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Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge

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arboreal vegetation in medieval...
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Siedlungsforschung. Archologie Geschichte Geographie 31, 2014, S. 247269

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area

in Central Hungary:
examples of sand and arboreal vegetation in medieval documentation
compared to the results of
natural scientific and archaeological investigations1

With 4 figures

Introduction: aims and research questions

The main aim of the present study is to locate, collect, describe and analyse the
information available on medieval land use and landscape conditions in the Sand
Ridge area in the Danube-Tisza interfluve, based on documentary evidence and
the results obtained from investigations by the natural sciences and archaeology.
Due to its sensitivity to climatic and environmental changes, growing interest in
the historical conditions of the Sand Ridge area can be detected. However, most
of the investigations to date have been undertaken by archaeologists and natural
scientists, while no systematic analysis of the medieval documentary evidence has
been carried out so far. Thus the documentary evidence can complement the information gained by archaeology and the natural sciences can supply valuable further material and can be used by scientists dealing with historical ecology, botany
or geomorphology; it also has the potential to provide useful data to historians
studying medieval law, agriculture or society.
The questions we have tried to answer in the course of our investigations are:
to what extent is it possible to use contemporary documentary evidence in the
analysis and (complex) reconstruction of the medieval landscape and environment? What kind of information can be gained from documentary sources about

Dem Beitrag liegt die Posterprsentation zugrunde, die auf der 39. Tagung des Arbeitskreises fr historische Kulturlandschaftsforschung in Mitteleuropa, ARKUM e.V. (Szeged,
26.29. September 2012), gezeigt wurde.

248

Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

the forest vegetation, trees and open sand surfaces in the Sand Ridge area? What
was the importance of woodland in the study area? Is the data capable of circumscribing the spatial distribution of forest coverage? Is it possible to identify dominant tree types in the area? What sandy soil types and sand dune forms can be
identified on the basis of medieval documents? Is it possible to detect any sand
movement in (or with the help of) the documentary evidence? Does the appearance of arboreal vegetation provide information on tide sands, and do sand and
forest appear in close proximity or do they have separate distributions within the
Sand Ridge area? These questions are approached here mainly through the presentation and analysis of medieval documentary sources and the results are compared with the information available from the data provided by the natural
sciences and archaeology.

Sand dunes and vegetation cover: general overview

Extensive sand surfaces cover around 20 % of Hungary: they mainly occupy large
parts of the Nyrsg and Bels-Somogy regions, and the Danube-Tisza Interfluve.
Amongst these the most extensive is the Sand Ridge area, located in the DanubeTisza Interfluve which is a remnant of the Danube alluvial fan. In this zone, the
Sand Ridge area is bounded to the west by the Danube floodplain, to the south
by the Bcska loess plateau, and to the north the Gdlli-dombsg and the alluvial plain of the rivers Tpi and Zagyva are its neighbours (see e. g. Somogyi
1967, p. 12; Pcsi 1967, p. 214). The Sand Ridge area, as investigated in the present
study, is divided into smaller units, namely the Gerje-Perje plain, the sand ridges
of Pilis-Alpr, Kiskunsg, Bugaci and Dorozsma-Majsa, and the Kiskunsg loess
plateau (Somogyi 1967, p. 12; see fig. 1).
After some major tectonic changes in the late Quaternary caused the Danube
to leave its northwest-southeast oriented bed(s) which ran through the area of
the current Danube-Tisza Interfluve (for more details, see e. g. Borsy 1987,
pp. 1113; idem 1989, p. 217f.) the Danube occupied its present-day north-south
course. From then onwards wind became the most important element responsible
for the recent morphological development of the Sand Ridge area. The predominant landscape forms can be divided into two main groups. The most important
morphological features are the sand dunes which settle (under the influence of
the prevailing winds) in a northwest-southeast direction. The second characteristic group consists of marshes with turf soils, meadows and dry alkaline lakes,
located in the hollows between some major sand dune ridges.
The climate and vegetation of the Sand Ridge area determine that only parabolic forms of sand dunes could develop there; their formation was governed by
the magnitude and direction of the winds, the vegetation cover and the time span
between sand movements (Cholnoky 1902, p. 37; Marosi 1967, p. 232; Borsy 1977,
p. 44). When no ground cover is provided by the vegetation, wind-blown open
sand dunes develop, and the wind moves the sand (Cholnoky 1902; Kiss and Tor-

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

Fig. 1:

249

Location of the study area

Map by Mrta Tber

nynszki 2006, p. 2). Some sand dune ridges preserved the elevation of their
former surface (Cholnoky 1902; Kdr 1935, pp. 8-12). The wind-blown sand may
accumulate in extensive sand dune formations (so-called garmada), but often the
wind spreads the sand over the surface (Marosi 1967, p. 244). Although the extent
of the sand cover is usually small; some more extensive examples can be found in
the Sand Ridge area (Borsy 1977, p. 47).
The vegetation cover adapted to the morphological complexity: rather different species spectra can be found on the mounds or hilltops than in the hollows
between the sand dunes. Arboreal vegetation is of key importance for understanding changes in land cover and land use in the Sand Ridge area: with the
higher density of arboreal vegetation there is a higher probability that sand dunes
are anchored (with less movement possible). Therefore, the association with forests or woodland may reduce the possibility of extensive open landscapes with
moving sand dunes close by.
However, the individual trees or bushes/shrubs mentioned in medieval texts
which contain clear indications of location (e. g. in perambulations) provide us
with important information on what species and types of trees might have been
present in the medieval landscape. In this respect, medieval charters referring to
(mass) arboreal vegetation provide important material on broader landscape patterns.

