Spivak Calculus on Manifolds - Solutions

Joshua Samani
2
Chapter 1

Functions on Euclidean
Space

1.1 Norm and Inner Product

1-1. We use Theorem 1-1, in particular 1-1(3) which extends to any finite sum
of vectors by induction.
n n n n
X X X X
kxk = xi ei kxi ei k = |xi | kei k = |xi |


i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

1-2.

kx + yk = kxk + kyk
2
2
kx + yk = kxk + kyk
2 2
hx + y, x + yi = kxk + 2 kxk kyk + kyk
hx, xi + 2 hx, yi + hy, yi = hx, xi + 2 kxk kyk + hy, yi
p
hx, yi = hx, xi hy, yi

1-3. Again we invoke the basic norm properties in Theorem 1-1(3).

kx yk = kx + (y)k kxk + k yk = kxk + | 1| kyk = kxk + kyk

1-4. Notice that

2 2 2
(kxk kyk) = kxk 2 kxk kyk + kyk
hx, xi 2 |hx, yi| + hy, yi
hx, xi 2 hx, yi + hy, yi
= hx y, x yi
2
= kx yk

3
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS ON EUCLIDEAN SPACE

This gives
q q
2 2
(kxk kyk) kx yk
 
kxk kyk kx yk

1.5. We use Theorem 1-1(3),

kz xk = kz y + y xk kz yk + ky xk

This inequality formalizes the idea that the length of one side of a triangle
must be less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
1.6.
1-7. (a) Suppose first that T is norm preserving. Then invoking the
polarization identity we have
2 2
kT (x) + T (y)k kT (x) T (y)k
hT (x), T (y)i =
4
2 2
kT (x + y)k kT (x y)k
=
4
2 2
kx + yk kx yk
=
4
= hx, yi

Now suppose that T is inner product preserving, then

p p
kT (x)k = hT (x), T (x)i = hx, xi = kxk

(b) To show that T is 1-1 it suffices to show that if T (x) = T (y) then x = y. If
T (x) = T (y) then since T is inner product preserving we have,

hx y, x yi = hT (x y), T (x y)i = hT (x) T (y), T (x) T (y)i

= h0, 0i = 0

This implies that x y = 0 and therefore x = y. Now if T 1 exists, then

T 1 (x) = T 1 (y) implies that T T T 1 (x) = T T T 1 (y) so T (x) = T (y) and
thus, from above, x = y. This shows that T 1 is also 1-1.

1.8. (a) Suppose that T is norm preserving. Then from problem 1.7. T is also
inner product preserving. Hence, for x, y 6= 0 we have
 
hT (x), T (y)i hx, yi
(T (x), T (y)) = arccos = arccos = (x, y)
kxk kyk kxk kyk

Therefore, T is angle preserving.

(b)
1.1. NORM AND INNER PRODUCT 5

1.9. To show that T is angle preserving, it suffices to show that T is norm

preserving. Let x R2 then

kT (x)k = (x1 cos + x2 sin )e1 + (x1 sin + x2 cos )e2

p
= (x1 cos + x2 sin )2 + (x1 sin + x2 cos )2
q
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 (sin2 + cos2 )

=
p
= hx, xi
= kxk

So that T is norm preserving. Now suppose that x 6= 0 then,

  !
hx, T (x)i hx, T (x)i
(x, T (x)) = arccos = arccos 2
kxk kT (x)k kxk

But notice that

2
hx, T (x)i = (x1 )2 + (x2 )2 cos = kxk cos
 

Combining, these results we obtain

!
2
kxk cos
(x, T (x)) = arccos 2 =
kxk

1-10. Let the matrix representation of T in the standardPbasis be A = (aij ).

m
For algebraic simplicity, we define the real number ki = j=1 aij hj .

n X m
n n n n
X X X X X
j
kT (h)k = aij h ei = ki ei kki ei k = |ki | kei k = |ki |

i=1 j=1 i=1
i=1 i=1 i=1

But invoking the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality we have

  1/2 1/2 1/2
m m m m
X  X X X
aij hj  hj

|ki | =  aij = aij khk
 j=1  j=1 j=1 j=1

hP i1/2
m
Now if we define Mi = j=1 aij , then combining the above results we
have
n
X
kT (h)k Mi khk
i=1
Pn
Finally if we define M = i=1 Mi , then we have

kT (h)k M khk
6 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS ON EUCLIDEAN SPACE

1-11. We compute

h(x, z), (y, w)i = (x1 , . . . , xn , z 1 , . . . , z m ), (y 1 , . . . , y n , w1 , . . . , wm )



