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PHILOLOGICAL WORD NOTES

ADVICE- This word is an example of French loan word. The middle English
'avis' got this form French . Due to renaissance influence 'ad' Latin
'advisum' was added as original prefix to 'avis' and we have the English word
advice.
ALMS- Old English 'aelmesse' is derived from Greek 'eleemosune'. Middle
English from of the word was 'almesse' and plural was 'almesses'. In
fact ,'alms' is singular as 's' belongs to the original word.
ARMADA- Armada is a Spanish word which means a fleet of warships. Its
Latin correspondence is armata which means army. The existence of the
word in English may be traced to the warships sent by Spain against England
in 1588.

ASSASSINATION- The word came into Middle English during crusades. Its
origin is form Arab. The root word assassin has been derived from Arabic
has ha-sis meaning hashish eaters. The specialization of meaning is due to
the fact that in Arabia in the 13th century a sect of bandits, intoxicated with
drink of hashish, would be sit up the Christian crusaders. The word presently
carries the meaning as one who undertakes or the act of secret political
murder. Verb- assassinate
ANTICLOCKWISE- This is a classic example of hybrid word forming of
affixation of Greek anti (against) and the dutch word clokke. Thus, the
word carries the meaning against the direction as the clock.
AUTORICKSHOW- It is an example of hybrid word forming of affixation of
Greek auto (autos), which means self and rickshaw (an abbreviation of the
Japanese word Jinrickshaw).
[ such hybrid words are dicta-phone, television, automobile etc which are
half Latin and half Greek].
BREAD- In origin, the word and its sound is old English which meant
fragment. But later by Scandinavian influence the word took the present

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meaning of loaf. It is an example of incorporating new idea into the old
existing word.
BLOOM- Similar to dream, bread, Earl, the word and its sound is old
English bloom, which meant a mass of metal. The new incorporating idea of
flowering is added to this word by the Scandinavian word.
BRIDE GROOM- This is a compounding of two word bride and groom. The
old English bride had its existence and has kept its meaning intact till now.
However, groom (old English guma meaning an attendant or any man) later
joined to form the compound bride guma -a bride groom, the present
form with slight change in pronunciation and spelling.
BIBLE- It is a Greek loan word coming via French. The original Greek word
was biblos meaning an important scroll or papyrus. It is an 14th century
coinage.
[such words include theatre, surgeon, logic ecstasy, idiot etc]
BISHOP- Towards the end of the 6th century a lot of words related to
Christianity were introduced into English language. Bishop is such a word
whose Latin counterpart was episcapus. By the process of aphesis the old
English got the word Bishop.
BOYCOTT- The very word is coined from the name of a person. The process
of driving any word from the name of person is linguistically known
anthroponymy. Boycott was an estate agent in Ireland who infamous for his
extortion. Consequently the tenants organized a strike against him. Thus,
the word takes the meaning of a strike which took the form of noncooperation and social segregation.
BANG- A number of words in our vocabulary today, especially those which
describe some kind of sound, are obviously imitative in character. This is
perhaps one of the oldest methods of word making. Bang is such a word of
sound (strike). It is the word formed by imitation or onomatopoeia. Such
examples are numerous. As a few representative ones we may take pop,
buzz, click, whirl, rumble, hiss, giggle etc.

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CARGO- It is an instance of Spanish borrowing during 1650s. Spain was
proving best in the navigation during 16th and 17th century. Thus, Cargo
meaning the freight of a ship came into English quite understandably.
COMPANION- Here is extension or generalization of meaning. Literally it
meant one who eats bread with another person (Latin: con=with,
panis=bread). But presently it means close friends, Thus the root meaning is
entirely lost and the modern significance of the word has evolved.
CAMOUFLAGE- It is an example of corruption or misunderstanding of
foreign language. The listed word is coined from French during 1 st world war.
However, the original meaning is lost and new meaning is adapted. The origin
is French word camonfler which meant disguise or misrepresentation.
CHEAT- It is an example of degeneration of meaning. Originally it means a
tax collector (escheator) in Middle English. But these persons were
notorious for corrupt practices. Thus their meaning also deteriorated as
the evil sense, which it bears today as verb.
CLIMAX- It is a Greek loan word but it has undergone a slight change in
meaning in respect of the classical one. The Greek word klimax from which
climax is derived means a ladder or gradation. In English it is used in the
sense of culminating point.
DREAM- In origin, the word and its sound is old English native which meant
joy. Later the meaning is added from Scandinavian source. Thus it takes
the present meaning of something which one seems to see or experience
during sleep. It is an example of incorporating new idea into the old native
word.
DWELL- The origin old English Dwell-an meant to lead astray but by the
Scandinavian influence it took on the intransitive verbal meaning of to
remain in a place. It is a popular instance of incorporating new idea into the
native word.
EARL- The word earl and its sound is form old English which meant vaguely
a nobleman by birth. By the Scandinavian influence the new idea of an

