wluch feet! conditIOn IS controlling For the case were we make a
sharp AB/Be ~pht or a ~Ioppy A/BC ~phl m the prefractlOnator. and the upper

474

SKIION .. ,

C...,... P1UDUTIU .. TIoNtOII .......

cu.. p/.U:

steCIIOI'l .. ,

fud poml IS controlling, GJmos and M.lonc liohol'ted lhill (aSliooumlOg lhal lhe
prefracllonalor b also at liS limning condllln)

I'~

> I :.... dnd a shdrp AS Be !>pbll!> accomplbhed

In

Ol."UATIOI'l lOl.U ....i

l>CCllons I and 2. For Ih~

case Ihe fraction of B reco\ered overhead in Ihe prefraclionalor is

aac - I

f.- - -

(A 5-14)
where 0 1 IS the root of lInderlAOod'. equallon, Iq A,5-12, m the range
> 8 > aBC' BUI for euher a sharp -18 Be Spill or a sloppy ABC split in the
pre(raCllOnlHOr (whIch IS operal mg al 1IIIIIIJng conditIOns). and lhe lower feed point
controls, lhe result IS
a AC

v6 . _ ~(~)F
8 __ I
,

(A 5-21)

(lAC

and lhe amounl of B fed 10 Ihe downstream column al lhe upper fced Io;;a\lon is
Column sections 3 and 4 operate al a condlllon aoo\e the 1n1l1l1TlUm. so
thaI Ihe)' can handle larger amounts or H. Thus, we could have deSIgned for a
sloppy AB'C splil and talen more B overhead. 1I0wel'er, there is an upper bound
on Ihe fraClional recovery of B overhead In the prefraetlOnalor. say 1.,_.. I'thlch
corresponds to lhe snuallon where the minimum vapor rate III column secuons 3
and 4 becomes equal 10 1'.. _. We wnte thes<: bounds as

f.x.rF

where 8 1 IS Ihe rool of Underwood's equation III Ihe range a.: > 91 > I
If q = I. Ihen mass balances can be- used 10 sho~ thai I'j = V.. and
V"'.a'a

== { max[

0"',,
01

aAc

(A 5-22)

I't.
=
I....

~here

8 x"
_ I ]} F

(A.5-16)

Glmos and Malone also nOled thaI ~q A.5-14 corresponds to the mimmum
vapor rate for a sharp A/BC spin, so thoU \Io'e can also lA.nte
(A_5-17)

(lACXAI'
(lAC - 01

+ (l;x.ff.
(l.:

92

(A 502])

.... here 02 IS again Ihe roOl of Underwood's equation in the range (lB(" > O2 > I.
Slmilarl)-, if lhe upper column controls, lhen column sections 5 and 6 can
handle more B lhan corresponds to OJ sharp split III lhe prefraclionator ThaI is, lAC
can perfonn a sloppy AIBe split 10 the prefracllonalOr, bUI now we encounter a
I".... er bound on the fracllon of B tale.n overhead I. _. lIence, ~e can wnte

where. appro),:Imatel)'.

(A 5-24)
t': _

a..C<x A1 +

\If)

xA,.(et"c -

:r.d

~~-

-+

J.cr

"'''--0;

.x",{02.t<'

(A_S-18)

I)

Similarly, Eq A.5-16 gIves the minimum vapor rate for a sharp ABIC spin, and so

lAhere 1',,_. IS nollt e\'aluated by uSlOg l:.q. A5-23.e:a.ttplthal 8 1 1S replaced b) 8,_

Fidkowsli and KroM.owsljl developed an e>.prCSSlon for this bound on lhe
fractional recovery of B:

(A.5-19)
and

475

I'",.a;.. == {max(xF1(R~,~

+ I), (x.. r + x.,-)(R::.ra c + I)J}F (A,5-20)

Thus, Simple approximale expressions that are useful for conceplUal designs are
available.
FLEXIBILITY IN Till DESIGf'\. E\en though the vapor rate II: . eslablishes
lhe ffilOlmum reboiler duty of Ihe separallon syslem, II is sull
to choose a
value for VI independenlly (providlOg Ihal lhe chOice for VI docs nOI change which
feed to the downslream column is controillng)_ To understand thIS flexibility
associaled Wllh tbe deSign, we conSider OJ case where Ihe lower Feed IS controlling,

_
....... -

a.dVj,aun - (lAcX~r
I)I'J .... I.. - (aACXAr + xllf)F

(iliAC (iliAC -

(A.5-25)

The results abO\e indicate that a Petlyuk column can handle a range of feed
composillons wilhout changing the reboiler dUly, but merely b) changing lhe flows
10 column sections 1,2, 4, and 5. This flexiblhty both for the hmllmgcon<htions and
for operallng conditIons has also been reported by olbers.:

possibi:

K.

GllnGli and M F MaloM:.

IdEC PrtK IN. On

10ll11198S) and ZJ

764(1914)

K Ghnoll

and M F MaloM:.

IdEC p,tK

IN~

z F"Jlo..-~l, and L Krohlo"-$l,. AIC1>E J, J2

lNu, U

10111 (I93S)

H7 (1986)

'W J Stupln and F J t.oclhan. -Thermally Co"pled Dtii',lIallon Columns A Ca"" Sludy,~ 64lh
Ann"at AIChl: Mccnng. San haocliCO, 1971, and T L Wayburn and J D Seader, In I',oc !d '""
FOCAPD C-I, A W W~,C'.bo:'& and II ChIC". eds., CACI E Corp c/o I'rof H Carnahan.
Dtpaflmcnl of C""fIUC1IJ lo"p'-U"L Un'U$'lly of "'hclupn, An.. Arbor. MkJI~ 48t09, P 7bS, J ....

"81

Sf.t..IOI'l

.-,
I

J.,
Lz

V1

I( we add a conden<;er and a reboller 10 the firsl column in a Petl)uk configuration.

i.e., we rcmo\e the thermal couplmg. "c call the result a prejrocllollofOr; see
Fi! A 5-6. We agam look for a sharp Ale sphllO the prerractionator. and we let H
dlstribule between lhe fOP and bottom of this column_ The minimum vapor rate for
lhe do,"" nstream column depends on whether the upper or lo,""er feed is controlllOg.
Since both feeds to the do\\-nslream column are essent13l1y binary mixtures and are
saturaled liqUids. it IS simple 10 dnelop expressions 10 esllmate lhelT values. lienee,

a:.d a . . (crAc

1).x'F
TX"AC
cr.,J

(A 5-27)

I
4

L,
L,

I
F

'-"

L,

V,

V,~

v1

. _ :lACX:M
6,_" - O:"C
O:IIC

(A.S-26)

i'

477

r:.. :"

Prefractionator<;

COMPLE.Il I>IHILl.AlIO!'l COLUMI'IS

v,~l

BEST Dt:SIGN CONDITIONS. The smallest of all the possible mmmlUm vapor
rates In the prefraclionalor is vt~...~ In column sections 4 and 5. the vapor
rates are gIven by '. = ,,~ = 1') 1'1 For q "'" J. ,) "'" v6 and so v) IS filed by
Eq. A 5-16 Thus. the column diameter In section 4 will decrease as II Increases. but
will ne\er reach I] (" hlCh fixes the dIameter of section J). We prefcr to bUIld
columns that ha\e lhe same dIameter In each secllon for reasons of cosl~. so we
prefer to make ~~ as large as pos~;lble (although it Will be less than v]) This largest
value of 1. corresponds (0 the ..apor ratc
In the prefracllonator Glmos and
Malone' ~ho"ed that this \-alue is gnen b)' the expression

PERFORMANCE OF PETL\'UK COLUM 's. Glmos and Malone' ....-ere able 10

show that the maxImum vapor sa".in~ were agaIn 50% independenl of the relatl\e
volatilities. and that they occur when (A "" (0:.111 - 1)/(0:.1(" - I) and XII -- U...... hlch
are lhe same resulls as for a sidestream stripper Ilowever. they also found Ihal
large S3\mgs could be obtamed In many cases when x. was large. especially when
the AlB Spill "as not llluch easier Ihan the HIC spilt

V,

6
-

V,

L.l
FlGURE AS-6
Pn:fn'ClOo... lot (F

AI'.....f...u iIf D

K GI...... -"'" M

I"

}.I.u-. Opt.-Jur

w
kgltMJ f~ Co-pIr.. CfJI_

ll,,'_ Su'"'": SIIlmlf/"J ,,, C'-" E,., 11.0. 1NP~ 1967 I

(A,5-28)

and

lota1 vapor generated by both reboilers is then

The corresponding result for the prcfractlonalor is given by Eq. A 5-26. and the
fractional recovery of B o\"erhead in the prefractionator is given by Eq. A5-21 The

It. GlIno! and M , Malone. f&E<. /,,,,," fHI

I)~.

2.4

1087

fI98~J.

K. GIJIlos Ind M F Malone, KOrrrmal"y R"g,o... fry Comrlu Col""", AII""""lIl'f" '" /)mllla,mll
K

ST,feMJ. f'lJ'f'1 sutlmlllcO 10 C/'em f"!/

11.".

OeJ. 1987

(A.'29)
I>ERFORMANCE OF PRt:VRACTtONATORS. TIle maximum possible savings
with a prdractionalor arc never as large as with a Pctlyuk column. n the ~PlXr feed
contlols lhe maximum fractional savmgs arc (O:AC 1l.r)/(a Ac
I), wluch occurs
when .x~ ----<0 1. Whcn the lower feed controls. the nHUlIllUlll fractional ~avings arc
(allC - I )/(Il AC - I) and lIrc obtaincd when xc ...... O. lienee. the prefracll011ator
sa\'lOg~ may be large for I:trge values of x.

t:NUGV l .....lEG~TION

SEcno.......
I-Ieuri~lio.

for Com pie),. Columns

Ghnos and Millonc summarllcd the results of their sludles b)' developing a set of
heuristll.:S The~ heuristics :ire presented In $cc. 73

A.6

ENEKGY INTEGKATION OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS

OISllllallon sep3rallons com-ume large amounts of energy IIcnce, there 15 an

economic mccnll~e 10 male the energycom.umptlon as small as poSSible. The baSIC
Idea behmd energy IIllegr.lllon (see Chap 8) IS 10 use the heat Ihat must be
removed from hot streams whIch need to be cooled to add heat to streams .....hlch
need to be heated Ob~lously, we would hke 10 achlc\'e as much energy llliegralion
as can be economically Justificd v.hen v.e design dlstillallOO columns.

Heal Effects in

Di~lillalion

Columns

For mosl dlsllllauon separations Ihe feed cntcrs as a satuuted lIqUid, and lhe IWO
product streams arc also salUraled liquids. ExpenSive separations correspond 10
relalhely close boiling mil.lures, and for these cases an enerH balance can be used
to show that appro:umalely all the heat supplied to the rebollcr must be remo\'cd III
the condenser Thus. m most dlslillallon separations, heal IS supplied to lhe
rebOller at a high tempenllurc. and thiS same amount of heat IS remo\cd from the
condenser at a lower temperature for this rcason \\,e sa) that heat IS degraded
across a temperalure range, which lS equal 10 the difference III bOiling points We
would Iil.:e: 10 ha\e a Simple procedure for esllmallng thc hcat load and Ihls
temperature range.

[-Ml.(' ')]

If" Pj,oexp ~

T- To

P:'

K=-'
,

p-

479

for Ideal, close-bOlhng mixlurcs, the heats of vaporization of allche components

are aboul lhe same, so that we can replace dH, by an average dH. Thus, If v.e
combine Eqs. A6-I, A 6-2, and A 2-5 and we let
(A.6-3)

we can obtain an expression relating the lemperatures at two

I _~=~Ino}
T}
T1
6H
0 1

pollllS

in a column
(A 6-4)

Using this result, we can relate the temperalure of the distillate and the
bonoms to the feed temperature

T =
u

T.-

R In(1r+
__
liil

')-.
Tr

(1D

R
, )-.
_In(1-+_
( liH 6 r Tr

(Aft.5)

(A"')

Then, by combimng these expressions and assummg that aH

an uprcsslOn for tbe temperature drop across the column
RT: ln_
6u
6H

RTr , we can v.nte

(A.ft.7)

o.

HEAT INPUT TO TIlE COLUMN. The heat supplied to the reboiler and remo"cd by lhe condenser is merely the heat of vaporization dH multiplied by the
vapor rate V (note that we are assuming saturated-liquid feeds)

(A.6-I)

(A.6S)

Q=M1V

For low-pressure system:., the K value is gwen by

OlSllU-ATION COLUMNS

Ilowever, uSlllg our shortcut procedure for bubble point calculations, Eq A 2-5, ..... e
can also wnte

11T

SIIORTCI.JT ESTIMATES 0" TilE Tl\1P[RATLRE RA!'GE. Shortcut expressions for 4 Tand Q d Thne: been dc\eloped b) Ghnos, Malone, aDd Douglas l and
Ihey arc presented here. O\er narrow temperalurc ranges we can use lhe: ClauslusClapeyron equation 10 relale Ihe \apor pressurc 10 lemperature

O~

B~

combining Eqs. A.6-7 and A.6-8 we find that

(A.62)

(A 6-9)
Sin~

V"" (R
K GlIl106 and M F Mylo~ ~Op"mt>I", R.~fI'O>Ufor C""'pk.. Col""", Alle,""uues '" Il/s'illmion
SrI/to....." poll"'" 'ubmlHcd 10 Cltt'm bofi Rn D~J~ 1987
, K GllnO, M

Malone. and J M Dottllla1. AICltE J,. 31 t019 (198S).

1)0 _ (1.2R..

1)0

(A.6-IO)

we ~ that Q tr. T is approximately a constant for a given separation task, i.e., II

depends primarily on lhe compositions,

480

nc:TION ... ,

EI'llOY II'lTEGunol'l

or

(I'IUO" INTf.o ....nOI'l

SECTION ....,

Dlmlunol'l COU''''N5

D1SnUATlO" COlV... m

I---'---A
2

Low pressure

AB----I

High pressure

/f----B

FIGURE A.6-1
MuJ"dJ..;t cotumD_lFrom M J. JI""'...........,.II. rmd JI W IfrJlf'rb"'fI. AfC/i, J, JI J6J (lfI85).l

contmue to increase_ AndrecovK:h and Westerberg showed that there was a very
simple procedure for estimating a lower bound for the ulility consumplion. By
defintng d T.
as the difference bet\loetn the temperalures of the highest hoi utlhty
avaIlable and lhe lowest cold utility, the minimum utihty required is simply

-"'

A LOWER BOUND ON LITlLln' CONSUMPTION. As we introduce additional

effects in our dlsllilation separation, we continue to decrease the energy requtremenl~. although the tcmperature le\el through which the energy is degraded will

(A.6-11 )

where Q 6. T i~ calculated ror a ~lIlgle colullln by u~lng Eq A 6-9

C S Roht ......... 00 F R Gllhbnd. Flr--.u ttl F'....' - J nmdl,........ 4th m. MC<;, ... HIll Nt..
"OIl_ IQ<,('. nd C J 1',/1(1. ....,... ..,.".. I'rpr<'l"". 2d m. MeG.... 1!l11. N.... Y.... l lonIn

481

Qc,

1uhicffecl Distillalion
Muhleffect distillallon has been discussed numerous {'laces in the literature.
although it is not widely ucsed We consider muhidJect columns because they both
pro"ide a simple cllampk of the energy integration of distillation columns and
Illustrate the effect of the pressure shifting of columns_ As we Increase the pressure
in a column..... c increase bolh the overhead and bottoms temperatures. so that in
many ca~es we C<ln make energy matches that otherWise ....ould not be possible. Our
di~cus~10n of mulliefTect distillatIOn IS nOI complete. and an Interested reader
should con~ult the hterature. Our goal here is to illustrate some efTects encountered
In the energy Integration of columns.
Suppose we consider the distillation of a binary miJtlure. but we splil the feed
roughl} in half, raise the pressure of one of lhe streams., and st:nd each Slream to a
separ.l.te dlSlillation column: see Fig. A,6-1. If our pressure shirting was such lhat
the o\'erhead temperature in the high-pressure column is greater than the reboiler
temperature In the lo.... -pressure column, then we can combine the condenser of the
high-pressure column WIth the reOOlkr of the low-pressure column. Hence., we only
need to supply steam to one reboder In the high-pressure column, and we only Deed
to supply cooling water to the condenser in lhe low-pressure column: i.e.. the heat
that must be removed to condense the overhead of the high-pressure column can be
used to supply the heat needed in the rcboiler of the low-pressure column.
Since only one-half of Ihe fted is supplied to the high-pressure column, the
distillate Aow from this column will be one-half of the value for the case of a single
column Also. from Eq A.6-IO the vapor rate will be cut in baH, and from Eq. A 6-8
t~ reboller heat duty will be cut in half Thus. \loe caD accomplish the same
separatIOn VI-;th a multieffect column configuration (soc Fig. A.6-I) as we can in a
conventlonal column, but we require only half as much steam and cooling water
Of course. when we use a muilleffect configuration, we must use two separate
columns_ Hence, muluefTcct s)"stems will be of interesl onl)' wheD the energy savings
are adequate to pay ror the hIgher imcslmenl. In addition, however, we must
supply the heat to the reboiler of the high-pressure column at a higher temperature
than we would need for a single column. The condenscr lemperature for lhe
mulliefTcct and single columns will be Ihe same. but we degrade the heal required
for the mull1effecl s)"stem over a larger temperature range.
To estImate Ihls temperature range. we remember that Eq. A.6-9 indicates
that Q d TIS essenlially a constant. Hence, if we cut Lhe heal load III half, the
temperature range will doubk. Our shortcul procedures enable us to estimate aU
the quantities invoh'ed for a p3r1lcular systcrn

or

M J AOO'tt... och.nd" W

W~lnhr,,..

41(-II.F J. 'I '161

(19I~1

482

UCTlO"'"

"N .. ~GY l ...n

... ~" lION

01 0" r'lI.A 110/'0 lUI UMNS

Of course, we must allow for a 10 1-, or so, temperature drivmg force between
cnergtintegrated condensers and rebOllcrs, and we can change both Q ilnd l\ Tby
only lIltegral values as ~e add effects, l>0 that our bound is not quite correct
However, il does provide an indication of the IlIcentive for undenakmg a more
detailed analysis.
T-Q I)IAGRAMS. In the dISCUSl>I.:>n of energy lIltegratlOn in Chap. 8, we usc.l
temperature-enthalpy dragrams as an aId III undastandlllg the behaVIor of the
process These diagrams arc '1lso us<:ful \\ hen we consider the energy integration of
dIstillation columns The dlects of Illullleffect di~tiJJatlon and the lower bound on
the utililY consumption are illul>trated in Fig A.6-2. We see from the dIagram that
we minimize the utilities consumptIon if"e shirt the pressures so that we can stack
column sections on top of one another

Sland-AlollC Column SCqUCllC~

Andrecovich and WCl>tcrberg showed thai lhis same stackmg procedure ~as useful
for evaluating a bound for lhe utIlity consumption for column sequences. ThaI is,
for a five-componenl mi"ture, there are 14 possible sequences. We find the
(Q 6T)'o',1 for sequcnce I by addlllg thc values of Q 6Tfor each column in that
sequence, and we do this calculation fur each sequence. lienee, we can find which
sequence has the l>mallesl valuc of

(Q AT),. ~

L (Q AT),

(A.6-12)

Ihen the minlillum uullly bound is estlmatcd by USlllg the expn:sSlOn

Q
""n

~ (Q AT),.
11 1;, ;1

(A 6-13)

On a T-Q dlagram, .....e diVide the Q l!.Tfor each separallon task into widlhs
equal to QmiD' and then we Slack lhe various plea:S that we obtain between the
ulllity levels. An illustration of this procedure- is given in Fig. A 6-1 Thus, there IS
an easy .....ay of eSlimaung the utilily bounds.
Of course, as we add effects in a multieffect column, we are increasing the
capital cost, even though the energy costs are decreasing. Nevertheless, the pressure
shifting 10 allow the stacking of columns will provide a lower bound on the utility
requlCcments, even if we forbId the use of any multicffect columns For e"amplc, III
Fig A.6-4a ~e consider three columns_ By pressure shifting and stacllllg the
columns, we can reduce the utility consumpllon. The lowest uIlIllY bound then
becomes equal to the "alue of Q for the column with the largest heat load (see
Fig A 6-4b)

We can reduce this load by replacing the column with the largest heat load QI......
by a multieffect column (see Fig. A.6-4c). Normally, we prefer to pressure-shifl as
little as possible when we stack the columns.

Integralion of Column Sequences wilh a Process

If heat is available from process streams that muSI be ejected to a cold utility, we
prefer to use this heat rather than a hot utility to supply the energy 10 a distillation
system, In this situation l!. T"il depends on the nature of the composile curves (sec
Chap. 8). We never want to have a column straddle the process pinch, and our goal
is to fit the columns in between the hot and cold composite curves (see Fig. A.6-5)
or below the grand composite curve (see Chap. 8).

TCONO

TCW

Q
FIGURE: A.6-2
Mmlmlzlna Ullhl1C5 by uSing a mullldfccl
W~lnbu'l/. A{CItE J~ 3t 163 (/985) 1

co"fi~u'~I'"''

11,_, If J

A"d'u-Olld, .",.1

II

M J ... "d,eo:o.och dud A W Wo<>,'erbcrg. ,HCltt. J. 31 36] (1985)

T
(e)

(b)

(a)

CD
Gl
I~

ilAI

I---Q_~

Q
FICURI: "'.&4

II
Vlro'tnl ul,hll~" (..) Three columns, (b) s.adtd confi&urallOn~te) ",,,Iudkel. [from M J A,w'rro"'c

<VId".. It K'ts,..,bv,fj'. MO' J, 31, J63 (198$)

II

I
I

! !

+--+

110<

Slreamm,,_ _-

.1.--'-

IQ"",,1
2

FIGURE ... .6-]

MinImum uulllln. mulueffttl confi!ural'On for rollt :oq>arll'ons

lr,om

I-f J A"n.Ut1tKJr dnJ A It

Cold
screams

14"$'"""'g. AfOrE J, JI J6J (/M-'n

Limitations or l~

Pr~edure

H .....e energY-integrate columns. then .... t' will change: the: optimum reflux ratio
because we do nol have to pay for UllhllcS. WecJlpcct that the oplnnum renux rallo
will be shifted 10 higher \3Iu(:'I. ~o thatlhc operating reflux ralioand the vapor raIl,"
Will lIICrC3'\C: A8 the v3[)(.r ralc IS lIICIC3SCd. Eq A6-8 indicates that the column
heat load .... ,11 lIIueasc lIenet', some ,lerallon Will be rcqlllTcd to find
the best design

Q
FIGURE A.6-S
1 /I d..."am and column tud;,,'g. I' ....... M J An,h".......A and A If' II ~.,...,...'!I. AfCAE J. Jl
J6J (1M')

'85

486

:'~C1lu"",,1

llEArU:C1I\N(;El

A.7

HEATEXCIIANCER DESIGN

DUI(;,.,.

TABU': "'1
O~el"1lll

GUlhnc:'s <,;OIIC:I.H1ons (see AppenoJu: l 2) gl\e the cost of a he"l o:\changc:r In ternl)
of its area The heal-Iransfer area of a heal eJ,ch.. ngcr is cakulaled from an
equallon such as

(A

"'here Q = heal dUly, U = overall heat-tran)fer coefticlent, and

lemperalUre dnnng forre

~T..

711

.... lug me.1R

hnl-lrlllSfer coefficients
onraU IoaHnooJ... c.ollicic8os
(~ ,...... .,1 .. ~1l reW.la_1 10 _
f..- preli-iK...-.bk ol_lb of

-'J~

Condc:llIolRl!
Condcmml

~ilpor

Condcmomg

~ilPO!

Lkj;Uod 10

III boiling hqllld

fk>"-ID& hq\lId
h) pi

~por III

1lO
\lO

1O
lO

liquid

pi

1O
10

Panla] cnndc05Cr

lO

l.Iljuld 10 1l~1
G~IIO

Heal-Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat-transfer coefficient
film coeffiCients b}

thIS expression is rdaled

III

10

lhlt mdl\ Idudl

Simplified Modds for

Condell~rs

(or Feed Vaporizers)

I

h,

I A.

(A 7-2)

he -All

where .... e neglecl the wall resistance: and we include the fouhng factors 10 lhe
IOdividual coefficients. Also, the IOdmdual codficients, excluding Ihe fouhnll
faclors, normall} are gIven In terms of empirical corrdallons, such as the DUlLls
Roeher equallon

10,0 _ (OG)"(C",),,(,,), ..

--0.023 k
j.l

/-l...

There ilre desIgn problems where .... e cool a vapor, condense II, and then subcool
Ihe liqUid. The normal heat-e:xchanger deSign equallon, Eq A.7-1, IS nOI vahd for
thl) case Inslead, first we calculate tbe: heat dUllCS for the process stream for lbe:
thr sccllons of Ihe exchanger (see Fig. A.7-1)

QI = Fe ,dTI -

Td

Q1

0:-

F lJ.H.

QJ = FC1'l(Tc - Tl ) (A 7--4)

from lhltse: eSlimales. we can calculale Ihe tOlal heat dUly and the requIred flo ....
rale of cool1lJg water
(A.7-5)

(A.7-3)

Thus. to obtam an accurate estimale of U. even for the simple case: of a

double-pipe heat exchanger, we mUSI evaluatlt Ihe (hennal conductivilies, lhe heat
capacities. and the viscosilies of the fluid mixtures on both the tube: and the shell
s~es of the exchanger This proocdurlt ....ould reqUire a significant amount of eWon,
which might not be warranted for prdimlOary design calculations. In parhcuJar, If
lhe heal-e:xchangltr area required for a specific unil turns out (0 be fairly small, so
Ihal the cost of thaI unil contributes only slightly 10 Ihe total processing COSlS, "'e
prefer to obtain only a rough apprOXimatIon of tile size rather Ihan a ngorous
design.
To avoid tedious calculations m our first estimates of the lotal proccssmg
COSts, it is common practice 10 base the inwal design ofa heal exchanger directly on
an overall heal-transfer coefficient, such as the values listed in Table A.71 An
equivalenl approach is to use valults, such as those given in Table A.7-2, for lhe
individual resistances Then if lhe process appears to be: profitable, so lhal an
additional deSign dron can be Justified, more accurate values of lhe overall
coefficients can be calculaled In masl of our sludu:s we usc the values gIven to
Table A.7-1

TABLE A.1-1
Design r~ist.QCes

e_
_
......
.....
...,

shcll-and-Iube
~.

n ...
FIled pses
ughl hydrae.fbou gua
ArQClUlllC

loquMls

UPI byd,OClI'bon tiqllld>

Chlallo_led bydrQC:;lfbons
Slum
Bo"er ... ~ICI

CoollOlilower Wiler

hUI

nchangers
Boiliolc
liot-

oon

000<

0.001
000<
000<

0011
000'
0009

0'"
000'
000'

0.00<

0.001

000\

aIIow__

R..... 'anco: ,0000udoD ....... nl ..... -w wall

0."",_ U
F,ORI II F R.... ud lot II BoI1Ow.
In_'''1 01 """"'"' Pw....~ w,k,. New Vor\. 19n
\ ... ~

,~ .rc lor fll 'F B,u

-"'Of'


. type, we c.h
! i f 1 to be the smallest driving
To develop a criterion of thIS
oose
force at one end of the exchanger. and we wflte

Tc

120r-----;;
"

--.:

61 1

1;
FIGURE A.7_t
Conckmcl l~mpnalUrt rrofiJu

Next we calculale the coohng-water temperatures corn:spooding 10 the discontinuities in the condensation profile
w..(120 - '.)