X n Xm
i i
= xy + z j wj = hx, yi + hz, wi
i=1 j=1

Again we compute,

k(x, z)k = (x1 , . . . , xn , z 1 , . . . , z m )

p
= (x1 )2 + (xn )2 + (z 1 )2 + + (z m )2
q
2 2
= kxk + kzk

1-12. To show that T is injective, suppose that T (x) = T (y). Then by the
definition of T , x = y . Hence, given any z Rn we have,

x (z) = y (z)
hx, zi = hy, zi
hx, zi hy, zi = 0
hx y, zi = 0

But since this is true for any z, choose z = x y, in which case we have

hx y, x yi = 0

Hence, since the inner product is positive definite, this implies that x y = 0
so that x = y. To show that T is surjective, it is sufficient to show that given
any (Rn ) , there exists an x Rn such that = T (x) = x . Let (Rn )
be given, define x Rn by xi = (ei ). Then, given any z Rn we have,
n
! n n n
X X X  X
z i ei = z i x (ei ) = z i x, ei = z i xi

x (z) = x
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
!
X X
= z i (ei ) = z i ei = (z)
i=1 i=1

Hence = x as desired.

1-13. Suppose that x and y are orthogonal so that hx, yi = 0. Then we have,
2
kx yk = hx y, x yi
= hx, xi 2 hx, yi + hy, yi
= hx, xi + hy, yi
2 2
= kxk + kyk
1.2. SUBSETS OF EUCLIDEAN SPACE 7

1.2 Subsets of Euclidean Space

1-14. To prove that the union of open S sets is open, consider an arbitrary
collection of open sets {U }. Let, U = U . If x U , then there exists an
such that x U . Hence, there exists a real number r such that
B(x, r) U U . Thus, T U is open. Now consider the intersection of a finite
n
number of open sets V = i=1 Ui . Given any Ui and a point x Ui there
exists a real number ri such that B(x, ri ) Ui . Now suppose that x V and
set r = min{r1 , . . . rn }. Then B(x, r) Ui for each i {1, . . . , n}. Hence,
B(x, r) V so that V is open.

It is not true in general that the infinite intersection of open sets is open. As a
counterexample,
T consider the intersection of open intervals
A = nZ+ (0, 1/n). I claim that A is closed. First notice that 0 A since
0 (0, 1/n) for each n Z+ . Suppose that a 6= 0. Then either a < 0 or else
a > 0. In the former case it is clear that a / A. But in that latter case, since
Q is dense in R, there exists some rational number = k/m such that
0 < < a. Hence, a > /k = 1/m so that a / (0, 1/m). Hence, a / A. This
implies that A = {0}. Now, to show that {0} is closed, it suffices to prove that
its complement is open. Its complement is all positive and negative real
numbers. Suppose that x R+ . Then B(x, x/2) R+ so that R+ is open.
The same argument can be used for the negative real numbers.

1-15. We must prove that for a Rn , the open ball B(a, r) is in fact an open
set. Suppose that x B(a, r). Let = d(x, a). Additionally, let = r .
Then I claim that B(x, ) B(a, r). It suffices to show that if q B(x, ),
then d(a, q) < r. If q B(x, ) then

d(a, q) d(a, x) + d(x, q)

= + d(x, q)
<+
=+r
=r

Which is what we desired.

1-16.

1.3 Functions and Continuity

1-23. If f : A Rm and a A, show that limxA f (x) = b if and only if
limxA f i (x) = bi for i = 1, . . . , m.

Proof. Suppose that limxa f (x) = b. Then, given any  > 0, there exists a
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS ON EUCLIDEAN SPACE

> 0 such that for all x A, if kx ak < then kf (x) bk < .

v
um
uX
2 q 2
(f i (x) bi ) = f i (x) bi 
 
kf (x) bk = t i
f (x) b i

i=1

 
Thus, f i (x) bi  <  which implies that limxa f i (x) = bi . Now suppose that
limxa f i (x) = bi . Then, given
 any  >  0, there exists a > 0 such that for all
x A, if kx ak < , then f i (x) bi  < m where i {1, . . . , m}. But this
implies v
um s  2
uX
2 
kf (x) bk = t i
f (x) b i < m =
i=1
m

so that limxa f (x) = b.

(b) Now suppose that x1 , . . . , xn is a basis for Rn and that there exist real
numbers 1 , . . . , n such that T (xi ) = i xi . Suppose additionally that T is
angle preserving.
1-24.
Chapter 2

Differentiation