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Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

In terms of its main natural attributes, the Sand Ridge area is representative of
a forest steppe zone (grassland with some arboreal vegetation). Juniper and poplar-juniper mixed forests are characteristic for this type of vegetation (Simon
1967, p. 235f.; Vidki 2003, p. 27). The hilltops and slopes of the oak-poplar-juniper forest can harbour other trees, the dominant species being oak sub-species
which prefer drier conditions (e. g. Quercus petraea L.). The woodland undergrowth contains mainly steppe formations, and where more humid soil conditions
exist a ground cover consisting of steppe vegetation may also develop. As we shall
see, sub-species of arboreal vegetation can rarely be detected in medieval documentation (except, perhaps, for juniper; but typically not for oak). The gallery forests of the forest steppe is the third type of arboreal vegetation encountered; there
the predominant species is Quercus robusta L., but Quercus pubescens W., usually
mixed with white poplar and wild pear, also appears (Vidki 2003, p. 28). Steppe
(grass-dominated) vegetation can usually be found (in open or closed association)
in the hollows between the sand dunes, but in hollows with a high water table wet
and marshy meadows may also be encountered (Simon 1967, p. 235f.; Vidki 2003,
p. 26f.).

Moving sand dunes lack or shortage of vegetation cover?

A large number of joint archaeological and geomorphological investigations have
been carried out in the last decade in the Sand Ridge area. As a result, several
periods with more intensive sand movements have been identified in both prehistoric and historic times.
In the Danube-Tisza Interfluve, several cases of sand cover, suggesting intensive sand movements, have been found overlying archaeological layers with buried soils rich in topsoil. The archaeological findings have allowed geomorphologists to distinguish several intensive periods of sand movement (for an overview,
see: Nyri et al. 2012). Additionally, the results of further archaeological excavations (combined with soil analysis), carried out separately in the Dorozsma-Majsa
Sand Ridge area in the southern Danube-Tisza Interfluve region, also suggest localised sand movement up to the High Middle Ages (Arpadian period; Blint
2007).
Even though the spatial extent of the moving sands is not known, intensified
sand movements have been detected in the Sand Ridge area in the Copper Age
(Blint 2007) and Late Bronze Age (layers dated to 15001200 BC; see Gbris
2003; jhzi et al. 2003; Nyri and Kiss 2005a; 2005b; 2009; Kiss et al. 2006; 2008;
Nyri et al. 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2009). For later periods, the 3rd4th century AD
(Sarmatian period; see: Lki and Schweitzer 2001; Kiss et al. 2006; 2008; Nyri et
al. 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2009) and the 6th8th century have been identified as periods of increased sand movement (Avar period; see Nyri and Kiss 2005a; 2005b;
Kiss et al. 2006; 2008; Nyri et al. 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2009; Benyhe 2013). In the

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

251

Dorozsma-Majsa Sand Ridge area, a covering sand layer was dated to the period
between the 4th and 10th century AD (Blint 2007).
For the High Middle Ages, the 11th13th century, and the period following the
settlement of the Cumans in the Sand Ridge area (earlymid 13th century; see:
Lki and Schweitzer 2001; Smegi 2001; Gbris 2003; jhzi et al. 2003; Nyri et
al. 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2009; Kiss et al. 2006, 2008; Benyhe 2013) were periods
when moving sand has been identified on excavation sites. The 15th century marks
a further, late medieval period in which sand movement intensified (Kiss et al.
2008; Nyri et al. 2007; see also fig. 1: intervals).
The natural conditions taking general climatological conditions, especially
the amount of precipitation into account suggest the presence of ground cover
vegetation and no intensive sand movement in the Sand Ridge area. For this reason, periods with intensive sand movement were associated by geographers to
previous or ongoing grazing and/or overgrazing in the area, with the decrease in
vegetation cover causing increased wind erosion and moving sand. In this case anthropogenic influence (e. g. the documented importance of cattle) plays a crucial
role in understanding the processes at work. For example, in the 15th16th century,
when cattle export was probably at its strongest, the exploitation of sandy areas
for grazing cattle reached its greatest extent (Kldy-Nagy 1968; 1970; 2002; Kocsis
1993; Mlyusz 1983; Mszros 1979). The desertion and concentration of settlements are also strongly connected to this situation, and are linked to the increased
use of these sandy steppe areas as extensive pastures (Maksay 1971; Rosta 2009;
Szab 1966; 1976). Grazing, especially overgrazing, leads to a loss of vegetation
cover and the growth of open sand surfaces with no or rare vegetation, and thus
to intensified sand movements.
In sum, archaeo-geomorphological investigations have revealed increased
sand movement in the Middle Ages, in the 11th13th century, but especially
around the mid-13th century and the 15th century.

