PTS 20160G

PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS
DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE
MANUAL
SHELL MARKETING SAFETY CODE

- PART 7
PTS 20.160G
OCTOBER 1993
PREFACE
PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :
1)
2)
3)
PETRONAS and its affiliates.

Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.
Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with
users, PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury
or death) suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the
use, application or implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The
benefit of this disclaimer shall inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated
to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or require the use of PTS.
Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual
arrangements, PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by
users to any company or person whomsoever and the PTS shall be used exclusively for the
purpose they have been provided to the user. They shall be returned after use, including any
copies which shall only be made by users with the express prior written consent of PETRONAS.
The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall arrange for PTS to be held in safe
custody and PETRONAS may at any time require information satisfactory to PETRONAS in order
to ascertain how users implement this requirement.
LIST OF SECTIONS
PART 1
00.00.00
INTRODUCTION
01.00.00
SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION
PART 2
02.00.00
GENERAL SAFETY PRACTICES
03.00.00
HEALTH AND PROTECTION
PART 3
04.00.00
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS, HAZARDOUS AREAS AND STATIC ELECTRICITY
05.00.00
LAYOUT AND DESIGN FEATURES
PART 4
06.00.00
INSTALLATION AND DEPOT OPERATIONS
PART 5
07.00.00
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR (INCLUDING TANK CLEANING PROCEDURES

AND EQUIPMENT)
PART 6
08.00.00
SAFE PRACTICE IN SPECIALISED OPERATIONS
09.00.00
SAFE PRACTICE FOR RETAIL OUTLETS AND CONSUMER FACILITIES
PART 7
10.00.00
FIRE PROTECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING
PART 8
11.00.00
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GASES
12.00.00
SAFETY AUDITS AND INSPECTIONS
13.00.00
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
CONTENTS OF SECTION
10.00.00
10.01.00
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FIRE PROTECTION
10.01.01
Fire Prevention
10.01.02
Design Philosophy
10.02.00
FIRE EMERGENCY PLANNING
10.02.01
Emergency Plans, Drill and Training
10.03.00
FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
10.03.01
Summary
10.03.02
Hand and Mobile Extinguishers
10.03.03
Water Supply, Fire Mains and Hydrant Systems
10.03.04
Fire Hoses and Accessories
10.03.05
Road and Rail Loading Facilities
10.03.06
Wharves and Jetties
10.03.07
Fires involving Electrical Equipment
10.03.08
Protection of Computer Facilities
10.03.09
Fires Involving Chemical Products
10.03.10
Fires Involving Class III Products
10.03.11
Fire Alarms and Emergency Calls
10.03.12
Foam and Water Monitors
10.03.13
Floating Roof Tanks
10.03.14
Distinctive Colouring
10.03.15
Base Injection of Foam for Storage Tanks

Appendix 10.03.01
Recommended Scale of Fire Fighting Equipment
Appendix 10.03.02
Recommended 'First aid' Fire Extinguishers
Appendix 10.03.03
Inspection and Testing of Fire Extinguishers
Figure 10.03.04
Chubb Mobile PD 150 Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher
Figure 10.03.05
Chubb Mobile Foam Units
Figure 10.03.06
Flow Rates from Fire Hose Nozzles
Figure 10.03.07
Pressure Loss in Fire Hoses
Figure 10.03.08
Hydrant-fed Fire Fighting Equipment
Figure 10.03.09
Typical Foam-generating Fire Fighting Equipment
Figure 10.03.10
Typical Foam Compound Induction
Figure 10.03.11
Typical Mechanical Foam Generators
Figure 10.03.12
Foam Chute with Staggered Openings inside Tank
Figure 10.03.13
Base Injection of Foam (Folded Hose System)
Figure 10.03.14
Chubb 'Jetmaster' Portable Mechanical Foam/Water Monitor
Figure 10.03.15
Distribution of Foam and Circulation of Tank Contents for

Foam Base Injection Systems
Figure 10.03.16
Fixed Base Injection System - Inductors and Generators

near pump discharge - Single Tank near to foam station
Figure 10.03.17
Fixed Base Injection System - Inductors and Generators

near pump discharge - Multiple Tanks near to foam station
Figure 10.03.18
Fixed Base Injection System Generators separated from

Inductors - Single Tank
Figure 10.03.19

Inductors - Multiple Tanks - separate foam lines to each tank
Figure 10.03.20

Inductors - Multiple Tanks - Single Foam line to Generator
Manifold
Figure 10.03.21
Semi-fixed Base Injection System
Figure 10.03.22
Angus Fire Armour High-Back-Pressure Generators
Figure 10.03.23
Chubb Big 10, 20 and 30 Base Injection Foam Generators
Figure 10.03.24
Chubb 'Jetmaster' Mechanical Foam Monitor with Adaptor

for Base Injection
Figure 10.03.25
Angus Variable Foam Inductors
Figure 10.03.26
Tank Inlet for Base Injection of Foam Base
Appendix 10.03.27
Base Injection - Design and Equipment
Figure 10.03.28
Alternative Tank Inlet arrangements using single inlet and

Multiple Foam Outlet points
10.04.00
FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS
10.04.01
Types of Fire
10.04.02
Water
10.04.03
Foams
10.04.04
Carbon Dioxide
10.04.05
Dry Chemical Powders
10.04.06
Halogen Compounds (Halons)

Appendix 10.04.01
Storage of Protein and Fluoroprotein Fire Fighting Foam

Compound
Appendix 10.04.02
Simple Field Test for Evaluating Protein/Fluoroprotein Foam

