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1. Resistors
Coppers have many free electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and
substances such as glass, rubber, and mica have practically no free electron movement
therefore making good insulators. Between the extremes of good conductors such as
silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and rubber lay other conductors of
reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons hence the term
resistance.

Fig: 1.1 Colour coding on resistor

Fig: 1.2 Circuit symbol


Resistance in series and parallel
It follows if two such pieces of wire were connected end to end (in series) then the
resistance would be doubled, on the other hand if they were placed side by side (in
parallel) then the resistance would be halved! This is a most important lesson about
resistance. Resistors in series add together as R 1 + R2 + R3 +..... While resistors in
parallel reduce by 1 / (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + .....)
Consider three resistors of 10, 22, and 47 ohms respectively. Added in series we get
10 + 22 + 47 = 79 ohms. While in parallel we would get 1 / (1 / 10 + 1 / 22 + 1 / 47) =
5.997 ohms.
Ohms Law
P = I * I * R that is, power equals the current squared times the resistance.
Consider our example above of the three resistors in series providing a total resistance
of 79 ohms. If these resistors were placed across a 24 volt power supply then the
amount of current flowing, from ohms law, is I = E / R = 24 / 79 = 0.304 amperes.
Resistance color chart codes
Here in this large color chart is the resistance color code - learn the sequence forever
BLACK, BROWN, RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, VIOLET, GREY,
WHITE .

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Fig. 1.3: Color coding chart for resistor


Resistor values - the resistor color code
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an Omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000 , 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a
number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.


The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this
may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

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Fig. 1.4: A 4 band resistor


This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colors are used for the third band: gold, which means 0.1 and
silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of color code)
The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the
precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor
with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 =
351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
A special color code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, and brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are
rarely required.
Power Ratings of Resistors
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a
higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be
circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than
15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I R
or
P = V / R

Where, P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)


I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

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A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R =
10/27=3.7W.

Coils & Inductors


Inductors are a type of passive electrical devices that are used to store energy from
magnetic fields and release it when needed. Together with chokes and capacitors,
inductors have helped to reduce the size of electrical devices by providing a compact
way to store power. Inductance measures the quantity of magnetic flux that is
produced by the current flowing through a coil. It is measured in units of Henries
denoted by 'H'. Its value increases with the amount of current flowing and the number
of loops in the coil.
Energy Storage in Fields
Capacitors store energy in the electric field between their plates, giving it up when the
capacitor is discharged and the electric field disappears. By making the field large
through thin dielectric layers of large dielectric constant, considerable energy can be
stored in a small volume.
An inductor, on the other hand, stores energy in the magnetic field produced by the
current flowing through it. When the magnetic field collapses, its energy is given up,
sometimes appearing as a spark when a circuit is broken. An inductor tries to keep a
current flowing, providing the voltage necessary. The relation between voltage and
current in an inductor is V = L (dI/dt), or, in frequency domain, V = LI. If V is in
volts, I in amperes and t in seconds, L is in henries, H.
Magnetic Fields
Inductors are used to store energy for switched mode power supplies. The inductor is
operated for a certain fraction of the switching frequency and not energized for the
rest of the cycle. This ratio of energy transfer specifies the value of input and voltage
ratios. They are used as reactors in electrical power transmission systems to depress
the voltage and confine the fault current. Inductors are bigger and weigh more than
similar devices, so solid state networks use only small inductors while using gyrator
circuits for higher requirements.
Quality factor (Q value) is the measure of relative losses of the inductor and is
expressed as capacitive resistance divided by the equivalent serial resistance.
Some applications of inductors include

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Blocking out noise, unwanted frequencies and reducing hum in radio


broadcasting stations and equipment - When used in conjunction with
capacitors
DC filtering - When used as chokes in power supplies to remove hum and
other types of fluctuations from the DC output
Removing radio frequency (RF) interference - When used as filters
Small and compact transformers with 400-Hz cycle AC current frequency for
aircraft - When utilizing their coupled magnetic flux.

Fig. 1.5: Symbol used to denote an inductor

Fig. 1.6: Inductors generally used in circuits


The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of
work required to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic
field. Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing.
Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits
which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. This can range from the
use of large inductors as chokes in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter
capacitors remove residual hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to
such small inductances as generated by a ferrite bead or torus around a cable to
prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller
inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and
broadcasting.
A voltage is induced in any winding that links the flux in the toroid. As long as the
circuit is not closed, it is just a voltage, and no energy is transferred. However, when
we close the circuit, current flows, energy is transferred, and there is a reaction due to
the current in this secondary winding. This is, of course, a transformer, a device that
is treated in more detail elsewhere. Transformers are much better than capacitors for

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coupling amplifier stages. There is absolutely no disturbance to the bias, and


impedance can be transformed by choosing the number of turns properly, a joy that
capacitors do not supply.
The changing flux also induces voltages in any conductors that happen to be around,
not just in windings. The result is eddy currents in a magnetic material that also
happens to be electrically conducting, such as iron. In power frequency machines,
eddy currents are greatly reduced by laminating the magnetic material, and insulating
the lamina from each other. This becomes useless at radio frequencies, so different
core materials must be sought. One is powdered iron, formed together in an insulating
matrix, and another is ferrite, a magnetic material like iron, but one with very low
electrical conductivity. These materials are not as good magnetically as iron, but have
reasonably low losses even at much higher frequencies, and extend the range of utility
of high permeability materials to radio frequencies.
A coil in some respect s acts just opposite a capacitor. A capacitor blocks DC while
allowing AC to flow through it; a coil allows DC to flow through it while restricting
AC current flow. Another name for a coil is an inductor.

Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means
that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F


n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F
p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and
unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarized capacitors (Electrolytic) (large values, 1F +)

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Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering.

Fig. 1.7: Examples of capacitors

Fig. 1.8 Circuit symbol

Fig. 1.9 Disc Capacitors


There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to
each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in
picture).
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

:
Fig. 1.10: Different types of capacitors

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Fig. 1.11: Circuit symbol of parallel plate capacitor


Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They
are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene).
They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. Many small value
capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use
experience to work out what the multiplier should be. For example 0.1 means 0.1F =
100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
The 1st number is the 1st digit,
The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor Color Code
Color Code
Color

Number

Black

Brown

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Grey

White

Fig. 1.12: Colour coding for capacitors


A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of
course there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top

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three-color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage
rating). For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. Note that
there are no gaps between the color bands; so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide
band.

Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).

Fig. 1.13: Circuit symbol

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).

Fig. 1.14: Gang capacitor

Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. Trimmer
capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is
impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum
and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.

Fig. 1.15: Trimmer Capacitor

Fig. 1.16: Trimmer Capacitor

Circuit Symbol

Potentiometers (variable resistors)


Construction
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a
wiper, which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made

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from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called
sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers. They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. The resistance and type of track are
marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one
connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle
changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum
resistance. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the
brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.

Fig. 1.17: Rheostat Symbol


Potentiometer
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This
arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point
of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If
the terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the
wiper terminal will provide a voltage, which can be varied from zero up to the
maximum of the supply.

Fig. 1.18: Potentiometer Symbol


Presets
These are miniature
versions of the standard
variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and
adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example, to set the frequency of an alarm
tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is
required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so
they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally
be used.

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Fig. 1.19: Preset symbol


Multi turn presets
These are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other,
giving very fine control.

Fig.
:

1.20

Preset
(open style)

Presets
Multiturn preset
(closed style)
Different types of Presets

Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Fig. 1.21: Circuit symbol for a simple on-off switch

Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.

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For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.
a) Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) ON-ON
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It
is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position. A SPDT
toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch by connecting to COM and one
of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so
switches are usually not labeled.

Fig. 1.22: Circuit Symbol

Fig. 1.23: SPDT toggle switch

b) SPDT Center Off (ON-OFF-ON)


A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third switching position in the
center, which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available where
the switch returns to the central off position when released.

Fig. 1.24: SPDT center off switch


c) Double Pole Double Through (DPDT) Switch
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It
is often called a changeover switch. For example, a DPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position.

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Fig. 1.25: Circuit symbol


1.26: DPDT slide switch

Fig.

DIP Switch (Dual In-line Parallel)


This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches; the example shown has 8 switches.
The package is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit. This
type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code of a remote control.

Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field, which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The
coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit,
which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery
circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical
connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the
pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The relay's
switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.

Note: Connect to com and nc if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.

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Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that
its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this
information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the
relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V
relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a
supply voltage, which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You
can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:

4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a
current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current
200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to
amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
Advantages of relays
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many
times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
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Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Bread boards
Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and components are simply pushed into
the holes to form a completed circuit and power can be applied. One of the main
advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not soldered and if they
are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the board.
On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite, letters are used to identify vertical
columns and numbers to identify horizontal rows.

Fig. 1.27: Bread Board

Fig. 1.27: Bread Board internal connections


The red lines on diagram 1.28 show how some vertical columns and horizontal rows
are internally connected. When power is applied to the breadboard current flows along
these internal connections.
Figure 1.28 shows how a 380-ohm resistor and an LED are setup on a breadboard.
When a 9 Volt battery is attached the LED lights. Try replacing the resistor with a

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higher value such as a 680-ohm resistor. The resistance will be greater and the LED
should shine less bright.

Fig. 1.28: Bread Board connections for components

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2. PN Junction diode
Introduction
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as such:

Fig. 2.1: Circuit symbol


When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage:

Fig. 2.2: Diode Operation


When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is
"backward" and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A
diode may be thought of as a kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and
"open" when reverse-biased.
Meter check of a diode
Being able to determine the polarity (cathode versus anode) and basic functionality of
a diode is a very important skill for the electronics hobbyist or technician to have.
Since we know that a diode is essentially nothing more than a one-way valve for
electricity, it makes sense we should be able to verify its one-way nature using a DC
(battery-powered) ohmmeter. Connected one way across the diode, the meter should

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show a very low resistance. Connected the other way across the diode, it should show
a very high resistance.