Charters: a key source for studying the landscape of the

medieval Sand Ridge area
Charters are among the most important types of contemporary written documentation available, especially those containing perambulations and other descriptions on the environmental conditions in landed properties (e. g. land division).
Since charters are key sources for studying the medieval landscape conditions in
the Sand Ridge area, the overview presented here examines what these documents can reveal about the history of the landscape and how we can use these
sources in its reconstruction. Precision constitutes a clear advantage of charters
compared to other types of sources, since the charters provide exact dates and
locations of surveys (see e. g. Kiss 2009). Moreover, they sometimes offer quite
detailed information on the environment of certain landed properties and their
boundaries (for a detailed case study, see Zatyk 1997).

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Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

The details the charters contain about aspects of the landscape can be explained by the raison dtre of these documents: in most cases charters were issued
when legal procedures, especially land purchase, inheritance or land division took
place. These procedures required perambulation in many cases: the identification,
detailed description and (if necessary) re-demarcation of land boundaries. When
a perambulation was carried out, the relevant parties (together with the official
representatives of the place of authentication and the neighbours) had to go to the
actual land and walk along its boundaries. During this process a detailed description of the boundaries and landmarks was made which then became an integral
part of the legal document (charter) concerning the property. These charters were
kept as the most important proof of the property rights of an actual landowner
(Koszta 1998; Kfalvi 2006, see also Kiss 2001; 2009).
It is not possible to identify the extent of the forest cover in the medieval Sand
Ridge area on the basis of the available charters, but some forests or woodlands,
as well as individual trees or bushes, have however been documented and can be
located from the medieval documentation. A comparison of the reconstructed
18th century conditions with those of the Middle Ages, allows for some limited
further conclusions. The written documentation also makes it possible to obtain
information on some of the typical forest tree species and their locations. Finally,
in certain cases written sources can provide early evidence for the appearance and
existence in the Middle Ages of some tree species (e. g. juniper) previously
thought to have appeared only later in the Sand Ridge area.
The location of the data derived from charters and the archaeological evidence
reveals that the medieval Sand Ridge area can be divided in a manner similar to
what can be traced in the 18th century (see Br and Molnr 2009, p. 174) into
two parts along the Kecskemt-Tiszaalpr line (fig. 1). While in the smaller,
northern area more documentary evidence is present and usable (probably due to
its higher population density and location), in the larger, southern area far fewer
contemporary documentary sources (but more archaeological evidence on moving sand) are available.

Sand in the Sand Ridge area: the medieval documentary sources

The term sand and the environmental information contained in
written documents
In the present discussion, the elements and areas with the most common toponyms for sand which appear in documents either in Hungarian (~humuc(h)
~humuk~homoka) or in Latin (arena, sabulum) have special importance (for
more details, see: Reszegi 2008, p. 114f.). The toponyms containing the word
sand refer to the main characteristics of the environment; for example, sand
dunes are often called hill or mound (Latin: mons, monticulum; Hungarian:
Hosszhomokhegy~mons Hoziuhomok: Brtfai-Szab 1938, pp. 8486) in contemporary documentation. There are also references to sand or sandy soil types,