Compound
10.00.00
10.01.00
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FIRE PROTECTION
10.01.01
Fire Prevention
The protection of personnel, equipment and product by the prevention of fires is the
responsibility of the Manager of any plant. Effective fire prevention depends on the design
and operation of a plant so as to minimise the risk of a fire starting. This entails ensuring
by regular review that facilities and equipment meet appropriate standards of design and
operation, and that personnel are taught enough about the properties of flammable
products that they understand and use the correct procedures for handling them safely.
Notwithstanding the above, the possibility of a fire occurring must be recognised. This
necessitates preparing and rehearsing effective emergency fire plans, ensuring that the
appropriate scale and type of fire fighting equipment is available and maintained in
satisfactory working order, and training all personnel (including office staff) in the correct
use of the fire fighting equipment provided. Fire escape routes must be provided and
prominently signposted. Wherever possible the co-operation should be sought of any
outside support such as the local fire brigade, nearby refinery or airfield brigade, and other
oil companies, both with respect to the type and quantity of equipment to be held and the
use of available manpower to be trained for fire fighting duties.
Details of fire fighting procedures, types of fire, extinguishing methods and techniques,
use and care of fire fighting equipment are given in 'Plant Operating Manual', Volume 1,
07.00.00.
10.01.02
Design Philosophy
Installations and depots are designed and operated in such a manner that the risk of fire is
remote. Fire fighting equipment is provided on a scale suitable for these proven design
and operational standards. As the size of installations and depots as well as the tanks
within them grow, so too must the scale of fire fighting effort required to protect them. The
scale of equipment described below generally refers to the total capacity that should be
available to protect the various facilities. However, every opportunity should be taken to
share this load and reduce the individual burden by combining men and material with
those of neighbouring installations/depots/refineries and local fire brigades.
A distinction can be drawn between the scale and standards of fire protection appropriate
to an installation or depot as defined in 02.01.00. Size is not the only criteria on which to
base a decision, since while an installation is usually an important strategic part of a
company's product distribution system, the same status may also apply to a depot if it
occupies and indispensable position in its location.
An installation fire protection system would normally be based on a water main and
hydrant system routed and equipped so as to be able to apply foam and water to all main
fire targets such as loading and jetties, buildings, etc. Water supply should preferably be
from a harbour, river or similar unlimited source, but if such are not available an
installation should have its own stock of water in a reservoir or tank. Furthermore,
pumping capacity would also be installed unless the local fire brigade or similar pumps are
always readily available, and their participation in the installation fire plan is organised and
rehearsed. The incorporation of base foam injection for tank protection would be decided
upon in accordance with considerations given in 10.03.15 below. The provision of more
sophisticated fire protection equipment such as self-propelled motorised fire engines,
continuously pressurised water mains, automatic or remote pump starting and control,
automatic foam generating or deluge systems, though not normally appropriate for other
than the largest installations, should nevertheless be considered in the light of the size
(physical as well as throughput), complexity and accessibility to effective outside help.
Depots, which cannot be readily by-passed or duplicated because of their strategic

position, hazard to and from the surrounding environment, unique product stockholding,
or any other factors, should be treated as if they are installations and be provided with a
fire main and related facilities (e.g. base foam injection) to an appropriate scale. Depots
which are not of strategic importance should be judged according to their hazard to and
from the outside environment, the class and volume of products handled, degree of
outside fire fighting support and other local factors. Fire protection based on mobile and
hand extinguishers may be appropriate for non-critical depots. Nevertheless, the
possibility of installing a branch off a municipal water main for supplying a small number
of hydrants and/or hose reels, should always be considered since a water supply,
however small, is always an asset.
The requirements of local legislation must always be met. If these are excessive, every
effort should be made to persuade the authorites to bring them into line with the
recommendations made in this code. Reference can also be made to the UK Institute of
Petroleum Marketing Safety Code and the European Model Code Part II, Design, Layout
and Construction.
The recommendations in the following sections are considered appropriate preparations
for fighting a single major centre of fire at one time.
10.02.00
FIRE EMERGENCY PLANNING
10.02.01
Emergency Plans, Drill and Training

Intelligent pre-planning and practice can reduce the amount of confusion and time
wasted between the moment a fire starts and the initiation of an effective fire fighting
response to it. The development of a fire emergency plan carries with it the need to
practise the plan so that everyone knows what to do and so that the inevitable snags can
be identified and removed in advance. Training in the use of extinguishers and general
fire fighting equipment is an important but distinctive need to give men the confidence
and skills necessary to fight or contain a fire. Existence and knowledge of escape routes,
particularly in buildings and other congested areas, is an important aspect of personal
survival.
(i) Immediate Reaction
All personnel need to be trained in the use of those extinguishers which have been
selected as suitable for the type of fire that may occur in their workplace, and have
been put in readily accessible positions.
(ii) Hose attack
Generally this will be a team effort in which members have been allocated specific
duties to mount a water cooling or foam attack by hose. This stage takes somewhat
longer but should be carried out to completion whether or not it appears the fire has
been put out by extinguishers. The exercise under live conditions is good practice for
the hose team!
When developing this part of the fire plan the following matters must be dealt with:
-
Team composition including selection of a leader: Teams should be selected in

accordance with the manpower available on the site at any time. Consideration
must be given to shift patterns, night time activities, weekends and other periods
outside normal working hours.
Specific duties: Each team member should be allocated specific tasks and be
trained in their execution in the correct sequence. After completion of their duties
they should gather together with any other spare manpower assembly point and
wait for further orders.
Logistics: The initial movement and subsequent replenishment of fire fighting