Fig. 2.3: Testing of Diode in forward bias condition

Fig. 2.4: Testing of Diode in reverse bias condition


In order to determine which end of the diode is the cathode and which is the anode,
you must know with certainty which test lead of the meter is positive (+) and which is
negative (-) when set to the "resistance" or "" function.

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Transistors
Function
A transistor may be used as a switch and as an amplifier. The amount of current
amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to
use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).A
bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or N-P-N. Each layer forming the transistor has
a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact for connection to a
circuit. Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two
transistor types:

Fig. 2.5: Symbol and structure of PNP transistor

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Fig. 2.6: Symbol and structure of NPN transistor

The only functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the
proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating. For any given state of
operation, the current directions and voltage polarities for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite each other. Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators. In other words, they restrict the amount of current that can go through
them according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled
goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of
transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). The small current that controls the main
current goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again depending on
the type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to the confusing
standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points against the direction
of electron flow:
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of electrons through them
takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main current goes
from emitter to collector (or visa-versa). In other words, two types of charge carriers
-- electrons and holes -- comprise this main current through the transistor.
Identification of terminals in a transistor

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Fig. 2.7: Terminal identification of a transistor


Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second
letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means
high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of
the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project
specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is
given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.

Table 2.1: Code identification for PNP transistor

Table 2.2: Code identification for NPN transistor

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hFE : This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum
value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for
those of the same type. Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The
gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle
of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at
20mA.

Meter check of a transistor


Bipolar transistors are constructed of a three-layer semiconductor "sandwich," either
PNP or NPN. As such, they register as two diodes connected back-to-back when
tested with a multimeter's "resistance" or "diode check" functions:

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Fig. 2.8: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in forward bias condition

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Fig. 2.9: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in reverse bias condition
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with both
PN junctions facing the other way. If a multimeter with a "diode check" function is
used in this test, it will be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly
greater forward voltage drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage
difference is due to the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and
collector regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped piece of
semiconductor material than the collector, causing its junction with the base to
produce a higher forward voltage drop.

Junction field-effect (J-FET) transistor


Field-effect transistors are unipolar rather than bipolar devices. That is, the main
current through them is comprised either of electrons through an N-type
semiconductor or holes through a P-type semiconductor. This becomes more evident
when a physical diagram of the device is seen:

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Fig2.10: Symbol and structure of N channel JFET


In a junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, the controlled current passes from source
to drain, or from drain to source as the case may be. The controlling voltage is applied
between the gate and source. Note how the current does not have to cross through a
PN junction on its way between source and drain: the path (called a channel) is an
uninterrupted block of semiconductor material. In the image just shown, this channel
is an N-type semiconductor. P-type channel JFETs is also manufactured:

Fig. 2.11: Symbol and structure of N channel JFET

Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The only
practical difference between N- and P-channel JFETs is biasing of the PN junction
formed between the gate material and the channel. With no voltage applied between
gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to flow. However, if a
voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-biases the

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PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current.
Maximum gate-source voltage "pinches off" all current through source and drain, thus
forcing the JFET into cutoff mode.With the gate-source PN junction reverse-biased,
there should be nearly zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we
classify the JFET as a voltage-controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a
current-controlled device. If the gate-source PN junction is forward-biased with a
small voltage, the JFET channel will "open" a little more to allow greater currents
through.
Meter check of a JFET
Testing a JFET with a multimeter might seem to be a relatively easy task, seeing as
how it has only one PN junction to test: either measured between gate and source, or
between gate and drain.

Fig. 2.12: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in reverse bias condition

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Fig. 2.13: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in forward bias condition

Power transistors
A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large power. Compared to the other power
semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main advantages are high
commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an
isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. The power MOSFET is the most widely used
low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC
to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers.

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Fig. 2.14: Constructional details of power transistor

Light Emitting Diode (LED)


Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in
quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant
energy whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
This is the same principle at work in a neon lamp, the characteristic pink-orange glow
of ionized neon due to the specific energy transitions of its electrons in the midst of an
electric current. The unique color of a neon lamp's glow is due to the fact that it's neon
gas inside the tube, and not due to the particular amount of current through the tube or
voltage between the two electrodes. Neon gas glows pinkish-orange over a wide range
of ionizing voltages and currents. Each chemical element has its own signature
emission of radiant energy when its electrons jump between different, quantized
energy levels. Hydrogen gas, for example, glows red when ionized; mercury vapor
glows blue. This is what makes spectrographic identification of elements possible.

Fig. 2.15: Circuit symbols of LED

Electrons flowing through a PN junction experience similar transitions in energy


level, and emit radiant energy as they do so. The frequency of this radiant energy is
determined by the crystal structure of the semiconductor material, and the elements
comprising it. Some semiconductor junctions, composed of special chemical
combinations, emit radiant energy within the spectrum of visible light as the electrons
change energy levels. Simply put, these junctions glow when forward biased. A diode
intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Forward biased silicon diodes give off heat as electron and holes from the N-type and
P-type regions, respectively, recombine at the junction. In a forward biased LED, the
recombination of electrons and holes in the active region yields photons. This process
is known as electro luminescence. To give off photons, the potential barrier through

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which the electrons fall must be higher than for a silicon diode. The forward diode
drop can range to a few volts for some color LEDs.
The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two
small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.

Fig. 2.16: Schematic symbol

Fig. 2.17: Physical structure

This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is
common to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices.
Conversely, if a device is light activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates
it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointing toward it. LEDs can
sense light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a
solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of
light-sensing circuits.

A Selection Of The Most Popular


Colors

Enlarged Led - Notice The Long


And Short Leg

Fig. 2.18: Different types of LEDs commercially available

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)


A liquid crystal is an intermediary substance between a liquid and solid state of
matter. The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules along grooves when
coming into contact with grooved surface in a fixed direction, liquid crystal molecules
line up parallelly along the grooves.

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Natural state

Fig. 2.19: Crystal structure of an LCD


When liquid crystals are sandwiched between upper and lower plates, they line-up
with grooves pointing in directions 'a' and 'b,' respectively

Fig. 2.20: internal working of an LCD

Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement

Fig. 2.21: Internal working of an LCD


The light also "twists" as it passes through the twisted liquid crystals.

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Molecules rearrange themselves when voltage is applied. When voltage is applied to


the liquid crystal structure, the twisted light passes straight through.

Fig. 2.22: Blocking light with two polarizing filters


When voltage is applied to a combination of two polarizing filters and twisted liquid
crystal, it becomes a LCD display.

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Fig. 2.23: working of two polarizing filters


Light passes when two polarizing filters are arranged with polarizing axes as shown
above, left. Light is blocked when two polarizing filters are arranged with
polarizing axes as shown above, right. A combination of polarizing filters and
twisted liquid crystal creates a liquid crystal display.

Display principles
Displaying letters, numbers and graphics are based on the following three display
methods:
1. Segment system
Long display units are arranged to form a figure '8' to
display numbers.
2. Dot matrix system (character display)
Display units are arranged in rows and columns to form
characters.

3. Dot matrix system (graphics display)


Display units are arranged in rows and columns to depict
graphics.

Opto electronic devices


1. Photo Diode
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either
current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar
to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect
vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fibre connection to
allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use
specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction.
Principle of operation:

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A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy


strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a
positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion
region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode:
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the
device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and
"dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the
photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the the photovoltaic effect, which is the
basis for solar cellsin fact, a solar cell is just an array of large photodiodes.
Photoconductive mode:
In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased. This increases the
width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance
resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a small
amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction
while the photocurrent remains virtually the same.
Although this mode is faster, the photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit less electronic
noise (The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low < 1nA that the Johnson
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.)
2. Avalanche photodiodes
They have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with much
higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by
avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which
increases the effective responsitivity of the device.
3. Phototransistors
They consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in essence
nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light
can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the
base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is amplified by the
transistor operation. Note that although phototransistors have a higher responsivity for
light they are unable to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.
Phototransistors also have slower response times.
Applications of Photo diodes

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1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc
players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and
televisions.
3. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones
that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often
used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
4. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in
science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors.
5. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to
analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in blood gas monitors.
6. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction
diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting
regulation.
7. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities.
Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified
charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such
as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser range finding.
4. Photo Resistor
A photo resistor or LDR is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent
resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell.
A photo resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, security
alarms, street lights and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some dynamic
compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to
control gain reduction. Lead- and indium antimonite-LDR are used for the mid
infrared spectral region. At the other end of the scale, Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy

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and infrared spectroscopy. Continues power dissipation is 80mW and the Maximum
voltage which can be applied to its 100V.
4. Opto Coupler
An opto-isolator (or optical isolator, opto coupler, photo coupler, or photoMOS) is a
device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between elements
of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically
isolated since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an optical signal back to
an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.

Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)


Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application. Their
usefulness may be expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of
latching. In doing so, they become true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off
mode), and we refer to them as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs. The progression
from Shockley diode to SCR is achieved with one small addition, actually nothing
more than a third wire connection to the existing PNPN structure:

Fig. 2.24: Structure, transistor equivalent and circuit symbol of SCR

If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley


diode. It may be latched by break over voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of
voltage rise between anode and cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is
accomplished by reducing current until one or both internal transistors fall into cutoff
mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because the gate terminal connects
directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an alternative means to

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latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower
transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so
that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to
initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from
cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification. This method
of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common
way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that
their break over voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced
from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse
applied to the gate. It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by
directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering"
the gate with a negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower
transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is "sometimes" possible because it involves
shunting all of the upper transistor's collector current past the lower transistor's base.
This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best.
A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task
easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as
20% of the anode (load) current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the
following illustration

Fig. 2.25: Circuit symbol


SCRs and GTOs share the same equivalent schematics (two transistors connected in a
positive-feedback fashion), the only differences being details of construction designed
to grant the NPN transistor a greater than the PNP. This allows a smaller gate
current (forward or reverse) to exert a greater degree of control over conduction from
cathode to anode, with the PNP transistor's latched state being more dependent upon
the NPN's than vice versa. The Gate-Turn-Off thyristor is also known by the name of
Gate-Controlled Switch, or GCS.