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

253

e. g. fekete homok~fekete kumuc, kves homok~cues humuc, fvenyes homok

~fuegnes humuc (Gyrffy 1992, I, pp. 149-152; Erdlyi 1908, X, pp. 487495,
502517).
Other circumstances and interpretations based on toponyms are also worth
mentioning. As suggested by Gyrfs (1883, pp. 578580, 626), the name of a
sandy area may sometimes provide information about its former (medieval)
owner (e. g. Csdrhomoka~Chederhamoka, Lkshomoka~Lekeshomoca). In
other cases an environmental characteristic, for example the lack of vegetation
(e. g. Szrhomok~Zaarhomok; see: Brtfai-Szab 1938, pp. 8486) or a typical
colour (e. g. Aranyhomoka, see: Hornyik 1860, p. 222) could be at the root of its
(medieval) name. This type of information is however too uncertain to form, on
its own, the basis of further interpretation on the medieval environmental conditions in the area.
Key sources for the identification of open or quasi-open sand surfaces are the
perambulation charters containing the description of the boundaries, landmarks
and main environmental characteristics of the areas described. Single areas, mentioned as one undivided object (e. g. lake, marsh, meadow or sand) were named
according to their dominant (visible, material) characteristics, which were often
closely connected to their typical utilisation (e. g. a lake for fishing; marshes for
reeds, fishing, birds, etc.). Thus the descriptions based on the main characteristics
of these objects in charters, made their identification clear and easy (Takcs
1987b; Reszegi 2008, pp. 111125). In this respect the medieval naming of an object or undivided portion of land, as sand can provide important insights on its
(sand-dominated) environmental characteristics.
Thus, by collecting evidence on areas (hills, undivided land, etc.) described as
sand in perambulation charters, we may get closer to identifying areas with rare
(or no) vegetation cover. After systematically collecting the sand-related evidence
available in documentary sources (Tber 2012b, pp. 866868), sand-dominated
parcels of land could be detected in the neighbourhood of Hernd and Gyn in
the northern parts of the Sand Ridge area in the 15th century (1477: BrtfaiSzab 1938, p. 274), and southwest of Cegld in the 14th century (1368: BrtfaiSzab 1938, p. 84).
In the southern parts of the Sand Ridge area further sand-dominated areas
have been identified: in Tiszaalpr in the 12th century (Szentptery 1937, I. P. 54,
57, 72, 81, 84, 101; Szarka 2008, pp. 1819); in the neighbourhood of gasegyhza
and Izsk in the 13th and 14th centuries (gasegyhza, 1359: Gyrfs 1883,
pp. 498500, 503504; Brtfai-Szab 1938, p. 75; Izsk, 1055, 1211: Gyrffy 1992,
I, pp. 149152; Erdlyi 1908, X, pp. 487495, 502517; Fejr 18291844, VII/5,
pp. 177202; Wenzel 1860, I, p. 114); and in the areas north and west of Kecskemt
in the 15th and 16th centuries (1423: Gyrfs 1883, pp. 578580; Hornyik 1860,
pp. 201206; 1556: Hornyik 1860, p. 222; 1559: Hornyik 1860, pp. 223225). Uniform sand is also mentioned in the area of Kiskunhalas in the 15th century (for
locations, see fig. 2).

254

Fig. 2:

Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

Sand surfaces of the Sand Ridge area

Data based on Tber 2012b; with addition of data mentioned in the present study

Sand dune forms and sandy soils

In the light of the discussion above, we were further interested in whether we
could find any information in contemporary documentary sources concerning
sandy soil types. Using the charters, it is possible in some cases to obtain soil-related information which, in present-day classification, can be related to a particular type of sandy soil. Among the medieval charters referring to some parts of the

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

255

Sand Ridge area, the charters documenting the conditions of ownership of the
Benedictine order are of special importance. The significance of two perambulations documented in 1055 and 1211 must be emphasised here: the description of
the landed properties and boundaries of Izsk (high medieval Kolon=Culun) in
1055 and 1211 mentions three characteristic sands related to soil types (Gyrffy
1992, pp. 149152; Erdlyi 1908, pp. 487495, 502517): black sand, fvenyes
(most probably meaning fine sand) and stony sand. Out of these three types, historical and archaeological investigations have identified the black (fekete) sand as
the sandy soil type rich in topsoil, the fvenyes (fuegnes) as moving sand, and
the stony (kves=cues) sand as sand with meadow limestone or dolomite
(Gyrffy 1956, p. 411, 413; Blint 2007, p. 47; Szarka 2008, p. 15f.). Although this
is the only relatively clear and well-localised instance of soil differentiation, reference to the medieval distinction between sandy soil types in another charter
even though it concerns the Danube-Tisza Interfluve in a more general sense
also emphasises the importance of lands with sandy black soils (1473: in terris
negris, quam arenosis, inter fluvios Ticiae et Danuby, [...]; see Reizner 1991,
p. 72).
The other important target of our investigations was the detection, identification and analysis of sand dune forms mentioned in medieval documents. Although
we did not encounter any direct mention of sand dune forms, in some cases important, sand-related information could be tracked down when sand is used as an
adjective to describe a hill or mound (mons, monticulum). Concerning the probable medieval mention of sand forms, only one source can currently provide more
information: during the perambulation of Cegld in 1368, a charter refers to the
south-western boundaries of a hill called Hosszhomok hegy (mons Hoziuhomok; today Csem) (Brtfai-Szab 1938, pp. 8486). Later charters (dated to
1407, 1465/1470 and 1655) and 17th19th century maps lead us to conclude that, in
a manner similar to the condition prevailing in the 18th century, this part of the
settlement was dominated by sand dunes (Tber 2012b, p. 864), just as it is today.
Moreover, the archeo-geomorphological investigations at Kiskunhalas also identified sand dunes, and called attention to the fact that the main hollow between
the sand dunes was filled up by the 15th century through human activity and probably also through changes in the climate (Nyri and Rosta 2009, p. 32; Nyri and
Kiss 2009, p. 35).

Arboreal vegetation: written and archaeobotanical evidence

Despite the relative scarcity of medieval documents available for the Sand Ridge
area, and the fact that most of the surviving charters belong to the late medieval
period (14th15th century), some conclusions can be drawn from the documentation available and the results of investigations by the natural sciences. These results can then, to some extent, be compared to the conditions of the 18th century.
Due to the differences between the two parts of the Sand Ridge area, which are
also similar in the 18th century, we shall consider the evidence in two sub-regions.