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under-king or governor is added. The corresponding word (Scandinavian) is
Jarl.
FOWL- Here is semantic transfer known as specialization. The original
meaning of the word signifies any kind of bird but through the process of
specialization the meaning becomes restricted to only a particular species to
be haunted for flesh.
[similarly deer had the original meaning of any kind of animal; now it is
specialized]
GOD- It is derived from the Old High German got and subsequently the Old
Norse God even years before the Christianity. It meant the power or
powerful person having supernatural power and benevolence to human being.
At the time of advent of Christianity the native word god, came into
preference instead of Latin deus. The meaning is slightly modified to mean
the one formless object of supreme adoration.
GOSSIP- The formation of the word is three terms. The first step is
compounding and assimilation. The original word is god-sip which meant
godfather or intimate friend. By the process of assimilation (like gospel
from god+spell), the d was assimilated with s thus making it gossip. The
second step is the semantic transfer, specially degeneration of meaning. The
word has developed a pejorative sense, for today it means idle talk or an
idle talker. As for third step, by the process of conversion it shifts from
noun to verb.
GOVERNOR- In this word we can find the process of elevation in which the
meaning of a word is raised from its original humble rank, and placed with a
dignity. The old English of governor means a steersman in a boat but today
it is the head of a state who steers the fate of an entire province.
Similarly,
Knight (O.E Cnight)- Original meaning a boy changed meaning a medieval
title of gallantry.
Marshal (O.E Mar)- Original meaning One who rears horses changed
meaning highest military officer.
(a)
Chamberlain- Original meaning Chamber attendant changed meaning
high official position.

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GOSPEL- It is an example of obscuration of compounds. After the
conversion to Christianity there is a word god-spell which later changed in
spelling and pronunciation. By the process of assimilation in which the d
sound is absorbed by the s sound and thus we find the word gospel.
HEATHEN- It is an example of utilizing the native source along with the add
of foreign component part. The origin of the word heathen is heath (old
English), meaning the bower; later it took the suffix en from Latin word
paganas (pagas country + anus dweller). Anus is transfused into English
en. Thus paganus which meant in Latin country dweller hints at nonchristians as Roman do live in towns, the corresponding English word
heathen conveys heath dweller or non-christians.
HOUSEWIFE- The old English huswif means the woman of the house. The
original sense and the equivalent of the original pronunciation of this
compound had undergone many changes and at the modern time three words
survive
(b)
Housewife the mistress of the house.
(c)
Huzzif a needle case.
(d)
Hussy a pert or wanton girl.
HENPECK- This is an instance of back formation the word Henpeck is a
formation of the word henpecked by subtracting the particle ed from the
back of the word. It is a mistaken notion because ed is not a particle,
rather, the integral part of the word.
HANDBOOK- Greek corresponding word is kheiridon. Similarly the Anglo
Saxon devised a compound hand- boc, which was formed on the same
analogy from the native sources and was used by the clergy. In the middle
English period the word handboc was replaced by the French (from Latin)
manual. In the 16th century the Greek word enchiredion was in vague. The
word handbook made its reappearance in the 19th century.
HUSBAND- The origin of the word is Old Norse, husbondi which was later
formed the old English husbonda. It is a compounding of two words hus
a house and buandi inhabiting.

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HOLIDAY- It is an example of shorting of vowel sounds. It has been the
typical feature of old and middle English. Here, the two words holy and
day are combined together holiday. The vowel sound is reduced here.
Further, it is an example of fixed compound.
KINDERGARTEN- Its a German borrowing in 1852. the original meaning is
childrens garden. The famous educationist Friedrich Frobel used this word
to a special kind of education for the children where natural and
pleasurable method of teaching were introduced through games, singing and
models. Thus, the word when comes into the English it bears this meaning.
KITCHEN- It is one of the earliest loan words from Latin. The Old English
cycene comes from Latin coquina. The word belongs to pre-christian period
and the English tribes were learning the cooking items from the civilized
Italy.
[cook, mill etc came at the sometime through the same process]
KNIGHT- Here is an elevation of meaning. In Old English both knight and
knave meant boy. But at modern times knight has become a man of military
rank with certain kind of dignity. It has also became a little of honour for
valiant, gallant and chivalrous job. Thus from the old meaning of boy it has
been elevated to high position.
[contrastingly knave has degeneration of meaning]
LANDSCAPE- It means inland scenery has come into English from Dutch
word Landscape meaning view of land.
LUST- The old English lust, German lust and old Norse lustu meaning
pleasure or delight are the origin. During 16 th century the word went
through specialization and received the meaning of immoral pleasure or
delight. Thus the word went through degeneration too.
LORD- It is an example of elevation. The Lord has come from Old English
hlaford which meant the bread keeper (half means bread). Thus from the
master of bread the meaning got its elevation to mean God or any man of
hight and exalted position.
It is an another example of the tendency of monosyllabic in the English
language.