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Fig. 2.26: Meter check of SCR


A TRIAC acts much like two SCRs connected back-to-back for bidirectional (AC) operation.

TRIAC controls are more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than
complex, high-power circuits. In large power control circuits, multiple
SCRs tend to be favored

Main terminals 1 and 2 on a TRIAC are not interchangeable.


To successfully trigger a TRIAC, gate current must come from the main
terminal 2 (MT2) side of the circuit.

All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show "open" ("OL"
on some digital multi meter displays). It must be understood that this test is very
crude and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is
possible for an SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective.
Ultimately, the only way to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
If you are using a multi meter with a "diode check" function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to what's expected of a
silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a much
lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal resistor
connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs. This resistor
is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by spurious voltage
spikes, from circuit "noise" or from static electric discharge. In other words, having a

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resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires that a strong triggering
signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR. This feature is often found in
larger SCRs, not on small SCRs.

Uni - Junction Transistor (UJT)


A Uni-junction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device.
There are two types of uni-junction transistor:
The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is
essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
has been diffused somewhere along its length.

Fig. 2.27: Circuit symbol and leads identification


The Uni Junction Transistor has only one junction, hence the name: 'Uni Junction
transistor. The UJT has three terminals. The terminals are emitter (E) and two bases
(B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic
contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily
doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called
inter base resistance. The very basic specifications of a UJT are:
Vbb(max) - The maximum inter base voltage that can be applied to the UJT
ii. Rbb- the inter base resistance of the UJT
iii. n - The intrinsic standoff ratio that defines Vp
iv. Ip - The peak point emitter current
i.

The uni junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device with characteristics very
different from the conventional 2 junctions, bipolar transistor. It is a pulse generator
with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of inter base voltage, Vbb. The UJT circuit symbol, junction schematic,
and characteristic curve are shown below.

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Fig. 2.28: Structure of UJT

Fig. 2.29: VI-Characteristics of UJT


The emitter terminal does not inject current into the base region until its voltage
reaches Vp. Once Vp is reached the base circuit conducts and a positive pulse appears
at the B1 terminal and a negative pulse at B2. The UJT incorporates a negative
resistance region, a low emitter current, and a high output pulse current at terminals
B1 and B2, making it an ideal pulse trigger. A simple RC timer circuit using a UJT is
shown below.

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Fig. 2.30: Application of UJT as relaxation oscillator

DIAC
Like all diodes, Shockley diodes are unidirectional devices; that is, they only conduct
current in one direction. If bidirectional (AC) operation is desired, two Shockley
diodes may be joined in parallel facing different directions to form a new kind of
thyristor, the DIAC:

Fig. 2.30: Circuit symbol of DIAC


A DIAC operated with a DC voltage across it behaves exactly the same as a Shockley
diode. With AC, however, the behavior is different from what one might expect.
Because alternating current repeatedly reverses direction, DIACs will not stay latched
longer than one-half cycle. If a DIAC becomes latched, it will continue to conduct
current only as long as there is voltage available to push enough current in that
direction. When the AC polarity reverses, as it must twice per cycle, the DIAC will
drop out due to insufficient current, necessitating another break over before it
conducts again. The result is a current waveform that looks like this:

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Fig. 2.31: Current waveform developed across a DIAC


DIACs are almost never used alone, but in conjunction with other thyristor devices.

TRIAC
SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for
controlling DC only. If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like
two Shockley diodes were joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device
known as the TRIAC

Fig. 2.32: Circuit symbols of TRIAC


Because individual SCRs are more flexible to use in advanced control systems, they
are more commonly seen in circuits like motor drives, while TRIACs are usually seen
in simple, low-power applications like household dimmer switches. A simple lamp
dimmer circuit is shown here, complete with the phase-shifting resistor-capacitor
network necessary for after-peak firing.

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Fig. 2.33: Working of TRIAC


DIAC break over voltages tend to be much more symmetrical (the same in one
polarity as the other) than TRIAC triggering voltage thresholds. Since the DIAC

prevents any gate current until the triggering voltage has reached a certain,
repeatable level in either direction, the firing point of the TRIAC from one half-cycle
to the next tends to be more consistent, and the waveform more symmetrical above
and below its centerline.

Linear & Digital ICs


Integrated circuits (ICs) are chips, or small electronic devices found in practically
every type of application and machine, including microprocessors, audio/video
equipment, automobiles, etc. Most modern integrated circuits require both analog
(linear) and digital processing.

3. Soldering techniques
Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However,
soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation
and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a
good.

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Fig. 3.1: Soldering tools


1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not
past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good

joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but
generally they should look clean and not burnt.

Fig. 3.2: PCB eraser


2. A PCB eraser is used to remove any film from the tracks. This must be done
carefully because the film will prevent good soldering of the components to the PCB.
The tracks can be checked using a magnifying glass. If there are gaps in the tracks,
sometimes they can be repaired using wire but usually a new PCB has to be etched.

Fig 3.3: Soldering workbench

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3. Place the PCB, with its components in position, in the bull clip. This will steady the
PCB when you try to use the soldering iron.

Fig. 3.4: Soldering components on PCB


4. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the
component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be
applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track.

Fig. 3.5: Trimming leads after soldering


5. Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need
to be trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.

4. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)


Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components
are placed. They are designed specially for each circuit and make construction very
easy. Electronics Club members will receive an etched PCB that will need cleaning
and drilling before soldering.

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Fig. 4.1: Printed Circuit Board and PCB eraser

Cleaning and Drilling a PCB ready for Soldering


1. Clean off the protective coating from the PCB using a PCB rubber or steel
wool so that all the copper tracks are bright and shiny. The PCB rubber has
grit in it to make it very abrasive. In fact the coating can be left on and it
should melt away around the joints as you solder, but in the Electronics Club
we have generally had better results by removing the coating.
2. Drill the holes with a 1mm diameter bit. This is easiest with a proper electric
PCB drill in a stand, but a hand-held miniature electric drill can be used if you
take care to avoid twisting and snapping the small drill bit. Wear safety
spectacles. A hand-drill is not suitable for such small bits unless you are very
skilled.
3. A few may holes may need to be larger, for example preset resistors usually
need a 1.5mm diameter hole. It is simplest to re-drill these special holes
afterwards.
4. Check carefully to make sure you find all the holes.

5. Multi meter
Multi meters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on
the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an
ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the
choice of AC or DC. Some multi meters have additional features such as transistor
testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
Choosing a multi meter
A digital multi meter is the best choice for your first multi meter; even the cheapest
will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analog multi meter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V
or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The
sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value

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(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one.
Beware of cheap analog multi meters sold for electrical work on cars because their
sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multi meters

Fig. 5.1: Front panel of Digital Multi Meter


Typical ranges for digital multi meters like the one illustrated: (the values given are
the maximum reading on each range).

DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.


AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
DC Curent: 200A, 2000A, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unused and connected via a special socket.
AC Current: None
Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode Test.

Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot
be used to test diodes and other semiconductors.
Analog multi meters
Analog meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the circuit
under test and give an incorrect reading. See the section below on sensitivity for more
details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last
several years but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in case
the leads touch accidentally and run the battery flat.

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Typical ranges for analog multi meters like the one illustrated:
(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)

DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.


AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
DC Current: 50A, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each range.

Analog Meter Resistance = Sensitivity Max. reading of range


e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of 20k /V
10V = 200k .
Digital multi meters have a constant resistance of at least 1M (often 10M ) on all
their DC voltage ranges. This is more than enough for almost all circuits.

Measuring voltage and current with a multi meter


1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analog meter may be
damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a higher
range.

Precautions
Always disconnect the multi meter before adjusting the range switch.
2. Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
3. Never leave a multi meter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading). The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the
meter has a low resistance.
1.

Measuring resistance with a multi meter


To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a circuit:
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated
separately:

Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multi meter

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1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance to be.
Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except for a
1 on the left). It is correct - the resistance of air is very high
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and
try again.
3. Put the probes across the component. Avoid touching more than one contact at
a time or your resistance will upset the reading!

Measuring resistance with an ANALOG multi meter


The resistance scale on an analog meter is normally at the top, it is an unusual scale
because it reads backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced). This is unfortunate, but
it is due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range. Choose a range so that the
resistance you expect will be near the middle of the scale. For example: with
the scale shown below and an expected resistance of about 50k choose the
1k range.
2. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of the meter
which is usually labeled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero (on the RIGHT
remember).
If you can't adjust it to read zero, the battery inside the meter needs replacing.
3. Put the probes across the component. Avoid touching more than one contact at
a time or your resistance will upset the reading.

Testing a diode with a multi meter


The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated
separately:

Testing a diode with a DIGITAL multi meter

Diodes
a = anode
k = cathode

Fig. 5.2: Testing a diode

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Digital multi meters have a special setting for testing a diode, usually labeled
with the diode symbol.
Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).

Testing a diode with an ANALOG multi meter

Set the analog multi meter to a low value resistance range such as 10.
It is essential to note that the polarity of analog multi meter leads is reversed
on the resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and the red lead is
negative (-)! This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The diode
should conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the exact value is
not relevant).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).

Testing a transistor with a multi meter

Fig. 5.3: Testing a transistor

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

Function Generator

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A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to


generate electrical waveforms.
Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of
its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a
capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or
descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the
charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle
wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may
be obtained.

Fig. 5.4: Front panel of Function generator


A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is
being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's
output. Most function generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that
can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by
rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in
audio systems.
The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the
generator. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and
uses a BNC connector, usually requiring a 50 or 75 ohm termination. Specialised RF
generators are capable of gigahertz frequencies and typically use N-type output
connectors.
Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by
means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits.
This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given
electronic circuit.