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Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

The northern parts of the Sand Ridge area

The written sources and the archaeological evidence could only document arboreal vegetation in the northern and north-western parts of the study area: for the
14th century near present-day rkny (Ess), and for the 15th-16th century in the
area of Lajosmizse (Lajoslse, Mizse), Gyn, Dabas, Hernd, Kakucs, Pusztavacs (Vacs), Nyrsapt and Albertirsa (Alberti, Irsa). East of this area, around the
boundaries of Cegld, Nagykrs and Kecskemt, oak forest is documented in
both the 13th and the 16th century. The forest of Szentkirly, a deserted medieval
village in the eastern neighbourhood of Kecskemt, most probably once also
formed part of this oak forest (Tber 2012a, pp. 362367). Szentkirly from an
environmental point of view one of the most intensively investigated medieval
settlements is also of great importance because this is the only location where
archaeobotanical investigations support the historical reconstruction of the medieval arboreal vegetation in the northern part of the study area (Takcs 1987a,
p. 89f.; Kassai and Takcs 1985, p. 853; Plczi Horvth 1987, pp. 8688; Gyulai
2001).
Forests are also mentioned at the eastern edge of the northern Sand Ridge
area: in the area of the village of Alpr a willow forest appears in the donation
charter of the Abbey of Garamszentbenedek dated to 1075 (Knauz 1874, 57; see
also Laszlovszky 1986). The same village is mentioned among the landed possessions of the Basilite monastery of Sirmium-Szvaszentdemeter in the
12th century; there Alpr is mentioned with its meadows, schrubs and groves
(Gyrffy 1952, p. 346). Moreover, according to a charter (testament of Count
Nna) issued in 1266, vineyards, orchards and meadows also belonged to
this landholding (Csnky and Grdonyi 1936, p. 89; Fejr 18291844, IV, 3,
pp. 315320), (fig. 3).
Beside forests and individual forest trees, shrubs are often mentioned in medieval charters from the study area (see fig. 3). In the northern part of the Sand
Ridge area, in the area of the deserted site of Es, junipers (probably the most
common type, Juniperus communis) and a gorse bush are mentioned in a
14th century (1385) perambulation, while an elm and a gorse were similarly used
as landmarks in the 14th16th century in the area of present-day Lajosmizse (1385:
Gresi 1883, p. 316, Benedek and Krti 2004, p. 11; 1444 and 1521: Ibid., p. 15,
40f.).
The dataset also allowed us to investigate which species of arboreal vegetation
was dominant in medieval forests in this part of the study area. Although half the
charters that mention arboreal vegetation do not refer to the actual species, in
those cases where the types are given, oak was the most important tree type in the
northern parts of the Sand Ridge area (e. g. the oak forest of Cegld-NagykrsKecskemt-Szentkirly). Oak was also the most frequent tree type in the late
18th century (Bir 2008, p. 27f.; Bir and Molnr 2009, p. 179). Moreover, the late
18th century locations of oak forests in the descriptions of the First Military Survey (1783) were Lajosmizse, Nagykrs, Gyn, Kakucs, Cegld, Dabas and
rkny (Bir 2008, p. 27f.), which correspond to mentions of oak (either as a for-

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

Fig. 3:

257

Forests/woodlands mentioned in medieval documents referring to

the Sand Ridge area
Data based on Tber 2012a; with addition of data mentioned in the present study

est or at the level of individual trees) in medieval sources. Additionally, alder,

poplar, ash, and, in the floodplain, willow were also typical there in the
18th century. There is also one reference to wild pear (Cegld, 1368: Brtfai-Szab
1938, p. 85), a tree type that often appears together with oak (Bir and Molnr
2009, p. 179). Additionally, two more charters (issued in 1266 and 1409) refer to