Q,

90)

Q. + Ql

.....(120

W.(I I - 90)
w.(l20 - 90)

+ Q]

(A.7-6)

+ Ql + Ql

(A 7.7)

Q,

Q,

Once these iOtermedaalc temperatures have been evaluated, we can usc the:
Dormal desIgn equallons 10 find 1M: areas in each of the three sections:

(A1-12)

In contrast, the log-mean eltpn:sslon IS

btl -Al J
6
(
A,.. - In (AtdAl,) - /, In (I + ()

(1)/er.

tl)]

1; - t 1 -(Tz -90)
QJ - UJA In ((1; I z )/(1; 90)]
J

(A_7-13)

U ( is small we can write

In (I

+ () _ ( _ i(' + ~(l +

(A7-14)

.
Eq.A 7. 13 and then uSlOg syntlletic division. or
Substituung this result into.
another Taylor series eJ:panslon. gIVes
!ill. _ bl,{l

Ql'" UIA lln [(1;

(A.7-1I)

The arithmetic mean driving force: is simply

90

"

""1+(

A"

+ i( -1'2(J + ...)

(A 7-15)

(A.7S)

Now we see that if the: (l term IS 'er) small, the resull will ~me identical to the
. mean !l"en
.
b y Eq . A 7 12- Henet:, suppose we requm: that
arithmetiC

(A.7-9)

n(l S o lilt>

(A 7-16)

( :S 0,6

(A7-17)

0'

(A 7-10)

Also, we can usc: the heat-transfer coefficients given in TaMe A.7.) or A. 7-2 for 1m:
three sections of the ('xchanger.
The probkm ofdesigning a feed vaporizer-where we first heal the stream 10
its boiling point. next vaporize Ute: stream, and then superheat the vapor-is
essentially the same, exccpt that II IS slmpkr because the temperature of the heating
medium, which usually is steam, is comaant throughout the exchanger. For this
casc we usc the fractional heat duties in the three portions of the exchanger to
estimate the quantity of steam condensed in the three sections.

Arilhmetic Mean Versus Log-Mean Driving Force

Of course, it is simpler to use the arithmetie mean rather than the Jog-mean
temperature as a driving force to calculate the area by using Eq. A.7-J. Thus, we
would like to develop an expression that will indicate when tbe arithmetic mean
provides a reasonable approxImation of the log-mean driving force.

. ' and geometnc

. mean drivins forces to be
Then. from Eq. A.7-11 for the anlhmetlc
about the same, we require that

-"
.
M,
M,

16

(A.7-18)

Multipass Exchangers
n"cU"<: and/or multiple shell
Most industrial exchangers .IOciude rou ,.,
tIp e ~u,be ,
,_.

However for conceptual designs we !tmlt our focus to sImple ~unte.r

pa5'<", ex...
"hS"are gIven to
curren
.... The correction factors for multipass exchangers
'1
most lexts on heat transfer as well as (hal by Perry and ChI lon.

Furnaces
Guthrie's correlation gives the COSI of furnaces in terms of the heat absor~ by (he
process fluid. Thus, no design procedure IS neoessary for conceptual desIgns.

490

)lCTION...,

DESIGN Of IlEH,(,t.UIIUN H1TU.!)

un '"'' ~~

A.S

OE\lGN 01 UIlIGlUlIO" ~UIt\!S

491

GAS COMPRESSORS

8'" ,h---, or a

GUlhoc's corrdauons
......... ~
horscpo",er bhp (see Appendu E).
.
Inslalled (OSI

Design

M&S
=

180

('001 lit

gas compre!>SOf

(S 17 S)(bhp)o 11(211

In

lerms of Ihe br:a.le

+ F oJ

(A 8-1)

At:clOllC -A Ir
(

I
Fla.)h

tllll.1ell;"cr

77"1'. I aim

Eqoalion~

Assuming a o:ompressor enlclcnc)' of 0 8 gives

hp

AcelOne

bhp_ -

(A..B-l)

08

The horsepower

is

gI~'en by

Eq 6.5-1'

hp ~ ('OJ: 1O-}.Q{G:),

fiGURE A.....
Ag:tOllC coltdcnullon

IJ

(A 8-3)

and Ihe gas exil temperature is

Id'lJr1llloa

s.letch of a t10wshecl b sholll n In Fig. A 9-1 If we guess that we v.ant 10 recoler

99.5~. of the J,cetooc. so that .... t: can dlr:ll)' compare tile cost of our condt:nsallon
preas!> 10 the absorpllon syslem thai lIle discussed in Chap 3, then we reduce the
mole fraction of (he acetone from the mici \'alue of 015 to
)'z_(1_0995)(015)=7.5)( 10 s

Opera ling Cos.

The operalmg COSIS are based on Ihe bhp and a mOlor dfioency of 0 6

(A.91)

"'hlch IS qUlle small Tbere must be an OpillT1Um frJ,ctlonal reco\'ery, but lOre use thi)
\alue for our basc-casc dOI!!n We also assume that Ihe acetone le;,Hlng as Ihe
hqUld siream from Inc phase !>phnc'f IS pure, despile the fact thai a !>mall amouOl of
aIr b dlssohw In IhlS acc:tone

Muhisfage Compressors
For multlslage compressors, an equal compression rallo IS used for each Siage; see
Eq. 6.5-5.

A.9

DESIGN OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Even Ihough refrigeration cycles are dISCUSsed in numerous thermodynamic

tex~books, normally il IS .nol a tnvlal mailer to usc Ihe basIC Ideas 10 dc\'elop a
~Ign procedur~ Hence, Inslead of mcrely describing tile basIC ideas. we presenl a
fairly sImple desIgn case siudy Ihat iIIustrales Ihe economic lrade-orrs enCOuntered
In Chap 3 we discussed Ihe usc of a gas absorber 10 recover a solvenl from a gas
stream (I_e.. acelone from air). and we nOled Ihat a condensation process would be
a process allernative. lienee, we ehoose Ibe recovery of acc:looe from air as the
problem 10 conSider.

LSTl\IATING THE TEMP[RATl.Rl A"'D PR.SSURE OF TIlE I'IIASI:SPUTTER. The onl~ temperature spcf.1.fied III Ihe problem slatemeni IS thai of the

feed ~tream Ho.....e\el. "'e expectlhat the vapor and hquid Ieavlllg the phue spltller
will be in equilibnum, so thai from Ihermodynamics we expecl that Ihe partlal
pressure of acetone In the O<lsh vapor will be equal to its vapor pressure.
(A.9-2)
AT~10SI'IIERIC-PRESSURE

OESIG"'I. Iflll'c operate the condenser al atmospheric

pressure P r - I atm, from Eq A.9-2 .... e find Ihal

P:.,.. 7 5 x

lO~s

(A.9-J)

If "'e plot the dala for the vapor pressure of acetone given In Perry and Chllton's
handboo.l as p. \thUS liT, where T IS In ~R, we find that the temperature b
-121:1" F, which is qUllc a low temperature

Ini.ial Flo\tsheCI and SCI"ccning Calculations

We want 10 ~eco\'er up 10 IOJ mol/hr of acetone from 687 moljhr of all. where the
feed stream IS 81 amblenl condulons If we usc a condensation process. our first

R II l'ury.Dd
1913, I' )..49

c:

H Chll'on.

c..~,C',,1

&tjUJN'"

H~.

S,h cd.. MeG...... lloll. !'k... Vorl

neTlo!" A'

H1GU-PRESSUR[ DESIGN. An alternate approach for condensing the acetone

would be to increase the pressure of the feed stream until the partial pressure of the
acetone were equal to the vapor pressure At 77"F, the vapor pressure of acetone;~
O.}] atm, and from Eq A9-2 we find that
(A.9-4)

so that P r - 4(M)()atm This

a \'eQ high pressure; I.e., most high-pressure

processes operate in the range: honl tOO to 500 psia, although hydrocrad..e:rs
opera Ie at 1000 psia and lowdensll~ pol~ethylene processes operate at 4].000 psia
Also note that Eq A92 IS no longer \ahd at this pressure le\'e1 and lhat we must
mclude fugacity correction lerms abo\e 50 psla, or so.
IS

CHOOSING A 8ASE.cASE CONOrrIO:,,\. There must be an optimum pressure

and temperature for the phase sr1ilter. I.e., as we increase the pressure (which
increases the cost ,of a feed compressor), we can operate the phase spliner at higher
lemperatures (whICh decreases the COSI of the refrigeration system, whkh indudes a
compressor), As a first design, suppose thai we operate at atmospheric pressure,
which gl~'es us one bound on our deslpl (and places the maximum load on the
design of a refngeratlon system).
If we choose: a IrF approach temperature (Ihe rule-of-thumb value is 2 or
]OF for low temperatu~ but we should evaluale the optimum for a final design),
we can now put temperatures on our flo\lo~hcet: sec Fig. A.9-2. However, we would
nOI want to exhaust air to the atmosphc:re at this low temperature (it would cause
condensation and ice fonnallon). Hc:nce. ""e Install a feed-effiuent exchangc:r, which
also reduces the load on the refrigeration system. If ""'e pick an approach
temperature or JO"F, ...e obtam the re\ised flo\losheet sho""'o in Fig. k9-] or
course. \Ioe would also not send aorlOne to slorage at this low temperature, so that
actually we would mstall another feed-effluent eJlchan~r. However, since the
acetone product flow is small c.\lmpared 10 the olher flows, we neglect Itm our first
set of calculations.

Coolant

!-140' I
Acetone-Air

Condenser

I
-128F

687 mollhr

Flash

Coolant

1-1400 F
tone~

Air

FEHE

71F

49J

Air

Condenser

I
-128F

Auh

I
67F

Acetone
_128F

FIGURE A.9-]
Aoelonc: co...xnsatJon- Idnltt"tloa.

Planning a Rd"rigeralion S)"!Jlem

If we examine the graph of the pressure versus lemperature for varioll!i rdrigeranlS
shown in fig. 1230 of Perry and Chilton- (also see Fig. A9-4). clearly only a few
materials caD be used at -14O"'F, Letting Ihe lowest operating pressure in the
refrigeraot prooess be about S psI&, SO thaI air docs not leak inlo the system, we see
that only ethylene and Freon14 are accc:ptable rOf the low-temperature operation
We also require that the refrigeration system reject heat 10 cool;ng watc:r at
90 F, which corresponds to a refrigerant temperature or 10000F if "ie allow a JO"F
approach temperalure. either ethylene nor Freon-14 will reach Ihis temperature.
and therefore we must use a two-stage process; i.e., the ethykne or Freon-14 will
reject heat to another refrigerant, such as propane, ammonia, etc., which will then
rCJCCt the heat to the cooling water.
If we suppose that our acetone recovery system is a pari or a petrochemical
complex, then propane and ethylene may be readily availabk, and so we choose
these materials for our hase-ease calculations. To obtain a quk:x checlr: of whether
these fluids are accc:ptable, we use the Hadden and Grayson conelaiions given in
Appendix
From these correlations, and assuming 1000F approach temperatures., we obtain the results given in Table A.9-1, which appear reasonable.

c.1.

Modified Flo""sheet

77F, I atm

DESIO!" or IF.llUOUJl.nol'l SVSTF....,$

When we add Ihe eqUipment for the refrigeration system to the flowsheet shown in
Fig. A.9-3, we oblain the result shown in Fig. A.9S. Note that we have considered
10.3 lIlolthr

Acetone, -128F
F1GURf.: A.'_2
Alo;",,, o;ondc:llullon

.ri"~'.'lOn

R. H P".ry .nd C II ChIlton. CIw"'K"o/ Eng".urJ IIt1NHHJoJ<, 5th

1'7J. Jl 12)()

od~

McGla..lhlJ. Ne.. York,

SEnlQ,. H

OUIGN Ot IInr.IG[UltON SYiiTEMS

495

TARLE A_9-1

Refrigel1ltion system conditions

K _ 1 it 10000F .. hell I' _ I"'" p5....

K_I,uI7 .......hclll. 42-F

A. _ I .t -l2'"F _hen P - 2jO puI

K_latI7pPa""bc.r
I~F

the posslbllily of uSing aftercoolers after Ihe compressors. 5'lDCC compressIon causes
a t~pcralure nse These aftercoo!en; lise cooling waler supplied by the cooling
lo....ers

Base-Ca.w Design for the Refrigeration Process

.-

""~
- "

In our de~eJopment of a process flowsheet, we estimated tbe malerial flows or the

proctss slreams, ahhough nol for Ihe rerrigeration fluids.. Moreover, we selected the

Air, 67F

~~
An-Ac clorlC(

Feed-effluent
exchanger

-128 F

Refrigeration
condenser

~
Compressor

128"F

Flash

-150F,

~280

17 psla

AcelO

C~ Vah-e

"'

-32F,
250 psla

Evaporator
-42F,
17 psia

_ Compressor

COValVI,':

~ '1
120F
FIGURE .4.3--5
p"X"'"

n"...heel

EVlIponllor

100F,
190 pSla
Coolmg w3lcr

90F

lemper-lIIures and pressurc:!i of most of the (.treams Based on tlus information. we

can no.... use energy balances 10 calculate t~ other stream temperatures and flows.
and then .... e can calculale Ihe sizc:!i and costs of the equipment.
ObvIOusly. our results depend on lhe assumpllons we made for the Inlet
acetone composition. lhe fraclional recovery, the operatmg pressures. and the
approach lempcralUres. Thus. If our results im,licale thaI refrigeration is an
allracli\e reco\'ery process. we .... 111 need 10 determine Ihe sensilivit}' of Ihe dcsign
to lhese: assumpllons. Ho e\er..... e al~o must consider the absorptIon and
adsorpllon alternau\c<l. and e develop a final drslgn only for the least CJIlpcns.n'e
process
EnC'rgy Balances
Fn:O-EFFLUENT EXCHANGER_ From an inspection of the ftowshc:et
(Fig. A.9-5) we know the flo\\ rate and the temperature change of the air returning
through the feed~muenl beat exchanger. The heal duty of this exchanger is (the
heat capacity values were taken from Pert) and Chillon, pp. 3 134 and 3 126)

QrEE =

:=

BtuOF)( 29 mol
'b )(67 ~ )( 0238 lb.
(687 mo'
B,u
925.000 ttt"

(- 128)]
(A 9-5)

which is a fairly small heal load We expect that acelone might Slartto condense on
the: feed. rather than the return Side of this exchanger. and so we run the feed slream
through the shell Side The de\\ pomt of the: feed mixture can be estImated
from Eq. A,9-2 and a vapor-pressure cun'e for acetone; po - Pr}' "" 0015 and
T __ 21F. Then the heal reqUired to cool the fud 10 the dew pomt (DP) is

Qor [(600 ~~X

=

0.506

~~u)] + 687(0.2J8X29)(77 -

= 494.000 Btu

(-21))

Hence. the incremental heat load used to cool the feed stream and condense some
of the acetone is

Q.....

= 925,000 - 494,000

431,000 Btufhr

Aile 14,100.
21
40
80

OOts
00012
00019

0
HS
'.8

All. _
5045(-21-1,1

75.SOO

.S,IO
291,600

120.\100

1)),600

431.300

Now. If we select temperalUres. use a vapor-pressure curve 10 find the vapor

pressure at these lemperatures. and apply Eq. A.9-2 10 find the mole fracllon of
acetone and Eq. A.9-8 to find x. we obtain the results in Table A.9-2. From these
calculations we sec that Ihe effluent of the process stream is about _gOF.
Moreover. we note from Tabk: A.9-2 thBllhe lalent heat effecl is a fairly small
fraclion of the 10lal heat duty of this exchanger (133.61925 _ 15%). so thai we base
lhe log.mean lit on the inlel and oullet slream lemperatures. The desIgn calculaliOns are gillen m Table A.9-3
Rt:FRIGERATION CONDENSER, Now that we halleeslimated the temperature of
the process stream entering the refrigeration condenser, we can calculate lhe heal
dut}' of lhe refrigeration system:

Q. = [600(0.506) + 687(0.238X29))[ - 80
= 242,200

128)) + 243(58XIO,3 - 9.58)

+ 10.200

.. 252,400 Blu/hr

(A,9-1O)

Similarly. we see that the: lalent heal effcci is only a small fractioD of the tOlal
Refrigeration Cycles

(A_9-6)

h,

TABU: A.'2

Tncrefl1flt111 hnl IOld

The Simplest procedure for designing the t.....o refrigeration c)des is 10 use pressure
emhalpy diagrams. since the expansion through the valve takes place at constant
enthalpy and the compression is approximalely isenlropic. We expect the estimates
we obtain from these diagrams to be somewhat different from our results using the
Hadden and Grayson correlations. so we repeat the analysis. The diagrams we

(A.9-7)
TABLE .U-J

Exch.nger

If we kt x = moles of acetone condensed, ....here

l: "'"

10.3

687)'.+

(A.9-8)

then we can write

d~gns

Lnil

Q, 10' 1l1a(hr

r....d~m~n. neh~n~,

092S
0252

Rrin,..t:l1l<lft condense'

Q._

[600(0.506)

- 5045(

21

+ 687(02.111)(29)]( 21
rl

t,)" (243 BIU,moIX58)(IOJ)

(A 9-9)

r ..ror..... ,n

hl,-IIOO

In

elh)~

k-<>p
J"0l"ne kx>J1

0.,.
0611

"'. "'.
10

.,

A,_

'"
'"
"
'""
10
'0

<t.
'20

12]

A, ft'

20
20
20
20

'909

lO"

,.".

used for the calculations were published by Edmister," but a more fcceol set
published by Reynolds' is available
To estimate the: temperatures, pressures, and cOlhalpies of the: various
slreams in the: rc:rigc:ralioD loop (see Fla. A 9-8), we start our analysis at point I
(see fig. A.9+8) 00 the propane diagram (fig. A.9-6). where the: fluid is a salUraled
liquid at 10000F, and we read PI and HI ()eC Table: A.9-4). Nc:xt ....cCllp3nd the fluid
through the: valve al constant enthalpy 10 a pressure: of 11 psla 10 POlOt 2. and we
read temperature T1 from the diagram Then we evaporate the Itquld al constaDl
temperature aDd pressure until poinl 3, Iloherc it is a saturated vapor, and we find
H) and S). The compression tales place al consclanl entropy unul .... e reach the:
original pressure: at pomt 4, and we find T4 and H 4 If T. 1$ much larger than IOO~F,
we install an aftc:rcoola. By allowlOg a IcmperalUre rise of Ihe cooling water of
IO"F and a IO"F approach temperature=. tbe temperature at point 5 will be IIO"F,
and we can find 11 s' Then the vapor is condensed agam. The ethylene refrigeration

,1 1 1l!

l+l+fjI
I I

11111 1

I,'"" 1++ '

"I r T
'
'IJI I.
~,t

,
ii'
"
'
,,
I t .1

~~

'" y, '

:'1,

~'0~"I. .

:hj,~"'~'~;~'t'J;x~.:>a~~
,
, III >
.:;'. . .'
\

I..

"

'.

....:.~:.

! I!

, ' . I.-

" <

loop is calculated in an identical fashion by starting with a temperature IO"F higher

than T).
Using this approach, we obtain the values given in Table A.9-4. We neglect
the: aftercoolers in both loops because temperatures are not excessive. The
diagrams are difficult to re:ad, 50 we: might expeclto obtain more accurale ~slimales
by using a computer-aided design program.

-,-

Illlf

j~
,

..,.

'-

,,
~,

'''

..,

, ,j

~!l

'"., ,

'i.!

,,I

..

!." :;

'I

.,

""!!"

II

$
I

I ,

-'

, ,
I

,
, ,

"

,~~ J
. ," 1
I

,
,
,

Mater-ial and Energy Balallces for the

Refrigeration System
ill::FRIGERATION CONONSER. The heat dUly of Ihe: refngcrallon condenser IS
given by Eq. A.9-IO, and the enthalpy charge of ethylene is given 10 Table A.9-4.
Hence; we can calculate the Circulation rale of ethylene:

Ethylene Flow - w[ -

Hl

Q..
-

1/)

252,400
86 _ ( 44) = 19411blbr

(A.9-1I)

The evaporalor duty in the e:thykoe loop is then

,
I

Qn = 1941(H. - HI) - 1941[166 - (-44)] = 401,600 Blufhr (A.9-I2)

Similarly, the circulation rate of propane is
Propane Flow = "', -

lIlQ~[1/) =

J7

1:

'~ 2) -

3996 lbfhr

(A.9-13)

and the heal duty of tbe final evaporator is

QCl' = 3996(fI. - Ill) _ 3996(151 - (-2 - 634,000 Blu/hr (A.9-14)

,
,

......

"',,-'

~~.

'
1

-_.... -

,
,
.. ,

w C.

EdmlSlel and B I Loc. ~Appbed lIydlOc,lfbon Thcnnooynilm"~S, vol 1," 2d ed Gulf

PubllshJn& Co~ Houslon. Tua.s. 1984
I W C. Reynolds. TMo-rtWdynamoc P.optrtln UI Sf. Dcpilfllnelll of Mcch.onlCill EllplICCnnll. Siallford
Un,ven,lIy. Slanford, uhf., t979

499

!! ! ! ! !

!'"" , , ,

SECllON ",

Irtttll

TABU:

A.""

Rdriceralion

S}"SI~

cottdiliom

P.....

'.

,
!

,:i..

>9,

P, "'".

TT

"Xl

II. Btu1b

Edo,....

P
T

,,
,
I

"

2SO
JO

_u

P.iM 1

PoitM .3

.".,

.".,

-2

'"

'"
'"'"

'00
'31

"
_u

-'SO86"

-ISO

'01

"''66

1615

-80

DESIGN Of" lEnlGEUno", SnTENS

61~

-128

Refngcrallon
condenser

,
p

Evaporator

Val~

G) _'-_---l---;'000F

60if

105r

EvaJl'f'I3lnf

flGl ME ,'-9-8
Rcfl1~~boll sys.IaIl

90 Cooling
WlIfl'T

.501

502

~("K)" A'

DUiKJ .. 01' .. EFlKiEUIJON SHILUS

Equipmenl Design

BLOWER. We also might need a blo.....er for the feed slream. TIle air flo.....' rate is
= 687(359 fI 1 /moIX537/-492)j60 = 4500 fll/mlO. and Peters and Timmerhaus &i~e the purchased cost of turboblowers 10 terms of this voluD1etnc flow
rale If we guess thai Ihe pressure: drop IS 5 psi on both the lube side: and the sbcll
side of heat eJ.changers, then the pressure drop of Ihe air slream is 15 ps~ 50 that we
neW. a 3O-PSI blower The I;OSI IS

687 mol/hr

1IE.4.T EXOtANCERS. ow that the heat dUlles of all the heat cll:changc:rs ha\'c:
been eslimated and Ihe tempen.lUres of the slleams ha\e been fi.ed. It IS a
stralghtfor.....ard lasL. to calculate the size and cost of the exchangers The rcsults arc
given 10 Table A 9-5.
The coohng-waler flow rate IS detcrmmed frolll an energy balance

COSI =

Qu = 611,400 .. IOC,.(120 - 90)

so that
W

611,400
= 20400
lbfh'
30

(A.9-16)

= --

If the cost of cooling water IS SO 075/1000 gal and Ihe plant operates 8150 hr/yr, Ihe
annual cost is

(_SO~7s

Aoo Cost =

1000 gal

th~ elh)'len~ compr~ssor

"'")( 'b)( Ih, )(

H.. - 11 J Ib

wI:

h---;:

X mOIX r,')( I )(' hp.,) I

l"jT
(15 'b)( 144 m.'
in.l

]600 s

IS gl\ien by Ihe

392 mol

3600 s

550 f1.lb 0.7(0.9)

(A 9-24)

Aoo Cost =

Hw , 466.3 hp{h')
8160(50042X
L. whr
1.342 hp
_.-

= $1J9,200iyr

yr

(A.9-2s)

The capital COSt of th~ blo....-er IS \ic:ry high, and we nOle from the COSI
thai we could cui IhlS COSI by a faClor of 10 if we could use a ]-ps.!
lurboblo'Aer, I.e.,

corT~latlon

r,

'h)( I hP) I

778 Btu

550 ft Ib.'s

<E...

(A.918)

where E. "" compressor efficiency - 0.8 and E", = mOlOr effICIency - 0.9. Thus,

./1941)(778)

hp = (166 - 86\3600

687""hr""

466.3

(A 9.17)

COMPRESSORS. The horsepo'AU for

expression

H,. -

8341b

= SI440 )r

hp...

""here we ha\c assumed an mstallatlon factor of 40 Also, the po.....er COSI, assummg
a blower effICiency of 70}'... a mOlor efficiency of 90%, and a power cost of
S0042fkwhr, is

I. gal )(20,400 hrIbXSI50 hr)

yr

(A_923)

5S,000(4XUS) = S683,600

(A9-ls)

, 7

550 (O.9XOS) '" 4

(A 9-19)

COst - slOO(4)(US)" S6],400

(A.9-26)

Hence, we must estimate the pressure drop of these exchangers fairly carefully lind
lool.. for ways of mlfltmlZlng Ihe pressure drop If we guess that a J'pSI turboblowu
'AlII be adequate, then the: power costs will be
Ann. Cost ... 119,2OO(t's> = S23.8OO/yr

(A.9-27)

Similarly. the results for the propane compressor are

3996X77'
-)
_1112
{3600
5'" (0.9XO ')
I

hp-(Isi-Ioo -

Otber Equipmenl COSIS

(A9-20)

At a cost ofSO.042/kwhr,lhe annual power COSI for the eth)leoc loop compressor IS
Aon Cost =

Ilwhp)(847 hp{h')
8t60(50042)(
kwhr
yr
--

1341

(A9-21)

= S21,7oo/yr

The capnal cost of the heat exchangers is csumatro from GUlhric:'s correlation,
AppendiX E.2, based on lbe values given in Table A.93. We assume that lhe:
IflSlallalion factor IS 3.29. that we use floating-head exchangers, that the: pressure
correclion faClor for Ihe evaporalors is 1.1, thai we use stainless-steel (or low-Nt
steel) exchangers at temperatures below -2O"F, Ihat the M&S ratio is U8, and
that the capital charge faclor IS !. Stnularly, we consider mOlor-dn\ien, reclprocat
mg compressors with an installation factor of 3.11

while that for the propane loop IS

Ann ('OSI = 21,7

847
00( 1tt.2)

= S28,5OO yr

(A.9-22)

M S PClcr~ and K 0 Tlmnx,lLau... MPI"n' fkl;,&n and EcunOfnIQl fur Chcmx:al En..,na:l'l.w 3d cd,
Mc<ir:a.. thll. Nc:"" Y.,.l.t980. p .no

SEctlON

".f

DESION Of" UfllIOU... nON SYSTEMS

505

The results of the COSI calculations are given in Table 1\.9-5. 10 addition,
Ihe utility cosls are listed We see that roughly an investment of $1,304.000
(S434.800jyr) aod an o~ral1ng COSI of S75,500jyr are needed to recover acclone
valued at S881.300jyr. H we oplimize Ihe: process. wc might be able: to impro\'e lhe
profitability IiDWC\cr. we must also complete the dcsigns for a gas absorber and an
adsol'plion process before we can decide which prooess might be best.

ShO... I~ul Design Procedurrs for RefrigeratKJn

Loops
From the casc: siudy presented abo\c. we see thai the design of refrigeration
processes is quitc tedious. FOrlunately. Shellon and Grossmann- have preseotcd a
shorlcut procedure that signtficaolly simplifies the caJcu]ations. From Fig. A.9-9
we see that the heat load for the evaporator (points I 10 2) can be written as
(A.9-2')
where AHi is the molar latcnt heat ohaporization andAJ/r, is Ihe molar lost heal
of vaporization. Since
(A.9-29)
if we assumc that the enthalpy of a saturated liquid is independent of pressure and
that the heal capacity of Ihe hquid is constant over the temperalUre range, then we
can write that
(A.9-JO)

and Eq A.9+28 becomes

(A.9-31)

For the isotroptC compression. points 2 to 3. we can write that

~ V
(Olf)
oP

(A.9-32)

Instead of attemptlOg 10 integrate Ihis expression by using an equation of state.