equipment, foam compound and any other items required at the fire site must be
planned for, including provision of necessary transport and/or manpower.
Direction and control: The most senior man on the site should take charge.
Provision should be made for setting up an easily recognisable control point at
which he will remain and from which he will direct the fire fighting. The policy and
manner of handing over control to more senior staff as they arrive should be
agreed including how and whether to pass control to outside authorities, the fire
brigade, etc. It is useful if the man in control can be clearly identified by
distinctive clothing e.g. yellow jacket or helmet.
Evacuation procedures: It may not always be necessary or advisable for all bulk
vehicles or personnel to leave the site. It is more important to get them away
from the fire without obstructing incoming fire appliances. In this respect the local
traffic police should be brought in on any procedures to be established.
Evacuation of personnel from offices, warehouses and other work sites must also
be organised which necessitates planned and prominently signposted escape
routes.
Relief and refreshment: Fire fighters require food, drink and rest and their
provision must be planned for in advance.
Liaison and outside contact: All aspects of the plan must be agreed in advance
with the local fire brigade, police must be agreed in advance with the local fire
brigade, police and similar emergency bodies. Contact during the fire may well
be needed with hospital and ambulance services, neighbouring oil industry sites,
suppliers of fire fighting equipment and foam, press and TV, as well as members
of the public. It can save a lot of stress on the leader of the fire fighting effort, if a
specific contact point and person are established for such purposes.
(b) Training
(i)
Basic use of equipment: All members of the fire fighting team must be
trained in the use of all items of fire fighting equipment in addition to being
rehearsed in their allocated duties under the fire plan. This will provide a
totally flexible force of men who can swap duties as necessary during an
emergency. Activities that should be covered by such basic training include
starting up and operating the fire pump; operating fire main and sprinkler
valves and being thoroughly familiar with their location; running out and
connecting fire hoses; fitting and handling nozzles, foam-making branch
pipes, foam monitors, and the system for foam compound induction; base
injection systems; and methods of directing cooling water or foam onto the
correct target. It is suggested that foam compound should be treated as a
consumable stock and up to 20% of stocks should be used in practices in
any one year.
(ii)
Rehearsal of fire plan: Fire plans must be rehearsed in order to train and test
the fire fighters and to test the equipment. Both these aspects are important
for a successful fire fighting capability - men may well be trained but they
must be provided with up-to-date equipment, in good repair, and foam
compound which has not deteriorated.
Rehearsals should be fully planned in the early stages of training until the
teams become familiar with what is expected of them. The next stage could
be to hold planned rehearsals or exercises but without warning of the
locations in the plant where they are to be held. The final stage would be to
hold unexpected exercises without any previous warning of time or location.
Two important principles should govern fire plan exercises for rehearsals.
These are:
All exercises or rehearsals must be led by line management - i.e. the

persons who should take charge in a real emergency directing the
supervisors who will actually run the on-the-ground fire fighting. Safety
personnel can run basic training sessions and assist in the development
of fire plans, but they are not necessarily the correct people to take
charge of the total fire fighting effort and therefore should not lead
training exercises.
The fire plan and the subsequent exercises must take place in all the
different locations in the plan where a fire could occur, and at different
times -e.g. outside normal working hours and at night, for instance during
tanker discharge operations.
(iii)
Joint exercises: Joint exercises should be held with the local fire brigade or
neighbouring installations in order to ensure a smooth combination of effort
and to make sure that equipment is compatible. These aspects should not be
underestimated. Outside help is nearly always required in an emergency and
pre-planning and practice are the only way to eliminate some of the
problems that are bound to arise.
(iv)
Post-mortem: Soon after any exercise or rehearsal no matter how big or

small, a meeting of all responsible parties should be held to discuss every
aspect so as to:
Take note of all mistakes, failures and unforeseen problems.
Identify areas where more training is required.
Develop and agree modifications to the plan.
The findings of the post-mortem should be communicated to all fire fighters

and other persons concerned, and the modified plan should be practised and
any written copies revised without delay.
10.03.00
FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
10.03.01
Summary
The purpose of an installation or depot fire fighting system is to provide two stages of fire
fighting capability.
Firstly, there must be an immediate action response based on own resources, using hand
or mobile extinguishers by the people working at or those first to arrive at the scene of
the fire.
Secondly, there must be a back-up either from one's own resources or by or in
conjunction with outside assistance to undertake the larger scale and more prolonged fire
fighting effort to extinguish or contain the fire, in the event that the immediate action is
unsuccessful.
The scale and type of protection provided depends not simply on whether the plant is an
installation or a depot, but rather on the number, scale and type of the various activities
that comprise the total operation, any of which may present unique problems, and all of
which must be appropriately protected.
By virtue of its size and importance in the distribution network, an installation would
normally be expected either to have its own fixed facilities comprising water supply,
pumping capacity, and fire main and hydrants system, or to have sufficient facilities (e.g.
a dry main and hydrants system with access to water) for a nearby local fire brigade to
use with its own manpower and equipment.
By definition, depots (distribution and airfield) present smaller, less potent targets and
therefore a reduced scale of fire protection may be adequate. On the other hand, depots
are often located in remote areas where outside help may be non-existent or of
unreliable quality. If such a depot cannot be by-passed or duplicated, for instance if it
occupies an indispensable position in its area, then the results of a loss or lengthy period
out of service have to be judged against both commercial and political repercussions. An
additional factor to be taken into consideration is whether a fire (for example a tank fire)
could pose a serious threat to adjacent property, particularly domestic. If such special
factors indicate that a particular risk exists or in order to comply with local requirements,
depots may in certain instances have to be treated as small installations, and their fire
fighting system must be designed and built accordingly.
10.03.02
Hand and Mobile Extinguishers

At every workplace in installations or depots where a fire could possibly start, a supply of
portable and/or mobile extinguishers should be readily accessible to enable the nearest
person to mount an immediate first attack on an incipient fire. The value of being able to
put out a fire in its early stages should not be underestimated. Efforts to ensure such
units are plentiful, easily seen, kept in good condition, appropriate for the type of fire that
might occur, and that people working in that vicinity are properly trained in their use, will
be repaid many times over if just one fire is caught before serious injury or damage can
occur.
A scale of one 90/150-litre foam trolley or one 70kg dry powder extinguisher unit at each
main potential hazard such as pump manifold, double bay vehicle loading gantry, drum
filling shed, etc., would normally be sufficient. Where a unit with rather longer fire fighting
capability is thought necessary, a trolley unit carrying concentrated foam compound to
which water is supplied by hose may be appropriate as these give up to 15 minutes foam
application. For special hazards such as at vehicle loading bays, a 90-litre
aqueous-film-forming foam (AFFF) mobile unit is an effective means of covering and
sealing a spill caused by overfilling, or rapidly extinguishing any fire that may result.
A supply of smaller hand extinguishers should be provided as supplementary to the
larger units as well as for all other locations where minor fires can be expected.
The distribution and location of these units should be such that every potential fire target
has not less than two units readily accessible. This is particularly important where little or
no back-up fire fighting support is available. See Figures 10.03.04 and 05 for examples
of the many typical mobile units available.
Extinguishers should be positioned in the most conspicuous and accessible position (e.g.
near entrances and exits, on staircase landings, etc.,) with painted background if
necessary to attract attention. They should be mounted on brackets at convenient height,
and not be left standing on the ground where they are subject to damage, splashing or
rain and dirt, and are less obvious. An empty bracket is a convenient signal that a unit is
missing. When mounted outside, extinguishers should be kept in or under weather
protection in order to reduce deterioration.
Two important factors influencing the selection of extinguishers are:
(i)
The type and size of fire for which they are likely to be used. There are hand or
mobile extinguishers which can apply to any of the known fire fighting agents.
Section 10.04.00 gives information on the characteristics of different agents to
assist in selection of the best choice of extinguisher. Appendices 10.03.01 and
10.03.02 give data on different types of extinguishers and on the recommended
scale to be held at different locations.
(ii)
Requirement and availability of service and repair facilities. All extinguishers