LYNCH- Lynch or Lynch Law has its origin to captain William Lynch of
Virginia, about 1776. The captain was notorious for his forged justice and
punishment. Thus in this self constituted illegal court executed persons
with no offense at all. The modern meaning of Lynch is to execute and
lynch law means arbitrary laws.
LIEUTENANT- The origin is French which has been coined during 14 th
century. The French lieu means the place of and tenant means holding.
Thus the combination means the place of something, one holding.
LAW- It is the example of one of the many Scandinavian law terms which
become part of the English language. The most important of these juridical
import in the word law itself, known in England in the 10th century in the
form lagu.
(By-law)- By is the Danish word for a town and is related to English word
borough It is evident in the place names such as whitby. selby etc. And
the term by occurs again in the word bylaw, which is not, as some people
seem to suppose, a lesser law, but a low made by the council or corporation
of a town or city, as distance from those which are made by parliament and
apply to the entire country.

LACK-LUSTRE- (Shakespearean coinage)

LONG-SUFFERING- (Biblical The Authorized Bible).
MEAT- It is an instance of specialization of meaning. Meat is derived from
Old English mete which meant any kind of food. Later the word become
restricted to the flesh-food only. The original meaning is still retained in
two expressions meat and drink, sweet meat.
MOB- It is an instance of clippings. The corresponding Latin phrase is
mobile vulgus which means uncultured or illiterate people who often do riot
in society. As a process of clipping only the first part survives. The word
mod comes into existence in 17th century. Though it was first used as noun,
now it is also used as verb.

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MANUFACTURE- Manufacture is such word which is given a new
significance by the passage of time. The verb to manufacture meant
literally to make by hand. But modern usage nearly always employs it with
the opposite meaning: a manufactured article and a hand made article are
entirely different things.
OUTLAW- The origin is Scandinavian.
PEA- This is an example of mistaken plural and back formation. The origin of
the word is Latin. Pisum that takes the old English form pease. But by
mistake pease was taken as plural form, thus the latter s was subtracted
and pea is formed as back formation. Again the new plural form comes to
exist in Peas.
PANDEMONIUM- (Miltonic) It is an example of hybrid word made up from
Greek pan (all) and the Latin demonium (devil-land). Milton coined it as a
name for the conference hall of all the devils, but as the devils were
continually quarreling among themselves, so the that Pandemonium was full
of noise and confusion.
RENAISSANCE- Etymologically renaissance means rebirth. By the fall of
Constantinople in 1453, it was sparked off. The word signifies a cultural
reawakening under the classical influence.
SOPRANO- Like piano the word soprano came into English from Italian and
it indicates the excellence of the Italians in the field of music.
SMOG- Its an example of portmanteau formation in which a new word is
formed by adding the clipped forms of two words [sm(oke)+fo(g)]. Smog is
the product of industrial civilization since the combination of smoke and fog
is seen especially in industrial towns.
Brunch- breakfast + lunch, flurry- fly + hurry, slender- slight + tender .
SCAPEGOAT- The origin of the word is Tyndales translation of Bible.
Biblically, it is the goat on which the sins of the people were symbolically
laid. There is two goats one escapes and another sacrificed. But by the
mistaken interpretation of Hebrew word, scapegoat is wrongly taken to be

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the goat that is sacrificed. Thus, now it means one who is blamed or
punished for the misdeeds of another.
STANZA- Origin is Italian which means the room of a house. Etymologically
it means a resting place. Its application to poetry (which is of course, the
only sense in which it is used in English) probably depends upon the idea of
a self contained unit, at the end of which the poet pauses or rests before
proceeding with his writing.
THEY, THEM, THEIR- The word they, them, their are Scandinavian loan
words whose old English form is hie, heom, heora.
TELEFILM- It is a hybrid word of combining Greek tele meaning far off
with the old English word filmen which means membrane. It is a coinage of
20th century.
VILLAIN- It is an example of degeneration a process by which the word
losses its original meaning and acquire a pejorative sense. The earlier
meaning of villain was a boy who looked after a villa or a cottage. As the
time passed many of the boys proved to be dishonest and rogue; thus the
villain acquire the present meaning as rogue.
VIXEN- (a female fox) The original form of the word is fyxen. The v comes
from the Southern English dialect where they say vat for fat. The word is
notable for the example of the surviving old English feminine suffix en or
ne.