Shelton and Grossmann- noted that the curves for constant entropy on a Mollier
diagram, where log pressure was plotted against enthalpy. are almost linear.
Therefore. writing Eq. A.9-32 in terms of In P and using tbe ideal gas law give

.!!.!-)
(oinT',

= PV = RT

M R Shelton.nd I F (j,os.\m.nn. C""'r"'~' and CAmt Fftg." 61S (t98S)

(A.9-lJ)

506

SEC1'lO,," At

nOlO,," ~ II

IlUIO,," Ot- Ut"JJGUAno,," HSTEMS

SIJMMAI. A"O NOMu.n.AlUI.( 101

A"~f'IOIX A

507

The t;ondenl>er dUI}, 1X>lllb 3 to 4, can be Wflllen liS (see FIg. A.9-9)

Q , "" Q.,.P 1 WIl

Sub~\ltutll1g

our

rre\lou~

(Mli

M/~l

+ AH71)FIfF"

(A 9-37)

r':lIou[ts, we oblain

Q. ~

,T,

(A 9-38)

Mi, _/~

Summar)
Thus, we ha,e obtamed sImple expr~lOns for Ihe quantlllcs of intercst

Evaporator.
Po.... er requirement
Conde~r:

2
A.lO

H
FlGURl. 0-9
RanacralKHI plOCftl.. (Ttl"" AI R ShrII"" <INI J . G,tlS_ CompIIlIUf ""d Chnn Cng _, 6H

(l9&S)J

EvaluatIng Tal T2 and Ifllegraung then give

P,
P,

(A.9-34)

We can rewrite Ihls expression in terms of temperatures by introducing the

Clausius-Oapeyron equation
In P2 = t1Ur
PI
R

(~_~)
T1

T1

C~Tl - T1)]FAF

Alii (T2 - T.)F.F

n'll

.c:

Q._

='

1;

[AHr ~ - C~T2 -

T1)]F.F

REACTORS

A mellC modd muSt ~ used to calculale lhe required reactor "olume For lubular
reactors, Ihe lenglh-Io-dlameter rallo musl e).ttCd 6, but preferably it should be
grealer Ihan 10 The COSt or a tubular reaClor IS eSllmalw b) using Guthrn's cost
corrclallon for pre')~ure \cssels
For conlinuous stirred lanl. reacton;, v.e usually set the L -D rallo 10 aboul
10 1.5, COSI correlations ror CSTRs are avaIlable III Peters and Tlmmerhaus

1---------"": ------+<--J.1H~l-;

tJ.Hi2 = RT2 1n -

Q.,., =- [AHi

(A.9-35)

A_I I SUMMAR\ OF SI-IORTCUT

[QUIPME TDESIGN GUIDELINES AND
~O.\1ENCLATURE FOR APPENDIX A
We have presented a number of design guidelines during our di~ussions. It 1$
con,eDlent 10 comblDe lhese mto a single list which we can rerer to when we attack
other problems. The hst presented below is not complete, so il always pals 10 asl.
eApenencc:d englnccrs if they know of any other guidelines thaI may apply to a
partIcular problem
Perhaps we should emphasize thaI It IS dangerous 10 blindly usc any
published rule-or-thumb or design value, since anyone or these generalizations is
hmited 10 cerlain types of applications Therefore, it is always worth understandlDg
Ihe origin of the rule 11\ order to gain some feeling for thc potential limitations

Then the power requirement for Ihe compressor becomes

,"

Yn-

'II. F

_ Alii (T2
1211F"-

T,

T,)F IlF

(A 9.]6)

M S I'~t~u anJ K 0 1 tn1tn~l~u" l'lunl Jhj'iJ" und Eronom.{'f for

\lcOn .. 11111. Ne ... Yorl, 1980, pp.19O-19t

CI~mlOJl

t"ntJtnU,f,

).J

eli

Sl'CT10~ " II

Moreo\'er. ror final desi{ln calculatlon~ .... e ahuys prefer to use ngorous calculation
procedures httause .... e must be as certalll as ....e can that the final desltln .... 111
correspond to an operable process. U'. the cost or modlrymg an eXisting planl to
IT.ake It meet de<>lgn specificatIons I~ enormous compared to the cost or making
changes at the design stage. 1I0.....e\er. lime pre...~ures and budget constraints
somellmes roree us 10 lake ris"s. so good judgment is always requITed
I
PhySIcal PropPrt/(!s
Procedures for estimalll1[t. physleal properties of materials arc: descnbed by'
R. C Reid. J M Prausllltl. and T K Sherwood. Th,. Pro~rtlt's ofGast's and
Uquith. 3d ed. McGra .... 11111. Nc.... York. 1977. A condensed \crSlon of ~me
of lhese methods IS g"en in R " Perry and C. H Chilton. Chetl'l/cal
Engmeers lIandbook. 5th cd.. McGrawHiII. Ne....' York. 1973. p. 3 226. The
API Data Book and the Int,.rnallOl'/ol Critical Tables, as ....-ell as many other
handbooks, also contain much valuable inronnation.
II IS always belief to base designs on actual experimental data rather
Ihlln esllmates obtained from correlations. However, we often use the
correia lions for prelImInary designs when data are not In-allahle
A simple procedure for estimating K values for vapor-hquld equilIbria IS
presenled III Se\: C I or Appendu. C
II
DUldlalllNJ Column DeSIgn
Disllllalion columns are one of the most common Ulllt operations, and
normally the distillation costs are a large fraction of the lotal processing cost(
A Phast Eqllll,brlllm
I General con~I(leratlons
a Careful allentlon must be gl\en to hIghly nonideal mixtures In
parllcular. It is essential to determine .....hether azeotropes rna) be
formed An interesting discussion or nooideal effects has been
presented by G. J Picrolll, C. H. lXa!. and E. L IXrr. Ind Eng.
Chem. 51: 95 (1959).
b If the relative volalihty is 1.1 or less. extraction or some other
oreralion may be cheaper than distillation
c:. The presence of heat-sensitive compounds or polymerizable materials may require vacuum openuion.
d_ Corrosive materials require more expensive materials of construction.
2 Shortcut design procedures
0. Most shortcut design procedures. e.g, that of Fenske, Underwood.
and Gilliland. require the assumption of constant relati\e volatility
~

(I) Constanla is obtained for similar materials

(II) The hC<lts of vaporil.ation of the lIght and hcavy key~ are
cs~entlally the samc.
(h) The boiling points of the right and heavy key~ are doo;e
together

su......" ..v

M'''U NOMEN('I....lUl. fOR "F'f'fNDlX"

509

(c) Use Ideal liquid mu:tures

(d) The separations are relatl\'e1y diffICUlt and are e~pensi\e

(2) For SimIlar materials (Kieal solUtions) .....here the bolhng POlllts
are wKlely separated. heat effects are Important.
(a) Base the prcliminarydesign on the Kremser equation for the
top and bottom sections.
(II) Usc fictitious molecular .....eights and a McCabe-Thiele
diagram
(e) The separations normally are simple, and Ihe column~ are
less eXpenSI\-e, so that great aceuracy is not required for
preliminary designs.
(3) For some nonideal liquid miJ.turcs (WIdely separated bollmg
points).
(0) Base preliminary designs on the Kremser equation for the
rectifying and stripping sections.
(b) The separations often are easy and the COIUffillS relatively
irn:xpensive, so that great accuracy is not required
B CO/11m" Mmerial Balances
I Normally only one compositIOn. which may be either lhe top or the
bottom, is fiJ;ed by product SpecificatIOns.
2. For first estimates assume bet.....ccn 990 and 99.9-;' rccO\leries of
"aluable components for normal separations.
"_ These estimates normally must be modiftod if az.c:otropcs arc
present.
b, Lower estimates often are used for high-pressure columns and
columns wilh parlial condensers or refrigerated condensers,
3. Use Fenske's equation at total refluJ; to estimate the splits of the
DOnkey components.
C. Column IHrigrl
I. Estimate the column pressure.
o. Condense the overhead at 100 to IJO"F.
(I) Use of a total conden~r is prderred_
(2) Make certain that there is adequate renux if a partial (;ondenstr
is used.
(3) Compare bolloms temperature to available steam temperalures.
(a) We desire a 30 to 45F lit. or more.
(b) Readjust pressure if necessary.
2 Estimate minimum reflux rate.
o Use one of Underwood's equations if a is constant
b. Use McCabe-Thiele diagram for bioary miJ;tures.
3. Let R _ 1.2R. for first estimate.
4 Estimate number of theoretical plates-use sieve trays (or val\le trays)
o N _ 2N.., or GIll1land's correlation.
b. Use Krcmser equation or McCabe-Thiele diagram.

510

SEClltoN ... II

SECTION" U

5 bumale the actual number o( plates

a Assume an overall plate eftlcleney of 50~_
(I) It should be hIgher (or c1osebOllm&. Ideal mutures.
(2) It should be lo.... er (or mixtures "'Ilh large difference>. 10 their
boiling points.
b Use O'Conneil's oorrelallon (allhough It b nOI \cry reh.. ble)
(I) Usc: a if a is approximately oon>.lant
(2) Usc different CSllmates for the top ,lOd bollom ~Cllt)lb I( the
Kremser equallon IS used for dOlgn
6 Esllmate the column height.
a Use a 2.0(t !ray SpaClllg (a 2-fl 6-10. trlly spacmg for manhead
locallons).
b. Add g to 15 fI at top for vapor disengagement.
c. Add eXira space al bottom as a liquid surge tank.
(I) Normally use 3- to 5min holding llme based on bottoms rtow
(2) Use 6-mlO holdmg lime I( bollom product IS (ed to a furnace
(3) Use 8- to 15-ft space for first de:l;lgns.
d If column height 15 grealer than 175 rt or If LtD IS greater than about
20 10 30, special foundations are requITed
(I) Redesign wilh 18-111. (or 11-10.) lray spaCIng.
(2) Build lhe rectifYlDg aDd stripping sections separalely, if neces.
sary.
7. Esumale the column dlameler for both the recllfymg and slnpplng
Stttions
(l
Estimate lhe vapor rates In the top and bottom In ft 3/s.
b. ESllmate the vapor ve!oclIY
(I) Guess lhe vclocuy.
(0) For atmospheTlc operation assume the superficial VcJOCllY IS
3 (t/s and the pressure drop is ] in 1110 per tray.
(b) For pressures below 100 mmllg use 6 to 8 ftfs. Be careful
thai the pressure drop is not so high thai the bonoms
temperature becomes excessive.
(e) For high-pressure operation, tbe velocity should be reduced
from 3 to I fils as lhe pressure II1creascs..
(2) Use an F (actor of F - 1.5 for prclimlOary designs.
(3) Use Fair's floodlOg correlation., and setlhe velocity at 60 to 85-;.
of the flooding value.
c. About 12 of the area is required for downcomcrs.
d. Tower diameters should be specified m 6-10 IOCTements.
~. Use the largcst diameter (or the rectifYing or stripping sections tf
they are dose 10 lhe same or build a 5wedge tower if they are very
different.
f Limllations.
(I) If the tower diameler is large. Ieo. greater than 12 to 15 ft.
consider increasmg the Iray spacing 10 36 10

r.

(1) If the

to..... er diameter .... Iess lhan 18 m., redesIgn the to.... .:r as a
pad.cd column
(0) Usc 1-10 pall nng.-. ofa suitable metal.
(b) For 3tmosphenc operatlon assume a superficial vapor
~docit) of 3 (t s, a pressure drop of 0.5IDJi J Ojft. and
HOt> = 12 for prehmlOary designs.
(c) For prC5surC5lcs~ thdn 100 mmHg. assume a \'c1ocity of6 to
t; rt s. a pressure drop of 1.0 m.H 10fft, and 11ex; = J fur
prehmmary desIgns
(3) !'or towers In the range from 1.5 to 4,5 fl, use either a plate or a
packed tower.
(4) Other applications for packed lowers.
(0) Corrosive materials
(b) Materials which foam badly.
(c) If a low-pressure drop required.
D Sequences of Distil/OliO" Co/umllS
The heunstics may be contradictory.
I. Remove corrosive and hazardous materials early In the sequence
1. Remo\e tbe most volatile component firsL
3. If a component IS predominant 10 the feed, remove It first
4. Make 50(50 SplitS whenever possible.
5. Male the easiest separation first.
6 Male the cheapest separation first.
7. Remove the components one by one as column o,erheads.
8 Sa\e difficult scparallons unlillast
9 Prefer to operate as dose 10 ambient conditions as possible, but prefer
hIgher pressures to vaccum operation and higher tempera lures to
rerngeration condItIOns.
10 Prefer not 10 mtroduce a component absent from the original mix lure
(absorpuon or extraction); but If we Illtroduce a foreign species..... e
desue to recover it as soon as possible.
III. Heat ExcJwngers
Heat exchangers also are very common pieces of process equipment, and the
total heat~xchangc costs normally are a large fracltOD of the total processmg
costs. Some heurntics are given below for approach temperatures. but. beller
results can be oblamed by usmg the energy mtegration procedure descnbed. In
Cbap8
A Heat Transfer CoeffiCients
Use the overall heal-Iransfer coefficients gIven In Table A.7-1 or A ,2 or
similar values.
B. Dutgn Condl/ions
I W;Her coolers.
/.! Assume coohng water IS available al 90' F (on a hot summer day)
and must be re1Urned to the cooling towers at less llian 120~F to
pre\enl scaling o( exchanger surfaces SolutIons of opt1mWlllOn

ROlON "-II

problems that eslJmate the effluerll coolmg-water temperature normally ,ue \alues greater than 120 F. because scaling problems are
not considered
b. Assume an approach temperature betll.ecn the stream being cooled
and the mlet cooling water of 10 F (for very clean materials) or
20~F

2 Condensers
Dlstlllalion columns
(I) Usc a lotal condenser If posSible
(2) Pure comroncnts condense at comtant lemperatures in a Iota]
condenser
(3) For ml,'ll;tures calculate the dell. pomts and bubble pomts, and
use these to estlmale lhe log-mean l\. T for a tOlal condenser
(4) For parllal condensers make cenam thaI there is an adequate
amount of renux
b. Cooler condensers in processes.
(1) Use the same approach temperature as for water coolers
(2) Cool the \'apor to ils dell. point. condense and cool to liS bubble
point. and then sulx:ool the liquld_
(0) Base the log-mean d T on the IOlet and outlet temperatures if
the lalent heat effects are small compared to the senSible
heal changes.
(b) Base the log-mean l\. T on the dew point and bubble pomt if
the latent heat elTecls arc lar,e compared to the ~nslble heat
chanpes.
Reboilers-to prC\'enl film boihng assume l\. T "'" 45~F and U = 250
Btu/(hr fl l 0 F). so thai UdT= 11,250 BIU[1 1 (up to 13,000 IS
satisfactor}')
Wasle-hear bollen-use an approach lemperature of 6(rF for first
estimates.
Air-cooled exchangers and condensers.
o. Assume U,.. 70 Btu/(hrrtJ.oF) based on nOGfinned surface.
b. Use an approach temperature of WF based on the inlet hightemperature fluid.
c. Assume the air temperature is 9O"F (on a bot summer day) toensure
that the area is adequate.
d Assume 2Q-hp power IOput per 1000 ft l of base surface area
Countercurrent elchangers.
o Assume an approach temperature of 30 F betv.-etn the en!enng hot
stream and thc exiting cold stream for multipass elchangers,
(I) The opllmum value will depend on the thennal capacitances of
the hot and cold ~lrcams and the number or tube-and-shell
passes
(2) The mmlmum value IS about 10 I
(l

J.

4.

5.

6.

IV

SU ......... IlY "'ND NOMf"lCL4TUIlE rOIl "'I'PENOIll...

S13

b, Multipass exchangers,
(I) Use one of the published charts to corrcel the log-mean 6T
(2) U the correction factor is less Ihan 08., redesign the exchanger to
obtain a h1lher correction factor.
c. U the area is less than 200 ft l , consider the use of finned tubes
7. Feed-cffluent exchangers.
o. Rcco\er about 75 % of thc available heal for liquid-liquid uchangers
b. Recover about 50~~ of the available heal for gas-gas or gas-liqUid
exchangers.
c, The heuristics abO\e often gIve poor resull5. Usc tbe energy Inlegration procedure presented in Chap 8
C Stondord /Rsign.f
I. Tube diameter
a. In a given shell. Ihe smaller the tubes. the grealer Ihe surfaa: area.
but the greater (he difficulty keeping the tubes clean.
b Usc join. tubes for clean materials, I-in for mOSl nuids, and 1.5-in
for \'ery dirty nuids.
2 Tube lengths
0_
10st chemical companies usc 8-ft-long exchangers
b. Most petroleum companies usc 16-ft-long CJtchan~rs. although III
some cases 2O-ft-long exchan,ers arc uCd.
c. For 16-ft-long elchangers. the m8llimum surface area space shell IS
(I) ]500 ftl ror join. tubes.
(2) )200 ftl for I-ln. tubes.
(3) 2000 ftl for IS-in. tubes,
3 PIlch
o Tnangular pilch ghes smallest shell SIZe for a g.t\en area
b S<juare pllch IS much easter 10 clean.
4 Pressure drop-assume a 5-psi pressure drop for bolh the tube Side and
lhe shell side of the exchanger for first estimates.
Furnaus
A. Assume that the nUld \'eloclly in the tubes for a nonvaporizing liquid IS
5 fils.
B Assume an 80'}~ efficiency based on Ihe net heating value,
Compr~sson

(JOJ x '0 ',Xl

A Design
equation;
h p "30J
' . ) ( '0 '
or
p.. Qi.[(P_IP;.)1' - I]lK and T_fT... :III: (P_IP.t. where hp =
horsepower, P,. = Ibfn 1 Q is In drn. and K "" (C.IC" - IXC.IC.).
I for monatomIc gases usc K "'" 0,4.
2. For diatomic gases usc K _ 0.29.
3 For morc complex gases (COl' CH.) usc K = 0.23.
4 For other ga~eo; usc K _ R.IC~. where R I~ the gas oon~t;1Il1

B. Efficiency.
I. Assume a compressor efficiency of 90 % 10 accouni for ftuid friclion In
suction and discharge valvcs and ports, friction of moving metal
surfaces, ftuid lurbulence, elc.
2. Assume a driver efficiency of9O% to account for the conversion of the
Input energy inlo shaft work.
C. Spares.
I. Comprcssors are very cxpensi\c, so spares arc seldom provided
2. A common practice is 10 provide IWO compressors with each handling
60% of Ihe load, so that partial operation of Ihe planl can be
maintained if ODC compressor fails.
VI. Gas Absorbers
A. Plale columns-similar to dislillation.
J. Assume 99% or greater recoveries.
2. Use I../(mG) = 1.4.
3. Use lbe Kremser equalion for design for dilute conoeolntions.
4. If beat effects are large. use sidestream coolers.
5. Assume vapor veiocilY is 3 rtfs, or estimate it from F factor, F _ U.
6. Assume 2-ft tl'1ly spacing-use sieve trays.
7. Assume pressure drop is 3 in.HzO per tl'1lY.
8. Use O'Conocll's correlation for ltay c:fficiencies-lhe effiClenoc:s 10
absorbers are lower Ihan in dislillation columns because Ihe liquKt IS
oot boiling.
B. Packed columns.
I. Applications.
Q. Corrosive materials.
b. Foaming materials.
c. If low-pressure drop requited.
d. If tower diameter is less Ihao 2 fl.
2. Design.
D. Assume 99.9% recovery.
b. Usc I../(mG) ... 104.
c. Kremser equation gives NO(; = 20 for 99% recovery.
d. Assume HOG a< 2 ft.
e. Packed heighl _ 40 fL
f. Assume vapor velocity is 3 ft/s.
g. Use I-in. Pall rings in metal or plastic.
h. Assume pressure drop is 0.5 in.H10/ft.
VII. DIMr Equipment
A more complele collection of shoncul design procedures is available 10 J.
Happel and D. G. Jordan, Chemical Process &onom;cs, 2d ed., Dekker, New
York, 1975, appendix C. Another sel is given in W. D. Baasel, Preliminary
Chemical Engineering Plant Design, Elsevier, New York, 1976, pp. 114, 211.In
addition, numerous textbooks on unit operations lisl values.

An excellent recent colJcclion of shorlcut equipment-design procedures

has been published by F. Aerstin and G. Street. Applied Chemical Process
Design, Plenum, New Yorl, 1978. Also the Manual of Economic AnalyJis of
Che""col ProcesseJ, published by the Instilul Fran~is du Pel role, McGrawHill. 1981, contaLnS much uscfullOfonnatlon.
i\'O~1ECLATURE
1.1,

b, C

A
A c All
A .. AD

A,
Au,

b
8
e

C.

C,
C,
C.
D
D

D,
E.
F
F~

Fe
9
G
G

G,
H

H,

H.
11.. ho

H,
H,
H~

k
k

K,

All

Cocfhclents In Smoker's equatlon solutlon

... L/(mG), absorpuon faclor
IleaH:Jl.changer area of condemc:r and rebOller
Inside and outside areas
Tower cross-sectional area (ft l )
Binary interaction palllIDClers In Marguks
equations
Inleroept of opel'1lllng line
&Uoms ftow (mol,lbr)
Design parameter
Ora, coefficient
I-Ieal capaClIY [Btu/(mol oF)]
COSI of steam (S/Klb)
COSt of coohng waler. SfKgal
Distillate ftow (mo)/hr)
Tube dlameler
To\O,'Cr diameter (ft)
Ovel'1ll1 plale efficiency
F factor
Refrigeranl flow (mol/hr)
Correctlon faclors 10 COSI correlations; see
Appendix C
Gravitalional acceleralion
TOlal gas rate (mol,lbr)
_ PI). mass Row rate
Flow of carrier gas (mol/hr)
Heighl of a plate column
Enthalpy of feed (Btu/mol)
Enthalpy of vapor (Bw/mol)
Film heal-transfer coefficients
Enthalpy of liquid (Blu/mol)
Disengagement plus sump heights
Height of a transfer unit (ft)
Parameter
Thennal conduclivily
Constant

516

KClION" II

L
L,
m

M,
M&S

"

po

P'P T

Qc. QIII

Q.

Q.
R
R

"R.
R,
S
SF

To

T,
T,
U. U U.
o
0,

v. v

"

"
'v,
X. JC.

X.
Xo
X,

X,., X....,

SUMMARl' AND NOMU<c....

ru."

SEcrlOt< A I I

'"a. "f'Pf.NOIX A

TOlalliquld now (molthr)

flow of solvenl (molthr)
Slope of equilibrium line
Slope of operating line
Molecular weight of liquid
Marshall and Swift index
Plate number
TOlal number of theor~tical plates
Actual number of p1atcs
Mmlmum number of trays
Tbcorehcal trays in rectifJing and SloppIng
sectIons
Vapor pressure: (atm or psia)
TOlal pressure (aIm or psia)
Feed quality
Heat load of condenser and rdx)lkr
H~at loads (Btu/hr)
Volumerie now rate
Gas constanl
Drop radius
Fractional recovery
Mmimum reflux ratio
Term in Smoker's equation solution
Reboil ratio
SeparatIon factor
Bubble point (OF)
Condensate temperature ( f)
Inlet liquId temperature (~f)
Heat-transfer coefficients [Btu/(hr fl ' . OF
Gas ~~Iocny (fI/s)
Weight fraction of solute in solvent phase
Vapor flow ID stripping section
Vapor rate in rectifying and stripping sections
(molfhr)
flow of cooling water
WClght fraction of solute in nonsohent phase
Sturn flow rate (Ibjhr)
Mole fraction of solute in hquid
Bottoms mole fraction
Distillate mole fraction
Feed mole fraction liquid
Molar ratio of solute in the liquid phase
(mol/mol)
Composition variables
Bolloms mok fraction

SUMMARY AND 1'IOMUICUT1JRI! ,"0. A"ENDIX A

317

Mole fraction of solute in gas

Feed mole fraction-vapor
Inlet and oullet molar ratio of solute in the gas
phase (moVmol)
Molar ratio in the gas phase
Feed composiHon
Greek

dill

dr.
/J.H.
Y

IJr. IJL
p,

P.
0.81

Rdalh~ volatility
Heat of vaporizalion (Btu/mol)
Log-mean temperature driving force: (oF)
Heat of vaporization of steam (Btuflb)

_ (C,IC.

1)/(C,/C.)

Liquid-phase activity coefficient

Viscosity or feed or solute (el")
Density (lb/ft 1 )
Molar density (mol/fl 1 )
Root of Underwood's equation
Small parameter

TABU: 8-1

APPENDIX

~JeclhilY

.99

"

or I Ill" proc:e,)
098S

0971

.97

'93

.60

07'

.7>

."'

fr.- the J'Ml AJell.!:. 51odta' C_1at I'f,*""", Sec

I J M_" ~ -Eac)d..ope.ila '" o.c-:..oJ 1',.........
~-.olaD.:Uct.~ ... Y.. k 1911pll2

a""

HDA

CASE
STUDY

The 1967 AIChE Student Conlcst problem prc:sents the scleclU"lty data 81~en
Table B-1. Ifwc: plol the data as Inti - S) versus In(1 -.x). so that .....c make the
data 35 sensitive: as possible, we oblam the resuhs shown In Fig. B-1.
In

I. Now, If we fit an equalloD (0 the dala and rearrange the results. we obtain

00036
X)I ~H

(B.3)

S = I - (I _

CondItions: Gas phase, no catalyst

o I0
I

'\
i\

The design of a process to produce: benzene by the hydroafkflalion of toluene has

been discussed in numerous chaplers in thiS ICX!. The purpose of this appendIX is
simply to colke! and present a SCl of sample calculations for thiS case study This
problem is a modified version of the 1967 AIChE 5IUdent Conlesl problem.

LEVEL 0:

I PlIT I FORMATION

The definition of the problem was given

importance IS as follows:
Reactions:

In

Example 4.1-1. The infonnallon of

Toluene + Hz ...... Benzene + CH.

2 Bcnzcne;::Dlphenyl + Hz

"-

(0-1)

(B2)

i\

ReaCilOn com:hlions: Reactor lOki temperature"" 115O"F (10 get a high

enough rate) and reactor pressure = 500 psia
Seleclivity: Moles being produced per mole of toluene: converted = S

f\

o. 01
Soe J J ~k"(lla, -Eac:ydopcd.. of ChmlICllI PIOCc:wDI.Jld 0eRp,- .01 .. Dd..la. Nco> "wi

1911, P 182

\
0.1
I-x

nGntl 8-1
5ckct.o'lly ollhc IlDA

518

pr~

I0

520

lEVEll IlEOSIOHS IN'U1.()lfT'U1 SUUCTUa.E

l''''~L-' OF.cISlONS 'N1'\11 OUlPllT naUCluaE

2. Production rate = 265 mol/hr of ben7ene

J. Product punty:

TA8LF 8-2

4. Ra'" materials: Pure toluene at ambient conditions; 115 ~ f1 1 5~. CII. Ilt lOOT.

Cll,

550

p<>13

COn~lramK

II. aromatics"" 5 at reactor inler (to pre\enl coking); reactor

outlct lemperature:$ IlOO F (to pre.'ent h)'drocraekin!!- re3ctlom), q~neh
reactor cmuent 10 I' 50 F (IO pre\ent eoklnB-)
6. Other plant and site data are gi...en where needed
5.

LEVEL-l DECISION: HATCH VERSUS

CONTINUOUS

Component dfStinatiollS

-.n

II.

"'-

10ft......

I"""~II)I

.,..'"