deteriorate with time and under the influence of atmospheric conditions. It is
essential that they be regularly inspected and maintained. This can either be
done by PETRONAS mechanics or else contracted out to local agents or
suppliers, provided they are competent, hold a good stock of spare parts and
refills, and that their work is spot checked by company staff on a random basis
so as to keep them up to standard. Makes of extinguisher with poor back-up

supply of spares and refills should not be used and should be replaced by better
serviced makes.
In addition to the programme of formal inspections it should be part of the
regular duty of supervisors and/or operators visually to check extinguishers at
least monthly to make sure they are in their proper position, have not been
discharged or lost pressure, suffered visible damage or deterioration, and are
being regularly inspected. For this purpose the dates of inspection and refilling
should be indelibly recorded on the extinguisher or on a firmly attached label. For
details of inspection and testing of extinguishers see Appendix 10.03.03.
10.03.03
Water Supply, Fire Mains and Hydrant Systems

The backbone of most fire protection systems is a properly designed water main, hydrant
and pumping system.
The recommended level of fire fighting equipment is based on the assumption that only
one major fire may have to be fought at a time. The first step therefore must be to
assess what might be the worst incident. Normally this has been regarded as the largest
diameter tank containing Class I or II products in an installation or depot, but this decision
should be taken only after assessing all other major fire possibilities, such as tank bunds,
vehicle or rail loading gantries, jetties, warehouses, etc., as well as the simultaneous
cooling requirements. It should be realised that the biggest tank fire might not be related
to the highest cooling demand for surrounding tanks. Depending on tank farm layout a
somewhat smaller tank fire might be in a situation requiring the highest cooling water for
surrounding tanks, such that the combination of the two was the maximum and so to be
used for the overall design basis.
Any system must be designed to be adequate in three related aspects if it is to be
effective:
(i)
Adequate supply of water (m, gallons) in the right places to provide foam
making and/or cooling capacity for the necessary period of time.
(ii)
Sufficient water flow rate (m/hour, gallons/minute) to overcome the burning of a

fire by foam application and/or provide adequate cooling of exposed facilities to
overcome effect of heat from an adjacent fire.
(iii)
Sufficient water pressure (bar, lb/sq inch) at all hydrant outlets to operate foam
making equipment and to reach high or distant fire targets.
Deficiency in any one of the above may well result in failure to extinguish or contain a
fire. The highest combination of foam making and cooling water must be used for the
design basis.
(a) Water supply
A supply of either fresh or salt water is required at a minimum main pressure at
distant hydrants of 10 bar. (Higher pressures may be required for base injection
systems, refer 10.03.15.) Except where water supply is unlimited, e.g. from sea,
harbour, rivers or other open sources, provision of a reservoir, tank or other water
storage must be considered. This will necessitate carefully estimating what water
stocks are necessary and practicable to hold.
Methods for estimating the quantity needed for foam making are given under (c). For
cooling purposes it is suggested a supply to permit at least 2 hours cooling be held,
but every practicable means of supplementing this should be sought; too much water
will never be an embarrassment during a real fire!
Note: During tank maintenance a back-up water supply must be arranged.
The water volume depends upon the scope of the facilities to be protected and must
be adequate for the highest combination of both the foam making requirements and
the cooling of adjacent tanks or other structures. Water is also used for fires not
involving petroleum products (i.e. offices, dry vegetation, etc.), however, quantities
provided for fighting oil fires will normally be more than adequate for these other
purposes. Provision for future expansion should be made where applicable.
The routing and extent of the fire main system plus the number and location of
hydrants must be carefully chosen so as to provide water for foam making and
cooling of adjacent tanks or facilities at all significant potential fire targets.
Water hydrants, each with two outlets, should be sited strategically throughout the
installation, at distances of between 30 to 50m from the items to be protected allowing for the possibility that access to any fire may be restricted by prevailing
winds and/or the fire situation itself being limited to only one predictable avenue of
attack. The aim should be to restrict hose strings to two or three standard lengths in
order to minimise pressure losses and the time taken to connect hoses.
Block valves should be incorporated in the ring main where it may be considered
useful to be able to isolate sections of the main, should it become damaged.
(b) Water flow rate - cooling (Appendix 10.03.01)
Cooling is required for fixed roof tanks holding Class I, II (2) or III (2) products and, in
addition, for tanks holding Class II (1) and III (1) products where these might become
endangered by adjacent fires. Class I, II (2) and III (2) tanks should be fitted with
water sprinklers to provide immediate all-over cooling, whereas Class II (1) and III (1)
tanks can be cooled using water hoses or monitors from the ground on the exposed
sides only.
The design of a tank farm cooling system requires careful consideration of the
several variables such as different combinations of tanks to be cooled, variation in
size and type of fire, products involved, wind conditions, presence of possible fire in
the bund, and changes that take place during a fire. No single water application rate
will cater exactly for all fires but proper design and operation can approach the ideal.
A final point is that the total water supply has to be shared simultaneously with the
demands of the foam making system used for fire fighting, see Appendix 10.03.27 Base Injection Design and Equipment.
A fixed cooling water system with an application rate of 1 litre/min/m of exposed
surface (shell plus roof for tanks) is recommended as providing a heat barrier and
cooling effect that can normally be turned on almost immediately thus leaving
personnel free to carry out other fire fighting duties. (For LPG requirements see
11.00.00.). Depending on the development of a fire it may become a tactical
requirement to supplement this basic level for a particularly exposed surface by
reducing application to a less exposed surface during an actual fire. Such application
would not necessarily require the total design cooling water rate to exceed 1
litre/min/m . It would be applied by utilising hoses and/or monitors wherever the
amount of sprinkler water is inadequate, for example, on any part of a tank shell.
This would be evident if all cooling water on exposed shell or roof turns into steam,
some parts of the shell are not receiving water, the shell metal is discolouring from
the effect of heat, vapour and/or flames are seen issuing from roof pressure/vacuum
valves, or total water flow and pressure are judged to be inadequate.
It takes careful design and operation to produce a tank farm sprinkler system that
gives close to 1 litre/min/m on all possible combinations of tanks. One solution for
setting and controlling sprinkler flow rates is to fit pressure gauges downstream of
each sprinkler line control valve. The pressure gauge sight glass can be marked with
the pressure reading known by previous trials to give the desired water flow rate to
that particular tank. As flow and pressure conditions vary during a fire, the sprinkler
line control valves can be adjusted so as to maintain as closely as possible the
various design flow rates. Such valves should of course be fitted outside bunds in
positions least likely to be engulfed by fire. Recommendations for water sprinklers

