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3. Gas Behavior
4. Gas Properties:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Z Factor
Isothermal gas compressibility (Cg)
Gas formation volume factor (Bg)
Gas Viscosity
Multiphase Behavior
Naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems found in
petroleum reservoirs are mixtures of organic
compounds that exhibit multiphase behavior over
wide ranges of pressures and temperatures.
These hydrocarbon accumulations may occur in the
gaseous state, the liquid state, the solid state, or in
various combinations of gas, liquid, and solid.
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Pressure-Temperature Diagram
Although a different hydrocarbon system would have a
different phase diagram, the general configuration is
similar. These multicomponent pressure-temperature
diagrams are essentially used to:
Classify reservoirs
Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid
To fully understand the significance of the pressuretemperature diagrams, it is necessary to identify and
define the following key points on these diagrams:
Cricondentherm (Tct), Cricondenbar (pcb), Critical point,
Phase envelope (two-phase region), Quality lines, Bubblepoint curve, Dew-point curve
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Oil Reservoirs
Depending upon initial reservoir pressure pi, oil
reservoirs can be subclassified into the following
categories:
Undersaturated oil reservoir. If the initial reservoir
pressure pi, is greater than the bubble-point pressure Pb
of the reservoir fluid
Saturated oil reservoir. When pi is equal to the bubblepoint pressure of the reservoir fluid
Gas-cap reservoir or two-phase reservoir. If pi is below
the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid
The appropriate quality line gives the ratio of the gas-cap
volume to reservoir oil volume.
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Crude Oils
Crude oils cover a wide range in physical properties and
chemical compositions, and it is often important to be
able to group them into broad categories of related oils.
In general, crude oils are commonly classified into the
following types:
Ordinary black oil
Low-shrinkage crude oil
High-shrinkage (volatile) crude oil
Near-critical crude oil
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Low-Shrinkage Oil
A schematic phase diagram for the nearA typical liquid-shrinkage curve for the nearoil Engineering 1 Course: Petroleum Reservoirs\
critical
oil
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Reservoir
Gas crude
Properties
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Gas Reservoirs
In general, if the reservoir temperature is above the
critical temperature of the hydrocarbon system, the
reservoir is classified as a natural gas reservoir. On
the basis of their phase diagrams and the prevailing
reservoir conditions, natural gases can be classified
into four categories:
Retrograde gas-condensate
Near-critical gas-condensate
Wet gas
Dry gas
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Retrograde Gas-Condensate
Near-Critical Gas-Condensate
Wet Gas
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Dry Gas
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Compositions of
Various Reservoir Fluid Types
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Specific Volume
Apparent Molecular
Weight
Specific Gravity
Standard Volume
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Pseudo-Reduced Properties
Calculation
Studies of the gas compressibility factors for natural
gases of various compositions have shown that
compressibility factors can be generalized with
sufficient accuracies for most engineering purposes
when they are expressed in terms of the following two
dimensionless properties:
Pseudo-reduced pressure and Pseudo-reduced temperature
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Nonhydrocarbon Components of
Natural Gases
Natural gases frequently contain materials other
than hydrocarbon components, such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Hydrocarbon gases are classified as sweet or sour
depending on the hydrogen sulfide content.
Both sweet and sour gases may contain nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, or both.
A hydrocarbon gas is termed a sour gas if it contains one
grain of H2S per 100 cubic feet.
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Effect of Nonhydrocarbon
Components on the Z-Factor
The common occurrence of small percentages of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide is, in part, considered
in the correlations previously cited.
Concentrations of up to 5 percent of these
nonhydrocarbon components will not seriously affect
accuracy. Errors in compressibility factor calculations as
large as 10 percent may occur in higher concentrations
of nonhydrocarbon components in gas mixtures.
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Direct Calculation of
Compressibility Factors
After four decades of existence, the Standing-Katz
z-factor chart is still widely used as a practical
source of natural gas compressibility factors.
As a result, there has been an apparent need for a
simple mathematical description of that chart.
Several empirical correlations for calculating z-factors
have been developed over the years including:
Hall-Yarborough
Dranchuk-Abu-Kassem
Dranchuk-Purvis-Robinson
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Cg In Terms of
the Pseudoreduced Properties
The Equation can be conveniently expressed in terms of
the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature by
simply replacing p with (Ppc Ppr), or:
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Bg & Eg Calculation
Applying the real gas equation-of-state, and
substituting for the volume V, gives:
Assuming that the standard conditions:
Bg = gas formation volume factor, ft3/scf, z = gas
compressibility factor, T = temperature, R
The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is
called the gas expansion factor and is designated by the
symbol Eg, or:
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Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal
fluid friction (resistance) to flow.
If the friction between layers of the fluid is small,
i.e., low viscosity, an applied shearing force will
result in a large velocity gradient.
As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger
frictional drag on the adjacent layers and velocity
gradient decreases.
The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of
the shear force per unit area to the local velocity
gradient. Viscosities are expressed in terms of
centipoise.
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Gas Viscosity
The gas viscosity is not commonly measured in the
laboratory because it can be estimated precisely from
empirical correlations.
Like all intensive properties, viscosity of a natural gas is
completely described by the following function:
g = (p, T, yi)
Where g = the viscosity of the gas phase.
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Methods of Calculating
the Viscosity of Natural Gases
Carr, Kobayashi, and Burrows (1954) developed
graphical correlations for estimating the viscosity of
natural gas as a function of temperature, pressure,
and gas gravity. The computational procedure of
applying the proposed correlations is summarized
in the following steps:
Step 1. Calculate the Ppc, Tpc and apparent molecular
weight from the specific gravity or the composition of
the natural gas.
Step 2. Obtain the viscosity of the natural gas at one
atmosphere and the temperature of interest from next
slide.
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Density
Solution gas
Bubble-point pressure
Oil formation volume factor (Bo)
Total formation volume factor (Bt)