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Regulated Power Supplies


A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is one
where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to you requirements. Varying
the output of the power supply is the recommended way to test a project after having
double checked parts placement against circuit drawings and the parts placement
guide. This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power
supply. Actually I think this is quite important because one of the first projects a
hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a bench supply. While a dedicated
supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V, it's much handier to have a variable supply on
hand, especially for testing.

Types of Power Supply


There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

Fig. 5.5: Block diagram of Regulated Power Supply


Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.


Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram
and a graph of their output:
Transformer only
Transformer + Rectifier
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Dual Supplies

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Fig. 5.6: Fixed and Dual power supply


Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as
well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary
supplies connected together as shown in figure 5.6.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V
outputs.

Transformer only

Fig. 5.7: Working of Transformer


The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is
not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing
capacitor.
Transformer & Rectifier

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Fig. 5.8: working of Transformer as rectifier


The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

Fig. 5.9: Rectifier filter circuit


The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Fig. 5.10: Rectifier filter circuit with regulated DC output


The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.

6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope


An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the
waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the
instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time. A typical oscilloscope can display
alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct current (DC) waveforms having a
frequency as low as approximately.

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Introduction
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a
general-purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube
shown schematically in Fig. 1.

Fig. 6.1: Cathode ray tube constructional details

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Fig. 6.2: Front panel of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons, which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of
the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair of
metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair
oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections
allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This
conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light
on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam
vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to
the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at
a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus displayed on
the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use
of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage
output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application
of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the
horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube
face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of
each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the
beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.

Fig. 6.3: Variation in voltage with respect to time (t) in CRO


To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown
signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the
sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two

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deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain
stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the
fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron
beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.

CRO Operation
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general,
the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the
CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as
a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a
selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep
generator, initiating the saw tooth waveform. The saw tooth wave is amplified by the
horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional
provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the
60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external
signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.

CRO Controls
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating
conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these
controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

Fig. 6.4: Internal circuit diagram of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope


Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Y plates

electron gun

cathode

fluorescent screen
electron beam
anode
X plates

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Fig. 6.5: Working of deflection plates in Cathode Ray Oscilloscope


Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the
graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

Basic operation
Before doing the experiments you should adjust the controls for focus, brilliance, X
and Y shift until you have a dot in the middle of the screen. The simplified diagram
above shows the inside of a cathode ray oscilloscope.

Vertical Amplifier Section


Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the
calibrated steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is
in the fully clockwise position.

AC-DC-GND
Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or
grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.

Horizontal-Sweep Section
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external
signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated
position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to
horizontal amplifier through Ext. Horiz. Connector.
Trigger: The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.

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Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-)


portion of trigger signal.
Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT-(internal)-from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60-cycle trigger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It
also allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).
Connections for the Oscilloscope

Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or
vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.

Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the


horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.

External Trigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.


Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mill volts for
use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers. Accuracy of the vertical deflection is +
3%. Sensitivity is variable. Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range
of sweep is variable.

Operating Instructions
Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the centre of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the centre of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1

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Plug line cord into standard ac wall receptacles (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do
not advance the Intensity Control. Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two
minutes, and then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
Switch on your oscilloscope and adjust the controls to give a straight line across the
centre of the screen. The Y gain should be set at 1V / division and the time base set at
1 ms / division
1. Connect one 1.5 V cell to the Y inputs and adjust the Y gain, if necessary, so
that the line moves up 1.5 divisions.
2. Now connect two cells and then three cells. Record the line deflection each
time.
3. Reverse the leads and repeat number two.
4. Now connect the 1 V ac supply from the high current power supply (Extra low
voltage supply or Westminster power supply) to the Y inputs. If the signal
source and oscilloscope both have earthed terminals make sure that the earthed
lead of the oscilloscope (often black) is connected to the earthed terminal of
the supply (often yellow), or you will short out the signal generator through
the CRO. Record the size and shape of the trace. Repeat with the 2 V ac input
and then the dc input, recording the trace each time.

Precautions

An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and expensive)


vacuum tube.

Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these remain
for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt to
examine the inside of an oscilloscope.

Fig. 6.6: Construction of a coaxial lead

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Fig. 6.7: Oscilloscope leads

Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some
care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if
controls are set wrongly. There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of
the many controls so the following instructions may need to be adapted for your
instrument.

Fig. 6.8: Trace on the CRO screen after switch on the device
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y-SHIFT (up/down) and X-SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.

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2. JUNCTION DIODE IV CHARACTERISTICS


Aim
a. To Plot I-V characteristics of PN junction diode (Germanium and Silicon)
in forward bias and reverse bias conditions.
b. To calculate the static and dynamic resistances of the diode both in
forward bias and reverse bias conditions.

Equipment Required
S. No

Name of the
Equipment/ Component

PN junction diode
1N4001(Si)

PN junction diode
OA79 (Ge)

Resistor (1K)

4
5

Regulated power Supply


Voltmeter

Ammeter

7
8

Bread board
Connecting wires

Specifications
VR (max)=1000V
IR(max)=50mA
VF =1 V, IF = 1A
VR (max)=30V, VRRM
(max)=45V,
IF (max)=35mA, IFRM
(max)=100mA

Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
(0-30V), 1A
(0-1V), (0-10V)
(0-20mA),
(0-300A)
-------

Quantity
1

1
1
Each 1
Each 1
1
Sufficient

Circuit Diagrams

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Fig. 2.1: P-N Junction diode in forward bias

Fig. 2.2: P-N Junction diode in reverse bias

Theory
A diode conducts in forward bias (when anode is positive with respect to cathode).It
does not conduct in reverse bias. When diode is forward biased the barrier potential at the
junction reduces. The majority carries then diffuse across the junction. This causes the current
to flow through the diode. In reverse bias, the barrier potential increase, and almost no current
can flow through the diode.
From the forward characteristics at a given operating point we can determine the
static resistance Rd and dynamic resistance rd of the diode. The static resistance is defined as
ratio of the dc voltage to dc current. It is given by, R d= V / I
The dynamic resistance is the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change
in current. It is given by, rd= V / I

Procedure
a.

Forward bias
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.1 using Silicon diode.


Apply the supply voltage from DC regulated power supply, VIN
in steps of 0.1V from 0V to 1V and in steps of 1V from 1V to 10V.
Measure the voltage, VF across the diode from voltmeter and current, I F through
the diode from ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, V IN.
Draw a graph between the voltage across diode, V F and current passing through
the diode, IF.
At suitable operating point, calculate the static and dynamic resistances of the
diode from the graph.
Repeat the steps from 1 to 5 using Ge diode.

b. Reverse bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.2 using Silicon diode.

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2. Apply the voltage from DC regulated power supply (V IN) in steps of 1V from 0V
to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage, VR across the diode from voltmeter and current, I R through
the ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, VR and current, IR.
5. Calculate static and dynamic resistances of the diode from the graph.
6. Repeat the steps from 1 to 5 using Ge diode.

Table 2.1: Forward voltages and forward currents of Silicon and Germanium PNdiodes

Applied
Voltage
VIN (volts)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Silicon diode
Diode
Diode
Voltage
Current
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.07
0.0
0.12
0.0
0.23
0.0
0.32
0.0
0.37
0.01
0.44
0.04
0.47
0.11
0.50
0.19
0.52
0.30
0.53
0.39
0.545
0.48
0.603
1.37
0.629
2.56
0.645
3.47
0.658
4.53
0.667
5.40
0.676
6.51
0.683
7.54
0.689
8.43
0.696
9.68

Germanium diode
Diode
Diode
Voltage
Current
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.0
0.0
0.01
0.0
0.099
0.03
0.157
0.11
0.193
0.17
0.215
0.21
0.267
0.33
0.273
0.35
0.308
0.46
0.339
0.51
0.366
0.60
0.611
1.33
0.803
2.15
0.995
2.95
1.154
3.86
1.311
1.72
1.462
5.66
1.616
6.59
1.738
7.39
1.872
8.26

Table 2.2: Reverse voltages and reverse currents of Silicon and Germanium PNdiodes
Applied
Voltage
VIN (Volts)
0

1
2
3

Silicon diode
Diode
Voltage
VR(Volts)
0.35

Diode
Current
IR (A )
0.0

Germanium diode

0.10

Diode
Current
IR (A )
3.5

Diode Voltage
VR(Volts)

1.12

.01

1.03

11.4

2.15
2.88

0.2
0.3

2.03
3.02

43.5
97.8

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4
5
6
7
8
9
10

4.05
5.10
6.11
7.18
8.17
9.12
10.10

0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2

4.09
4.83
5.87
6.80
7.65
8.69
9.69

159.2
209.7
268.4
334.2
372.8
423
433

Model Graph

Fig 2.3: I-V Characteristics of Silicon and Germanium PN-Junction diodes

Calculations
a.

Silicon diode
Forward bias
1. Static Resistance, Rf = VF / IF =0.6/1.3mA=0.46K
2. Dynamic Resistance, rf = VF / IF = V2 V1/ I2 I1
=(0.62-0.6)/(3.5-1.3)mA=6.25
Reverse bias
1. Static Resistance, Rr = VR / IR=-1/-0.1A=10M
2. Dynamic Resistance, rr =VR / IR= V2 V1/ I2 I1
=(-3(-1))/(-0.31-(-0.1)) A=9.52M
b. Germanium diode
Forward bias
1. Static Resistance, Rf= VF / IF =0.4/0.6mA= 0.667K
2. Dynamic Resistance, rf = VF / IF = V2 V1 / I2-I1
=-3-(-1))/(2.5-1.3)mA=286
Reverse bias
1. Static Resistance, Rr = VR / IR = 4/160 A=0.025M
2. Dynamic Resistance, rr =VR / IR = V2 V1/ I2 I1
= (-0.31-(-0.1)) A =0.017M

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Precautions
1. Connections must be done very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum rating of the diode.