258

Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

orchards (Tiszaalpr, 1266: Csnky and Grdonyi 1936, p. 90; Fejr 18291844, IV/
3. pp. 315320; Hernd 1409: Brtfai-Szab 1938, p. 125; Mlyusz 1958, II/2,
p. 201f.).
The southern part of the Sand Ridge area
Among the documentary sources referring to the southern parts of the Sand
Ridge area, pine and pine forest are mentioned in a charter, dated to 1211, describing the possessions of the Abbey of Tihany in the area of Kolon (present-day
Izsk) (Fejr 18291844, VII/5., pp. 177202; Wenzel 1860, I., p. 114). According to
Gyrffy (1956, p. 411f.), the pine was most probably juniper (which can grow up
to 5 m). A further four 15th century charters refer either to forests or forested
stands in the area. This vegetation could also be typical of the vegetation along
the boundaries of Kecel, Bugac, Cslyosplos (Cholias) and Kiskunmajsa
(Majosaszlls). No medieval reference to arboreal vegetation is known south of
the Kecel-Cslyosplos line, a situation that is similar to 18th century conditions
(see Bir 2008, p. 26; Bir and Molnr 2009, p. 174 on the lack of 18th century
arboreal vegetation). Even though the medieval sources are silent on arboreal
vegetation, this cannot be taken as proof of the absence of medieval tree cover in
the area (see figs. 3 and 4); nevertheless the lack of even small stands of trees in
the 18th century may provide some interesting parallels. It is also important to
mention those cases where no information about tree vegetation could be found
in the medieval documentation even though the presumed medieval name of the
settlement is clearly related to the presence of some arboreal vegetation (e. g.
Kiskrs, Soltvadkert; (Tber 2012a, p. 368).
While trees and forests appear in the majority of the medieval sources examined for information about arboreal vegetation, some important indications are
also available for shrubs. Among these the most important species is probably juniper, which can reach the size of tree. If we accept Gyrffy's opinion that the pine
mentioned in the 1211 charter was a juniper (Gyrffy 1956, p. 411f.), then the appearance of this species can be traced in two types of evidence. The first is the pine
forest mentioned in a charter of 1211 in the neighbourhood of Kolon (present-day
Izsk). The second is archaeologically documented: based on the wood remains
(here clearly juniper) of a well found in a High Medieval Arpadian-period settlement near Kiskunflegyhza, the excavators suggest that junipers were also common in this area (Morgs et al. 1997, p. 99; Blint 2007, p. 72). These medieval
juniper findings are important, since, according to the scientific literature available on the subject (e. g. Bir and Molnr 2009, p. 22), juniper cannot be traced
further back than 250 years, and up to now it was even questioned whether juniper was present at all in the area before the 18th century. On current evidence,
there are now at least three instances documenting the medieval appearance of
junipers in the area (Blint 2007, p. 71f.; Tber 2012a, p. 368).
A forest is mentioned without further details in a 15th century charter (1451:
Gyrfs III., p. 626) in the area of Bugac. Descriptions of the 18th century (e. g.),
however, suggest that junipers appear in great numbers in the Bugac area only

Landscape history of the medieval Sand Ridge area in Central Hungary

Fig. 4:

259

Forest/woodland coverage (in percentage) of the Great Hungarian Plain in the early
1780s (confined to the present-day areas of Hungary), based on the First Military
Survey completed in 1783
Br and Molnr 2009, p. 173

(Bir and Molnr 2009, p. 188). Apart from juniper, there is a late 15th century
reference to a blackberry bush from the southern area (Cslyosplos, 1493: Gyrfs 1883, p. 709); additionally, an etymological interpretation of the name of the
village of Csengele proposes that one of the typical species in the area was blackthorn (Blint 2007, p. 75; Tber 2012a, p. 369; see also fig. 3).
Archaeological evidence shows that oak was used to build three Arpadianperiod (high medieval) wells at a settlement near Kiskunflegyhza. This suggests
that a larger number of oak trees, perhaps an oak forest, existed in the area of
Kiskunflegyhza (Morgs et al. 1997, p. 99; Blint 2007, p. 74). In the reconstruction of the vegetation of the same area in the 18th century (Br 2006, p. 74), based
on the maps and descriptions of the First Military Survey, shrubs and/or scrubland
are mentioned without any indication of the species involved. It is also important
to highlight the results of pollen analysis: for the mid-13th century, arboreal vegetation in the form of willow, alder and oak were mainly identified in the area of
Nagyszk in the Danube-Tisza interfluve (Smegi 2001, p. 316).
For the southern areas, vegetation is scarcely mentioned in medieval sources.
It is interesting that arboreal vegetation or landscape (elements) are also hardly

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mentioned in the 18th century descriptions of this part of the study area. Nevertheless, some important 18th century information may help with finding some parallels for the medieval evidence. For example, as described above, medieval forests are documented in the Kecel area, and it is in the same area that oak forests,
also comprising gorse and alder, are mentioned in the (late) 18th century (Bir
and Molnr 2009, p. 199). According to the vegetation reconstruction of the late
18th century, oak also played a dominant role among the arboreal species in the
area of Kiskrs, Soltvadkert and Kiskunmajsa (Bir 2006, p. 73). Even if no direct or indirect evidence is available to link the late 18th century to the medieval
conditions, there is a possibility that given the 18th century dominance of oak in
the areas mentioned the same tree type was also one of the important species in
these areas in the Middle Ages.
According to 18th century travel accounts, the sand dunes around Izsk were
covered in arboreal vegetation whose dominant species was the white poplar
(Populus alba L.). The dominance of white poplar in the 18th century may suggest
that this tree species might have also played an important role in the Middle Ages,
apparently in some contradiction to Gyrffy who stressed the medieval importance of juniper (see above). Nevertheless, botanists also emphasise that in the
18th century junipers indeed appear scattered all around in the forests of the
area (Bir and Molnr 2009, p. 187f.) which might suggest that juniper once
played a significant (if not dominant) role amongst the arboreal vegetation of the
area.