are given in the PETRONAS 'Standard Tanks' manual.
A cooling water system designed for storage tank protection will normally have more
than sufficient capacity for handling cooling requirements for any other installation or
depot facilities, for which hoses, nozzles and monitors would be used. LPG facilities
are likely exceptions to this - refer 11.00.00.
(c) Water flow rate - foam making (Appendix 10.03.01)
For foam making, the rate of application is related to the time taken to cover the
entire burning surface with a blanket of foam. Because a proportion of the foam
which reaches the burning surface is continually being destroyed or consumed by the
fire, there is a minimum application rate which must be achieved to extinguish the
fire at all. The rate depends upon the surface area and depth of the fire, the class of
product which is burning, and the method of application of the foam. Using foam
branch pipes or monitors*, the minimum foam compound solution (i.e. foam
compound plus water but not yet aerated) flow rate that should be provided to
produce foam to extinguish a fire are:
-
Class I products - shallow surface fire (e.g. spills): 4.9 litres/min/m of product
surface applied for 30 minutes.
Class I products - deep product fire (e.g. storage tanks, bunds, etc.):
7.4 litres/min/m of product surface, applied for 30 minutes.
Class II and II products - all types: 4.9 litres/min/m of products surface, applied
for 30 minutes.
* For base injection application rates see Appendix 10.03.27.

The above assume that all the foam reaches the burning surface, which is very
difficult to achieve in practice, particularly in storage tanks, due to the effects of
winds, fire up-draughts or obstructions. For this reason the application rates and
foam concentrate stocks needed to maintain them should be regarded as an absolute
minimum and may be increased where outside assistance is not available. The
necessary stock of foam concentrates and water required can be calculated from the
mix percentage specified which varies from 1-6% foam concentrate depending upon
the type used. For example:
Tank:
20 m diameter
Product:
Gasoline
Product Surface Area:
314 m
Flow rate:
Foam solution 7.4 litres/min/m

= 2324 litres/min
Volume of foam solution in 30 min:
69720 litres
Volume of 3% foam concentrate:
3% x 69720 = 2090 litres
Flow rate of water:
97% x 2324 litres/min

= 2250 litres/min (135m/hour)
The same basic foam solution flow rates are needed when foam is applied for tank
fires by base injection. In this case virtually all the foam reaches the burning surface
- which illustrates the main advantage of the base injection system (see 10.03.15 for
details).
The amount of foam making equipment and foam concentrates to be held depends
upon the scope and degree of assistance available from the local fire brigade and/or
other oil companies. Unless legislation requirements exceed this amount, the
guidelines outlined should be followed when determining minimum requirements.
(d) Water pressure

Pressure is needed to throw water or foam high enough to reach the tops of tanks or
far enough to reach targets too hot or inaccessible to approach. Foam making
equipment (inductors, generators and mobile units) require minimum water pressures
(specified by manufacturers) to operate effectively. Whether the water is taken direct
from a city supply main or from own pump output, the design calculations must allow
for pressure losses in all branches of the fire main, hydrants, hoses, etc., which are
downstream of the outlet for the fire pumps. Figures 10.03.06 to 10.03.11, inclusive,
give data on pressure losses as well as the flow and pressure requirements of
various units of fire fighting equipment. As a guide the aim should be for a mains
pressure of 10 bar at the hydrant furthest from the pump discharge. This would give
adequate pressure to operate normal fire fighting equipment. However, as it would
create rather higher pressures at the hydrant outlets nearer to the pump discharge,
care must be taken with the use and handling of hoses under such high pressures.
Alternatively, the pump discharge pressure can be reduced if only hydrants close to
the pump are in use. Pressure gauges installed at suitable hydrants will facilitate this
and avoid lowering pressures below that required.
Pumpsets for fire service should preferably be separated from each other and driven
by independent suctions. Use of electrically-driven fire pumps which are quick
starting, easy to operate and can be provided with remote starting may be
considered, but in such cases the wiring and switch gear should be independent of all
other electrical circuits so that the fire pumps remain unaffected in any emergency
necessitating the isolation of normal circuits. Detailed and clearly printed instructions
for starting and operating each fire pump should be displayed at the pump site.
As many of the installation staff as may be required for an emergency should receive
training in the use of equipment. The site chosen for fire pumps should be strategic
(NB prevailing wind) and safe from vandalism, sabotage and any foreseeable source
of fire (e.g. drainage outlets). Particular care must be taken to provide pump suction
intakes of adequate size for the design maximum flow rate, positioned so as to be
always below lowest water/tide level and protected from damage or clogging with
vegetation or other matter by a screen and, ideally a means to back-flush particularly
in rivers or harbours. Where a fire pump is also used for the supply of water for tank
testing and other installation purposes, this must not prejudice its use for fire fighting.
10.03.04
Fire Hoses and Accessories