Result
The V-I characteristics of PN junction diode (both Germanium and Silicon) are
plotted and calculated their static and dynamic resistances under forward and reverse
bias conditions.

Inference
The cut-in voltage of silicon made PN junction diode is 0.4V where as the cutin voltage of germanium made PN junction diode is 0.2V

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3. Design, analysis and test of full wave rectifier without and


with capacitor filter
Aim
Design, analysis and test of full wave rectifier without and with capacitor filter for the
given specifications.
Equipment Required
S.No

Name of the
Equipment/ Component

Specifications
VR (max)=1000V
IR (max)=50mA
VF =1 V, IF = 1A
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
230V/9-0-9V,500mA
16V, Electrolytic type
20MHz
4 digit

Quantity

Diode (1N4001)

Resistor (150)

3
4
5
6

Transformer
Capacitor (470 F)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Digital Multi meter

Bread Board

Connecting Wires

Sufficient

1
1
1
1
1

Theory
In the full wave rectifier circuit the transformer has a center-tap in its secondary
winding. It provides out of phase voltages to the two diodes. During the positive half
cycle of the input, the diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. But diode D1 is
in forward bias and it conducts. The current flowing through D1 is also passes
through the load resistor, and a voltage is developed across it. During negative half
cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. Now the current
flows through diode D2 and load resistor, RL. The current flowing thought the load
resistor, RL passes in both the half cycles. The DC voltage obtained at the output is
given by Vdc = 2Vm / . Where, Vm is peak AC voltage between center-tap point and
one of the diodes. It can be proved that the ripple factor of a full- wave rectifier is
0.482.The output of the full-wave rectifier contains an appreciable amount of AC
voltage in addition to DC voltage. But, the required output is pure DC without any AC
voltage in it. The AC variations can be filtered by a shunt capacitor filter connected in
shunt with the load. The capacitor offers low impedance path to the AC components
of the current. Most of the AC current passes through the shunt capacitor. All the DC

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current passes through the load resistor. The capacitor tries to maintain the output
voltage constant at Vm.

Circuit Diagrams

Fig 3.1: Circuit Diagram of Full wave Rectifier without Filter

Fig 3.2: Circuit Diagram of Full wave Rectifier with Filter


Q. Design a full wave rectifier without and with capacitor filter for an output
voltage of 7.5V and current flowing through the load of 50 mA. Assume the
diode forward resistance is negligible and the ripple factor using capacitor
filter is 0.04

Designing Equations
Given data: Vdc= 7.5V, IL= 50 mA, , Rf= 0
Vdc= 2Vm /
=>Vm= Vdc /2
=>Vm=11.775 V.
V rms = Vm/ 2
V rms = 8.326 V.
So, take 9-0-9V transformer
Given, IL= 50 mA =>Idc= 50 mA
RL = Vdc/ Idc
RL = 7.5/50 mA
RL = 0.15K=150

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full wave rectifier with capacitor filter for a ripple factor of 0.04
Given that, =0.04, RL = 150 , f=50Hz.
=1/ 43fc RL
C=1/43f RL
C= 1/ 43*50*0.04*150
C= 481.12 F.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.1.
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the
3.

4.

5.

6.
7.
8.
9.

10.

transformer.
Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the
maximum voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage using Vrms=Vm/2.
Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must
be same.
Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, Vm and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using
V rms = Vm/ 2 and Vdc=Vavg = 2Vm / .
Measure the AC and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter and
calculate the ripple factor as r = Vac / V dc
While finding ripple factor using CRO, use r =[ [(Vrms/ Vdc)2 1]]1/2
Compare the measured values with theoretical values.
Now connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.2 i.e., the capacitor filter across the
load resistor, RL then connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the
both AC ripple voltage and DC voltages. Calculate the ripple factor. Also
measure the time period T of AC ripple voltage.
Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.

Calculations
1. Input waveform
a. Using CRO
Vm = 2.6x5V=13V
Vrms = Vm/2 = 9.19V
T=20ms, f=50Hz

b. Using Multimeter
Vrms= 9.43V

2. Output waveform without filter


a. Using CRO
Vm = 2.4x5V=12V
Vrms = Vm/2 = 8.48V
Vdc = 2Vm/ = 7.63V

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Ripple factor, r = [ [(Vrms/ Vdc)2 1]]1/2 = 0.48

b. Using Multimeter
Vac = 3.73V
Vac = 7.7V
Ripple factor, r = Vac/ Vdc= 0.48

3. Output waveform with filter


a. Using CRO
Vm = 2.4x5=12V
Vpp= 0.2x5V=1V
Vac= Vpp/23 = 0.28V
Vdc = Vm- Vpp/2 = 11.5V
Ripple factor, r = Vac/ Vdc= 0.014
Charging time period, Tc= 0.2x10ms=2ms
Discharging time period, Td= 0.8x10ms=8ms
T= Tc+ Td= 10ms, f=100Hz

b. Using Multimeter
Vac = 0.256V
Vac = 11.08V
Ripple factor, r = Vac/ Vdc= 0.014

Tabular form
Table 3.1: Comparison of parameters without and with capacitor filter
Full-Wave
Rectifier
Vrms (V)
Vdc (V)
Ripple Factor, r

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

With Out Filter


CRO
8.48
7.63
0.48

Multimeter
3.73
7.7
0.48

With Filter
CRO
0.28
11.5
0.014

Multimeter
0.256
11.08
0.014

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Observations

Fig 4.3 : Input Waveform

Fig 4.4: Output Wave Form of full wave rectifier without Filter

Fig 4.5: Output Wave form of full wave rectifier with filter

Precautions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connections must be given very carefully.


Before connecting the circuits test all the components
Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the
diode.

Result
Input and output waveform with and without filter of a full wave rectifiers are
observed. The ripple factor with and without filter are calculated.

Inference

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The ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with filter is less compared to that without
filter.

Questions & Answers


1. What are the limitations of half wave rectifier
A. Poor efficiency, less ripple factor.
2. Give theoretical values for ripple factor and efficiency of centre tapped full wave
rectifier.
A. r=0.48,=81.2%

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4. Design, analysis and test of Zener voltage regulator


Aim
a. To plot the V-I characteristics of Zener diode in a) Forward bias
bias

b) Reverse

b. Design, analysis and test of Zener Voltage regulator for Vin= 15 V, V0= 9.1V, IL
= 4mA, IZ = 5 mA

Equipment Required

Name of the
Equipment/ Component
Zener Diode ( BZ 9.1)

VZ = 9.1V

Resistor (655 )

Power
rating=0.5W,

3
4
5
6
7

Dual Regulated power supply


Voltmeters
Ammeter
Decade Resistance box

Carbon type
(0-30)V, 1A
(0-1)V, (0-10)V
(0-25) mA
10 -1M

Bread Board

Connecting Wires

Sufficient

S. No

Specifications

Quantity
1
1

1
1
1
1

Theory
A PN junction diode does not conduct when reverse biased. But if reverse
voltage is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage
it. But the Zener diode in reverse bias maintains almost constant voltage across its
terminals whatever may be the input voltage and current through it. So a Zener diode
is a PN-junction diode specially made to work in break down region. It is used in
voltage regulators.

Circuit Diagrams

Fig 4.1: Forward Bias

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Fig 4.2: Reverse Bias

72

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Fig 4.3: Circuit Diagram of Zener Voltage Regulator


Designing Equations
For finding the load resistance:
V0= IL*RL
RL = V0 / IL
RL=9.1/ 4mA
RL =2.275 K
Since, V0 = VZ
Vz= 9.1 V
So, select BZ 9.1 Zener Diode.
Apply KVL at input loop of Fig 4.3
Vin= IS. RS + VZ
Where, IS= IZ+ IL
IS= 5mA+4mA=9mA
RS= Vin - VZ/ IS
RS= 15-9.1/9mA
RS= 655

Line regulation

Fig 4.4: Circuit Diagram of Line Regulation using Zener Diode

Load regulation

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Fig 4.5: Circuit Diagram of Load Regulation using Zener Diode

Procedure
a. Forward Bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.1.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0V up to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, VF from voltmeter and current, IF
through the ammeter for different steps of applied Voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, VF and the current, IF.
5. At suitable operating point, calculate the static and dynamic Resistances
of the diode.
b. Reverse Bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.2.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN from 0V up to 30V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, VR from volt meter and current,
through the diode, I for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage ,VF and current, IF
c. Line Regulation
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.4.
2. Apply the resistance, RL=2.275 K as constant
3. Vary the input voltage, VIN from 0V to 15V
4. Measure the voltage across the Zener diode, Vo from the voltmeter
5. Draw a graph between the input voltage, VIN (V) and output voltage Vo
(V)
d. Load Regulation
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.5
2. Apply the input voltage VIN= 15 V as constant.
3. Vary the load resistance RL from 1 K to 10 K.
4. Measure the voltage across Zener diode, Vo from the voltmeter.
5. Draw a graph between the load resistance, RL (K) and output voltage,
Vo (V).