17t> 2
Hil

G.,. 'CICJdt and P'''at'

Gas ~ .nd purat'
Prunl'f) product
Recve le
B)'pfOdUCC

5, Number of product streams: The component boiling pomts and destinatiOn; :~e

given m Table 8-2 The III and CH. are lumped as one product stream. an
e
benzene and diphen~'1 arc t"'O additional product streams, Thus, the nowsheetls
gIVen in fig. 5,1-2
6. Material balance~ and stream costs: Let

Choose a continuous prOCt"ss

p. - 265 mol'hr bc:n7enc

5=1-

LEVEL-2 DECISIONS, INPUT-O TPUT

STRUCT RE
Sa:

rX3mple~

51-2. 521. and 5.3-1

I. Punfy feed stream5 The toluene feed stream IS pUlc;do nOI punfy Ihe hydwgcn
feed stream because the methane Impunly I~ small. Also, mcthanc IS a byproduct of the reactions. and the separation of gases IS expensive.
2. Reversible byprCKluct~: Diphenyl is a by-product fonned by a reversible
reaction. Thus, we can either recovcr diphenyl from the process or lei it build up
to its equilibrium level in a recycle loop. If we remo\'c the diphenyl, we hne a
selcctl\ity lo~s of toluene to produce the dlphenyl. However, if we recycle the
dlphenl'l......e can avoKt the selectivity loss. but .....e mu~t o\"ersi7.c all of the
equipmentm the recycle loop to accommodate the reqcle now of dlphenyl. Wc
guess that It is cheaper to reco\'er the diphenyl
3. Recycle and purge; Since a reactant (hydrogen) and both a fen! impullty
(methane) and a reaction h)'-product (methane) boil lower than propylene, ~c
Will need a gas ra::yde and.a purge stream; ie., we want to recycle the hydrogen.
but the methane will build up in the ra::yde loop so that it mu~t be purged. A
membrane separation process, "'hich could be used to separate the h}"drogcn
and methane, might be less cxpensive than the leKS of hydr(lgcn m a purge
strcam. Unfortunately, however, no deSign procedure or cost correlation is
available for membrane separators. and so we base our first design Oil a gas
recycle lllld purge ~tream
4. Excess reactants: Smce neither 0 1 from air nor 11 10 is a rcactantthcre are no
e~cess reaClan'"

521

'C

0,0036

(8-4)

=0,75

_ 0 969'

'15"--

(B-3)

(I - x)

Frnh feed toluenc

p.
265
F , - - = - - -1734mol'hr

0.9694

(8")

Dlphenyl produced
PD

(0-6)

p.(1 - 5)/2S

_ 265(1 - 09694)/2(0.9694) = 4.18

Extent I = 273.4

Euent 2

= 4.1 8

(B-7)

Makeup gas
(B-8)

(8-9)

Add lhe<;c

expresslOn~

10 obtain
(8-10)

522

llVel.l IlI!CfSION~ INI'UTO\J1I'Ul snlUCTV.E

lHt.1 J 1>1.<15101'<) ~ECYU[ Sl.L"CT'U

Combine Eqs 0-8 and B-IO

I. Rc:move lhe CII. from the:: III reed Slte3m This IS probably not desirable
because .... e pr<>duce (,II~ lb a by-product anyway

0.9694)_

2(09694)

- 4967

(B-12)

Excess HI
F~ = YI'"FG = 0.4(492.5) = 197.0
1

Rcacted =

p.

S -

p.
2S(1 - S)

Rcc~ck lh~

dlphen)1 ralher th.1I1 removmg II \Vuh lhis approath ....e avoid

In)) of lOluene to dlphen)I, bUI ....e muSI <>\er~lzo: "II the
equipment In Iho: "hphen)l-reC)c1e loop 10 accommodale the c'Iulhbnum flow
of Jlphenyl
We mUSI delermlne .... hether lhe liz
3. Rcco\er some liz from the purge stream
reco\ery IS Jusllfied b) delermlnmg the cost of the recovery syslem

I.

+ 265(1

523

(BII)

)/1'11)

_ 265[1 - (I - O.4XI - 0.9694)/2]

0969-l(0.95 _ 0.4)
= 492 5

p. :: 4925
(;

T111IW .... UUl

proc(: allernatl~e) ./) we develop II d~lgn, II is easier 10 revie.... lhese decisions

afler "c complete a ba~-c"se design The alternatives al k\e1 2 arc as rollows.

fa" 1'.(1 - (I - JI'II)(I - S)/2]

S(YFH

or

an~

~dccm'ity

(8-13)

"

LEVEL-3 DECISIONS: RECYCLE

STRl"CTURE OF TIlE FLOWSHEET

= 273.4 -418= 2692

Slream COSIS
Value of Benune = SO.85, gal = S904 mol ... C.

(8-14)

Design Decisions

Toluene - SOSO'gal = S6.40 mol = C T

(8-15)

The deslgn deClSlon) for the recycle Slructure .... ere dbCussed
Th~ arc bndl) reHe.... ed no....

(assuming a capllve mlernal prioe)

H l Feed = SI.31,mol = C H ,

(8016)

Heal values:

aHc.1I

(8-11)

CH.:: 0.383 x 1()6 Btu/mol = liH <.M

Benzene"" 1.41 x 10' Blu/mol = aH c ..

(8-18)

H1

0.123 x 10" Btu mol =

(819)

aH <.,

(8-20)

Dipheoyl _ 269 x 10' Btu/mol = al1 cJJ

(We assume thaI the fuel value of diphenyl is S5.38/mol.)
Economic potential:

(8-21)

Toluene - 1.68 x 10 Btu/mol =

EP - C.p. - CTFF + CF{liHc.DP D + [afl c .1I Y'II

+ 6H o1 (I

- YI'H)]PGI
(8-22)

We can use this relationship and Ihe expressIons above to prepare

Fig. 5.3-1.

Example 6.1-2

Onl~ one reaclo, I) fI:quucd (lhe rcactlons tale place al the same temperature
and pressure)
2. There arc ' .... 0 reC)c1e streams-a gas reeyle (and purge) of H 1 + CH. and a
lJquld toluene-reqcle Slream
3. \\ e musl use a 5, I h~drogen-Io-aromallcs rallO al lhe reactor Inlet accordmg to
the problem stalemenl
4. A gasrccyde compressor is requtred

J.

Before .... e can decide on lhe reactor heat effects, we must calculate the recycle
matenal balances The reqcle ftowshect IS shown In Fig. 6-2-1.

Recycle Material Balances

The rcC)'cle material balances werc developed as Eqs 6-2-2 and 6_2-10.
Toluene to reaclor:
(B-23)

uvel-2 Allernatives
We made several decisions concermng the structure orthe flowsheel and If we had
made dlfTcrcm deciSions, we would have changed the flowsheet . If we Jist lhe

In

265

- 09694(075)

365

524

llllyE.... J OCUIOPII UCVcu: mucroRIll Of THII': FLOWSHEET

LVEL J DEClSIOI'l' RlC\'C1.l!. "RUClURIll Of" THill FWW$HT

Recycle gas:

p_')'

Also,

( PIn

(SSS)"'"

1.046

465

(T,)
__

52.5

(B-29)

TI

(8-24)
_

and for our first design we assume that Ihis value is constant. The gas density at
100F and 465 psia. given an ideal gas, is

265
(_'_ _
0.95 ) = 3376
0,9694(0.4) 0.75 0.95 0.4

P..

Reactor Heal Ell"f'Cts

_(_1_
mOl) (460
+ 32) 465 _ 0.0774 moVrtJ
3S9 fl'
460 + 100 1.7

(8-30)

and lhe inlet pressure is

The reactor heat effects were diSCussed

heat load is

In

Examples 6.3-1 aod 6.}3. The reactor

(B-3I)

The volumetric flow rate is

Rr;
RGtmoljhr)
Q... = (p.. mOI/fl2X60 min,lhr) - 6Op.

(B-2

and the adiabatic eXit temperature

Q.=AIl

IS

Then since

gi...en by

p.

RG

= (7.16Fr; + (7)"",

+ 10.1(1 - J'plI')]R to + 48.7FT }(T . - - 1150)

273
~-

0.4

(50.95) _3371mo r
0.75 0.95 0. 1
Ifb

3311

Also,

hp =

3.0~~0-s (6.70

(B-33)

(8-34)

Qlo "'" 6O(0.On4) - 127 rt'/mln

21.530P./S
T._-II50+
7.16F G + (10.1
3.1YplI')Rr; + 48.1P./Sx
". 1150

(8-32)

x lO oX721Xl.046 - I) = 267

21.530(265/0.9694)
7.16(492.5)

+ [10.1 - 3.1(0.4)]3376 + 48.1(265)/[0.9694(0.75)]

= 1265

(8-26)

These results are shown in Fig. 6-3-1. and we find that we expect that an adiaballc
~ctor will be aa:eptablc.

and the brake horsepower is

2.7
bhp - = 334
0.8

(8-36)

Guthrie's correlation (Appendix E.I) gives

Recycle Compressor Costs

(B-37)

The reactor pressure is given as 500 psia. We guess that the pressure at the phase

spliller is 465 psia and that the recycle compressor must increase the pressure to
555 psia This allows a pressure dropof90 psi though the gasrecycle loop. We need
to assess the sensitivity of our design to changes in this guess..
The design equation for a gas compressor is
h p_ 3.03 x 10- ') p. Q.
(
l'
'0
0

[(P_)'
- - 1)
Pl.

(B-27)

Using Table 6.5-1, we can wrile

y - 0.29YPH

U M&S _ 792 aDd Fe _ 1.0 (a DtDtrifugal compressor), and introducing a capital

charge factor of! yr to put the installed cost on an annual basis, we find that

792)
0.82(3.11)
CompressorC05t= ( 280 (517.5)(334)
]
=SI77,800/yr
For optimization calculations. we can write

R, )""

+ 0.23(1

- y,.H) - 0.254

(B-28)

(B-38)

Compo Cost... ( 3]71

[(",/4.')'-1)""
1.046

(B-39)

~fivn J

326

I~Vtl I D[Cl~IU"S M~C"I~U SUUCTUlE Of TIlE fl-OWSHEff

PEelIIOl'lS UCYCU STlUCTUlE at TIlE nOWSItf.T

The operating cost is based on a mOlor efficiency

08 and a po.....er cost of S0045!lwhr:

(compres~or plu~

motor) of

O Ikw )(0045)(
)
Ann Cost- (334h
08 )( 1.341hp
kwhr
8150 h'
yr =SI14,OOO/yr

where TJI

=:

klll/l
(8-40)

(1150
=:

6.] x

527

1265) 2 .. 1207. from Eqs B-42 and B-43

101<1(8 lmOI)"[(4541b
I~.molmol )(28.32
L)J-1'l
ft
l

x [04(0.0279) mOlJI 2CAp [ - 52~~I.~J

ft 1
I 987( 1685)

We can also wflte tins expression as

;. 2-522 )( 10[04(00179)0 S up [

Po,,"er COSI -

114,OOO(3~;I) =

S3]8IR G /yr

(8-41 )

9],600 ] = 001421 ,
1987(1667)

Then. from Eq 8-44,

_ (492.5 + 2048 + 364)(mollhr) In (I{(I - 075)] _
]
.(00142s- ' X3600slhrXO.0279mollft)
-4090fl

Reaclor COSI
The kiQ(:tics for the pnmary reaction ha\'e been discussed by Silsby el al,-- and b~
Zimmerman and Yor" 1 Sinu the: amount of dipbcnyl produced IS \ery small, we
base tht: reactor design only on the primary reaction. (Ho\loner, a "lOetie model for
the b)'-produci reaction IS avaliable 10 Hougen and Watson. I) So

If we assume a cyhndrical reactor wllh

,0'
',c __
4

and thus,
(8-11)

r= _k<D(H)I'l

where

.l ;. 6.3 )( 10' 0 (g. mol 1..) -

111(5

~ I) exp [ - 52,000 calf(g

RT.

(8-43)

Smoc there IS a large excess of hydrogen, \Io'e MSUmc lhal Il' 1 IS a constanl
Also, ""'e assume lhat ....e can esllmalc the reactor \'olume based on isolhemlal
operation, although \Ioe .... '11 base the Isothermal reactor temperature on a mean
value bet ....een Ihe reactor IOlel and outlel temperatures T. = (1150 + 1265)/21208 Thus, .... e wrlle the reactor volume V. as

D.=952ft

D._

wher':, the molar density at the reactor conditions (assuming an ideal gas) is

P. -

+ 32)(500)
,
ft]
460 + T. 14.7 '"' 0.0279 mol/ft
(359I mOIX460

(8-45)

R I S,llbyand E W Sawyer;J Appl Clw:m.6 )41(AullW;1 ISlstI); W D fkllf," I'opper.lnd R I

Silsby, J Appl Ckm. 1 491 (Seplcmber 11151)
, C. C Z,mmennln and R Yml. I&. f I'roc Ve. On:.,3 254 (July 111(4)
lOA Ilougcn lOO K M WllfQn, Clw:rrllc"ll'rocru PrI".,lple5
New Vorl, 1941, p an

P~rllll.

"'.....un ""J ("UIIJyflJ, Wiley,

L. -

:;

4 (6D.)

(8-48)

(8-49)

L. - 56.96 fl

lOft

(850)

Then. from Guthrie's correialion for pressure vessels,

Ann. Cost = (792) (101.9X101 OCi.X600 11) 2.18 + ].67
= S239,254fyr

(8-44)

kp...

L.ID. '"" 6. then

The ml.el and outlct t.empcratur.es for tbe: reactor ar.e 115O"F and 1265~F.
which IS very high, and thercCore we will add 6 In of Insulalion on lhe inside: of the:
rcaclor to try to k~p tbe inSIde walllempcraturc below 900"F. The addmon orth,s
insulation requires thai .....e: add anotber foot to Ihe diameter of our reactor shell,
and 10 be somewhat conseJ"\au\e .... e Ic:I

282

" _ ~F-,I""-[,-:I!,I("-I_-__x."JJ

(847)

+ 1.6

3
(851)

VIle neglect the cost of the insulalton In our first esllmate of the reaclor cost. hopmg
thai the additional COSt associated with oversizing the reactor will compensate for
the tnsulalion.

Economic POlential
By sublracting the annualized reactor cost and both the annualiz.cd capilal and the
operating cost of the compressor from the stream costs (i_e" the levd-2 economie
potenlial, Eq 822), we can calculate the economic potential 31 levc:1 3 liS
a function of the design variables (conversIOn and purge composition); see
Fig 6.7-1. We note that there: IS all 0pllmUnl value for bOlh con\'ersion and purge
composilion. Of course, these optima arc not the lrue optima because we have not
considered the: separatIon COSIS or the heat exchanger costs yet However, we do

lEyu....
Dote that the range of the design variables where profitable operation IS possible
has been significantly reduced. Since the process is still profitable. we continue to
the next leYe!.

Now ",e add the details of the separation system. To determine the general
structure of the separation SJstem, .....e must decide .... hich of the ftowshec:ts sho.....n In
Figs 11-2 through 7.1-4 is applicable The reactor effluent is at 1265"F and
therefore is all vapor Then, providing we obtain a phase split at 1(lO'T and 465
psia, the ftowshec:t gl\'en in Fig. 7. 1-4 will be correct.
We can use eIther the Hadden and Grayson method given in Sec. C 1 or a
FLOWTRAN program to find the K f yalues for the flash drum. The flash
calculations were dISCUssed in Sec. 7.1, and as shortcut expressions .....e use these'
Light components, K j > 10:

I _~u, "_~(I _ L{!)

L,/;
KI

'[/;

(8-52)

Kf

Heayy components, K J < 0.1:

II~f{1 - Ki~~)

(B.S])

With these eltprcssions, we calculate Ihe vapor and liquid flows leaving the flash
drum (sec: Table B-])

r..l1 -

'[II"" 1549 + 2]2] = 3872

26j + 91 + 4 = 360

(B-54)

From these re5ulls, we see tbat we obtain a reasonable phase split. Ho.....ever,
significant amount of benzene leaves with the flash vapor. Some of this benzene
will ~ lost in the purge slream, and the remainder will be recycled with the gas
stream. From the reactions in Eqs. B-1 and 8-2, we would expect that50me of this
recyeled benzene will be converted to diphenyl Ho-..'Cyer. our selectivity correlation. Eq. B-3, does not indicate that there will be any loss.
We suspect thatlhe data given in Table 8-1 were for a pure toluene feed. so
lhat no loss wouk! be apparent. Hence, from the informatioo available: it is not
possible to estimate the benzene loss. and we should ask the chemist or the pilot
TABLE 8-3

plant group to rUIl some additional experiments (which is why we want 10

undertake the conceplUal design study \ery early in Ihe life of a project). The value
or the benzene: in the flash vapor stream. assuming that all of it is lost. is

= $2.18

x Il)''/yr

ft II

....

"
""
'""

H,

CH,

ToIliellC
Diphe:nyl

K,_K,

(8-56)
so that increasing the pressure will decrease the K yalue for benzene and will
decrease the amount of benzene in the Bash vapor. Since the number of moles is
conserved in the reactions, Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2, pressure docs nOI appear to affect the
reaction rate or the equilibrium. Howeyer. the possibility of coke formation or
h}'drocraeking reactions (both of which were mentioned as the causes of some
conslfaints in the problem ronnulation) again makes it essential to undertake
additional eJ:pcriments before we undertake II design al R higher pressure.
Rather than get bogged down in details about lhe benzene-recycle loss or
pressure effects, we go ahead and complete a firsl design In particular, if the
process is not profitable in any e\ent. so that we decide not to proceed to a final
design, then we do not want to waste money on experiments developing a data base
for a plant that we are not going to build.

LEVEL 4a: VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM

If ""Ie are going to include a vapor recovery system, we must decide on the location
(flash \'3por. purge stream, or gas recycle) and the type of m:o~ry system
(absorption. condensation, adsorption, or membrane system). In the discussion
above, we estimated the value of the total amount of benzene leaving in the flash
vapor. If it shouk! be acceptable to recycle benzene. we still must estimate the
blenzene and toluene loss in the purge stream. to see whether we should place a
rcco\ery system on this purge stream. The flash vapor flows of benzene and toluene
are gtyen in Table 8-3, the purge flow is given by Eq. 8-10. and the gas---recyele flow
IS gi\en by Eq. 8~33. Thus, the rraetion or the flash vapor that leaves as purge is

9901

21700
0.QI04

Fraction Purged ..,

".,

2312
29.'

0.00363

)..

0."""'"

2
II
2J~4

87.4

(8-55)

\Ilo'hich IS \ery large. Thus. there IS a greatlncentl\e rOl undertaking the experiments.
As an ahemati\e,..-;e could allemrtto Increase the pressure ollhe flash drum
Since PrYI = ;,P'!x" we often can obtain a re:asonablc estimate or the effect of
pressure by using the expression

Flash tak:ulations
Com..-

529

Potential Benzene Loss.., (29.6 mol/hrXS9.04/moIX8150 hr/yr)

LEVEL 4: SEPARATION SYSTEM

f-

YAI'OIl ~I!COVU.Y SYSTEM

PG
Pa

+ Ra

496
496 + 3376 - 0.128

(B-S7)

The benzene and toluene losses are then

Benune in PUTge = 0.128(29.6) = 3.79 mol/hr
Toluene in Purge = 0.128(3.6) = 0.461

(B-58)

530 u;vn

41> LlOUIl)

u,........ flOf" sysrUI

and lbe values of these strC<ilms arc (sec Eq 8-54)

TABU

a...

Low.pr~lIre

Benzene Loss "" (59.04 molX179 mol,'hrX81SO hr,'yr) = S279,200'yr

(8-59)

I. or fj

Toluene Loss _ (S6,40,'mol)(0461 mol'hrX8lSO hr/yr) = S24,000/yr

Now we muSI guess whelher Ihe addulon of a benzene and toluene recovery
system on Ihe purge stream can be justified Ilowe\er, If the coSIS of the hqUld
separauon system and Ihe heat-exchanger networl.. are ~ufficlcnlly large thdt Ihe
process loses money (and we deCide not to bUild il). 'ftc do nOI want 10 spend much
dron on Ihe design of a vapor reem'ery sySlem. Thus, lentallvely, we accepl thIS
purge loss., ahhough 'fte might relurn to Ihis problem laler (For example, we could
use the toluene feed as Ihe sohenllD an absorber.)

LEVEL 4b,

II,
CII,
Bcnuoc
rO]llCOC

Dlp"""yl

II
2354

."

A,OIK J
921

'"

00906

00337
0,000074

H) = 2
CH. = II
Diphenyl _ 4 mOl/br

Toulene = 874
(8-60)

The decisions we must make concerning the liquid separallon system include
I. How should the light ends be removed If they might contaminate the product?
1. What IS the best destination of the light ends?
3. Do we recycle components that form az.eotropes wilh the reactants?
4_ What separations can be: made by dislillatlon?
So What sequcnce. nf columns should we use?
6. How shnuld we accomplish scpirations if distillation IS nOI feasible?

We discuss most of these decisions below. However, no auotropC5 are

formed with the reactants and distillation separalions are easy for all Ihe
components. so Ihat items 2 and 6 are not considered.

UCIIT ENDs' If .....e recovered allihe benzene as well as the: H) and CH. overhead
in a product column, the product punty 'Ilould be

235.4

2 + II + 235.4

= 0.948

011
0

00>
1,49

'U455

"',
0

r./j = 235.4 + 81.4 + 4.0 = 326.8

Le,eJ-4h Decisions

xI)

19'

911
08'

In Sec. C.I for such a large

pressure change). Thus, we obtain the K values and the component flows from
Table 8-4:

(8-61)

which is well below our product purity requirement of XI) = 09991. Of COUfSC,
some toluene musl Icave 10 thiS stream.
If we attempt 10 drop the pressure to 50 psia and flash off the 1-1 I and CH.. , we
can obtalO a rough esllmate of the K values by USlOg Eq 856 (It would be beller 10

(8-62)

Now If we recover all the H 2 , CH .. , and benzene, we find that

234.55
XD

Benzene'" 235.4

usc Ihe lIadden and Grayson correlations gIVen

LIQUID SEPARATION SVSTEM

From the results of the flash calculalion (see Table B-2), we have an estimate of the
amount of H 2 and CH. dissolved In the flash liquid. H we assume Ihat we recover
all the benzene, then the feed 10 the liqUid separallon syslem is
Feed:

Rash

C_ _

= 234.55

+ 0.05 +

I 49 = 0.9935

(8-6J)

which IS sull less Ihan our desired punty of X D = 0.9991 (e\en If we neglect the
toluene III thiS slream). Moreover, there is a fallly large benzene loss from Ihls low.
pressure ftash; ie., from Eq 8-59

j085) = SI09,200 1).,

Benzene Loss = (S483,ooo/yr'\316

(8-64)

Hence, our estimates Indicate that .... e probably will need a slablhur 10 obtalO a
product stream with the required purity (a pasteurization section on the product
column might be acceptable, and we list thiS as an alte:mali\~}
If 'fte recover Ihe hghl ends (Hz and CH.) in a stabihzer, then we would
normally send lhese lighl ends to the vapor recovery system 10 rcco\erany benzene
or toluene that lea\'es with this stream (or to any unit thai recovers and recycles
some of the hydrogen from the purge stream). However, since we have nOllOciuded
an~ units of this type (at least at this time), we would probably send the hght ends
to tbe fuel supply.
COLI: L,,"SEQUENCINC. To use a stablhzer column to remo\e the Hz and CH..
from the benzene product. we normally pressurize this column to make It easier to
condense the o\erhead and thereby 10 oblalO an adequale amount of reflux_ Thai
!S, the HI and CU. arc: remo\ed as a vapor slream from Ihe reflux drum after a
panial condenser, but il is nece.s.sary to lake some benzene overhead to provide an
adequate amount of liqUid reflux. From Table B-3 the K value of bcn.tene is fairly
high at 50 psia, so that we might SCi Ihe stabilizer pressure at ISO psia, or so.
H we use a column sequence thai does not remove Ihe light ends III the first
column, then ellcrycolumn that totally condensed the HI and CH. in Ihe overhead
.... ould ha\e to be opera led at high pressure. Thus, lhe capital COSt probably would

532

LEvu..

*'

UOIJlD

nPu.A'OON SYsrEM

uvu.~

be greater !.han If we had removed t~ light ends In t~ first column Similarll,

operation of 5C\'eral cDlumns al high pressure Increases the bubble poinls of lhe
bol1oms SHeams. so Ihat a higher-pressure sleam might be required 10 dri\e Ihe
re:bollers. For these reasons. we assume that it is cheapest to remove the: light ends
in the: firSI column
When we then I:Qnsider the separation of benzene (234.5 rnolfhr). toluene
(87.4 moljhr), and diphenyl (4 molfhr). almost all the hcurislics (i.e, lightest firs!.
most plentIful first, favor equlmolar sphts- but not the easiest first or save dlmeult.
hIgh-purity splits until lasl). favor the dlP:ct sequence Hena:, for our base-ca<;l,"
dcslgn we Will choose the hghtcst first scquena: 10 evaluate Ifowe\cr. comple\
columns might pro\'ide a cheaper separalion system.
Now we want to cslimate the SizC5 and the costs of the columns. Smce the
recycle column, I e~ the loluene-diphenyl split. involves only a binary milture, we
consider the design of this column first. SImilarly, we consider the design of the:
product column before we consider that of the stabilizer. We design both of the
recycle and product columns to operate at slightly above ambient pressure because
it is easy to condense both toluene and benzene with cooling water at this pressure

If we recover 995% of the toluene o\-erhead and

boUoms. then we find that
d r = 0_995(874) = 811

,nd

x ~ _87.1
= 09996
" 87,1 + 0021
.

Also,

"'r .." 0.005(87.4) = 0.4]8

.nd

~. = Q438 + 398

"- - "" 102.7

1.4

10.000
11_ =
405 = 24.7

(B--65)

This is a large vanation in a. as well as a very large temperature gradient across the
column, thai is, 110.6C "" 231F at the top versus 254.9~C = 492F al the bollom.
Thus, we el:pect that some of the simplified design prooedures, such as Fenskes
equation, Gilliland's correlallon, or Smoker's equation, which we often use to
estimate column designs. may give misleading predK:tions. Nevertheless. we might
be able to get some idea of the column desIgn with these shortcut design prooedurc:s
if we choose: a conservative estimate of a:. For thiS reason we let a: "" 25
Given no losses of aromatics anywhere in lhe process (which, of course, is not
really consistent with our other calculations.. but the error is small), the feed rate to
the toluene column is 87.4 mol/hr of toluene and 4 mol/hr of diphenyl, so lhat

x, =

99.5~ of

= U.005(4) =

the dlphenyl
0.021

In

the

(B-67)

(B68)
""" = 0 995(4) =

o. '98

(R-69)
(8-70)

= 0095

Assuming a saturated-liquid feed, Undcrwood'sequatlon for mlmmum renuJI

(B.7I)
I

TOLUENE COLUMN. From a plot of the vapor pressures of loluene: and dlphen)l
we find Ihat Ihe sk>pcs of the vapor-pressure: curves for lhese 1.....0 componenls are

160

533

SEI'~UllOfol SYSTEM

0438

somewhat dlfferenL This result, aceordlOg to the Oausius-Clapeyron c:qualK>n.

imphes that the heats of vaporization of the 1.....0 compounds are drlTen:nl, whIch In
turn implies that the common assumptIon of equal molal o\erflow in the column
.....iII nOI be correct We could correct for Ihis difference 10 latent heats b)
introducing a fictilious molecular weight for one of the components and then uSlOg
the McCabe-Thiele procedure to design the column. However. for our prelimmary
calculations .....e Ignore thiS potential difficulty.
From the vapor-pressure data.. .... e find that

d"

LIQ\IID

25 - I
=

[0.9997
0,956

h (1.0456 -

25(1_ - 0,9997)J
I - 0.956

0227) = 0,0347

(8-72)

(B-7])

which is \'ery low: the feed composition is very high. and III is \'ery large With a ~'cry
low ~'alue of renul such as th,s. .....e should also consider the usc of only a strippmg
column as an alternatIve. Ho"'e\er, w-e contlllue wilh Ihe design, and we let
R:::::: J.5R .. = 1.5(0,0]47) = 0.05

(B74)

According to fenske's equallon, the mlOlrnum number o[thc:orellcaltra)'s at

total reflul needed for the separation is about

..