Fire hoses and accessories such as stand pipes, branch pipes, water and foam monitors,
water inductors, generators, nozzles and couplings should be provided as necessary, see
Figures 10.03.08 to 11 inclusive.
Fire equipment boxes (hydrant boxes) should be distributed round the installation and
should each contain sufficient equipment to enable an immediate initial hose attack to be
mounted from the hydrants nearest to potential fire sites.
Hose couplings should conform to local national standards. If such standards do not exist
it is recommended use be made of the 2 inch instantaneous couplings described in
MESC 96.22.10 and Figure 10.03.08. In any case, equipment should be compatible with
that used by local fire brigades and other oil companies, otherwise enough adaptors must
be provided to enable inter-connection between their equipment and PETRONAS
facilities.
10.03.05
Road and Rail Loading Facilities

For loading bays handling Class I, II (2) or III (2) products, in addition to hand and mobile
extinguishers, the fire main and hydrants system should run close enough to permit
application of water and/or foam from at least two directions. This is to facilitate access
in the event of obstruction by abandoned vehicles/rail cars as well as difficulties caused
by wind direction.
Since small spills are not infrequent in or around loading bays the ability to cover the
product with a blanket of foam should be provided.
Fixed foam or water deluge systems (manual or automatic) are not generally
recommended for oil product loading bays at marketing plants. The risk and
consequence of overfill fires at loading bays designed in accordance with the
PETRONAS 'Loading and Discharging -Road' manual are considered to be small enough
not to warrant fixed systems. Furthermore, fixed deluge systems may hinder escape or
rescue of personnel; are limited to immediate loading area; are unnecessary if there is
manpower available to use the more flexible traditional fire fighting equipment; require
careful and perhaps complex design and operation with respect to coverage above and
beneath vehicles, total loading area coverage versus the bay(s) actually involved, means
of initiating and reliability particularly if automatic. Where gantry is sub-standard,
improved design will most likely be more cost-effective in the long term.
For a small number of loading bays or filling points handling only Class II (1) or III (1)
products, mobile wheeled units may give sufficient protection (see 10.03.02).
10.03.06
Wharves and Jetties

(See International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals ISGOTT)
The type and quantity of fire fighting equipment should be based on an assessment of
the total risk situation and be related to the size and location of the berth; the layout of
the installation, 'the types and throughputs of product handled', and the hazard to and
from adjacent or jointly operated facilities. The aim is to provide adequate protection for
the jetty in the event of a shore or tanker fire, in particular the loading and unloading
arms and hoses, and related pipework. Such a system should also be capable of
providing assistance to a berthed tanker particularly in the area of its manifold. Fire on a
berthed tanker can usually be fought more easily if the tanker is kept alongside the wharf
or jetty, and at larger ports the harbour authorities should preferably provide sufficient
floating fire fighting equipment to tackle a ship fire and/or supplement shore fire fighting
efforts. For this, easily accessible hose connections should be provided to enable tugs'
fire pumps to charge the installation fire main if necessary.
At installations which have jetty/wharf berths handling Class I and II cargoes and
accommodating ships of 18 000 tonnes and over, or receiving more than 60 ships/year
with a throughput exceeding a half million tonnes per year, fire fighting facilities should
be provided as follows:
(a) Fire mains
A fire water main to each wharf or jetty head, together with hoses and equipment.
Water mains should terminate in double hydrants. There should be one double
hydrant for each 60m length of the largest ship which the jetty can accommodate.
Hydrants and fire equipment must be sited to permit the main concentration of fire
fighting to be aimed at the shore/ship manifold area, but at the same time providing
some cover throughout the length of the berth.
Accessibility and protection from exposure to fire must also be considered.
Based on the maximum size of tanker acceptable at the berth, the water main should
be capable of supplying 50m/hour for each 30m length of ship at a minimum
pressure of 10 bars under full flow conditions at the most unfavourably sited
hydrants, up to a maximum total flow rate of 250m/hour.. This will permit the use of
mechanical foam generators (see Figure 10.03.11) or high-pressure spray nozzles,
see MESC 96.28.20.
Fire towers are not recommended for marketing installations. Where fire towers have
been erected, one or more branch lines should be installed to supply water to fixed
monitors, installed on top of the tower. The monitors should preferably be dual
controlled (local and remote) and should be able to throw jets of water for a distance
equal to the beam of the largest tanker likely to use the berth, and should be capable
of delivering water, fog or spray as required. The direction of any prevailing wind
should be borne in mind when siting towers. The total quantity of water required
should be increased accordingly.
Water jets are intended for dealing with fires on ship's superstructures until close
range fire fighting can be carried out. Fog or spray jets are particularly useful for
cooling purposes and to provide a protective curtain of water to assist personnel in
gaining access to the ship.
Water supplies may be from the harbour or other open source, or from an extension
to the installation fire water main.
Where jetties or berths are remote from installations it may be necessary to install
separate pumps or connections for the local fire brigade (shore or harbour) to
connect their pumps. Where the jetty or berth is either shared or operated by third
parties (other oil companies, harbour authorities) specific arrangements must be
made to ensure a viable fire protection system, properly maintained and manned
when required.
(b) Stocks of foam compound
Foam compounds should be readily available either in bulk or on a mobile trailer for
quick delivery to the fire site. The quantity should be 0.5m/30m length of ship. For
berths where chemical products are handled, consideration should be given to the
different types of fire fighting equipment that may be required as well as various
types of foam compound.
(c) International shore fire connection
The purpose of the International Shore Fire connection is to connect the fire water
supply from shore to ship's fire main or to interconnect the fire mains of two ships.
Reference should be made to Appendix E of the International Safety Guide for Oil
Tankers and Terminals.
(d) Portable fire fighting equipment
In addition to the above, sufficient hand and mobile fire extinguishers should be
provided at all berths or jetties to enable an immediate attack to be mounted on any
small fire that may occur on or near the berth, see Appendix 10.03.01.
(e) Fire fighting equipment for small wharves or those handling a few small vessels
and/or barges, or those handling only Class III products.
At small wharves handling ships of less than 18 000 tonnes and at a frequency of
less than 60 ships/year, or wharves handling only Class III products, at least two
275kg or four 150kg dry chemical or equivalent foam units should be provided unless
equivalent or better protection is already available on the wharf.
For bulk barge traffic only, carrying Class I, II or III products, the number and size of
mobile units may be reduced to a minimum of two 70kg dry chemical (or equipvalent
foam) units provided such movements are infrequent and the risk of a fire spreading
to neighbouring faciliftes is insignificant.
(f) Escape routes