Tabular Forms
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Table 4.1:Voltage and current readings of Zener diode under forward bias
Diode
Diode
Applied
Voltage
Current
voltage(V)
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.0
0
0
0.1
0.163
0
0.2
0.237
0
0.3
0.367
0
0.4
0.435
0
0.5
0.511
0
0.6
0.587
0.02
0.7
0.644
0.11
0.8
0.659
0.19
0.9
0.669
0.27
1
0.699
0.32
2
0.737
1.21
3
0.755
2.22
4
0.766
3.27
5
0.773
4.32
6
0.779
5.29
7
0.784
6.25
8
0.788
7.25
9
0.791
8.25
10
0.795
9.37
Table 4.2: Reverse voltages and reverse currents of Zener diode

Applied
voltage
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
15
20
25
30

Diode
Current
IR (mA )
0
0
0
0
0
1.40
3.49
6.52
11.68
16.82
21.68

Diode
Voltage
VR (Volts)
0.00
1.97
4.01
6.04
7.05
8.50
8.60
8.60
8.70
8.70
8.70

Table 4.3: Line Regulation


Load Resistance, RL=5K
Input Voltage,
Output Voltage,
Vin (V)
VO (V)
0
0.008
4
3.3

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6
8
10
12
14
15
16
17

5.0
6.7
8.4
8.60
8.61
8.61
8.62
8.62

Table4.4: Load Regulation


Input Voltage VIN(V)= 15V as constant
Load Resistance, RL(K)
Output Voltage, Vo(V)
1
8.61
2
8.61
3

8.61

8.61

8.61

8.61

8.61

8.61

8.61

10

8.61

12

8.61

15

8.61

Model Graphs

Fig 4.6: V-I Characteristics


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Fig 4.7: Line Regulation Characteristics


Characteristics

Fig 4.8: Load Regulation

Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum ratings of
the zener diode.

Result
The V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode is verified and the given Zener diode
regulation characteristics are verified.

Inference
The breakdown voltage observed in reverse bias is 8.61V for the given Zener diode. It
provides Constant Voltage by entering into the breakdown region.

Questions& Answers
1. Define Reverse Break down voltage.
A. The maximum reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and
sudden
raise in current occurs.
2. List the Applications of Zener diode.
A. Constant voltage source, Voltage regulator.

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5. JFET drain and transfer static characteristics


Aim
1. To plot the drain and transfer characteristics.
2. To calculate the drain dynamic resistance and mutual conductance of the given FET.

Apparatus required
S. No

Name of the
Component/Equipment

Diode (1N4007)

JFET (BFW10)

Resistor (100)

4
5
6
7

Regulated power supply


Voltmeters
Ammeter
Digital Multimeter

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

Specifications
VR (max.)=1000V
IR(max.)=50mA
VDS (max.)= 30V
VGS (max.)= -30V
IG (max.)= 10mA
P (max.)= 300mW
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0 30V), 1 A
(0-10V)
(0-15mA)
4 digit

Quantity
1

1
1
2
1
1

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Circuit Diagram

Fig 5.1: Circuit diagram for Static Drain and Transfer static characteristics of
JFET

Theory
Like an ordinary junction transistor, a field effect transistor is also a three
terminal device. It is a unipolar device, because its function depends only up on one
type of carrier. (The ordinary transistor is bipolar, hence it is called bipolar-junction
transistor) Unlike a BJT, a FET has high input impedance. This is a great advantage.
A field effect transistor can be either a JFET or MOSFET. Again a JFET can
either have N-channel or P-channel. An N-channel JFET has an N type semiconductor
bar. The two ends of which the drain and source terminals on the two sides of this bar,
PN junctions are made. These P regions make gates. Usually, these two gates are
connected together to form a single gate. The gate is given a negative bias with
respect to the source. The drain is given positive potential with respect to the source.
In case of a P channel JFET, the terminals of all the batteries are reversed.
In this case, PN junction is reverse biased and hence the thickness of the
depletion region increases. As VGS is decreased from zero, drain is positive with
respect to the source with VGS = 0.Now the majority carriers flow through the N
channel from source to drain. Therefore the conventional current flows from drain to
source. Since the current is controlled by only majority carriers, FET is called as a
unipolar device.
The drain current ID is controlled by the electric field that extends into the
channel due to reverse biased voltage applied to the gate. The drain current depends
on the drain voltage VDS and the gate voltage VGS. Any of these variables may be fixed

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and the relation between the other two are determined when V DS = VP, ID becomes
maximum. When VDS is increased beyond VP, the length of the pinchoff region or
saturation region increases.
The important parameters of a JFET are defined below.

I.
II.
III.

Drain resistance, rd = VDS / ID at VGS = constant.


Mutual conductance = gm = ID / VGS at VDS =constant
Amplification factor = = gm / rd = VDS/ VGS at ID = constant

Procedure
a. Static Drain Characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.1.

2. First fix VGS at some value say -1V. Increase the drain voltage V D slowly in steps
of 1V from 0V to 12V. Note drain current for each step. Now change V GS to
another value say -3V and repeat the above.
3. Plot the drain characteristics.
4. Use the definitions given in brief theory to calculate the JFET parameters from the
characteristics.

b. Transfer characteristics
Fix VDS at some value say 5V. Increase the gate voltage VGG in steps of 0.5V
from 0V to 10V. Note drain current for each step. Plot the transfer characteristics.

Calculations
1. resistance, rd = VDS / ID = (1.04-0.77)/(3.78-3)X10-3= 346
2. Trans conductance, gm = ID / VGS = (4.8-0.77)m/(2-1) =4.03 x 10-3 /
3. Amplification factor, = VDS/ VGS = = (3.5-1)X10-3/ (3-2)=2.5 x 10-3

Tabular Forms
Table 5.1: Static Drain Characteristics of Junction Field Effect
Transistor in Common Source Configuration
Applied Voltage
VGG(V)

VGS = -1V
VDS(V)

VGS = 0V

ID(A) VDS(V)

ID(A)

0.01

0.05

0.03

0.26

0.75

0.17

0.78

0.58

1.4

0.35

1.54

0.97

2.0

0.59

2.4

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1.4

2.42

0.77

3.0

2.11

2.75

1.04

3.78

2.98

2.88

1.3

4.4

3.9

2.95

1.66

5.02

4.8

3.02

2.1

5.56

5.8

3.10

2.85

5.86

10

6.74

3.123.

4.3

6.32

Table 5.2: Transfer Characteristics of Junction Field Effect


Transistor in Common Source Configuration

VDS=5V

Applied voltage
VGG (V)

VGS(V)

ID ( mA )

0.57

14

0.7

12

0.8

9.5

1.5

6.5

2.8

3.5

4.5

0.5

5.5

6.5

7.5

10

8.5

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Model Graphs

Fig 5.2: Drain Characteristics

Fig 5.3: Transfer characteristics

Result
The drain or output and transfer characteristics are obtained and plotted on the graph.

Inference
1. Drain dynamic resistance is observed as 346 for the given FET (BFW10).
2. Amplification factor of the given FET (BFW10) is observed 2.5 x 10-3

Questions& Answers
1. FET is voltage controlled device. Justify?
A. The voltage at input terminal controls the output current. Hence FET is called
voltage controlled device.
2. Define Pinch off voltage?
A. The drain source voltage at which the drain current become nearly constant is
called Pinch off voltage.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

6. Common emitter input and output static characteristics


Aim
a. To observe and plot the input and output static characteristics of a bipolar

junction transistor in common emitter configuration.


b. To calculate the h-parameters from the observed input and output
characteristics.

Equipment Required
S.No

Name of the
Equipment/Component

Transistor (BC 107)

Resistors-39K,1K

3
4
5
6
7

Regulated Power Supply


Volt meters
Ammeters
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

Specifications
Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-

Quantity
1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Circuit Diagrams

Fig 6.1: The input static characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor in


common emitter configuration.

Fig 6.2: The output static characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor in


common emitter configuration.

Theory
In common emitter configuration the emitter is common to both input and
output. For normal operation the Base-Emitter junction is forward biased and
base-collector junction is reveres biased .The input characteristics are plotted
between IB and VBE keeping the voltage VCE constant. This characteristic is very
similar to that of a forward biased diode. The input dynamic resistance is
calculated using a
ri = VBE / IB at constant VCE.
The output characteristics are plotted between IC and VCE keeping IB constant.
These curves are almost horizontal. The output dynamic resistance is given by,
ro = VCE / IC at constant IB.
At a given operating point, we define DC and AC current gains (beta) as follows
Current gain = IC/ IB at constant VCE.

Procedure
a. Input Characteristics

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1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 6.1.


2. Keep the voltage VCE as constant at 0V by varying VCC.
3. Vary the input voltage, VBB in steps of 0.1V from 0V to 1V and there
after in steps of 1V up to 10V.
4. Measure the voltage, VBE from voltmeter and current, IB through the
ammeter for different values of input voltages.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for VCE values of 5V and 10V.
6. Draw input static characteristics for tabulated values.
7. At suitable operating point, calculate hib and hrb graphically.
b. Output Characteristics
1. Fix input base current, IB at constant value say at 10A.
2. Vary the output voltage, VCC in steps of 1V from 0V up to10V.
3. Measure the voltage, VCE from voltmeter and current, IC through the
ammeter for different values.
4. Repeat above steps 2and 3 for various values of IB=30A and 50A.
5. Draw output static characteristics for tabulated values.
6. Calculate hfb and hob graphically.
Table 6.1: Input characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor in Common
Emitter Configuration
Applied
VCE = 1V
VCE = 5V
VCE = 10V
Voltage
VBE(V) IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A)
VBB(V)
0
0.017
0.1
0.030
0.1
0.100
0.1
1
0.619
6.6
0.643
10.2
0.633
9.0
2
0.627
32.1
0.669
31.8
0.672
32.4
3
0.633
59.3
0.672
56.3
0.680
51.9
4
0.638
85.9
0.675
78.5
0.692
78.3
5
0.643
109.8
0.677
108.4
0.697
106.8
6
0.647
134.7
0.680
129.0
0.699
131.9
7
0.650
156.2
0.681
156.0
0.701
157.2
8
0.654
185.2
0.683
179.1
0.702
180.1
9
0.658
210
0.685
208
0.704
212
10

0.660

237

0.687

235

0.705

235

Table 6.2: Output characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor in Common


Emitter Configuration
Applied
IB = 10mA
IB = 20mA
IB = 30mA
Voltage
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
VCC(V)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0.11
0.29
1.33
2.45
3.23
4.20
5.12
6.20
7.20
8.41

1.0
1.72
1.75
1.76
1.78
1.79
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.86

0.08
0.11
0.15
0.23
1.23
2.04
3.26
3.93
4.97
6.17

0.92
1.98
2.95
3.66
3.81
3.85
3.91
3.95
3.99
4.04

0.06
0.09
0.10
0.13
0.16
0.20
0.78
1.68
2.53
3.52

1.08
2.03
2.84
3.84
4.99
5.72
6.24
6.33
6.42
6.52

Model Characteristics

Fig 6.3: Input Characteristics

Fig 6.4: Output characteristics

Calculations
a) From Input Characteristics
Input impedance,hie = VBE/ IB at VCE constant = 0.643+0.658/(210-109.8)
= 149.7005.
Reverse voltage gain,hre= VBE/ VCE at IB constant = 0680-0.643/(5-1) = 9.25m
b) From Output Characteristics
Forward current gain, hfe= IC / IB at VCE constant = (6.5-3.58) m / (30-20)
= 292
Output admittance, hoe = IC / VCE at IB constant = (6.5-6.24) m / (3.5-0.78) =
95.58/

Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Before connecting the circuits test all the components
3. Readings should be noted without parallax error
4. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the
given transistor.