Discussion
In the present study we have considered two important landscape elements: while
sand is the basic feature, dominating morphology and playing a significant role in
the formation of the natural vegetation cover, arboreal vegetation is the most
characteristic vegetation type indicating a relatively stable morphology. In order
to achieve this goal, the information concerning the arboreal vegetation contained
in medieval sources was collected, as was that relating to sand. Despite the relative scarcity of the medieval documentation, it has been possible in a number of
cases to provide information on the medieval landscape conditions of the Sand
Ridge area, with special emphasis on the information related to sand and arboreal
vegetation. When available, further specific data, such as data on sandy soil types,
potential information on sand dune formations and references to tree (and bush/
shrub) species, have also been included. Through the example of these two significant landscape features, and by comparing and combining the evidence from medieval documents with the results obtained in other fields (e. g. archaeology, geomorphology, palaeoenvironmental research), it has been possible to further
extend our current understanding of the medieval landscape conditions of the
Sand Ridge area.
Most of the medieval moving sand formations (especially those documented
by archaeology) are known from the southern Sand Ridge area. However, rather

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261

more written information on possible open sand surfaces has survived in the
northern area. Compared to the southern area blighted by scarce documentation more forested areas and arboreal vegetation are reported in the north (see
figs. 2 and 3).
There is practically no overlap between the sandy areas documented in the medieval sources and the medieval moving sand surfaces known from archaeo-geomorphological investigations. This is due to the fact that excavations (primarily
connected to the line of future motorways) were largely not carried out on sites
where relevant documentary evidence is available from the Middle Ages. One of
the positive outcomes is that documentary sources provide additional information
on further localities where (open or sparsely vegetated) sand surfaces were dominant for shorter or longer periods in the Middle Ages. Unlike the situation for
sand, the evidence for arboreal vegetation is predominantly available in written
documents (mainly perambulation charters): only in two cases did the results of
archaeological (archaeobotanical) research suggest the presence of oak or pine
(juniper) in the neighbourhood.
Comparing the two main maps (figs. 2 and 3) that illustrate what is known
about the sand-related aspects of the landscape and the arboreal vegetation, a
first glance reveals the larger amount of data on (open) sand-related elements
compared to the arboreal vegetation which is more connected to the smaller,
northern area. But, as indicated, information on moving sand comes from archaeological investigations, while very little documentary data are available for this
southern area in general. In fact, documentary sources concerning sand surfaces
and arboreal vegetation together are reported in the neighbourhood of the same
settlements (usually in the same perambulation charters). This is probably connected to the fact that each settlement possessed various types of land necessary
for everyday life (e. g. arable land, meadows, water surfaces and probably extensive pastures too). Consequently, these settlements often had extensive areas used
for different purposes in late medieval times, and various types of land-use forms
are documented in the same medieval charters for these settlements (e. g. forest/
woodland, meadows, pasture, hayland, arable land, water bodies, sand, etc.).
Moreover, when reported, arboreal vegetation is located in areas further from the
lands defined as sand, as shown very clearly for example in the area of Cegld.
Although archaeo-geomorphological investigations have enabled us to identify
periods with more intensive sand movements (in the 11th13th, mid-13th and
15th centuries), the detection of changes over time is not really possible (neither
for sand nor for arboreal vegetation) from the scarce documentary evidence available. As for the spatial distribution of arboreal vegetation documented in contemporary sources it is worth noting (but without drawing any further conclusions)
that more forests, trees and bushes are generally mentioned close to the boundaries of the Sand Ridge area, while very little information on any arboreal vegetation is available in the central part of the study area (see fig. 3).
A comparison of the information gained from the medieval documents with
the reconstruction available for the quite richly-documented 18th century brings
further insights. In a manner reminiscent of the 18th century conditions, arboreal

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Mrta Tber and Andrea Kiss

vegetation appears more frequently in documents (and maps) of the northern

part of the Sand Ridge area than in the otherwise much larger, southern part: this
is especially true for the appearance of forests and woodlands. In the southern
area (particularly south to the Kecel-Cslyosplos line) neither forest nor even
stands of trees or shrubs are mentioned in medieval sources, and this is akin to
conditions in the 18th century. The absence of evidence concerning the appearance of arboreal vegetation in the written documents cannot provide any clear
proof of the potential lack of this vegetation type in the southern parts of the medieval Sand Ridge area. Nevertheless, the similar late 18th century conditions, at
a time when quite detailed maps (e. g. military surveys, local maps) were being
compiled, are worth stressing.

Conclusion
The medieval sources concerning two important landscape elements (arboreal
vegetation and sand), are mostly the charters of the 14th and 15th centuries. Given
to the scarceness and content type of documents available for the medieval Sand
Ridge area, it is not possible to ascertain the proportion of land occupied by arboreal vegetation (e. g. forest cover) and open sand surfaces, nor is it possible to
determine the extent of the known forests or potential open sand areas. Nevertheless, it has been possible to identify some of the forests, the presence of arboreal
vegetation and the main tree species which clearly existed there in the Middle
Ages. Further, some sandy areas (and sometimes even soil types) with sparse or
no vegetation cover where sand might have moved have been recognised. All this
information can significantly extend and modify the picture of the medieval Sand
Ridge area so far known. Furthermore, comparing the medieval information with
the reconstruction of the vegetation history of the 18th century, carried out on the
basis of contemporary maps and descriptions, has yielded many insights.