,~

In [xaJ(1 - XD)]((1 - x.J/x..J In[(0.9996/O()()()4XO.9051O,095)]

-=
=31]
loa
In 25
.
(8-75)

We can obtam an estimate of the number of theoretical trays requ,ired at the

operating renuJ! ratio by using Gilliland's approlimation

The o\erall plate efficiency is given b)' O'Connell's correlation, Eq A2-72 For a
quicl C5tlmate we assume thallJr = 0.3, and we write thai
0.5
Eo

<:l::

(0.3a:)0 H = 0,302

(8.77)

Then the actual number of required lrays IS

87.4f(R7A + 4) - 0956

(1l-66)

62

Thus, the feed composllion of toluene IS qUIte high

B30

"" 21 6 = 22

(R 7R)

I t~tl 'b IIVUm 5ErAI'.ATKll'< nSlHl

For a 2-fl tray spaclllg and an additIOnal 15 1 at the ends, Ihe tower height IS
1/ ... 2(22) of 15 = 59;:::; 60ft

The area Ihen bc..:omelo

(6-79)
A

The lower cross-sectional area can be estimated by using Eq A 3-12

(6-80)

+D-

Vg L

(R

I)D = 1.05(87.1

+ 0.021)

= 91.73

(8-8')

A - 2.124 )( 1Q-JI54(492

+ 460)(91.1) = 7.5 ft J

(8-82)

The column diameler IS

D=

f4A =
,r;:

Anll COlot

(8-911

G:~)(1019)(160(

UlC:9)

S8600}r

S225)[19,6OO(917)lbJ(
.,)
96000
Ann_ C ost = ( UX)() Ib
667.5
hr 8150 yr ;. S4 ,
yr

Now we can use Guthnc's correlatIon to find the COSt

Ann Cost =

(:~) (101_9X3 ~6X6()O 102(3.;8) =

1

(B-93)
S26,300Jyr

(B-84)

TOLUENE COLUMN CONDE 'SER AND COOLING WATER. A condenser heat

balance gives
Qc - dll, V= UcAcdT.. = w.C,.(I20 - 90)

aDd if AH. = 14,400 Btu mol U c = 100

BIUf(hr(12.~F).

and

14,400(91.1)
Ac -

and Ihe annual cost

100(125)

(885)

r. _ 23'-F, then

120 - 90
AT = 125F
- 10 [(231 - 90)/(231 - 120))
Thus,

105ft

BE.... ZE:-;E COlUM~_ A~alll assuming perfect separations and no lo~ wc liCC'
Ihal lhe: flo,," ral(' 10 Ihe bc:nzene column contains 235.4 mol hr of benzene.
874 mol 'hr of toluene, and 4 mol br of dlph('nyl. Since the dlphcnyl flo.... rale IS so
small .... (' assume Ihal we could oblalll a reasonable e5tlmale oflhe column dcslgn If
\l,-e lump II IOgelher 'o\.llh the toluene Then
XT -

(B-86)
(8-87)

(792)

(3.29)

280 (101.9)(105 ") -3- = S6500/yr

235.4
=0720
2354 + 91 4

c OSI - ( 1000
$0.06 )
gal

(B9-1)

In addition. our produci speClficallon for benzene requires thaI the punty bc:
rC'co~er 99.5% of Ihe bc:nzene overhead. Wilh IheS('
reslnetlons

9997-;,. and we want 10

(8-88)

Also, the coolingwatcr costs are

Aoo

ThIs cost is fairly high, so thaI ,,"c mIght want to cxamllle som(' a!t('rnatl\es lal('r

d. = 0.995(235.4) "" 234_2

d'r - 234.2

0.9997) = 0.Q7 (895)

(' -0.9997

w. =

wT = (87.4

+4-

IS

Ann. Cost =

(8-9))

The boiling POlllt of dlphen} lIS 492 F, and so we must use 1000-JhI Sleam (or
some high-pressure level} III the reboller Of course, we could use 42Q-psI steam If
we (lperated Ihe tower under a \acuum, so that the bol1l11g POlDt of dlphenyl 'o\.'as
reduced 10 about 42O"F (.... hleh 'o\.ould allow a 4 Tof 30"F} 1Iowe\-er. smce the costs
associated with thIS column arc reasonably small up to this point, 'o\.e usc: IOOO-psi
steam Then the steam COSIS are

(8-83)

2.7;:::; 3ft

I9,600 {91 7)
60f 2
11,250
=1
I

and lhe cost is

and '0\.(' wanlW base Ihe deSIgn on lhe oonom o(lhe tower, ie., the dlpbenyl, where
At = 154 and r. = 492 F The vapor rate b wrillen as

and the area becomes

SJS

235.4 - 234.2 _ J.2

0.07) = 92.33

'0

( I 8. 1 ) [14,400(91.7) IbJ (
.,)
8.341b
30
hr 81SO yr - S2600/yr

(B-89)

From Ihe vapor-pressure data we find that

TOLUENE COI.UMN REUOILER ANn STEAM. A heal balance for Ihe reboller

R..,;:::;

gives
(8-90)

0,013

]C. .. _

Hence

I
{a - I)x,

(B-96)
0I :::l;::

2,5, and then Eq. 8-71 giv('s

I
= 0.926
(2.5 - 1)0.72

R =:. I.2R.., _ J .2(0.926) _ I II

(0-97)
(8-98)

Lf;~L'"

Also, from Eq 8-15.

N.....

LIQUID

n'....... T1Dl'I SYSTnl

SJ7

and the cost is

In [(O.9997ftl00J3)(O.981/0013)]
In 2.5
= 13.6

G:)(IOI.3)(9280 6~{3.~)

Ann. Cost =

(B~99)

(8-109)

= S26.700,yr

"Then, by Gilliland's apprOJItmation

(B~IOO)

N r :::::.2N.. =2(Jl6)-272

Also, Ihe cooling-water cost

For a values in lite range of 2 to 3, Eo 15 msensHIVe to a (sec Eq A.2-72). and

therefore we can guess that Eo ., 0.5. Hence, the tOlal number of tra}'$ required is

~(

,"06 )

100J gal.

(~)['J.3OO(494.7) Ib] (8150

8.341b

30

hr

_ SI2,900/yr

27.2
N ~-= 54.4:::::. 55
0.5

h')
yr

(8-110)

(B-IOI)
BEl'IlZEl'IlE COLUMN RE80lLER AND STEAM COSTS.. A reboiler heat balance:

gives

and the column height (allowing 15 ft at the ends) is

1/ _ 2(55)

Ann. Cost

15

Q. _ MIl' P _ V.A. aT. _

+ 15 - 125 ft

n~

(8-102)

(8-111)

lJ.1/s

so that with .6Hr- 14.400, P = V, and VIII aT. = 11.250, then

The cross-sectional area or the column is given by Eq. 8-80, where we
evaluate the area at the: boUom of the colum and V is gi\'en by Eq 8-81. Hence.
A = (2.124 x 1O-).j92(231

., 19.73

+ 460) [(1.11 +

1)(234.2

+ 0.07)

and the diameter is

4A
11

9.73)
""'..;4t:F'\.----;
:--.- -

G:)

5.01 ft

(101.9)(125 066)(5.0I U01 )

c';

_ SSI,300/rr

8)
(8-105)

Qc= lill" V "" UcAcdT.= w.C,(I20-90)

(B-I06)

Witb 6H" - 13,300, Uc = 100, and

120 - 90

;:In'''[('''17''7~90~)I''(1~77'--"'2''0"')1 ~ 70.9

(8-107)

we find that
Ac -

13,300(1.11 + 1)(234.2
100(70.9)

(8-113)

+ 0.07)

8
- 92

r'
t

Morco\'er, the steam cost is given by

Ib](SI50

_ ( $1.65 ) [14,400(494.7)
100J Ib
933.7
hr
= SI02,600/yr

the condenser gives

6T. -

\.3

792) (101.3)(708 06 j329)

Ann Cost = ( 280

Ann. Cost

BENZENE COLUMN CONDENSER AND COOUNG WATER. A beat balance

00

(B-1l2)

= S20.800/yr

(B-I04)

Then, from Guthrie, the cost is

Ann. Cost -

14,400(494.7) 708 f 1
11,.250
=
t

and the COSI is

(8-103)

D_

A.=

(8-IOS)

hr)

yr

(B-1l4)

STABu.lZER. The design of the stabilizer is not as simple as that for the other
columns. FlI'St, it is vcl)' diflkuh 10 lind reliable thennodynamic data 'for mutures
of h~drogen and methane with aromatics. The vanety of points that could be used
on tbe Hadden and GnY50n charts (see Sec. Col) illustrates this difftculty_
In addition, the millOture of hydrogen and methane that we desire 10 remove
from tbe lop of lhe column is essentially noncondensible, 50 to obtain a sufficient
amount of liquid ror reftullO, we musl allow some benzene to go ovcrhead. However,
as I'o-e saw in the purge-loss calculation (Eq. 859). even small flows of benzene are
quite valuable. Thererore, we want to pressurize the stabilizer column, both to
minimize the benzene loss from the partial cQndenser and to be able to use normal
cooliog water in this condenser. or course, as we increase the operating pressure,
we increase the capital costs of the column, of the condenser, and or the reboiler
because the wall thickness must be increased lienee, we anticipate that there will
be an optimum operating pressure for the column.

338

L(V1[L'. LMJUID 51oI'AILt,TION

sysnw

LU'El'. I"JUID nl'AUllO!' S\SnM

To fix the opcrdllng pressure of the slablhzer, ....e ought slart by examining
Ihe behavior of the Rash drum when K, <01 for benzene For example, by
considering the value Iisled in Table 8-3 for benzene. we might inlllall)" guess Ihal
.... e want K. _ 002 Then, from the Hadden and G,-ayson correIa lion (Sec. C I), Ihe
p,-essurc of the Rash drum bas to be 280 pSla 10 condense the o~erhead at 100"",
and II is not nen possible 10 condense lhe: o\crhead at 130 F SImilarly, If ....e lei
K. = 0.05, .... e find lhat the pressure I) 80 p5ia at 100 F and 165 psia at IJO'"F, so
lhe pressure calculation is very sensime.
No.... , 10 determine the importance of choosing values of K. thai arc \'ery
small, ie., in tile range from 002 10 005, we mUSI eSlimate the value of Ihe benzene
that is lost with Ihe vapor leaving the flash drum. We expect thaI the values of K H
and K CH will be very large compared to unity, and so we elpectthat the liquid in
the flash drum will be essentially pure benzene. Then Ihe equilibrium relationship
when x.:::::: 1.0 gives

(8-115)
From Table 8-3, we expecl tbe h)'drogen and methane flows leaving in lbe
stabilizer overhead to be about 2 and 11 molfhr, resptttl\e1), so
'=K=
".
J.
,
2+11+n.

We ~an !l.ln\plify the dOlgn cakuldllons If .... e lump all tho: aromilUCS and
conSider Ihem 10 be benzene, so thai the benzene feed rale 10 the column becomes
(sec Table 1J11 2354 + tl74 + 4 = 326.8 mol,lhr. lienee, Ihe feed rate I)
F== 2 + 11

XII>

= 00055

Ann. Loss = 9 04(0.7)81 SO = S51,6(XJlyr

IS

aboul 07
(8-118)

which is fairly large. Of course, this loss is compensated, at least in pan, by the fuel
valoe of the benzene in the overhead stream
After eumlDlDg the sensili\;ty of the benzene loss from Ihe flash drum of the
slabilizer, we decided to choose K. = 0.04 with a condensing lemperalure of
115F, so thai for our finl design lhe operaling pressure O(lhe stabilu.er is ISO psia
At these condilions

(8-119)

K CH = J6

Ann. Loss

= 1.0 _ 0.04 = 0.54

2;

so lhat

X .... II

9.04(0.054)8150 = S39,800/yr

0.%1

(H-125)

3
_. _ -_900

70

a" , =-=70
1

.........

004

... _- =

3. = 36

~"

(8-127)

Clearly to introduce an assumpllon of constant rc!:Hi\'e volanht)' .... ould be

rather "shal..)'" bUI all the shortcul design procedures rely on this ahumpllon
Hence, for our fir)t design we assume thai :l j IS cunstant, but we use the smallest
possIble value, Eq. 8-127 at the botlom, In our calculallons.
Underwood') expression for lhe minimum reflux rates for binar)' separallons
should give us a conservath'e estimale for multicomponenl separalion), so

R ~ _'_ [X u .c , - a....

a-I

X,-.c,

,-

XD,,]

(8-128)

X'.M

dO.<3')] - 0689

1 [0812
- 36 ~ I 00324 ~ 3,0961

(8-129)

Then, (or an operating reflux, we: choose

~

1.5(0 689):::::: 1033

(8-'30)

We esllmale the mlDlmum number of trays by uSlOg Fenske's equation, which we

.... rite as

(8-12')

N. _In [(XC/X.)D(X.,IXC,)..]
In Il"C,_1

(8.131)

If (x,/xc,) .. _ 10- 6 , then

d. = 054
= 0.148

.l. ""

(8-120)

The distillate flows are lhen

d r = II

00324

Top.

13(0.04)
ood

Nov., from Eqs. 8-119 and 8-125 we can eSllmate Ihe a "alues,

and the benzene loss is

n.

'CH.

(8.117)

If K. = 0.05, then lhe benzene loss calculaled from lhls cxpressioll

mol/hr, and from Eq B59 Ihe value of the hcnzelle loss IS

(H-1201)

With thIS as)umplion, Ihe effluent from lhe bouom of the lO"er v.11I be
essentIally pure benzene boihng at 150 psia Then from the Hadden and Grayson
correlalions for K, = 10 and P _ ISO psia, we find Ihat lhe temperlllure IS 360' F.
However, we expect Ihat Ihe presence of the toluene and dlphenyl .... llllOcrease IhlS
boiling POlOl, thus we guess that Ihe bollomstemperature is about 4OO'F. Also, at
ISO psia and 400F, .....e find Ihal
K H , "" 70
K CH _ 36
(8-126)

(B-116)

13K.
n.=--I - K.

+ 326.8 - 3791:1mol'hr

and Ihe feed COlllpo)lIIon IS

BOllom.
0'

539

(8-122)
x....CH = 0.812

X D

0.040

(8-123)

N.=

In [(0 812/0 04) 0,719{(6_62 x 10

In36

' -3.4

(0-132)

.s4O

LEVV. ... LIQUID SEP~"'TM)", SYSHloI

Then, from Gilhland's apprOlumallon

(8-133)

NT = 2N. - 6.8

We lei U c = 100 DIU/(hr f,l

3520 Btu mol lIence

F). and we aSSUrTl<: thai AH H

389 and AH ol . -

USing Eq 8-7910 estlmale lhe overall plate effktency (note thai we are not certam
that Jl-r ... 0.3 centipOisc at high pressures) rues

(8-143)
and the cost is

05
Eo = [03(36)]0 a '" 0276

(8134)
Ann eml =

so that Ihe tOlal number of required trays is about

(8-135)
Ann. Cost =

lind the column height is

Ii = 2(25) + 15., 65 rt

+ I)D

tower dIameter

IS

:::: (1033

+ IXl +

II

+ 0.54) ::::: 27.5

We assume Ihat P = Vand AHp =

(for an ideal gas)

i15)J'"

= 0(XK)214 78(400 + 460\150

(27.5) = 0478

f4A
.J---;;
= O.8ft ~ I ft

(IOI.3X65 1 066Xlo 'Ol) (218 ; 1.15) = S5400/yr

(B~I40)

STABIUZER CONDENSER AND COOUf"oG WATER. A heat balance for the

condenser gives
Qc"" MI, V",. Vc-AcAT.. = W,C,(I_ - 90)

(8-141)

Since we arc condensing the overhead at 115~f. we cannot allow the temperalure of
the cooling water to increase form 90 to 120 ,- I hu~. for our firSI deSign we as~ume
Ihal t.~,
lOO"F. 1 hen

,.

AT ..."
.. In[(115

100 - 90
90)'(115 - 100))

COSI

19.6::::: 2O"F

(1)-142)

(8-146)

= IVsA H

so lhat
(8~147)

IS
Ann

(8-139)

Unfortunately, this diameter is less than the allowable minimum value of

1.5 fl, so we should consider the possibility of using II packed tower. lIowever.
dearly we have based our design on a number of questionable assumptions. so at
some point we must undertake II more careful analysis. Nevertheless, our primary
focus at this time should be the processing costs of the total plant. ralher than an
accurale design of the stabilizer. and sino:: we do not expect that the stabilizer ",;11
be very expensive, we estimate the COSI

AH~.

6 T,.

A = 13,300(27.5) = 32Htl
II
11.250

(8-138)
and Ihe

D=

G:)

QII ., 6H p P "" VIIA II

(8-137)

and the column diameter IS

Ann. Cost =

S500/yr (8-145)

STABILIZER RE80lLER AND SI"EAM. The reboiler heat balance is

If = (R

'006 )(8.34lb
11)[1(100
83,6009O)hr-IbJ (8150-''')
~(~-'1000 gal
yr

(8.136)

The vapor rate is

lhe

(0-144)

Also, the cost of coohng water IS

6.86
N = 0.276 = 24.6

and

792) (1013X4 18.") ('-,-29) = "600iyr

(280

COSI =

(101 1)(32 SO
(' 329) = S3000/vr
280
(792)
6')

(8-148)

The bollmg pomt of the boltoms is about 400 F. so lIle u: 420-psla steam m,hc:
reboiler. Then. using the \alues in Sec. E.J. we find that the cost IS
Ann. Cost..

'2 -)[I,,3OO(27.5)lb](
8150 -b') ( 1000
Ib
775.6
hr
yr

S1700/yr (8-149)

I EVEL-4 ECONOMIC POTENTIAL To calculate the economic pot~ntial at 1e\c:1

4. we subtract the annualized capllal costs of Ihe columns. conl1enscrs. and
rehollcrs. as well as the steam and coolmg-"'at~rcosts. from lh~ \alucs of the levc:l-]
economic pot~ntial In additIon. we must subtract the purge losses of benzene and
toluellC (as \leU as any recycle losses. but we may talr.e fuel credit for the benzene
and tolurne in the purge and the stablhzer overhead). The results are shown in Fig.
7313. and we see that the range of the design variables corresponding to profitable
operation has been dramatically reduced
Of course. wilh a dllferr:nt pr~s alternative. the profitability might be
Increa~d. However. "e want to complele the design before ....e examine any
alternatlles.

Ltv.. ,......
~ldC'1

ALTt'RNA11\ r.s. 1 here are numerous aiternatl\'es that we could conatlC'\'c!4 A vapor f('covery system nl1ght prove to he profitahle on ellher the

542

LEVIOL' """T o:c",,"~a. NElll.Olt.

t101~h vapor (if we U1(;ur recycle losses) or Ihe purge slr~am Amorpllofl. condensation, adsorptIon, or a membrane: rooo\lery system could be used as this vapor
recovery proc:es.s
There are also numerous alternatl\cs for the disllllalion system. SlIlce the
reflux ratios arc so small for both the stabilizer and the recycle column, we might be
able to usc just suipplng columns., I e,. no rccufYlng so.:tlons. SImilarly, Slllce both
the CII.-benzene and the toluenc-dlphenyl SplHS are very easy. we should conSider
the posslbhty of uSlIlg pastcunzatlon seclions to decrease the number of columns,
However, we defer an attempt 10 evaluate the costs of Ihese alternatives until we
have evaluated the beat-eJlchanger networl for our base-case desIgn.

LEVEL 5:

APPE DIX

C
DESIG
DATA

HEAT-EXCHANGER NETWORK

The procedure for desiglllog a heat~xchaoger network was presented in Chap 8.

To develop Ihe data we need for this procedure. we must calculate the lempcralureeDthalpy curves for each process stream. We would recommend that Dormally this
Information be developed wilh the use 0(.1 CAD package such as FlOWTRAN,
particularly for processes where miXlures exhibit a phase change (i.e., a set of flash
calculations is needed along the length of an ell:changer 10 calculate Ihe T-11
profile). Similarly, for cases where a pbase change lales place at hlgb pressures, illS
usually Simpler 10 use a CAD paclage 10 calculate the ph)"Stcal propcnies required
Ihan It is to use handbooks and emplflall corrclallons The use of FlOWTRAN
for lhese calculallons IS dlscussc:d in Chap 12

CI HVDROCARBON VAPOR-LIQUID
EQUILIBRIA"
USC Figs C.l-l and C.l-2 for compounds wllh lower boIling pomts than heptane,
and use Table C.I-l with the graphs (or compounds or cuts wilh higher boiling
points than heptane.

Ta1eo from 5 T Ibdden a.nd II G Cinl)'soll, -Ne,", Charll for lI)'droca,bon VlPOI_Uq.oo
"rlnJ' Rrf",,", 40 91, 201 (SrplnDbcr 19(1)
Eq\llilbna. ~ lIyJTi1ClUb PTDr'

lJ'"

543

.--,"

I':::...

5ECT'O...- (' 1

545

IlYO./X'.... IIUJ'l V.. POIl LIQUID EQIJIUII.JA

........

,.

...
~

, ......... of

..

w
w

.~-

--
W

,
: I

.-_......

...s .. _

...., .......- : ,i

-- ,
~

'\""

,
"

...

-~

'_1_
... -1 ......

,.

:-::::...-=

10 . , .
lC
,~_

(1

,.

..,

.W

,
.:,;l'

w'

.-...

OC"~

~I
w,
wI

.~

.~
.~

om'

FlGURE r.1~1
Var<>l-h'lU,d equ,hl>"a..

Prlt"l. Rrfi"".

544

01(1

"0." 800 I

[/",,,,.~

107 (.vp,,.,.,J. 10(,1) J

.w

:OO'~~

1 flodok .. a"d fI G

..
W

-.---

.,.....----

"

(0, ... ,

0'< -1

00

."

.,
.,
,.

~~

-.
~

.~

-e

-.
.. ...
."
.,

.,

Oll'" ..;

~-

!f',,,,,.,,,,,. 1(,,1'0<:,,,1>

1'.Qt",

"",I

...' _

...'-

_~"-

-......

;0;," fOto_
~

')0

.. co,. c,,,,,.-:;

e.'..'....I_
_....I'" - , . . -r'....';'"4

...,
e,

-.....

...
""

.,"'''''","

/'

'-

.....

j
o

..

'........"' ,
<I 1IO

10

00 100 .-.0

FIGt Hr C.l 2

\'I.r<'"liqUld C<ju,lihlia.

POI'''' Rtf"'''. 40 1m

c.~

"' ...

2(,()

l('J f-

100 I

(S,,.,,.,"I,,. /9'\lll

If'"..., S

7 lI"tIM.. "",J II (; GrM ,..... Ihthocmlo

,..rH; ""J

TABLE C.1-1

VOI'lilily exponent

rOT

pure

hydrocllrhon~

Ind true boilinJt point sooF eul$ al 5F Inltr".ls on

boiling point
Vohtilily UpotM'nl /I
Ttmp.

Pun

la,,,,.\,

'F

hydr~.rbon~ NBI', .~

'00

00

"
'""
"'"
"'"
"",.
.,"
"
10

.
lS

lS

90

"
whcrt

0.003
0.021
0 ...

JOO

0.360
0.381
0.4(13
0.425

...

...
,...

100

0.&3.
0861

0.818

>00

JOO

-0.081
-0.061
-0.041

0326
0.)48

0.792

0.817

0.842

-0021

0)70
0,)92

-0.002

0414

-0.)76
-0,)56

COl!
0.038

0436

0.921

04S~

0948

-0.336
-0.316

00S8

0481
0""

0.97'

0.071

0.137
0'"

0.514
0.537
0.>60
0.5111

"29

1.0S7

0.176

0.607

-0.257

o.m

OS~

0.$12

l.OBS

0.196

0.631

-0.231

0,216
0236
02S6
0,277

0.636
0680

-0218
_01<18

0.159
OlIO
0>00

0,.,

_O\1K

0,730

-O.ISH
-0139
-0.120
-0.100

0.0"
0.079
00'"
0.117

.",
0....

0491

0.~7

0.736

0.)18
0339

.108

0.781

.. ..

5O"F CUI., THr rnidbtliling-poini ItmPf'tllu.1!l, OF

0.916
0'"

-02%
-0.276

01'
"
0111

0221
0242
0262
0284
0.303

o.m

O.8~

iJXl2

1.348
1.379
1410

'.C90
2..126

1536
l.569

a"

2.843

2.886
2..928
2.912

2 202

3.014

2240
2.2711

1m8

n16

J 102
J 146

16J4

2)SS

3190

1668

UQ4

1.701

24J'

3.'"
3.280

2474
1514

,"2

0.596

!.In

J.'H

1.142

1,769

0 ...
0 ...

1.170

'''''
,...

0692
0.716
0742
07M\

2..016
2053

""
un
,"" ""

0620

1199
1228
1.2SB
l.288
1,)18

'00

B34

3,324
3370
3413

l.lllB

~~~

3<6'

1,874
1.908

26]5
1676
2,718

3,SQ7
3,S33

3600

"10

27S9

3616

K II K,/(KdK ,)'

K II .. K "Iluc of thc cut or high.hOlllng [lurc hydrocArhon

K1 K "Ilue of cthlnc II thc lcmpefllure. pressure and c:nn"crBcntt pressu~ of lhe ayllcm
K," K "Ilue of /Iheplane Illhe. lemperllure.. pressure l/lod cOnycfJCnoc ptUlurc
lhc .Ylrem
/0, .. Vollnllly uponenllfllm TAhlt C,!.!

or

;; -

2.~QO~~
~!~.t

'::.'E.,t
... ;I ; ... ;; " ~

<

" i li
o 0 0: S 0:
8P~

1<'

_
N
~::

~-

"

r.

~~~~I
t: t:: t: IS ~

;;!>!

e'
~

"

"
~

1 ..
~,

~.

'-;" ):;....
...7"
~

;.

;;;-

~,..J

:z;

~
7
",...
>r- "'0

'" "'>
"...
co
"'"
">Z

"[i.
~

"~

..
~

""

"
"_.

-,
~

-,~,
>

"'f:.
~

T .... BLE: 1).1-1

APPENDIX

[mpi..... l I",mlli.

D
FORTRAN
INPUT
FORMS

N,

r-llf"~C"

NiH,,'" " ..de

The tables in this appendix are taken from J. D. Seader, W. D. Seider, and
A. C. Pauls, ~Flo .....trall Simulation~An IntroductIOn:' 2d ed., CAChE Corp.,
Cambridge. Mass. 1977. CopIes arc: available from Ulrich's Book Swre 549 E
University Ave" Ann Arbor, Mich., 48104.

CliO,

Chloroform
Ill'd",~n c~an,,'c

CH,O

Fonnaldch}dc
MeThyl chlonde
Melhyl IOdIde

ell,

MeThane

CH,a

MnhanoJ
Melh)'1 amHl"

C.I/.
C.II.

C,H.S
C,H_N

I chlonde
A<'el\l chlonde
lllTfI-CL-<:lhsne
ACl''''OIlnle
fth~ lene
I IDichk>.O"lhone
I,: D.chloJOelhaoe
ACO'laldehyde
Eth,lene Q~,de
Aomc aCId
Melhyl rannale
Elh~l chlonde
Elhane
Dimelhy1 ether
Elhnol
Elh~leoe !lycoJ
Dimelhyl $ulfide
Elh) I mercaptan
Ethylam",,,,

C,Il,!"

ACf~lontln1e

(,B.

Melhylattl}1ene
Propad ...nc
Propylene:
AttlOne
Eth)'IIOImale
Melhyllt<'elate
ProplOn", lIcld
D'mcl hylf(>rmam,de
Pr0r"'ne

l" ,II"

lso-pfO~nol

C,II "

C,11,0.
C:I1, '"
C ;!',
C;II.O,

(,H.O,

C,H,O,
(,H,G

(,II.

C,H.O

TARLE 0.1-1

(,11.0
C,H.O,

Chcmiuls in the Public Dala File

es,

C J OC1.

0"

548

Com,.-.,I na_

A,gon

R'ommc

Empiriaol lonnul.

0,
HI

H,

Carbon lelradllonok
('a,bo" mono~t<k

11,0

PhosgMK

",5

Caroon dio ..de

Carbon d"ullide
Tnchl<>lilllttl )1..('L
lIyrlrog<'n chlonde

H,N

N,
NO
NO,

CompoM1ll

(,Il,S
Ita.....

Chlonnc
Hydrogen iodide
Ilyd,olen
Water
HydrogeR 5ulfitk
Amn",n'lt
Neon
NUllc o~lde
Nu.ogen dlOude

C,II.
C,H.
C.H.

e,H.

(,H,O,

Physicial properties are available for the components in Table D.I-I.

e,ll.