Result
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Input and output characteristics are observed for the given transistor in
common emitter configuration. The h-parameters are calculated.

Inference
It is observed from the input characteristics that as VCE increases, the curves
are shifted towards right side. This is due to the Early effect.

Questions& Answers
1. List various operating regions of Transistor

A. Active region, cut-off region, and saturation region.


2. List various biasing circuits

A. Fixed bias, collector to base bias, and self-bias.


3. Give Transistor current equation in CE configuration

A. IC = IB + (1+) ICEO.

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7. Design, analysis and test of BJT self-bias circuit


Aim
To design, analyze and test BJT self bias circuit for the given specifications. And
observe the variation of operating point with respect to variation in IB and .

Equipments/components required
Name of the
Equipment/Component

S.No
1

Transistor (BC 107)

Resistors-39K,1K

3
4
5
6
7

Regulated Power Supply


Volt meters
Ammeters
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

Specifications

Quantity

Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-

1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient

Theory
The transistor can be operated in three regions cut-off, active and saturation by
applying proper biasing conditions as shown in the table below.
Table.7.1: Operating regions and bias conditions
Region of
Emitter base
Collector base
Operation
junction
junction
Cut-off

Reverse biased

Reverse biased

Active

Forward biased

Reverse biased

Saturation

Forward biased

Forward biased

In order to operate transistor in the desired region we have to apply external DC


voltages of correct polarity and magnitude to the two junctions of the transistor. This

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is nothing but the biasing of the transistor. Because DC voltages are used to bias the
transistor, biasing is known as DC biasing of the transistor.
When we bias a transistor we establish a certain current and voltage conditions
for the transistor. These conditions are known as operating conditions or DC operating
point or quiescent point. The operating point must be stable for proper operation of
the transistor. However, the operating point shifts with changes in transistor
parameters sycg as , Ico and VBE. As transistor parameters are temperature
dependent, the operating point also varies with the changes in temperature.

Need for Biasing


It is clear that we have to supply external dc voltages of correct polarity and
magnitude to the two junctions of the transistor, to operate it in the desired region.
In transistor circuits, output signal power is always greater thab input signal
power, this amplification of power is achieved by the dc sources i.e biasing supplies
the power to the transistor circuit to get the output signal power greater than input
signal power.

Requirements of a biasing circuit


i)

The Emitter-base junction must be forward biased (forward biased


voltage 0.6V to 0.7V) and collector-base junction must be reverse
biased (within maximum limits), i.e., the transistor should be operated
in the middle of the active region or operating point (Q-point) should

ii)
iii)

be fixed at the center of the active region.


The circuit design should provide a degree of temperature stability.
The operating point should be made independent of the transistor
parameters such as .
To maintain the operating point stable by keeping Ic and VCE constant
so that the transistor will always work in active region, the following
techniques are used

Stabilization technique
It refers to the use of resistive biasing circuits which allow I b to vary so as to keep Ic
relatively constant with variations in Ico, and VBE.

Compensation technique

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It refers to the use of temperature-sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors,


thermistors etc., which provide compensating voltages and currents to maintain the
operating point stable.

Disadvantages of fixed bias circuit


1. The circuit does not provide any check on the collector current which
increases with the rise in temperature, i.e. thermal stability is not provided by
this circuit. So the operating point is not maintained.

Ic = .IB + ICEO
2. Since Ic = .IB and IB is already fixed; Ic depends on which changes unit to
unit and shifts the operating point.
Thus stabilization of operating point is very poor in the fixed bias
circuit.
Note: if the transistor is replaced by another transistor, even though the same type
their characteristics may differ slightly. In fixed bias circuit, the change in the
characteristics of transistor changes the operating point. If there is a change in value
of , there is change in

Ic = . IB as IB is constant in fixed biased circuit. The change in Ic changes the


operating point and hence we can say that a fixed bias circuit is unsatisfactory if the
transistor is replaced by another of the same type.

Self bias of emitter-feedback bias


To improve the stability of the biasing circuit over the fixed bias circuit, the
emitter resistance is connected in the biasing circuit. Such biasing circuit is known as
emitter bias circuit.

Circuit diagram

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Fig.7.1: BJT self-bias circuit


Design specifications

Vcc=10V, VCEQ=6v, ICQ=4mA, =230


Select VE as 1/10th of Vcc=> VE= Vcc /10 = 10/10 =1V
VE=IERE~ICQRE=>RE=VE/IE=VE/ICQ=1/4x10-3 = 250 => RE=250
Applying KVL at the output loop:
Vcc=ICQRC+VCEQ+VE
RC= (Vcc-VCEQ-VE)/ICQ = (10-1-6)/(4x10-3)= 0.75x103

=> RE=750

IBQ=ICQ/=4x10-3 /230= 17.3A


The voltage drop across R2=Vcc (R2/(R1+R2))
Applying KVL at input loop in the following equivalent circuit of self-bias

Fig. 7.2: Thevenins equivalent circuit of BJT self-bias


VTH=Vcc(R2/(R1+R2))=IBRB+VBE+VE
Since RB=R1R2/R1+R2
VTH=VCC (R2/R1+R2) = VCC(RB/R1)
VCC (RB/R1)=IBRB+VBE+VE=====
RB should be selected using the approximation

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RB << (1+) RE => RB<< (1+230)250


RB<< 57750

RB is selected as 1/10th of (1+) RE


RB=5.7K
Substituting the value of RB in equation

(10x5.7x103)/R1=(17.3x10-6)(5.7x103)+0.7+1
R1=34K
1/RB=1/R1+1/R2=.1/R2=1/RB-1/R1=1/(5.7X103)-1/(34X103)
1/R2=0.146X10-6
R2=684K

Procedure
1. Connect the as shown in fig 7.1
2. Verify IBQ, ICQ and VCEQ for the given specifications
3. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to I B. vary RB, such that
IBQ10A and measure IC and VCE
4. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to , replace BJT with
another (having different ) of same type and observe the variations in I B, IC and VCE

PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections must be done carefully
2. The applied voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage ratings of the
transistor

OBSERVATIONS
Table.7.2: Variation of operating point with respect to variations in IB.
R B(

IB (A)

Ic (mA)

VCE(v)

2.2 K

7.1

1.18

8.54

2.9 K

10

1.69

3.9 K

13.5

2.32

K)

RB(k )
7.
04
5.05

* Note: Connect RB as a series combination of one fixed resistor of decade resistance


box in order to vary the value of IB.

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Table.7.3: Variation of operating point with respect to variations in

IB (A)

Ic (mA)

VCE(v)

158

11.1

1.73

7.01

220

10

1.69

7.04

311

5.9

1.73

6.9

RB(k )

Result
Hence with the given specifications of BJT the self bias circuit is designed
and also observed the variations of operating point by varying IB and of the
transistor were observed.

Inference
As varies the collector current and the current through base varies as per the
relation Ic = . IB and the amplification factor varies with respect to resistance also.

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8. Design, analysis and test of FET common source amplifier


at low frequencies
Aim
1. To design a COMMON - SOURCE amplifier for given specifications.
2. Simulate the designed amplifier.

Equipment Required
Name Of the
Component/Equipment
Field Effect Transistor
(BFW10)

S.No
1
2

Capacitors(designed values)

Resistors (designed values)

4
5
6
7
8

Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

Specifications
IGS=10mA, PD=300mw
VGS= -30V, VDG=-30V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-

Quantity
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
Sufficient

Theory
In common source amplifier circuit source terminal is made common to the
other two terminals. In common source amplifier circuit input is applied between gate
and source and output is taken from drain and source. The coupling capacitors C 1 and
C2 are used to isolate the D.C biasing from the applied ac signal, and acts as short
circuit for the ac analysis. The high frequency characteristics of the FET amplifier are
determined by the interelectrode and wiring capacitance. The CS amplifier which
provides good voltage amplification is most frequently used. In cascade amplifier
input impedance of the second stage acts as shunt across output of first stage and R d is
shunted by Ci. Since the reactance decreases with increasing frequencies, the output
impedance will be low at high frequencies; this will result in decreasing the gain at
high frequencies.

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Circuit Diagram

Fig.8.1: Circuit of Common Source Amplifier

Design Equations
Design the CS Amplifier with the following specifications I D = 4 mA, VGS= -2V, VDD=
30V,
1. To calculate RD&RS
Applying KVL to the drain circuit in the diagram
VDD = IDRD+VDS+VS
VDD = ID (RD+RS)+(VDD/2) (since VDs = ID.RS=VDD/2)
RD+RS = (30-15)/4mA=3.75K
Assume RS= 0.5K
RD = 3.25K
2. To calculate Capacitor
To provide low reactance capacitors almost short circuit at the operating
frequency,
f=1 KHz.
XCs = (0.1) RS
Xci = (0.1) RG
Xco = (0.1) RD

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3.