Summary
The present study considers two important landscape elements, namely the sand
and arboreal vegetation that developed in the Sand Ridge area of the DanubeTisza Interfluve during the Middle Age. On the one hand, the contemporary written sources and the archaeological data provide the basis for an overview of the
evidence available; on the other hand, the focus is placed on the nature of the
relationship between these two significant features of the medieval landscape.
Numerous archaeological and geomorphological investigations have contributed
to reconstructing the development of moving sand dunes during the High and
Late Middle Ages. In addition, medieval documents define (often uniformly) regions where it is the sand and not the type of vegetation cover or the land-use that
is the decisive factor, probably referring to areas of sand with limited (or no)
ground cover. Further, in a few exceptional cases the written sources have led to

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263

the recognition of potential sandy soil types and to the identification of (larger)
sand dunes already present in the region in medieval times. The evidence for forest/woodland, smaller stands and individual trees is mainly given in documents
which refer to the northern or north-western parts of the Sand Ridge area,
whereas the much sparser sources for the larger, southern part of the region rarely
mention the arboreal vegetation; this is similar to the situation known in the
18th century. The tree species mentioned in the written sources are mainly oak,
sometimes also pine, alder, poplar, ash and willow (as well as orchards in general).
Besides trees, shrubs and bushes such as juniper, elm and gorse also appear in
medieval (perambulation) charters. As for the relationship between the (sparsely
vegetated or open) sand surfaces and the tree cover (with special emphasis on
forests, orchards and smaller woodlands), we rely primarily on sand-related data
in the southern region, whereas in the smaller, northern area the balance is in
favour of the arboreal vegetation. Nevertheless, there is information for both
sand-related and vegetation cover available in the charters of specific settlements
with extensive landholdings that actually represent even if probably located far
from each other two aspects of a single management system combining different
functions and different forms of land-use (e. g. forest/woodland, meadows, pasture, haylands, arable land, water bodies and sandy areas).

Zusammenfassung
In dieser Studie werden zwei wichtige Landschaftselemente, nmlich die Sanddnen und die Baumvegetation in der Sandgratregion des Donau-TheiZwischenstromlands whrend des Mittelalters analysiert. Anhand schriftlicher
und archologischer Quellen wird einerseits versucht, die vergangene Landschaft
zu rekonstruieren; andererseits wird das Verhltnis dieser zwei wichtigen Elemente zueinander analysiert.
Aufgrund zahlreicher archologischer und geomorphologischer Untersuchungen wurde der Versuch unternommen, die Vernderung der Wanderdnen im hohen und spten Mittelalter nachzuzeichnen. Mittelalterliche Schriftquellen benennen (oft in bereinstimmung) Regionen, in denen die Sanddnen und nicht
die Art der Vegetation oder die Landnutzung als entscheidender Identifikationsfaktor galten, wobei sie sich wohl auf Sandflchen mit wenig (oder keiner) Vegetation beziehen. In Ausnahmefllen knnen anhand schriftlicher berlieferung
potentielle Regionen mit Sanddnen bestimmt werden, die dort bereits im Mittelalter prsent waren.
Vergleichbar zu der Situation des 18. Jahrhunderts sind die Belege fr Wlder
und Waldflchen, fr kleinere Baumgruppen oder einzelne Bume hauptschlich
in jenen mittelalterlichen Quellen zu finden, die sich auf die nrdlichen oder
nordwestlichen Teile der Sandgratregion beziehen, whrend fr die greren,
sdlichen Teile der Region Baumvegetation nur sehr selten in den Quellen genannt wird. Es werden meist Eiche, manchmal auch Kiefer, Erle, Pappel, Esche
und Weide (sowie Obstgrten im Allgemeinen) als Baumarten erwhnt. Neben

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Bumen kommen zudem auch Strauch- und Buscharten sowie Wachholder, Ulme
und Ginster in den Schriftquellen vor. Sprlich bewachsene oder offene Sandflchen sind berwiegend fr die sdlichen Regionen mit Sanddnen belegt,
Baumflchen (mit besonderer Bercksichtigung von Wldern, Obstgrten und
kleineren Forstflchen) hingegen eher fr die kleinere, nrdliche Region. Dennoch sind sowohl die auf die Sandflchen, als auch die auf die Waldflchen bezogenen Daten in den Urkunden bestimmter Ortschaften mit umfangreichen Territorien berliefert. Diese besaen, teils weit voneinander entfernt, zwei Elemente
eines Landverwaltungssystems mit verschiedenen Funktionen und Formen der
Landnutzung (z. B. Forst/Wald, Wiesen, Weiden, Heugebiete, kultivierbares
Land, Gewsser und Sandgebiete).

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265

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