Attl!'k:04"

(,H.O

D.I CHEMICALS IN THE PUBLIC DATA

FILE

lnchlo,,,,",hylcnc
O,chlmoalyl-CL

C,ll.O
C,II.N
C.Il.
C,II.S
CII,N
C,ll.

Chlo",,,ccl~l-CL

(,11,0

COCl,

S"lf", d.o,,,I<:
Sulfur l"olld"

(h'~en

COIN

C,H,C1,O
C,H,Cl
C,H,ClO

co,

0,5
U,S

DIp'''''' chemicals

CH.N
(,Hel,
C,HO,O
C,H,

"B,
=.
co

Compo_". lUI"'"

N,O
0,

Cil,O
Cll,'

Empi..... l rormllb.

tCO~I"'"N)

(,H,
C.H.

e,ll,o
C,Il.o,
C,!l.O,
C,II,O,
(,11.1'10

C,II.
C,ll,O

\ In'

C.H,
C.ll.
C.II.0
C.II.0
C.H.O,

C.H.O,
C.Il.0,

C,II.0,
C.ll.NO

C.H ..
C.II,.
C.II,.O
C.I\,.O
C.Il,.O
C.H,.O
C,II ,.0,
C,il.O,

C,II.
C,II
C,H,.
C,II,.

C,l1,.
C,II,.
C,II,.
C,II,.

<-",11,.0
(',11 0,

/II.!'fOp8Rol
T,undhylam,ne:
V,nylacclykr>e
Thiophene:
Melhac,ylonnrik
BUlad""m:s
Thmelhylacclykne
Elhylacelykne
l,2Rulad""".,
1.3 1l11lad",ne
RUlylene5
I-Ilulcne
(",,Ihulene
twbulcne
T.",.. lbulene
l.wbUl}faklehIOc
MFK

N-lluII'K and
Ethyl a",'a'e
Methyl plop,on~le
!'ropll [onnl<le
O,melh)'1 acelamide
!sobulanc
NBulane
IwbUlanol
""_Butanol
ToRtllyl alcohol
O ...,hyt dh.t
O""lhyle"" ,glycol
Furfural
!sep,ene and l"5
2-Me-tbutene
lMe_2_buleRe
JMe_l_bulene
CyciopenlaRc
IPcnlene
CiJ-2-p""lene
T."....2pcntene
D1etbyl kclnnc
",-P,opyl acelale
lwpenlane
..... Pentane
Conti""ed

550

SE.., -,oN P I

TAbLE: D.I-I

tCOIIl",ued)

_t:m_-...:."_ria_I_,_~_,_,_.

C,U"

e.HjCl,
C.ll.O,
C.H.a,
C.H.O,
C.H,llr
C.H,Cl
C.U,!
C.H.
C.Il.O
C.H,N
C.H"

e.H"
e.H"
C.H ..
C.H ..
C.II,.
C.ll ,.
C.H ..

c.u,.o.

C,li.
C,H.O
C,H,.
C,lI,.
C_II,.
C,H,.
C.H.
C.H,.
C.H,.
C.H,o
C.H,o
C.lI,.
C.H"
C.II ..

C.H,.
C.H I I
C.H,.O,
C.H.
c"H,o

D.2

I~(TION OJ

WLSII

__=t:m::::Piria_~'_'_~_,_'_.

---=C~.m...:
.....
_...:.,~u_-=-

Nto-pcnlanc
1.2.4 Tn-CL-8Z
M-DlChlolobcnu~

O-DlChlolobcnune
PDlChlo,obcnunc
BromobcnleIlt
Chlorobcnzenc
lodobenum.
Benzene
Pbcnol
AnilIDe
Cydobcnne
Melhylcycloprnu.nc
l-Heunc
2.2 Dimethylbulane
- 2.3D,methylbutane
N-Hnal>t
2-Melhylprnlallt
3Melhylpcn,ant
Tnclhylcne glycol
Toluene
O-Crnol
MClhylcydoheune
Elhylcydoprnlane
l-Heplenc
N_Heplane
SIYlenc
Elhylbcnzc:ne
Xylenes and ETII
M-Xylene
OXylem.
P-Xylcne
N-PropylbclllCDC
Elhylcyclohennc
N -Propylcyclopcnra
N.{)cllne
Terraelhene glycol
Indent
Indan

C.",o
e.ll"
C,II,)

e,1l "
C.U,.
C,.U.

e,oll,o
C,.H,o
C,.Ii"
C'G H ..

C,oll,.
C,oH,o
C,oU"
C"H,o
CIIH,o
C"H a
C"H.
C"H,.
CuH"
CuH u
C"H,.
CuU,.
C"H,.

._'_u_-__

C_~_
.__
..

Methy"tyrene
C,jAlkylbcnzenc
l-El2-M e-bcnZ"l>t
N-Propylcydoht.llan
NNonalle
Naphthalene
J_Melhylind"oc
2Methylindene
DscydopcllladlCoc
N-llulylbcllulK
1)-D1MElETHBZ
NButykydoheuDc
NDcciJ.ne
J-Methyinaphlhlllcn
2-Meth) Inaphthalen
N-Undccane
Accnaphth)lcnc
Biphenyl
2..7[)mlCthylnaphlh
1,2.3-TR!M E-Indcnc
NDodccane
Fluorene
C,3-Alk)lnaphtha

""'

Cuu,.

C.. Il,o
C,.H. o
C"H"
C"H,.
C"U"
CnH,.
CnH,.

C,.""

C,.H ..
C,.'i"

OUlpUI

The outpul gl\'es Ihe unit name, the feed and product stream names, the flash
temperature and pressure, the heat added to the yessel, and Ihe fraction of feed
.....hich kayes as \'apor. An opllon is provided for printing stream flo.....s and physical
properties including eqUilibrium K-values.

Physical Properties
Vapor-liquid equilibria and enthalpies are required.

Block List
List Iype
Umt name
Umt type
Name of feed stream
Name of liquid product sHearn
Name of vapor product stream

l-Me~ETH-Naph

Para meier List

2..3,5-TRIM ENaph-

List tHI<:
Unit name
Index or first enlry

NTndccane
Phenanthrene
N_Tetradccane
l-Phenylindene
2-ElbylJluoreIlt
N-Penladcca.oc
Fluoranthene
Py~~

J- Phenylna phlhalcn
N_Hendeeanc
Qrpene

IFLSH

Description
IFLSH (Isothennal flash) determines the quantily and composition of liqUId and
vapor streams resulting when a reed stream is flashed al a specified temperature
and pressure. If the flash condillolls arc such that only a single phase product

551

occurs, lhen the appropriate product composition is set equal to the feed and the
other slream is set to zero. The block also calculales the rate of heat add ilion
(positive) or removal (negatjyt.:) from lhe flash vessel in order to maintain the
specified temperature and pressure.

,h.
lh.

"-FUll

BLOCK

IFLSH

PARAM

I. Flash temperature, OF
2. Flash pressure, psia
3. Prinl Slream flows, physical properties,
and K-values: 0 = no, I = yes,

D.3

AFLSI-I

Description
AfLSH (Adiabatic flash) determines the quantity and composition of liquid and
vapor streams resulting when up 10 seven feed streams are milled and flashed
adlabatlcally. The number of product streams may be I or 2. The block can be used
to simulate a pressure drop across a valve or through a pipeline. H IWO product
streams are specified and the flash conditions resull in a single phase, the

~2

SECTlO,," OJ

An,5H

appropriate product is.set equal to the sum of the feed streams and the other stream
is set to zero. You can also specify heat addition to or removal from the flash unit

D.4 SEPR
Description

Output
The output gives the unit name. the feed and product stream names. the flash
tempc:ralUre and pressure. the heal added 10 or remo\'ed from the system. and the
fraction of feed which leaves as vapor. An option is provided for printing stream
flows and physical properties including equilibrium Kvalues.
Properties Used
Vapor-liquid equilibria and entbalptes are required.

Block List
ust Iype
Unit name
Unit Iype
Name of lSi feed stream
Name or 2d feed sHearn or 0
Name of 3d feed stream or 0
Name of 4th feed stream or 0
'lame of 5th feed stream or 0
'lame of 61h feed stream or 0
'lame of 7th feed stream or 0
'lame: of liquid product stream
of vapor product stream or O

Outptlt
BLOCK
AFLSH

The OUlput gi\'es the unil name, the I}-pe of condenser (total or partial) if one is
simulated, the stream names. the: tolal fraction of feed taken as O\'erhc:ad, and tbe
splil fraction for each component.

Pro~rlies

Used

Vapor-liquid equilibria and enthalpics are reqUired

Block List

"'arne

ParameIer List
List type
Unit name
Index of firsl entry

SEPR (Constant splitfraction separation) can be used to simulate distillation or

other separation processes when details of the process are unknown or irrelevant.
The basis of the model is that for each eomponent the TallO or the moles in the
overhead to the moles in the feed IS constant These split rractions. one for each
component. are input values The bolloms product may be assumed to be a
saturated liquid. and the o\erhead product may be either saturated liquid or
saturated vapor. Product temperalUres are then detennined from the saturation
requirement. The product temperatures may be alternauvel) set equal to the foed
temperature..

PARAM

List t)PC:
Unit name
Unit I~
Name of feed stream
Name of bottoms product stream
Name of overhead product stream

BLOCK
SEPR

I. flash pressure. psla. if positive.

Flash pressure minus the minimum feed

pressure psia, if 0 or negative.
t Heal added, Btu/hr (if negative, heat removed).
I. Print stream flows, physical properties.
Kvalues: 0 - no. I _ yes.

If only one prodUd Slrum is lpec:lrled. ju phase oondillon will be dlennined

Parameter Ust
List type
Unit name
IndeJI of firsl entry
Splil fractions, moles j in overhead/moles j in feed

PARAM

I. Componenl
2. Component
3. Component
4. Component
5. Component

D.5

J. dP, pressure drop, psi (sublraclc:d from

mlOlffium IOlel pressure)
2.. Ponl stream flows, properlles, and K-values:
o ... 110, I = yes_

2
3
4

ADD

0.6

De:scriplion
ADD (stream addition) adds up to seven process streams and detennines the
produci stream temperalure and phase condJlion which satisfies Ihe condilion of
zero enlhalpy change. The pressure of the oUllet slream IS taken as lhe mlOimum of
lhe nonzero pressures oflbe IOlet streams less a specified pressure: drop. ThIs block
IS similar 10 the adlaballc flash block: AFLSH.

SPLIT

Descriplion
SPLIT (stream spill) separates an input stream into as many as seven o.utput
streams, each having Ibe same compositlon, temperalure, and pressure as the I~PUt.
You must specify the amounl of each produci stream as a fraction of the ~nput
stream If the sum of the fractions does not equal unllY, the fractions Will be:
normalized_ This makes It possible for a gh'en fraction to serve as a mampu1ated
variable

10

a conlrolloop

Output
Output

The OUlput gives the unil name, the feed stream oames and produci stream name,
temperature, and pressure. An option is provided for printing Stream flows and
phySIcal properlies IOduding equilibrium K-values.

The OUlput gives the umt name:, Ihe IOput and outpul stream names, and the

Properties Used

Properlies U~

Vapor-liquid equilibria and enlhalples are used.

~one

Block List

Block List

List type:
Uoil name
Unit type
Name of lst feed stream
Name of 2d feed stream
Name of 3d feed stream or 0
Name of 41h feed Slream or 0
Name of 5th feed stream or 0
Name of 6th feed stream or 0
Name of 71h feed S1re3m or 0
Name of product stream

BLOCK
ADD

are used

List type
Urnt name
Unu Iype
Name of mput stream
Kame of 1st oulput stn::am
Name or 2d output stream
Name of 3d output stream or 0
-arne of 4th output stream or 0
Name of Sib output stream or 0
Name of 6th output stream or 0
Name of 71h outpul stream or 0

BLOCK

SPLIT

Parameter List

Parameler Ust
List type:
Uoil name
Tlldex of fint entry

normalized spltt fracuons.

PARAM

Llstt~pc

Umt name:
lode). or first entry

PARAM

I
I. Number

or output slreanu (2

(0

1)

Par. met"" List

L Split rr~lf:twn {or ht output ~l,um

3. Spilt r,..ction (OJ 2d output Itee.m

l.t~l

f!\RAM

type

Unit name
I"dt" flf ri'$1 enll)'

.. Split fl1lelion leu 3d oulpul ,tream

Spill r~(1I()n for 4th output stream

6. Splil hattinn ror 511'1 Qulpul ,,-lff'./Im
~

I. Oudel rrc.'msre. Nl'"

7. SpUI rfaeUon ror 6th O"'pl.ll jlreJlm

IJ. Sphl fraction for 7th OUlp'll $IIQrn

0.8 G O.\1P

0.7 PUMP

O~rl~lo.

Deteription

GCOM P (ttQtrifUlal CI.'mpfCS50f, po$lli~Ntislll~tttl'le ..1t compICS!iQr. Olnd lUrhlne)

computes the ...orlo: rtquhed lor e:umpleuion Of 1M W()f" y~kied b)'(:~('IlIrtSl(H\ a.nd

PUMP (cenlrifu(t<1J pump size and (lOwer) , .isc& tbe pressure of a suum to
rpecirlCd value:. It should be' used anly ror iii IUlall)' liqllid ~lfeam. TypiCllI Qlrva

tbe oull Slf\::im tcmpcnllurt. phase ooodition. eOO enthalpy

TIle bioct \lIiII

pe,fl1fnl

rOu, differenl

t)'~

oJ C'alculllll(l",;~

ru)m lhe lilcnlture tile ~ Ie) ~limale (1tlrnp and dri"n etrK:Xooes so Ih31 driwI
$1lC' and electric po",-e, n:quiremc:nls I;.iln be ClllculalM_ Thcf< t'llf"\'C$ are hll:\Cd nn

I. (,entrifufal compressor us!nJ!. lhe polY'Ulric dftlXllcy. ~1.lIlldilll('S cnlkd the N

wale,: Io-~t pum dficieocy ~Il be

Z. rOJIII\'('.dh"lacemenl CUl1lllle5..'OOr usittt 1he poIYHt?Pic CR"JcicllC)'

e-Jfpocl~d

for morc "iscous Ouids,

J. TurbilK

Cltpandn usinilihe isent,opic.! cfficJell4.:Y, also allw lbe ilJfabtlllc

'ffi(l~ty 800 lhe M"tlltr /f'Ur/lQd
4, Cenlnfll,al d'Jfflpteswr u~Ink. lhe i!etlUopic c:ffKtr.ncy

OUIP'lI

The QulpUI g1VIS (~ ullil nlune. lhe inJcl :lnd llullcllllu::rm name.\., tiM! aClu:t1 Oow
In @:pm. prcS$ure chtnl-C in ~ ... nmd bOfSC'pov.'Cr. ptlmp effacleoo. bnlke ho~
power, dri"e:f elncic:ncy. and kilowau..,

Pr.p<r'!<s UII<d

Uguid lJlClW voJunw is uted,

Rt'rt'RfJ(;~

M. S. PeleB. Nunl Dws;gn and

New York, 19~ p, '29J.

_,W

~ksfar

(;hmrkm Eng;n"",

McOnlw~T1ill.

(I'

Wilh eaeb DlC:lh,lll. )'OU mo)' :pc..;Jf)' lhe apptUllllare cfflC..erlor; nil nullet "IICliIO
colldi1ioll~ aDd shaft wbrt. will be oompulM I h;.wcycr-. If the olltlcl lemreral\Jfe. ft
koo'A'n. it may Ix elltered for 1he: ~ec('lnd p".ltmeIN, amllhe prPltnlm will oompulc
1M efflCicnc}. This option i:~ useful for cbar~l1erizin& an c)tisring compressor
The ~)'tropk: t;lllc\lbtion must nol Ilt: u~d fOr lIlJtamli thnl are r:nlilllly
liquc6t.d at iolel ur oUlkt coodiliol'l$,
The. c:qUltLiOnli used afC u 'nlluWlI I'here the subscript I rders to Wei
coodilion~ and subscnpt '2 r(fCN to OUlSet conditions:

I. POlyu(lflic compl\".,siol)

K = C,

c.,

l'olYlropic clflCtt'oc)'

BJock Llo!lc

List ITpe
Utili ftll.mc!

BLOCK

Unil lype
r"lan1l.' of (ttd ,IM(:lm
N"MC (If plodUCI ~l,etm

I' Mr

AJt= "." . r(r,).-.,

-J ]
.... - ,.

-'
.
ibp.- w

I~h

,.

blip - ill II

EnlhaJpy eh.nMc r mOll!

(whh 7opfllOPfiliC 'III ItS)
100011

hO~crn'A'i:J

SECTION 1)9

2. Iselilropic

comprcs~lOn

scvw

.559

OIock List
_ h, - h,

,.

h,--3. Iscnlroplc expansion

List type
Unil name
Unit Iype
:"lame of JIllel ~lreilm
Name of oUllet stream

BLOCK
GCOMP

4. Volumctnc cfficlcnC)
", =

5. Outlet temperature

1$

10-0.01 Pl-t
J _ VI)
PI ~\
Vl

compuI~

from the outlet enthalpy;

Parameter List
LISt type
Unit name
Inde:x of first entry

PARAM

hl = h, + "'h

OUlpU'
T~ outpul consIsts of the: tnlel and outlet stream names, t~ discharge pressure,
actual and constanl-entropy discharge temperatures, constanl-entropy horsepower. tndical~ horsepowcr. and brake horsepov.er. Work done by the flUid is
negalive. If Ihe posllive-displaecment-compression option is chosen. the OUlPUt
also includes the \olumetnc effiCiency and the required displacement in ftllbr.

Properlies

L:~

Entropies, enthalples. speC1fie heats, specific \olumes, and \apor-hquid equilibria

arc used.

I Outlet pressure, psia

II. Outlet temperature,F (computed if 0)
III. Type of unit
1 Centrifugal compressor by polylropic method
2 Positive-dlsplaecment compressor by polytropic method
3 TurbIne by isentropic method
4 CentrifugaJ compressor by Iscntroplc method
IV. Ckarantt fraction for posillve-displaccmcnt compressor
V ~'fechanical efficiency (I if 0)
\'1 Polytropic effiCIency for options 1 and 2;
isentropic effiCIency for options 3 and 4
(0.71 If 0)

Nomeoclature
C

C,
C.
h.
n
w
".
'"
'I.
fl.

CJearance fraclion
Heal capacity at constant pressure
1leat capacll)' Sl constaD( volume
Enthalpy on cooslanH:nlropy path
Polytropic exponent
Siream flow
Mechanical efflClCnC)'
Polytropic efficiency
lsenlroplc efficiency
Volumetric efficiency

References
Dresser Industries, Inc.. Clark Mlii/israge Ci'ntrijllgol Compressors. Franklm
Park. Ill., 1969.
Ellioll Company, E/lioll Compressor Ri'fresher. Jellnnelle, Pa

D.9

SCVW

Description
SCVW (bounded Wegstein stream convergence) is a stream convergence block
.....hich is capable of converging one. IWO, or three streams simultaneously. The
accelerated con\ergena: method of Wegslein with a modification by Kleisch and
Su!li\<an is used (sec References).
The followlOg options are mcludcd:
I. The convergence tolerance may be specified. The same value is used in each

stream for every variable except enthalpy and fraction vapor. If a value is not
specified,0.0005 is chosen (see parameter 2). For each variable in a stream, the
error is defined as the smaller of either lhe difference between the calculated
(inpul) and eslimated (output) values or the dilferences divided by the estimated
value Errors which exceed the convergence tolerance are indicated In the
history by an asterisk The first N variables m the stream are the molar now

Set: panuneteTtI fila II. Unk:s~ )'ou bcU~\~ yt\ur ')'$Icm is c).ccvtionaUy suabk (or
unstable). you should u~ the ddault ,al",C$ 01 Q.l.. - - j.o Mild Q..... - 0.0. If the
.solUlinn I, found 10 u&(:lItale or dh'elgt'. 01)1: or both Of Illest' \'/llues IIho",kJ be
~Igcbraic-ally lncre;rSffl. Uowt'\'u. if the J)'stcm h Jlabk, dCCfe,nlna Q..... and(or
Q_. rna)' kivc oonvusencc in Pet helations
If Q.III and Q.... are: both nonnegarivc, IMlt: \Io'ill be no o-ecdcfalion.
c(lnllergcnct being equi\'aleotIQ dire:ct itelation with d.ampingin (be ,anre betwcm
Q.'II and Q,_., Fluther. unlhS II. is .,....'tly~ (i'lnlC'whnllcs-Slh.n tn.lhe: block will
rc:re:uedly lJ'y the ,.arne \'llh/IC of)( , (and thus 3PrCal 10 h:t\c con\'t:f~). Selling
<l.... < 1.0 forces lh4: bloc:lc to slW*ys tUe~llC1lM a 1.0 - Q_. friiClioa or the diJl~C'1
ile:'8ti.oo step.
In addilion 10 ehantin@ Q..... ;'lnd Q...... $t~bililY can be IflRueoctd by
changins the il)itial number 01 direCl i1rratiom. pilr)jm~lef 6. and tlte anH)unl.o'
damp''''' parameter 7. In gtOl'tat this will also decruse Illt t.te of C()n\'tfg.ence

.v

rlIttll or ClIlcll or dlt eOlnp6MnB, tI + I ill the lotal ntul:u Rf)w IlUe. N + 2 i~
lemperalurc, N.. i$ pressure, N + .c IS the t:f1th.IPT noW', and N :.. S Is the

rnu.'tion

vllp<'lr

1: TIle .Ul&lIirminl Ilwilber or ilennionJ lUlly be ipttified. If 11K' number ~ nt)1

spccdied. 30 ilerltUOllli art automatically thosen (see panllnele. J). The bloc,"
DUly operate as a direc.1 tlentioo bJoc:k by spttil)'in~ lhe number or ditc:
he~lion.'l (~nlm(ter-6) 10 be cqlJ1lllo tbe- mAXimum numM. 01 ile:ratioM. Tbe
di.1Xl 1!oahons Ulay be cbmped by a OOnttllnl lactl)l (pu/lmetu 1). lIr YllIri.. bk
damping mil)' ~ Aprlkd. ..~ eap'flined bd(tw
J. YOll C:IO continue Ihc 51lnul,Ulon CYC" thou~h the mvamum numtx-r ol
IIc.atH>ni Ia.a.'l bn IcsdlC'd. Jr )'01.1 dl), lI)e I:b"t C$timlfle nf lhe output ,t.hbll1.t
and a message indiealing that Ibc simulation comioued I';th uuconvergtod
outpul art pnnled in Ihe bisto1). Set' paramder 4.. You ma~' ,pcdf~' \l;helhcr Ihe OUlput stream is to be Oasllc:d. You may 001 WIsh
10 Oa!Jllllc $ue:am if lllett' I:S a possibilily of llm::c phases e:...~ong or ir a heat
b3l1lnce: ~ not or lIIttl~L S<'C' pllr1lmetn S.
In Ihe ron'~tJt.C"1'tCC" method, In ..deration ~nuneter q. Q. 4:Alcut.:.ted lind
used to weigh! lhe pre,'ioos s1rl:am cstiltUltes to oblain a nc..... e:sumatc.

nw-

atCCl~tt(ln

I;u:lor b dclintd IIstbe.slope dh.j~ by the slop:minU$ I. 11If:: slort: is

df'tnmilled fbr e:tch variable in ~lC:h.$ue~m (rom
Slop< =!('J -

x. -

+ (1-'1.)/('.)

O. theQ)kulnlloo IS (hreClller.. tion Iro < q. <

I, illS.dlfCt'1 itctlfliQn ...ilh

damptng......f\lk 1/. < 0 applies ae:k(lliioll. Po~ith'c yaluC$ or q. g.i\'e >10..... MaiM
oonve:rgencc: nC'galJ\l: valu~ cnn con,sidnobf)' Jfl('Cd up conYer~cnce bul int'fcuc
lbe likelihuod "f in~abiliIY.
T t,l4,.'~I:tlflll r~vllr1lblc IrluJ(o-off t.ell''ftfl ~petd n"d ,,'..hllil)'. eh q. 1~ Im\llcd
co Ihe l'anllP

Pfo~rllts

Used

rnlllalpi~ ud .... pof-equilibtl3 dala :m' needed II 1I.e uUlput SIJCllm

I!C

n..,hC'd.

Rdeft'f1Cf'S

~._I

y.riilblc 1!4 c-.kut:fle:!J rtom

If q. :'

There' is none.

!l.r._,)

,.,'here ~"_I l~ the: y..ll1~ .",en to the pr{)(~s IOF ptlrticul"r !>lR'... m Yamlblc.lbla<;k
~utptlt) :'Ifldj( l._.) IS the e"rl'C$.pt1ndina "Dlue alcul;dtd (.n," Ihe prQCt:s\ tblock
llIpul), The: valuCJ _v. 8Iklf(\'J are the .)t~).l pair (\1 inpul aoo It)pOnse stream
\'.11.1"- Smcc t....O \,:tluq. uf (x) lne nceded to alculJllc q., :It In~t one diu:\-"!
itet"tJQn must be. malk I}cfoFe ifOlXkr..tiQn CllIn be: applied
FolIl)win~ Ihc initial ditct1 itcrations. die new estimate for t:ath strc:llJn

.t.il ~q.. .l..

Outpllt

H. C. Kkisch.... A Stud)' of CQn~cf.eJK'e A(;C('1e.3IQI AIg.orilhmJ I)seJ in StcDd)'

State Process Silllulltion." Master's Thes.'h.. T\J!.;11\e Ullhrnity. Ne'" orleans. 1967.
J. 1-1, WeJ;$tf5n. .. Aocelcf:'ling ConYClvnl"e 01 lleJltion 1'(OcoseS." Comm, A ,M.
1: 9

C1~S8)

Bind: USI

List type

BlO K

Unit OiJUC
Unillrpc
X.mc or first input $utam
N-amc orstClOOd input SlIOlIll orO

scvw

ame ollMrd inptll Slfe<lm or 0

TntJufc. pOinl (unit ";lme or dlC' 6nt bkH:l; III tile rcc)'Cle
~).,tom

~:t~

or fiNoI oulput $llCflllO

Name (l( S(lCrmd output $ITeam (,Ir II

Name mthird (JUlpul WCifm or 0

561

SECTION

I)

II

SEc:nON

O5TW1J

Parameier- Lisl
Lin type
Unit name
Index of firsl entry

PARAM

I) 10

pnwu

563

specified reflux ratio or number of trays is less than Ihe mlDtmum that will produce
the desired separation, Iwice the minimum is used.

Outptll

l. Print the q vcclor aner each Iteration

no, I ::::: )'/:S.
2. Comergencc lolcrantt (0.0005 if 0).
3. Maximum number of ilerations (30 if 0).
4. AClion if unconverged after the maximum number
of iterations: 0 z= lenninale simulation,
I = continue with last estimate of OUlpul streams.
5. Flash outpul slreams: 0 = yes. I _ no
6. Number of dlTCCI iteralions to be perfonned before
acccleralioD is applied (I if 0).
7. Damping facior for dirccl iterations (0 = no damplUg).
8. Code for delennlnmg upper hmil on q, Q_.
a. If 0. Q... IS SCi 10 O.
b. If I. Q_. is sct by parameter 9
9. Maximum value of q, Q_. (sec parameler 8).
10. Code for delennining lower hmil on q, Q......
a If 0, Q__ IS set to -5.
b. If I, Q..;_ IS sel by parameler II.
11. Minimum value of q, Q"j~ (s~ parameler 10).

Mmimum reflux ratIO, mmlmum number of trays, IClual reflux ratiO, actual
number of trays, number of trays in rcclifying sectlOD for optimum feed tray
location, and condenser and reOOiJer tempera lUres are output_

o""

D.1O

Properlies Used
Vapor-liquid equilibria and enthalpies arc employed,

References
F. W. WlDn. Perrot. Rrfiner, 31 (5): 216 (1958)
A. J V Underwood, eM"'- Eng. Progr.. 44 (8): 603 (1948).
E R. Gilliland and C S. Robinson, Elemenuof FrM'ional Dlstillotion,4th ed,
McGraw-Hl1l, ew York, 19SO, p. 347.