Some types of berths and jetties can be particularly difficult to escape from in the
event of fire or other emergency and careful thought must go into providing more
than one means of escape. A selection of the following should be considered:
-
access ways to and from and between off-shore berths/ dolphins; personnel must
not be left unattended on isolated dolphins
small boat with both motor and paddles in case oil spillage makes use of motor
unsafe.
fire protection blankets to enable men to escape to shore perhaps by running

through flames
life belts in prominent and accessible positions
steel steps or ladders between berth deck and water level
Clear notice detailing actions to be taken in an emergency as well as indicating

escape routes should be prominently displayed.
10.03.07
Fires Involving Electrical Equipment

Because of the risk of electrocution, water or foam are not safe to use on electrical
equipment. Halon or carbon dioxide extinguishers are preferred. Dry powder is also
effective but should be used only when halon or carbon dioxide units are not available
since dry powder tends to corrode electrical switch gear, instruments, etc. For the
protection of computer facilities see 10.03.08 below.
10.03.08
Protection of Computer Facilities

While an ideal fire extinguishing agent for computer installations does not exist,
Halon 1301 (BTM) and 1211 (BCF) are the most commonly used and possess the fewest
disadvantages with respect to toxicity and damage to delicate electronic equipment. The
importance of not using carbon dioxide or dry powder is that carbon dioxide can be more
toxic in enclosed spaces and both are more likely to cause corrosion and cleaning
problems particularly to delicate electronic equipment.
Although Halon 1301 is less toxic, Halon 1211 (having a higher boiling point than
Halon 1301) leaves the extinguisher nozzle as a liquid so that it is thereby easier to aim
at a fire. It is therefore most appropriate for hand-held application to protect individual
computer units, since not only can the operator aim the jet more accurately but he can
also stand at a safer distance from the fire and the resulting vapour. For atmospheric
flooding of larger computer installations, Halon 1301 (which vaporises immediately) is
more suitable, and can safely be operated while personnel are evacuating the premises.
When considering the hazard to personnel one should not lose sight of the fact that the
construction materials of the facilities generally produce far more hazardous vapours of
combustion than the halon extinguishing agents and that prompt evacuation followed by
thorough ventilation after the fire are important aspects of the fire emergency plan for
any computer installation.
Smoke detectors and/or automatic alarm and extinguishing systems can be used but the
design and operation of automatically released systems into occupied areas must be
subject to certain conditions designed to protect personnel. (Refer BS 5306 Code of
Practice for Fire Extinguishing Installations and Equipment in Buildings).
10.03.09
Fires Involving Chemical Products

At installations and depots where chemical products are stored, recommendations on fire
fighting are as follows:
(a) Hydrocarbon solvents
Fires involving solvents such as SBPs, benzene, toluene, xylene, white spirit, etc.,
can be extinguished using dry powder or fluoroprotein foams. The latter can be
applied in the same manner and at the same application rates as for fires involving
petroleum products (see 10.03.03c) including by base injection methods (see
10.03.15 below).
(b) Chemical solvents
Fires involving chemical solvents such as ketones, alcohols, IPA, etc., can be
extinguished by the use of:
-
Special 'all purpose' or 'alcohol-resistant' type foams, or,
Fluoroprotein foams applied at three times the application rate needed for
fighting oil product fires (i.e. 22 litres/min/m unless flashpoint above 21C in
which case 15 litres/min/m).
For fires involving blends of gasoline with not more than 20% alcohol (ethanol or
methanol) fluoroprotein foam can be used at an application rate of 7.4 litres/min/m;
note that application must be smooth and gentle.
Spillages of alcohols can be rendered less flammable by flooding with water, e.g.
alcohol mixed with more than 20% water becomes equivalent to a Class II product;
with more than 92% is equivalent to a Class III product. Care must nevertheless be
taken with run-off since very small percentages of alcohol in water are toxic to
human/animal/plant life and normal oil/water interceptors will not separate solutions
of alcohol in water.
It is generally recommended that where the quantities of chemical solvents stored
are small relative to oil products, fire fighting should be based on fluoroprotein foam
rather than the special all purpose/alcohol resistant types. This avoids the
complications of holding two types of foam compound and of organising fire fighting
procedures to ensure the correct foam is used in the event of a fire. In addition,
although chemical solvent tanks require three times the application rate, in most
cases this will amount to a smaller flow than that provided for the larger oil product
tanks. Where all purpose/alcohol resistant type foams are nevertheless considered
necessary, they are obtainable from most foam suppliers, and can be applied using
standard foam-making equipment. As these foam compounds tend to be slightly
acidic, all equipment must be thoroughly washed after use and any bulk compound
containers must be specially lined.
Gentle application of all purpose/alcohol resistant foams to the burning surface of
alcohols is essential to obtain control and extinction of a fire. This is because, to
prevent foam breakdown, when the initial foam contacts the surface of the product, a
polymer film is formed on the surface. This film acts as a physical barrier to prevent
the breakdown of any further foam applied to the product surface and thus allows the
foam layer to build up until extinction is achieved. If the foam is applied forcefully,
the polymer film disintegrates and a foam layer cannot build up. The recommended
technique is to direct the foam against any vertical or sloping surface and so allow it
to run down onto the fire, or to bounce it off an adjacent flat surface.
For tank fires, over the top application by monitor or branch pipe is unlikely to give
the required gentle application, nor will the use of standard fixed top pourers unless
the level of product happened to be high enough that the foam does not have far to
fall. A device to overcome this weakness of fixed top pourers is illustrated in
Figure 10.03.12. Fixed to the inside of the tank shell and extending from the point
where the foam enters the tank at the top of the shell to the tank bottom, a vertical
conduit or chute contains staggered openings provided at intervals. The delivered
foam piles up inside the chute and emerges through the first opening immediately
above the product surface. Discharge of foam through the higher openings is
prevented by baffles and by ensuring the openings are large enough to
accommodate full foam flow. The maximum drop of foam is regulated by the vertical
spacing of the overflow outlets which should be at maximum of 1.5m apart.
Application by base injection is obviously not possible because of the intimate mixing
of the foam with product as it rises through the product. An alternative may be a
system of base injection which employs a flexible hose fitted in the foam inlet line
outside the tank. As foam is pumped into the tank the hose unfolds, floats to the
surface of the product and discharges the foam at the product surface thus keeping
foam and product separated from each other until the foam reaches the surface, see
Figure 10.03.13. PETRONAS experience with this device is limited particularly with
respect to its use in water miscible products.
(c) Other chemical products
If fire protection has to be provided for chemical products outside the above two
categories, advice may be found in the Handling and Safety manuals, the Depot
manual and the Safety Guide for Pesticides.
(d) General
Many agricultural products and some industrial and plastic products produce toxic
vapours in a fire. Fire fighting personnel may therefore require breathing apparatus
and protective clothing. Only personnel properly trained and experienced in the use
of breathing apparatus should be so employed since inexperienced users may put
themselves at considerable risk if they are not fully aware of the hazards and the
means to overcome them.
Water used for fire fighting may become contaminated by toxic products and must
be prevented from escaping into public drainage systems or waterways by using
segregated bund/drainage systems. Solutions of toxic chemicals in water are not
trapped by standard oil-water interceptors.
Other precautions are to segregate different types of fire by storing toxic/non-toxic
and flammable/non-flammable chemicals separately and to minimise the use of
water by basing the fire protection on dry powder or foam as far as possible. Refer
manual, 'Warehousing for Packed Chemicals and Other Products'.
10.03.10
Fires Involving Class III Products