Xcs = (Rs/10) ==500/10=50


CS= 1/(2f.Xcs) =1/(2x1000x50)=3.18F
4. Xci = RG/10 assume RG=1M
assume, RG=1M
Ci = 1/(2fXc1) =1/(2f Xci) = 1/(2xx1000x105)=1.59nF
5. Xco = Rd/10 = 3.25K/10=325
Co = 1/(2fXc2) = 1/(2f Xcs)=1/(2x1000x325)=0.489F
Standard values: RD=3.25K, RS=0.5K, RG=1M, Ci=1.59nF, Co=0.489F,
Cs=3.18F

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.8.1.
2. Apply supply voltage, VDD of 30V.
3. For the DC analysis, remove all the capacitors and AC voltage source. Note down
the DC voltages and currents such as VGS, VDS, ID.
4. Feed an AC signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 100 MHZ and measure the amplifier output
voltage.
5. Now calculate the voltage gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
6. Draw a graph with frequency on X- axis and gain in dB on Y- axis and calculate
bandwidth.

Tabular Form
Table 8.1: Simulation
AC Input voltage Vi=40mV (peak-peak)
Frequency (Hz)

Output Voltage, Vo(p-p)


(mVolts)

Gain in decibels
AV=20 log (Vo/ Vi)

100
200
500
800
1K
2K
5K
6K
8K
10K
30K
50K

100
280
440
460
480
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

12.04
16.90
20.82
21.21
21.58
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93

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80K
100K
200K
500K
800K
1M
5M
10M
20M
50M
80M
100M
200M
400M

500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
480
440
400
320
180

21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.58
20.82
20
18.06
9.54

Model Graph

Fig. 8.2: Frequency response characteristics of Common Source Amplifier

Observations
DC Analysis
VGS= -1.665V
VDS= 3.332mA
ID=17.494mA

AC Analysis
Simulated
Maximum Voltage Gain (Av) = 21.9dB
Lower cutoff frequency (fL) = 300Hz
Upper cutoff frequency (fH) = 300MHz
Band width (B.W) = (fH fL) = 139.9MHz
Gain bandwidth product = Av (B.W) = 3065.9MHz=3.065GHz

Precautions

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1. Connections must be made very carefully.


2. Before connecting the circuits test all the components
3. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
4. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the
given transistor.

Result
The COMMON - SOURCE amplifier was designed for the given
specifications and simulated the designed amplifier.

Inference

9. Design, analysis and test of common emitter amplifier


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at low frequencies
Aim
1. Design a COMMON - EMITTER amplifier for given specifications.
2. Simulate the designed amplifier.

Equipment Required
S.No

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Name of The Component/


Equipment

Transistor (BC-107)
Capacitors(designed values)
Resistors (designed values)
Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

Specifications
Ic(max)=100mA
PD=300mW,
Vceo=45V,
Vbeo=50V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-

Quantity

1
3
4
1
1
1
1
Sufficient

Theory
Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal
between input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active region
throughout the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input terminals of
circuit during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter junction V BE is
increased resulting in an increase in IB ,The collector current Ic is increased by times
the increase in IB, VCE is correspondingly decreased. i.e output voltage gets decreased.
Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is converted into a negative going
output signal i.e.180o phase shift is introduced between output and input signal and it
is an amplified version of input signal.
Characteristics of CE amplifier
1. Large current gain (AI)
2. Large voltage gain (AV)
3. Large power gain(AP=AI.AV)
4. Phase shift of 180o
5. Moderate input & output impedances.

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Circuit Diagram

Fig. 9.1: Circuit for Common Emitter Amplifier

Design Equations
Design the CE Amplifier with the following specifications:
VCC =12V, IE =2mA, =500, S 5, f=1KHz.
1. For fixing the optimum operating point Q, mark the middle of the d.c load line
and the corresponding VCE (Q) and ICQ values are determined.
VCE (Q) = VCC/2 =12/2=6V
2. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector circuit in the diagram
VCC ICQ(RC+RE) +VCE(Q)
(12-6)V/2Ma<= (VCC-VCE)/ ICQ = RC + RE = 3k
3. By choosing drop across RE as (0.1)VCC
VE = VCC/10
4. In transistor since base current is very small, so I E is approximately equal to
IC( IE = IC)
VE= IE.RE = VCC/10= IERE=12/(10x2)K= RE=600
5. RC= 3000-600=2.4K
6. The voltage across R2 is
VR2 = VBE+IERE= VCC. R2/(R1+R2) = 0.71+1.2=1.9V--- (a)
R2/(R1+R2)= VR2/ VCC =1.9/1.2=0.158
7. The stability factor, S = (1+ ) / (1+ RE/(RE+RB))

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RB= R1R2 / (R1+R2) = 2.424K---- (b)


From (a) & (b)
R1 = 15.34K R2 = 2.878K
Capacitor Calculations
1. To provide low reactance capacitors almost short circuit at the operating
frequency, f=1KHZ. XCi = (0.1)RB ,XcO =0.1 RC, XcE = (0.1)RE
2. Standard values of Resistors and capacitors are, R1=15.34K , R2=2.87K
RC=2.4K , RE=600 , Ci = Co =0.66F, CE=2.65F

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram Fig. 9.1.
2.

Apply the supply voltage , VCC=12V

3.

Make sure that the transistor is operating in active region by keeping


VCE as half of VCC.

4.

To perform DC Analysis:
a. Disconnect the ac voltage source and the capacitors
b. Note down the following voltages and currents i.e.,
VBE, IB, IC, VCE
c. Note down the DC operating point

5.

To perform AC Analysis:
a. Feed an ac signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 300 MHZ and measure the amplifier
output voltage.
b. Calculate the gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
c. Draw a graph with frequencies on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis and
calculate Bandwidth.

Tabular form

Frequency
(HZ)
50
100
200

Table 9.1: Simulation


Input AC voltage, 20 mV (peak-peak)
Voltage Gain,
Output Voltage, Vo(p-p)
AV=20 log (Vo / Vi)
(Volts)
(dB)
2x50mV
7.95
1.2x200mV
15.56
2x20mV
20

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500
800
1K
2K
4K
6K
8K
10K
20K
50K
100K
500K
800K
1M
10M
20M
50M
60M
80M
100M

2x500mV
1.6x1V
2x1V
3.8x1V
3.2x2V
1.4x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.4x5V
1.2x5V
1x5V
0.6x5V
0.4x5V

27.95
32.04
33.97
39.5
44
44.8
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
44.8
43.5
41.9
37.5
37.5

Model graph

Fig. 9.2: Frequency response characteristics of Common Emitter Amplifier

Observations
DC Analysis
VBE= 0.65V
IB = 6.6A
IC = 2.023mA
VCE = 5.92V
AC Analysis
Simulated
Maximum Voltage Gain (AV) = 4.6dB
Lower cutoff frequency (fL)

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Upper cutoff frequency (fH)


Band width (B.W) = (fH fL)

= 54 MHz
= 5, 39,965 Hz

Gain bandwidth product = AV (B.W) = 2483.839MHz=2.4GHz

Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Before connecting the circuits test all the components
3. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
4. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the
given transistor.

Result
Common - Emitter amplifier was designed for the given specifications and
simulated the designed amplifier.

Inference
The gain of CE amplifier is high and constant at middle frequency range.

10. Switching characteristics of BJT


Aim
To verify and observe the switching characteristics of Bipolar Junction
Transistor(BJT)
Apparatus required
S.No

Name of the
component/ Equipment
Power Transistor (BD 139)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

Specifications
Ic=100mA,
VCE=60v,
VBE =100v,
hfe=40-160

Quantity

103

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Resistors

3
4
5
6
7

Function Generator
Regulated power supply
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Bread Board
CRO Probe and connectors

4.7K, 1K
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
0-1MHz
0-30V, 1A
20MHz
---

Each one
1
1
1
1
As required

Theory
When the transistor acts as a switch, it is either in cut-off or in saturation. To
consider the behaviour of the transistor as it makes transition from one state to the
other. The pulse waveform makes transitions between the voltage V2 and V1. At V2
the transistor is at cut-off and at V1 the transistor is in saturation. The input waveform
Vi is applied between the base and the emitter through a resistor RB.
Analysis
Case 1: applying KVL at output path
VCC-ICRC-VCE=0
If VCE=0IC = VCC/R (I max)
If IC=0 VCE = VCC
IC= IB = (1+) ICBO
IC=IBIC/
IC (sat)=IC(max)=VCC/RC=5V/4.7K=1.06mA
IB = IC (sat)/ = 1.06mA/223 = 4.75A
Case (ii): Applying KVL at input path:
IB = (Vin-VBE)/RB
IB= (5-0.7)/1KIB=4.3mA
If
IB>IC(sat))/

it is in saturation region. i.e., the BJT acts as an inverter for VCC=5V


VCE= VCC - ICRC
= 5-(1.06mA)(4.7K) ~ 0V Hence it is an inverter.
Circuit diagram

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Fig 10.1: Switching characteristics of BJT

Model waveforms
a) Input waveform:

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Fig 10.2: Input waveform

Fig 10.3: Output Waveform


Observations/calculations
a) Input waveform
Amplitude (Vin) = 2Vp-p
Time period (t) = 10 sec
Frequency f=1/T=100 KHz

b) Output waveform
Amplitude (Vce) =5V
Rise time (tr) =0.6s
Fall time (tf) =0.6ms
Discharging time (td) =0.2s
Switching time (ts) =0.3s

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig10.1
2. Obtain a constant amplitude Square wave form from function generator of 2Vp-p at
100 KHz and give the signal to the circuit.

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3. Observe the output waveform and note down its amplitude, rising time (tr), full
time(tf), discharge time (td), switching time (ts).
4. Draw the input and output waveforms.

Precautions
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Verify the circuit before giving supply voltage.

Result
The switching characteristics of BJT are verified and observed practically.
Inference
The working of BJT as a switch i.e. the inverter action is observed practically.

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