Block Lisl
List type
Unit name
Unil type
Name of feed
Name of houoms produce
Name of overhead product

DSTWU

BLOCK

DSTWU

Description
DSTWU (shoncut disliUalion) uses the Winn-Underwood method (sec References) 10 calculale Ihe overhead and holloms Slreams for a slOgie feed dislillalion
column with either a tOlal or a panial condenser; tbal is, the overhead product is
cieher saturated hquid or saturaled vapor. The desired column perfonnanoe is
specified as splits for lighl- and heavy-key components. The GiUiland correlation
(sec References) is used 10 cakulale eilher Ihe actual rdlux ratio for a given number
of trays or Ihe aClual number of lrays for a specified reflux ratio. The reflux TallO
may be given as either a fixed value or a mulliple of the minimum reflux. If Ihe

Parameler List
List 1)"JlC
Vml Dame
Index of first enu'Y
I. Heavy-key component number

2. Lighl-key component number

3. Split for light key, distillate mole fraction!

bottoms mole fraction
All pan.....,tcn for IbIS blod, a.c opt"....1 Default mlJoCl; a..,

1"n>c:tCn.

a~lancd

10

~C'O

and un.pc<:tJied

4. Spilt for heavy key, bouoms mole fraction!

dlsllllate mole fraction

PARAM

Tile ml.almum numl;lcr ul ,ea-etlons Ihnl elln bc.~pcciricd "<C. MCHC Ihllli 'OUI

re",ettolU ('41n be h"odled by plac:iltJ reactOr bloekll jn series. Up 1054:''(0 feed$ ClIO
be h:lnJkd by Il.EACT whM:h adds (he component Row ",let i.l\ one I'd 10 the
.nClOI 0 belt of rr....ClJon is calculated (or the fe:tCior~ tbe reactof Itmpel"lu'e
and p,essule must be spcr;ilic:d. The cmue(1I is ftllsbed iolo Hquid and vapor
prodllclS 11.1 lhe lI~ificd Icmper:Hule !tnd p.cuure 111"-"(1 rn:lduclj .~ spodfard
The output ciln he 3 tillgle sllt"~rn
1'lUlIrnele.t J is used 10 dclcillunc the blocl Iletton whetl lhe sptriraW
col\\trsion ls "rClIler th.n Ihe maximum po"sible oom'elsiol\ (when all we rellClll'll
it. deplclcd). A ....Ine or Ue'tllto(S ItI<'. bk>cJ: to !($C! Ihe ron\~IJli()n 10 Ibe fNuJmum

5. Q\,.I'ly of Iced (<<unpuled if 0)

Ii. Dc:slrC'd rcBul nll'O if pofitiyc: 11 Ie" ell.n -I. tbe

,dlu.1 181io u 1p(6}1lilhd lilt minImum rc:nUA
7. Oc$irtd number nays I

or

. Top pU:lOiure,

~a

9. Botwnl PCr5Sule. Ii.

10. CQndelucr ttre: 0 - 11)1:.l, t - parllJlI

1>.11

Rt:A<;r

possibk and ~onlimlle: u value or I causes llle-simufatM'lt1 10 lermioste wilh an eflor

Ill""""
The parame-ter hslJ allow 2S l,'OI)tJ)CKlltnu: '0' each of lhe 'our ,eactions.

DeuripcHln
REACT {themlc;lt r~Kl(u} is II ~loc~ whkb COtllputt.t. the ('ompOl;IJon nf lin
em~t strum fcom n reactor. The first reaction use5lhe cO",ponenl Row$ found in
the Ittd SHellm. A 5t'eOnd ("C.IIciiOD lloolJld usc lbe ftnaJ rtaCtion mass 01 the Grt

rcactlon IU. feed $1ream. This procedure is applied in a rimil;ar rnllOnne, to tbe thred
.',Id (ourlh ""ction,. The cuet compu18lion is as (O(lOWl:

Stoktnomenlc eoefflcicllu ro' conlrnnent, nO! ,n a luction should be 7.Cro,

Componenl$ DtC nunlberw ~lUe.n'UJlly f,qm t 10 1S tn Ihe l)ukr in which Ihey
oor:ur in the comrollenl list.
OUlptrl

GIro' mn:QSC~ prinlcd in lhe hu'lory arc u rollu..-.~

FEED

I-_RO~

lIT

WARNINO RE/iCnON x CONVERSION RljSI;;T"'O = V

If ~rameta J l!iSel II) 0 and )'OU specify if con",n$ion '01 leaction X hi&Jtc:r Ihlln the

muimum

i is Ihe Ith component '1'1 lhe

l~cLl<1rl

uses the: m:uimulll Y and continue,.

REACTION X EXCI!WS M..\

J"OSSIBLI! CONY Of V
If pl'itl1~tr:t J issei to I ,nd ,)'Ou spe<:if)' 3 conversion 'or t'Cllctioo X higMr 1han the
muimum po$;$ib~ V,lhe slmllialion is tenmnated.
REACTION X KE'" COM_I' FLOW. 0
f(Jf ,uclioo X lb~ Dow r.ale kn Ihe ~~clfi~ key OQmpooent " Uln. The
simulatit;m OQnllnut9 011 10 the nut rtSfcIM>n in the itqUCDt'e.

ROUT, -- ~EED; - WI~EO .,. )(' CONV~COEF,/COEF __)

whc;re

rvs~iblc.lbe block

alld

FEED. ... a,mount or'th oompolltl'll io Id stream

ROUT. = amount of lth oonlpOllcnl in emoenl Sinaln

PE.E.O.., . IImount <.rltey oompoocot io rced JII~m

key
.,.. key componrnl (8 (ClldalllJ

CONY frllclu:mal COn\'crflon (lr key component

COE.Fj = nlolat sfoichiom('ltle eceffideol of comJW'lf~nl ; (or the r~cl.ion:
pMitl'~ IIJI prndtJdll, nCI"t,ve 1m- reac:lllntf
COEF........ Molar sloichiomeuic coeffiMt or key oompol'lenc '<It (CkhO"
(1lIw'lly:S ncltlJ1h't, u.~f<1l1y - I)

FEED STREAM IS ZERO

AU 'ec<U It) lilt' bkd: ate zero The m\IlalK>n eonlinuell .'ilb !he' rtCll blOCk.
OUlput SUt3mS are $(,1 to lClQ"
ERROR IN MFlSH
The 8<l~ prOIt'IIn1 I:arfllOI fjJ)Jj Ibe enlhlllrr 0' lhe ail meams. Simulation I.
Icmrinlted_
MAX NO. REA :nONS EQU"L
Simulilton is terminatttl

, Ttrw 6.<N qll.lit," the ""',*,11 01 bul MlrlIo:I 0 Dl)lntl~ly "I'ltrln Ilit ~ d M,.,.( to,. It.> ~f;otttd
. .I fc'i'f<:,cno: bo:l~n <k- I1lII 1I11"tW"J'Oinl ""Ih.lpe..1 (l( Iht kt<1.

KEY COMI' COEF I'OSITIVE OR ZERO

Kt) eOfTlf")flCfll ct'ocmcitul nU1S1 be nca(n~ SimulatiOn it IC'ltllnalaJ

I rr Ipml. , .... ,lni,....

IllQttoi II l!l(t

UJt.

".ft...."... 1l1oi dmt", n_IlII1" (ltt'l)1o .ue ,,_,~ tllttl ,... dultN ,ftl...

.,# tl<>th

lIlIllI,

lk

~ONlII"l

8'\OClI do: ,dhI. Iv, I""U

l~

",ioom,,,, ,,"""'"

i\
('I

lUoc~ uUlpoll ((Jn~tslj. Or!he

-tnt' Iht

btock IUnpCo 1M ItlK.'IIOII

nalllc.'C ", Ihe input and tlulpUI !I,ca,n'll

l('tnpcratu~ Jln4 rld~tlre,

566

SRTKll< 0 II

PrOIH"r.ies

SECTION D,I

nAC1

U~ed

12. StOIchIOmetriC coefficient 6th component

I-.nthalples an: used.

31. Stolduomelnc codficlent 25th component

B1ocL.

Li~t

LISt tyJ)C

BLOCK

Unit namt
Unit type

REACT

arne of lsi feed stream

Name of 2d feed stream or 0
Name of 3d feed stream or 0
Name of 4th feed stream or 0
Name of 5th feed stream or 0
Name of 6th feed stream or 0
Name of 7th feed stream or 0
Name of liquid product stream or singh:
Name of vapor product stream or 0

Data for 211 reaction

32. Key compolKnl number
33. Fractlonal comersion for le)' componenl
34. SloichlOmetnC coeffiCient Jst component

58. Stolchlometnc coefficIent 25th component

Data for 3d reaction
59_ Key component number
60. Fractional conversion for key component
61. Stoichiometric coefficient 1st component
~trtam

output
83. StOIchIOmetric coefliClelll 25th (;omponent

Paramc(cr List

PARAM

List tyJ)C
Unit name
Index of first cOlr)

Data for 4th reaction

86. Key component number
87. Fractional com'euion for key component
88. Stoichiometric coefficient 151 (;omponent
112. StOlchlomctnc coeffiCient 25th component

I. Temperature of reactor, of

2. Pressure of reactor, psia

J. Terminate simulauon if specified conversion exceeds
maximum conversion: 0 = no, I = ycs.
... Number of reactions..

Data for 1st reaCllon

S. Key component number
6. Fractional conversion for ley component
7. StOIchiometric coefficient 1st component8. Stoichiometric coefficient 2d component
9. StoichIOmetric coefficient 3d component
10. SlOichiometric coefficient 4th component
II. Stoichiometric coefficient 5th component

('omponenl order 151M Older In .. tll~b lhe)' OC<:111

In

lhe componc:ol IIsl

..UCT

367

APPENDIX

TABLE .11
UtililM5 cosls
Ulilil)'

'~M

Pritt

ruei (0,1 Of IU)

10

S4.00/10 f Blu

UO

1'5..20/1000 Ib

Slum
600 I'l"I at 7WF
SlI1uratcd $ttam

COST
DATA

.......
,"' ....

'"

0"

ISO f"S'I
SO PSII
IS PS'.

0"

0.'"
057
10

E\eclrlat)'

07'

Coolin. walt.

H2
H

"2"

SllO<lj1<whr

SO.OJ/looo pI

If a desi~n IS based on dislorted prK:cs and Iheo the costs fC\'ert 10 1hC'lr normat
pauern.
A reasonable sel of factors 10 use IS given in Table E.I-l. Once the value of
fuel has been specified, Ihe costs or the other utilities can easily be calcut:ncd. Note
Ihallhe values ~iven in Table EI-J were not used IhroughoUllhis le"t Similarly,
IhC' costs used in different probkms arC' solllC'times different Howe\C'f. Ihe cos's
used in \arious problems arC' IdC'ntified as Ihe solutIon is dC've1oped.

.2 SUMMARY OF COST CORRELATIONS

E.I

OPERATING COSTS

Otemteals
Jbe costs of raw millrnals. produ(;'IS. and by-products can normally be found in the
:::n,mical Marluflflg Reporter. The values lisled arc the current market prices,

Nhich may be: significantly different from the price used in a particular company
xcause of long-term contracts. The costs of light gases usually arc not lisled in the
'::hernical Mar/Wing Reporlu because these materials often arc sold "over the
"coee" (3 vendor builds a special plant to produce these materials which is located
leX! to the site Ihal will use them) or a long-term contract is negotiated.

Ulililies

The 19705 have been a period of rapId cost escalllilon (see Fig 2.2-1 J), and so vC'r)'
feu cosl correlations were published during this period. We use Guthrie's cost
conelalions in this lext, whene\'er possible, 10 iIIuslrate costing procedures, bul
DOle thai Ihesc correia lions arc oul of dale. We updale Ihe correlations from the
mid-I968 valucs by using a ratio of the M&S indices, but this is not II
rocommC'oded practice: for such a long lime span. Instead, if an updaled sel of
company cost correlalions is not available. a designer should consult onC' or more
vC'odors C'arly io the cosling procedure 10 obtain more recent cost data
For our preliminary process designs, we use a simplified version ofGulhrie's
correlalions, The nonnal material (the base costs assume carbon steel) and
pressurC' correction factors are used to C'$timale the purchased cost, bUI the most
collSC'o'ari\'e base module cost factor is used to estimate the installed costs. This
approrimation corresponds to a conservative cost estimate.. For more accurale
estimalCS" Guthrie's book should be consulled,'

rhe best way to estimate the cost of utilities is 10 relate Ihe costs of any utility to its
~uivalent fuel value by using thermodynamics and Iypical efficiencies of (}Ower

:llants, turbines. boikrs., ciC. Market fluctuations might occur al times which makC'
.he valuC' of steam less Ihan Ihal orrue1, but large cost penahles can be eocounlered

568

K. M

vu(hr"".

uplla! Cost E5.lIl1U1ull",-c,,-

E"fI~ 76(6)

114 (Mafch 24, 19(9)

Craflsman Boot Co. Solana 9cach,

K. M G\lIhrir. PrOJ.J PI<IIfl ur...or.., l ....lllllt_ Mi Contro(,

Caltf. 1974

370

SECTION I!.I

SUlollolAn Of COST ronELAnoNS

st,cnuN "-I

Process Furn.l6ces

Oirecl-Fired Ilealer.!>

Mid1968 cost, box or A-frame construc!lon with multiple lube banks, fielderected.

Mld~196l:l

Purchased Cost, S =

('1280&5)(5.52 x

con~lruCllon,

cost, cylindrical
Purchased

where (!

when; Q = adsorbed duty, 10" Blufhr, 20 < Q <]00

SUIolMU\ 0'" COSI Cl.lklHAlk)NS

571

field cra:;tioll

CO~I, $ = (~~}5.07

X IO l )Qo

~)F,

IHborbed dUly, 10" Hlu/hr, 1 < Q < 30

f',=F.-if... t/<"

F,,,=,f.+F.. t F,
Installed Cost, S =

(~:S}5.52

x 1O)Qo 8)(1.27

+ FJ

100

1,000

500
300 J:::
100

..-

..-

30

1.--

....-

ttttI

30

JO

10

50

10

50

UJjJ

JOO 500 1,000

Absorbed dUly, 1()6 BlUthr
30 SO

100

FIGURE: 1':.1-1

rurnao::s. [K

M GUlllr/#!,
CIonn. Eng; 16(6) 114 (MlJull If.
1969}.)
PrOCCS!i

] 5
10
30 50
Absorbed dUlY. t()6 BlUthr

100

FIGURE 1:.2-2
Direct-fired healer. [X M. Gu,Ar/#!,
Eng., 76(6) JJ4 (Mwrh N, /969).]

TA8LE E..l_l

CorrecliOD faclors F< for Pf"0ces5 furnace

Jla;ip

Desip 1Yl'"

l.~

F.

bdiu!

P,QOe$S heater

UXl

Py,oly.i~

110
US

Carbon m,el
Chrome/moly
StalDless

Rc:ronnc:r (no c'llalys,)

.... Ien.t

F.

00
035
075

""

TABLE E.2-2

,.._re,
F.

UPIO~

000

1000

2500

0.10
0.11
025
0<0

JOOO

060

"00
2000

Correction ractors F, (or direct-fired healers

~alYP"

F,

Rad;"nt tu!loe malen.1

Cyhndncal
Dowtbcrm

133

'"

(brome moly

Carbon Sl[
Slamles~

".
00
"5
0>0

Oesip pr_e.

""

Up to 100

'000

"00

F.
0.00

."
020

Ch~m.

Gu Compressors

xchall~ers

lIeat

I\hd19~ C(l~l, ~hdl

Purchased Cost. S whc:r~ .-t

arl"a fl '; 2f10

fl.

Mld-1968 cost. centrifugal mach me, mOlor drive, base plale and coupling

and lube. compkte fabricalion

<':

("&5\

Purchased

280 rI0l_JA06SF,)
",here bhp

4 < 5000

" "'0 <> "

'"
'00
". '" ",

ro'
I ()"Yl I n

<S,

"

"OOn

SS

Bra"

ln~lalled Cost. S =

("&5)
280

"

"'~,

SS

Mond

"'>md

11'i

no

'"

1011A 06s (229

'",
19'i

Inslallw ('OSI, S -

,
"
11 (l'i

+ r,)

m<

bhp < 10.000

280
("&5}

'i17<i)(bhp)ou(211

'.000

500

"c
0

300

/'

100

"c~

<l

100

../1

, so
" 30 SO 70 loo;;;;---L300..!n,J;500Y-IfJ.llOOO;;;;-~3-!.000~W
U
t

30

S
3

hor~power;

IlF,

F, = F.

F~IF_

Shell-andTubc 1alcnal = F.
Surfaor a,u.

brake

CO~I. S".., (~~Sf517_5)(hhP)O

Bake horscpowe:r. bhp

n(a:R[ J...4
FlGURE: E..l-J

1
100

JOO 500 1.000

3,000

10.<XX>

Surface area (calculated), ff2

Correction facfOf'S for

Correction f."lors for heal c\':chanli:eI"S

..

Compressol"!i

~2I1pr~.

~t,,1f

0,

KClIk. robo,kr

III

U-Ilibe
n~ed lube

~I>CCI

Process Pi COUlprtSSOn and d .. ~ (K At G"'N",

TABLE E..2-4

TABLE: E.l-J

FloaIHlI! head

Sbe:U-arod-llibe beal ~~c:banrrB (Ao U

GIIIMw, 0-.. btg~ 16(6)- 1/. (Uoo-d1
U./969).]

0,

Uplol50

000

100

000

0"

.."

0""

""
''''''

02'
0"

""

'"

0e0p

'y,.. F,

"-"'10<

('nllnfllpl. motor
RCC1proall,ng. steam

1.00

('enfn)rll~l. turbrne

'"
'"'"

.reap

~n- molm

ROClp'CIClIlm~

S'"

cn~,,1C

00'

a.m..

fj,q_ 76(6)- I U (M.......' 14. .'9I'tfJ)]

574

SlJIoolM ... n

SHTION U

Of"

con

COUli ... no... s

s~cnoN

Pressure VcsSt'h., Columns, Reaclor.,

E-l

SU.uo..... n or COST COIlEU.noNS

575

TASU:U5

Correclion faClOrs for pressurr 'tssel;,

Purl:haJ.ed COSI. S = ( M&..S\

21)
101 90' o""lIu u f)

\\here

I) =

dliJrncter. rt

II = helghl.

L'p

F.

rt

'0

'00

j()

'"

'00

..,
""I"'"

soo

'20

'"

115

IH

"'"
,so

'00

'"" "'"

""00

I."

190 230

250

2S0

Installed Cost, S = (

+ F.)

~=

,..'"

, 0'

'"

1 - i...<. ::O

~/

50
40

.".

~V

//

'~~~ rV

1//

VV

,
~~

3ll
2

2
I

07f-<V
05

rl
F.

I
I

7
5 Vertical f",brtcation
3

M&S\,
280 j.7D I HHF,

IOO'~J--'--'-'l,.qii-'L.L~

V/ V

-f

5O'ooo'~ml
i 3ll,OOO~

;SO

."
'"

H "" tray slack heighl, (t (24-10 spacmg)

F, = F. + f,

.,.
'"

Distillation Column Truys and To~('r Inlernab

where D "" diameter,

Installed \0;,1 S = (M&S)IOI 91)' o"Ho IOJ(2.18

65
4

225

'62

r.f.

F. =
f>,U>ule

100
'00

FlGUR.E .2...

Tra) slack helghl, Ii (2-1"10 spacing)

DwdbuOClcoIWllGUlIY'LA '" G"I/r

.~. C"- ng~ 76(6) 114 (M....,. U
1~9).)

TABLE U--6

COrTeclion fMCIOD for column Ir.. ,.!>

v--- Honzonl'll labricatlon

T n.y ~paan.. In
F,
Tra) Iypc

"10

""

God
(00 do.... n
cOIner)

F,
TUlltUlenal
F.

00

"

22
!'Lile

..

00

Ci

SS

00

"

MoDel

SIC\"e

00

TrOUllh

K~h

o. valve

Bubble
ap

KQCllde

"

"

"

576

Sl'M'l<lN EJ

SUMIolUl' ~ ~T rouFl....not<S

5E("TION P2

To... er picking"

3-PSI maxImum dlschar~.

....... sm'

"'c..n'~ .... bon

'"
n.
,

Purchased
where Q ""

"
"

h~l ....ne

Stoncw..r

~ddln

70
702
14S
159

St..",1e5s
Sln...,..':t,e

l'OIcd.,n

am and

CO'iI

;~S)39.7QI) 'J"

100 < Q < 10.000

100p<;1 maxImum discharge:

212
Ilflp

Porc.....on
1.1n a.:rl

577

From Peters and Timmerhaus." Januar) 1967 cost. sec Fi@. E.2-7
M ft'i... ....

S1hc:1 reI
I-In Rasch"

or C'OSl ronELATlOt<S

Turbo Blolo"ers

TABLE .:'1-7

"'lun"nl
Coh
C,ushed

SUMMARY

Purchased Cosl =

(~:S}26.5QO 'Q~

where Q = cfm and 1000 < Q < 30,000.

3O-psi maximum discharge;
Purchased Cost =

C;:~)838.7QO.U

.... here Q = cfm and 2000 < Q < 15.000 Assume IOstallallon raclor ., 40

10

_Turbo blowers
3O="psl max. dIscharge
100psi maJl. dlschaIg
~ JKi max discharge

10'

"TITTTT
Rotary blo...-er
10-p.si max. dischar

,V

Centrifugal blov.'Cr
I 0' i!

"
E

17

<

17

V-

I 0'

Heavy-duty blowel ,

J-in . .stalK: P'"

10'
I~
Capacity, ft'/min

<

""'"'

""'!" Jan. 19671 o

10'

f"IGLIl. 1:..2--7

8lM.en jhca~,-duly, mdu~ln.1 1~J't:1

(I,,,," J.f .OJ Pn,,, nnd K D TUJlnW:'htN.. PIQ1II nr"q" aruf

Erottom.o /t1If (~m.(Q) Enoj,,,",,. td rd. J.fcG,n ..~JIIII, N~ ..' I",. 1980." J,61)

M S Peters aDd K D T'lllrMlh.u<, MPbnl Ilf-<>,:" Ind rCt>oomlCS ror OlCrmetl EngHlecrs.M~ ~
MeG,... Ihl~ Ne... YOlk, I9'lQ P 562

4PI'NI)IJr

Force

APPENDIX

I Ibf = 4 4482 (kg m,o'sl)

_ 32.174 Jbmft/s J
_ 4 4482 x 10' dyn (I' cnu 2 )

Heal Load-Also see PO""er

CONVERSIO
FACTORS

1 Btulhr _ 029307 w

Heal-Transfer Coefficient
I Btu/(hr (tl"F)=5.6782w/(ml."q
=

1.3571 x IQ-ca!f(cm J s"C)

Length
Ift=03048m

Mass
I Ibm "" 045359 kg
I ton (shorl) = 2000 Ibm

Pressure
Area

I atm .. 14.7 psi

I (II

= 0.0929 m J
= 144 in J

I psi _ 6894.76 N/m J (dyn/cm l )

POl\er-AIso see Heal Load

Density
Ilb/fl) ""' 16018kg/m)
.. 1/62.4 g/cm)
I Ib mole of an ideal gas, 0"<:' I aim'" 359.0 (t]
lib mole of alf, O"C I aim'"' 0.0807Ib/{t)

I hp ... 550 {(Ibfjs

- 07457 kw
... 2546.7 Blu/hr

Specific Heal

Energy-Also see Work

I Btu ""' 252 cal
= 1.055 kJ
= 7779 {(Ib{
_1929 x 10 4hphr
= 29307)( 10- kwhr

51.

I Blu'(lbm .0F) _ 4.1869 kJ/(kg"q

Work-Also see Energy

1 ft Ib{ a 1.2851 X 10 ) Btu
= 17662)( 101" w hr

COKYUSION

r 4ClOU

579

AP'EJ'lOIX ,

('ONHUIOtol fAClOU

Velocity
I fIls""" 03048 mls
Vicosil)'

IlbmlCrt s) = 1 4881 J..@.'(m s)

I Ibm (fl hr) "" 4 I J '8 'I( 10 19/(CIl1 sl

INDEXES
Volume
I rt J _0028lI7m'

= 28.32 L
= 7481 gal

581

AUTHOR

INDEX

Aerstln. I .. 51~
AIChE, 417
Allen. D 11.7
Andrecc'I\ich. M J. 272. 481 485

Erbar. J H; 443
E\ans. LB. 35

Fair.) R_.13 31.74 135,151,171.

Baa'it'l. W D_.514
Balle~. J E.40R
Banchero. J T. 65 68. 291
Barro.... , M. 1-1. 487
Biegler. L. T .. 381. 400
Boland, D., 227
BoUes. W. L. 112. 1]5, 285 286
Bro.....n. B E.. 285 -286
Brown, G. G; 454

Caldarola, GA. 192. 198, 201

Chien. 1-1., 475
Chilton. C. H. ]]. 4]5, 451. 454-455.
461.491-494. SOB
Colburn. A p.. 4] 1 434. 460

Deal,

c. H., 508

Den. E. L.. 508

m
Fldko....ski. Z. 475
Fisher. W R. 319. ~:'5. 312. 336. -'4'.
345.354.364 367. -J07, 415. 450
Flatz, W. 412
Flower, J. R., 219
Forder, G. J., 412
Franklin, W 8.,431

GIlliland, E. R_. 437. 439 440,443.

485
Glinos. K_. 173, 178. 180 181. 184.
335,443.450.461. 464 465.
468-478
GrayOn. H G.., 543 546
Grossmann. 1 E. 281. 381. 400. 412.

50S
Grumc:r. E. L., 15, 102
Guthrie. K. M., 33-34, 569-577

Diaz. H. E.. 6
Doherty. M. F; 191-192. 195 204.
214. ]19, 325. ]]2, 336. 34]. 345.
354. 364-367. 407. 415. 450
Douglas.J M_.14 15.117.164 165.
178. 273-282. 293-294. 298 303.
306.309-314,319.325.3]1 332.
3]6.343.345.354.364 367.407.
415.445.450,461.464,478
Dunford. H. 265
Duran. M A. 281
D)-bdal. E. C; 113. 134

EdmIster. we. 4 -' 1. 498 5(l(J

Edul].11 F.441

Hachmuth. K. H. 42F
Hadden. S. T. 543 546
Hand, w. E. 33
Hap~l. J., 33. 295, 460. 514
Hasebe.
412
lIashimoto. I.., 412
Hengstebed:. R J.. 6568.291
Hindmarsh, E. 227. 236. 267
Hogsett, J. E. 171
Hohmann, E. C, 219. 2_'4
1I0rton. G . 4]1
Iiougen. 0 A .305. 516
lIughn. R R_. -'70-371

s..

5115

586

AmHOl INDU

AUTHOl 1i'lDL\

Inglo.':by, 5, 450
Irnbarren, 0,110,410
Itoh, J., 219

Mazur, W H, 171
MOlard, R L,92
M yri:Hbem, eM, 110

Jarare)', A, 331, 336, 445

Jordan, D G., 33, 295, 460 461,51 ..

~adl!1r. V !\I

tJ2

~alh,

R, 92
N.. 178
l"lshlmura, II J . 19~
~l~hlda.

Karaml, A I.. 412

Kentar, 5_. 411
Kmg, C J. 167,448
Kirkwood, R. L, 180
Kmght, JR., 204, 450
Kremser, A, 82, 427
Krolikowski, L,475
Kyle, H. E., 15

Lang, II J, 33
Lang, V D., 381, 400
Levenspcil,O., 157-158,320
Le\y,5 G, 191, 195-204,214
Lmnholr, B., 219, 227, 234, 2]6,
259 261,265,297
Llu. Y A., 92
Lockhan, F. J .. 475
Loonkar, Y R.. 412
Lu, MD., 92

McAvoy, T 1,331,336,445
McKella, J. J., 8, 72, 112,134 135,
358,361,518
Maddox, R. N., 443
Malone, M. F., 94,110,173,178,181,
184, 335,410,44],450,461,
464 465, 468 478
Marek, J., 92
M.arque:t., F E., 178,461,464
Malsuyama, H. 198

O'Connell, II "',435 436

Ollis, 0 F, 408
Overturf. B W, 412

Page, R. C, 7
Pauls, A C, 370 375,548
Perry, R H" 435, 451, 454 455,461,
491-494. 508
Peters, MS. 33. 37 40,87.91,195,
S03, ;07, 577
Pham. H N .. 204
PlCrO!tl.. G 1,508
PIgford, R L.. 431
Plluhk. A., 6
Powers, G J., 92
Prausmtz, J 11.1., 106. 508

Rase, H F., 307, 487

Reid, R C, 106, 508
Reklailis, G V.,412
Rlppin, D. W 1.,412
Robinson, C S. 437, 439 440,443,
480
Robinson, J D., 412
Rod, V., 92
Rossller. A P. 408 ..09,450
Rudd, D F,92, 178. 181

Saccrdoll, I:. D, 17
Sargent, R W 11,412
Saw}.:r, E. W, 526
~ader,J O,I7S,370 375,475,548
Seider, W 0, ]70375,548
SheltOn. M R, 505
Shn\\ood. T 1\ 106, 431. ~lS
Shuoko, K, 219
Smola, J J.,92
SJlsb), R I, 526
Smlth,B 0,431,456
Smith, R , 265
Smoker, E H., 444
Souders, M.. Jr., 454
Sparro\\. R E.,412
Slcphanopoulos, G, 178
Stoekar, U V.. 431
SUCCI. G. 515
SlUpm, \\' 1,475
S\\3ml, S. 114

Talamal5u. T" 412

Ta~lor.J Ii. 7
Tedder. 0 W., 178, 181
Ternll.O L 19,273 283.309-314
Thau;:her. C M" 6
Tlmmerbaus. K 0 .. 33, 37 40.87,91.
295,503.507,577
TOloloDscnd. W 0, 10,234,261,265.
291

581

Umed,l, 1., 219

Underwood, A J V. 56]

\all

Dt>negen, 0 8., 191, 19" 203.

21 ..

Vrede\tdd, D R, 227

Walson, K. M.. 305, 526

W8ybum. T L,475
Wcnner, R W., 113, 1]4
Wessel, Ii E.. 45
Wel>lerberg, A W., 178, 204. 272, 475,
481 485
Wilke, C. R., 4]1
Winn, F W.,443
Woodcock, D. C. 29] 294,298303,
306, 409
Woods. J M, 412

Yorl, R_, 526

Zimmerman, C C.. 526

SUBJECT
INDEX

Ab~I.l(bcl.

Il. 73, 1611

adldb;itk;., 88 90
ahernatnc:s.74 II')
b....... -e..f-the-en ..dopc model, IB,
427
Colbllrn'~ melhoJ, 43 I 434
cos!. 457
design equ3UOnlt., M2 M4,425 430
design problem, 74 90
de~lgn procedure, 514
diameter, 454 457
energy balance~ 80 81
flooding, 454 457
fractlonal recovery, 77, 86 89
heat effects, 429 430
height. 453
Krem~r equation for Ira}:>. 83.
417 430
matenal balaoces., 76-79
mtnlmUm sohenl now. 88 90
mulllcompooent.431
lIumbc:r of plales., 83. 425 436
pdcled w.... ers, 431 435,460,514
plale efficiency, 435 436
pressure. 82
rule~ of thumb, 76 77,85 89
shoncul design for plates., 83.
4~6 436
!>Ohent. ~3
sohent flo .... rate, 77, 85 86
schent los5., 78 80
lempcrature, 74 76, 83
AcetiC aCid, I' 2, 134, 138, 140, 160
ActllC anb}dnde, 112. 134, 138, 140,
160,213
Acclone. 20. 112. 134, 138, 140,
147 148,152.160 161,213
absorplloo, 72-81
condensation, 490 507
Acr~ hc aCid, 152
Adlaballc temperature change,
141 149
Ad~orpllon, 13,73. 168
AII.xallon of costs. 297 302

Alternatnes
cost diagrams, 2li9 315
economIC evaluation of. 63.
289315
flo .... shecIS, 74, 116. 303
heat-elllhangcr networllt.. 140,
3{)9-)15
IdentlfYIng. 119, 30J
number of, 4, lb
retrofit. 354 368
scrc:c:mng: companson b)
desJglllng each,S
cost diagrams, 289 315
elimlllallon uSlllg beunSllcs, 5
oplimlzatlon, 319-349
solvent recovery. 73, 81
(Ste 1l1so Hydrodealk)lallOn of
loluene proo:ss)
Ammoma s)othesls- 153
Annuity, 52
Approach temperature, 222, 196, 324
Area of heat exchangers, 233-236
ArtIst's approach (set' Englllcrnng
method)
Azeotrope, 21, 143, 174
AzeotropJc dJslJllallon. 185 1&6
dlstillallon boundanes, 189 194
feed compositiOn, 192 194
mlllimum rcflux ratio, 194 ~04

Back-of-the-envelopc calculations
(see Shorlcul designs)
BasJC research, 8
Batch proo:.c:sses, 16, 107 110.
11 4 115,409-412
Benzene, 8 15.20 21.23. 113.
126 1l2, 134 135, 138, 140.
142,147 148. ISO, 153.
160 161,207 208,213,
518 542
Benzoic aCid, 22, 213
Blower co:.t, 516

591

392

SUBJf.n I"D~;X

SUIJECT INDEX

Boundmg solullons, 90 93,464 465

Bubble points, 428
Butadiene (see Butadiene sulfone)
Butadiene sulfone, 135, 161, 213
Butane alkylation, 135, 140. 161, 213.

Butene (set' Butane alkylation)

Capital charge factor (CCF), 60

Capital costs, 23. 29, 32
contingencies, 41 ~42
correlations, 33-37, 569~577
cost diagrams, 289-315
depreciation. 46
direct cost. 41-42
fixed capital, 37. 41-42
Guthrie's correlations, 34. 569 577
indirect costs, 41 42
inflation factor, 36
inside battery limits (ISOl). 41 42
installation factors. 29, 33 35
offsite C05t, 41-42
onsite cost. 41-42
\s, operating cost. 48 54,354-368
outside battery limits (OSBl),
41-42
owner's cost, 41 42
start-up cost, 40-42
tolal capital investment, 37-42
vendor's quote. 33
working capital, 29. 37, 41-42, 70
(See a/50 Cost: Profit)
Cascade dia8-ram, 220-222
Cash flow. 48
Catalyst deactivation. 103
Centrifuge.408-410
Complex distillation columns,
ISO 182,466 478
Compressor cost, 155 156,329,573
Compre~~or de~ign. 153 155,490.
513
computer-aided de~lgll. 557
refrigeration processes, 490 507

Computer-aided design (CAD),

369 404
computer inFormation diagram. 381
controllers, 389
convergence, 378, 559
equipment subroutines, 373-375,
550-567
roxecutive. 370
flash calculations, 382-387,
550-553
Iterations, 389
physical property data, 371, 379
sequential modular, 377
starting values, 381
stream tearing. 377
thennodynamics, 371
Computer infonnation diagram. 381
Conceptual design (see Process
synthesis)
Condensation, 13,73,168
Condenser, 458, 487-488
Consecuti\'e reactions, 113
Conservation of money, 49
Constraints. 105.210,357-368
Continuous interest, 49-54
Control,414-416
Convergence, 378, 559
Conversion, 17, 94, 124, 145, 150.
157,209,296,320,324-327,
341~349

Con\'ersion factors, 578-580

Cooling water, 75. 458
cost, 328-332
Cost:
capital (see Capital costs)
cooling water. 328-332
data, 106, 569-577
diagrams. 289 315
distillation, 330. 457, 460. 461,
574 577
equipment (see Capital costs)
estimates. 23 71
opcratlllg (see Operating cosl~)
product. total. 37. 43
revenue. 44 48

Cost diagrams, 289 315

cost allocatiOltS, 297-302
heat exchangers. 297
process streams. 300
heuristics, 295
operaling costs. 289-315. 354,
358 360
significant design variables. 296
structural modifications, 296
Cost models, 327-332
Creative activity, 4-5
Crystallization, 187 -1 88, 408--411
C)"c1ohexane, 23. 134, 142, 150. 161,
213

Decomposition, 8, 17
Design:
costs of developing. 7
optimum (see Optimum design)
types, 6
\ariables (see Conversion; Molar
ratio of reactants; Pressure;
Temperature)
De..... points, 438
Diethylbenz.ene (see Styrene)
Diethylcther (see Ethanol)
Diluents,153
Diminishing returns, 6
Dipbenyl (see Hydrodealkylation of
toluene process)
Discounted-cash-flow rate of return
(DCFROR), 56-59. 70
(See 0150 Profit)
Discrete compounding, 50-54
Disproportion of toluene, 66, 213,
290-293
Distillation:
alternatives, 182 188
applicability, 175
azeotropes, 189-204
bubble point. 438
complex column~, 180 182.
466 478
compoSItions, 436. 450, 509

593

DistillatIon (COTII.):
computer-aided design, 397. 553,
562 564
condenser, 458
cooling water requirement, 458
costs, 330. 457. 460. 461, 574 577
dCl'lgn equalJOlls, 436 453
deSign procedure. 508 511
dew point, 438
diameter. 454-457, 510
energy integration, 264 272,
478 485
FellSk e- U nderwood-Gillila nd
procedure, 439-444
Fenske's equation for minimum
plates. 441
flooding, 454-457
Gilliland's correlation. 439 441
heat integration, 264 272
height, 453. 510
heuristics for sequencing, 462
McCabe-Thiele method. 450
material balances, 436, 450, 509
minimum reflux ratio, 194-204,
441-444, 447
number or plates, 439-453
packed tower. 460
pasteurization columns. t 73,469
Petlyuk columns, 472-476
plate efficiency. 451-453
prdractionator, 476--478
pressure, 436-437. 509
reboiler, 459, 512
reflux ratio. 197-204,296,321-325,
341-349,441-444
relative volatility. 438, 448-450
sequencing. 10, 175-182,461 465,
511
sidestream columns, 12, 466
sidestream rectifiers and strippers.
470 471
simple column~, 175 180
Smoker's equation. 444 447
splits, 436, 450, 509
stream requirement, 459

594 SUIJECT

II'lDVl

$UIJECT II'lOU

Distillalion (ConI.):
Underwood's equations: minimum
reflux, 441 444
plales, 448
vapor rate, 463
(Su also Azeolropic dJslilJation)
Dominant design variables, 319 350

Feasible matches, 237

Drums:

Feed distribution, 157 158

COSt, 67
ftash (set' Flash)
Drying. 408 41 I

Economic pOienlial, 61, 64, 73

)evel 2. I 3O~ I 32
level 3, 158-159
)e~1 4, 188-189
EconomIC trade-offs, 5, 319-350,
356-357
Economics, englnccnng. 23-71
Economy of scale, 104
EffCClive interest rate, 51-54
Electricity COSI, 32
Energy conservation (Slit Heatexchanger networJu)
Energy inlegralion. 10
distiJlalion, 264-284.478-485
heat and power, 261-264
(SI!I! also Heat-exchangcr
networJu)
Engineering method, 5-g, 20
Environmental constraints, 5, 143
Equilibrium limitations, 15, 141,
149-153
Equipment COSt (UI! Capital costs)
Equipment sizes, 23
Equipment subroutines, 373-375,
550-567
Ethane cracking, 112, 135, 161,
286-287
Ethanol, 21,134,143-144,152,161
Ethyl acrylale, 152
Ethylbenzene (sel! Styrene)
Ethylene, 21, 112, 134 135, 143
Extent of reaction, 128 129

Extraction, 181~ I85

Extraclive: dislillalion, 184

Fenske's equal Ion for mimmum

plates. 441
Filter, 408-41 1
Finite differenct: calculus, SO-54
First law, 218, 225, 230
FiJl:cd capital investment, 37, 41-42
Flasb:
cakulations, 166 168
computer-aided design, 382-387,
5SO-553
splits, 9
Aowshccl:
absorber (stripper), 75
decomposition. 8, 17
input-output structure of lYe
Input-oUlput Slructure of
llowsheet)
processes: atttone from
isopropanol dehydrol!:enation,
18,294
benzene from toluene
hydrodealkylation, 8-17,
216~284, 297~315

benzoic acid rom loluene

oxidation, 21
cycioheJ.ane from benzene
hydrogenation, 24
disproportionation or toluene 10
give benzene and xylene, 66,
213,289-293
ethane cracking to ethylene, 286
ethanol from ethylene and water,

20
ethyl benzene from benzene and
ethylene, 19
hydrodc:sulfurization, 285
recycle struClUre of (see Recycle
structure of ftowshcet)
FLOWTRAN, 369 4O-t, 548 567

FLOWTRAN (Com.);
equipmenl subroulines, 373 375,
550-567
IIlput data, 371
physical propeny data, 371 373
thermodynamICS opllons, 372
Fractional recoveries, 296, 325,
341-349
Fuel cost, 32
Furnace, 329. 489, 513
cost, 570-571

Gas absorber (su Absorber)

Gas compressor, (sa Compressor
desIgn)
Gas rec)cJe and purge, 9,126-128,
209, 324, 520 522
Gasolll)e, 135
(Sel! abo Butane alkylauon)
Gl\hland's correlauon for dIStillatiOn,
439---+41
Grand composile cune, 224
Grassroots plant, 41, 70
Guthnc's correlatIons, 34, 569 577

Hazards, 417-420
Heat:
and dlsuJlation integration,
264-284, 478-485
and power integration, 261 264
Heat carrier, 149
Heat effecls, 142, 146-149
Heat engines, 261
Heat-exchanger design, 486 489,
511-514
COSI, 572
Heat-exchanger networks:
area eSllmates, 233~236
heaHransfer coefficienls, 234,
486-487
computer-aided desIgn, 399
cost model. 327

59S

Heat-exchanger networks (COrll.):

design of minimum-energy
networ~s, 236-261
algonlhm, 257-261
alternatives, 240
capital vi. operatlOg cost tradeoff,251-256
complete design. 244
design above the pinch, 236-241
dC'S1gn below the pinch, 241-244
distillation columns. 264-271,
478-485
eliminating CJ,changen, 251
energy relaxation, 251
feasible matches, 237
heat engines, 261
heat pumps, 263
heurisucs, 238, 248, 251, 260
loops, 248, 251-256
optimum approach lemperalUre.
24.
paths, 248
plOch matches, 239
stream splilling. 257-261
mmimum healing and cooling
rcq uired, 216-230
approach temperature, 222
cascade diagram, 220
first-Ia .... analysis, 218, 225
grand composite curve, 224
limitations, 229
minimum approach temperature,
222

minimum utility loads, 222

multiple utilities, 227
phase changes, 228
pinch temperature, 222
lemperature-c:nthalpy diagram,
222-224
temperature intervals, 218-220
minimum number of exchangers,
230-233
first law, 230
independent problems, 231
loops, 231
second law, 232
retrofit, 354-368

596

SU.J~CT II"DX

SUBJECT INDFJC

Heat pumps. 263

HeaHransfcr coefficiellts, 234,
486 487
Heuristics,S, 9, 85. 90 91
approach temperature In heat
exchangers, 92 93
batch processes, lOS
compressIOn ratio, 155
con~-ersion, 94. 145
cost diagrams, 295
dlSllllalion column scquencll1g.
91 92.177 178.180 184,
461-466.511
fraclJonal recovery. 77, 86~88
hcal-exchangcr fKtworks, 227. 231.
238,248,251.260.284
heal loads, 14g
II1pul-output s!ruClUre. 13]
hmllallOM, 88~89
minimum trays In a dlsullallon
column, 91
numtX'r of product streams,
121~123

optimization, 345
pipe: H:IOCIty, 91
reactor con~erslon (smglc:
reaction), 94. 145
reactor dcsign. 157
recycle structure, 160
separallon system. 163 165,
21 1~212
solvent flow In gas absorber. 77,
85~86

Hierarchical design proccdure

batch processes, 409 410
pertochemical processes, 8 16, 407
solids processes. 408 410
Hierarchical plannmg. 17
Hydrodealkylalion of toluene (I"IDA)
process, 518 542
alternativcs: feed purificatIon, 304
punfy gas-recycle Slream, 306
recycle of dlphenyl, 304
dlphenyl recycled, 20, III, 1J3,
161. 213, JOJ JI5
dlphenyl removed ad13balle

Hydrodealkylallon of toluene (IIDA)

process. diphenyl removed
(Conl.):

temperature risco 14 7~ 148, 524

alternativcs. 132,522.541
benzene oolumn, 535 -537
case study, 518-542
compressor, 524
computer-aided design, 375 40]
.:onstramts, 307
cost diagram. 297-303
decisions. 520, 530-541
decomposition of fIowshcct.

"

distillation, 397. 530 541

distillation column sequencln@.
531
economic pOienual. I JO 1]2.
ISS 159,188-189.522. 527,

54.
ecooomic trade-offs. 12J~ 124,
158-159,18g 189
energy integralion. 216 284
flash calculations. 167.528
heat-ellchanger net\l.ork.
216 284.399,542
heat load. 147, 524
hydrogen purification. 134, 52'0
mput data. 107.518-520
input-output structurt:, 520523
levels of detail, 8 15
number of reactor systems. 138
operating cost diagram, 360
overall material balances.,
126 130,521-522
reaclor size and cost, 526
rt:CycJe and purge, 120, 520
rcqde compressor, 524 526
recycle material balanCt:S,
142-14],145,523
retrofil. 358 368
revcrsible by-products, 149,520
rigorous material balances.
204 211
sclt:Ctlvlty data. 'i19
~tabihzcr, 5]7 541

Ilydrodealkylation of toluene (IIDA)

process, diphenyl removed
(Com.):
loluene column. 532-535
vapor recovery system, 169 170,
519
H)'drodesuUuriz.ation, 285, 287
Hydrogen. 8-15, 20. 23

Independent plOblems. 231

Input information:
constraints. 105
COSI data. 106
ph)"slcal property data. 105
plant and site data, 105
product purity, 104
production rale. 104
ray, matenals, 104
reaction information. 99 103
Input-output structure of ftoVl:shttt.
15.116-136
dt:51!D ~-ariabks. 124
c:xccssrcactants,l20 121
gas reqde and purge. 120
DumtX'r of product streams.
121-123
o~erall material balances. 123 130
purification of reed streams.
118-119
reco\-er or recycle re\'ersiblc byproducts, 119 120
Inside ballet')' limits (ISBl), 41 42
InvCSInlt:Dt (st'e Capital COSIS)
lsobutane (see Butant: alkylation)
lsooctane (Sl'e Butane alkylation)
lsopropano~ 20, 134, 147-148, 152.
213
Ileralion, 389

K ~'alucs" 543 -546

Ketene (set' Acetic anh)'dride)

591

Levels of designs (St'l! Design, types)

Limitations:
heat-ellchanger nety,ork dcsign,
229
opliml:lation procedure, 327
synthesis procedure. 15
llmitmg reactant, 142
liquid separation system. 10 13.
172-204
alternath'CS 10 dIstillation
azc:otroplc diSlillation. 185
crystallization, Ig7~188
ClItractlOn, 182-185
ClItraCtlH: distillation. 184
rcacthe distillation, 187
;azco(ropes with reactants, 174
distillalion: applicabitit). 175
complex oolumns. 180 182.
466-478
sequencing of simple columns.
175-182. 461-465. 511
mteraClJon with process. 178
hght ends. 173-174
multiple- dlstlltalloD sequences, 179
Loo~, 2]1. 248-256

McCabe-ThICk method for

distillation. 450
Marshall and Swift (M&S) Index.

3"
Material balances:
absorber (stripper). 76-79
approximate, 78
computer-aided design, ]75~]96
equilibrium conversion. 150
linear, 204-211
overall (reeds and products).
123130,521522
recycle, 142 145,523
reversible by-products, 146
rigorous,2Q4 211. 375 396
solvent loss from absorber, 78
vapor leco~'c:ry system, 169 170

598

suaJ~cr INlJlX

SUlIJlocr INOD:

Malerial lemperature ranges, 547

Membrane separator~, 13,73, 168
Melhane.8 15,20
Methyl isobutyl kelone (MIBK), 79
Muumum coohng required, 216 230
Minimum-energy heat-cxchanger
networks, 236 251
Minimum healing n:qulrcd, 216230
Molar ratio of reactants, 17, 124,
140 142, 157,324 327
Monomers, 152
MOrlgage payments, 69
Multielfecl distillalion, 48
Muhipass heal exchangers, 49

Nominal interest rate, 50 54

Olfsile cost, 41 ~42

On site cost, 41-42
Open~ended design problems, 4
Operating cost diagram, 354,
358-360
Operating costs, 23-25, 32
vs. capital cost, 48-54, 354 368
cooling water, 328-332
(See afso Utilities)
cost diagrams, 289-315, 354,
358-360
direct product cost, 43-45
insurance, 43-45
interest, 43-45
labor, 43-45
laboratory charges, 43 45
manufacturing costs, 43 45
opera lor. 45
overhead, 44
raw malerials, 15.43 45
rent, 43 45
repairs and maintenance, 4]-45
royalty. 43 45

Operaling COSts (COnt):

sales, research, admmistration and
engmeering (SARE) cost,
43 45
start-up cost, 40
steam. 328 332
(See also [JI1I!IY COSIS)

superVtSlOn, 43-45
supphes,43 45
laxes., 4] 45
utilities. 25, 43-45, 328-]]2,
568-569
(See a/so Cost)
Operating time, 73
Oplimum design, 62, 319 350
3pproach temperatures, 246
retrofit, 356-368
\ariables. 124, 209
Order of magnitude, design
estimales, 7
Outside ballery limits (OSBL), 41-42
Oxygen. 2, 120

Packed absorber (see Ab~orber;

Distillation)
Parallel reaclions, II]
Partial condenser, 173
Pasleurization dislillation column,
173,469
Paths. 248-256
Payout lime, 55
(See also Profil)
Pellyuk distillation columns, 472 476
Phase changes, 229
Phosgene, 141
Physical property dala, 105,371.379,
SOH, 543- 546
Plllch:
dIstillation, 264
heat engines, 261
heat pumps, 263
Pinch matches, 239
Plllch lemperature. 222
Planl and sile data, 105

Planl design, ddinitiun of. 3

Plale ellklency:
absorbers, 435 4]6
distillation columns, 451-45]
Plate gas absorber (see Absorber)
Power and heat inh:gration, 261 264
Power cost, 32
PrefractlOnator di~lJlIation column~,
476 478
Pre~nt \alue, 53-54
Pressure, 124, 157. 324
absorber. 82
distillalion columns, 436-437, 509
Problem definition (see Input
infonnation)
Process ahernatives (see Alternatives)
Process constraints, 105
Process control, 414-4 J 6
Process design definition of, 3
(See also Process synthesis)
Process flowsheet (see Flowsheel
processes)
Process retrofits, 64. ]53-368
Process synthesis.
batch \s. conllllUOUS processes, 110
creat1\e activity, 5
definillon of, 4, 110
hierarchical procedure, 8
heatcxchanger network, 216-218
Input infonnation, 99-107
input-output structure, 116-136
recycle structure, 137 -162
separation system, 163-215
Product purity, 104
Production rate, 104
Profit, 23, 47-48
measures: discountcd-cash-f1ow
rate of return, 56
payout time, 55
return 00 investment, 31, 55
model,61
after tales, 47-48
before tales, 45 46
Proximity parameter. 344, 356
Pumps, 67
Purge (see Gas recycle and purge)

.599

Purge composition (see Gas recycle

and purge)

Rank-order parameter, 343, 356

Raw materials, 104, ]20
CO~b, 15,32
(See (llslJ Operating costs, raw
malerials)
Reaction information, 99-103
Reaclions:
consecutive (see Consecutive
reactions)
parallel (see Parallel reactions)
Reactive distillation, 187
Reactor:
computer+aided design, 564-567
configuration, 157-158
cost model, 329, 334, 574
design, 156-158, 507
design guidelines. 157
design variables: conversion (see
Conversion)
molar ralio of reactanls (see
Molar ratio of reactants)
pressure (see Pressure)
temperature (see Temperature)
equilibrium limilalions (see
Equilibrium Iimilations)
heat effects, I, 142. 146-149
heat load, 146
separator reaclOrs, 152
Reboiler, 459, 512
Recycle and purge (see Gas recycle
and purge)
Recycle S!fucture of nowsheet, 14,
137-162
case study, 523-528
compressor design and costs,
153-156
economic evaluation, 158 159
equilibrium limitations, 149-153
excess reactants, 140
material balances, 142 145,523
number of reactor systems, 138

600

SU~jf("T l~[}fl(

Recyele structure of nowshcct

(Co"r l'
nUlllhcr of rcC}'CIe streams.
Il8 140
reactor dign. 156 158. 507
reactor Mat elTttt~. 146 149
Renux lallO. 197 204.296.321-325.
341 ."\49. 441 444
Rdnger3110n s~'stcm dcslgn_ 490 "'07
Rdatl\c H,lallht). 438. 448 450
Relrofit (.su Process retrofits)
Return on m\t'slmenl (ROI). 31. 55
Reversible byproducts, 10. 119. 146.
520
Rule of thumb (Mf' Heunsllcs)

SaFety. 5, 417 421

Salvage \<lluc, 58
Scalc Factors, 342
Second la ..... 2.12
Sdtivity.101 102.111-114.
126 119.334
Sen~lti\'Hy. 88
Separation s)stem'
general structure. 13. 163-168
liquid separation system (_
Liquid separatIOn system)
vapor rcC()\cry system (SoU Vapor
rcco,-ery system)
Separator reactor", 151
Sequential modulJ.r Simulation. 377
Shortcut designs, 5,16.73
absorbers. 426 436
backofthe-ene,dopc modd, 83
boundmg solutions. 92 95.
464 465
cost models. 328 340
nash calculatiOns. 166 16R
optimizations, 319 350
overall matcrial balances. 123 130.
3l]
reC)'cle balances. 142 145.))]
rdngeration ~y~\(:ms. 'i05 507

Side reacllons. 100

Sidestream distillation columns. 12.
466
Site location, 417 421
Smoker's equation for dlslillation,
444-447
'iO,. 135. ISJ
Sal' 153
Solids procc:sscs. 408 410
Sohent rceo\'er). 71-81
alternall'-cs. 73. 81
Stabilizer. 9. 173,537 541
Stan-up considerations. 5. 416
Steam cosL 32, 331
Stoichiometry, 126 129
Stream cost. 32, 3J3
Stream spliuing_ 257
Strum table. 15. 129
Stream teanng, 377-]79
Styrene. 113, 134. 153. 161. 213
Success rates, 4
Succes~ive approximallons (UfO
Fngineering method)
Sulfuric acid. 152
Srnthcsls and anal)sls (Sf'f' ?rocess
synthesis)
Systems approach, 82 83. 296

Tanks:
reed,67
storage, 67
Temperature, 124. 157.314 ]17.
341 349, 547
Tempcrature-enthalpy diagram.
222-224
Temperature intervals. 218-220
Thermodynamics, 371 ]7],543 546
Time value of money. 48 54
Toluene. 8 15.20.22. 113. 126 132.
134.138.140.147 148.151.
161. 205 207. 211, 29710l,
]75 403.518 542

Toluene disproportion3110n. 66. 213.

290 293
Total annual cost, 331
Trade-offs (Mf' EconOOlte trade-offs)
Tricthylbcnzcne (ye Styrene)

Vapor-liquid equilibnum, 54) 546

Vapor rccO'ery system. 13
combined .....ith liqUid scparation
system. 172
localiOn, 16R J71
typc. J71

Underddil1ed (st"l" Open-ended

design problems)
Underv.'oo(fs equauon ror mimOluOl
reflux. 441-444. 448
Utility costs, 32, 328 332, 568 569
(Sa also OpcratJOg costs)
Utility flows. 23-25. 216 230.
480 482
minimum, 222
multiple utilities. 227

Watcr-!as shift reactl"n. 153

Workmg capltal.:N.

~7.

41 42. 70

Xylene (sa Toluene

disproportional ion)

Yicld.IOO.111 114