Because of the extremely low fire risk from tanks containing Class III products, it is
generally unnecessary to provide foam protection for them. However, where high
viscosity products are stored or handled at temperatures approaching their flash-points
(e.g. bitumens) foam provides a means of applying water in the finely divided state
necessary, particularly in the event of bitumen tank fires, to minimise the risk of
boil-over. Even in tanks of unheated black oils, after the surface has been burning for as
little as 10 minutes a hot zone is formed in the product at a temperature above the
boiling point of water. Here again foam offers a means of applying water in a state which
will minimise the risk of boil-over.
Where storage tanks are not insulated, application of cooling water to the shell of a tank
on fire can be most effective in reducing the intensity of the fire and can even lead to
total extinguishment.
The use of base injection into black-oil tanks is not possible because of the
above-mentioned hot zone effect, however the folded hose base injection system may
offer a solution.
10.03.11
Fire Alarms and Emergency Calls

Suitable audible alarms must be provided with actuating points (switches) located and
clearly marked in strategic positions, e.g. loading gantries, jetties and berths, pump
stations, dispatch office, etc. Such alarms must, of course, be audible (or visible) at all
locations - particularly remote ones such as berths and jetties. There should be no
restriction as to who may sound an alarm since delays in calling for help can be critical. A
notice on which the telephone numbers of the fire and emergency services are clearly
recorded should be displayed near the telephone at the gate house or other control
centres.
All personnel, including contractors, must know what to do in the event of a fire alarm
(see 10.02.01) and fire alarms should be regularly tested, e.g. at monthly fire practices,
to ensure they can work and can be heard at all working locations.
10.03.12
Foam and Water Monitors

These units (see Figure 10.03.14 for example) are normally chosen according to the
desired capacity required. Most models are dual purpose - i.e. they can be used to throw
water for cooling purposes or foam for fire-fighting or blanketing product spillages.
Smaller, portable units are usually more appropriate for marketing installations and
depots as they can be manhandled by one or two men, and are relatively easy to set-up
in most locations. larger units usually have to be mounted on wheeled trolleys which
require some form of transport and therefore better means of access to fire targets.
10.03.13
Floating Roof Tanks

The most common fire in a floating roof tank is a seal or rim fire. Automatic halon
systems are effective. As an alternative or a back-up if the halon system fails, a dry riser
installed up the tank shell with top pourers to supply foam to the seal space can be used.
10.03.14
Distinctive Colouring
Fire fighting equipment should be painted distinctively. Red is the accepted basic colour
(Shell standard colour No 11), but each type of extinguisher may be painted wholly or
partly in other colours for the purpose of ready identification, and a suggested
arrangement is as follows:
Water
Red
Foam
Cream
Carbon dioxide
Black
Dry chemical powder
Blue
Vaporising liquid (Halon)
Green
Instruction labelling with black letters on a yellow background is generally more clearly
visible than other colour combinations.
Notices indicating the location of equipment should have white letters on a red
background. Fire boxes containing hoses, branch pipes and other equipment should be
painted red.
Fire precaution notices should have red letters on a white background, e.g. No smoking,
etc.
10.03.15
Base Injection of Foam for Storage Tanks

(a) General description:
In the base injection system, fire fighting foam is injected through one or more inlets
in the shell near the base of the tank. The injected foam then rises freely to the
surface to form a stable fire-resistant blanket and in the process sets up circulation
currents in the product which remove heat from the burning surface, see
Figure 10.03.15. Unlike foam applied from the outside of the tank by branch pipe or
monitors, which can be blown away by the wind or the hot up-draught of the fire or
can be obstructed by a damaged roof structure, base injected foam suffers hardly
any wastage and practically all of it reaches the product surface. A further advantage
is that the inlets being at the bottom of the tank are relatively safe from damage.
Direct base injection is not feasible for tanks containing:
(i)
Black oils - because, if they burn for more than 5 to 10 minutes before
injection of foam starts, hot zones with temperatures exceeding 100C are
formed which are likely to convert the foam to steam and cause dangerous
frothing or boil-over; for white oils the hot zones stay far enough below
100C for this not to occur.
(ii)
Water soluble chemical products - since water-based foam is destroyed as it

bubbles through such products, and in addition the need for gentle
application of alcohol resistant foams precludes application by base injection.
One possible solution to both these obstacles is a recent development in which foam
is injected through a sealed container which is attached to the outside of the tank
shell and which contains a folded hose (see Figure 10.03.13). The hose is forced out
of the container by the foam/air pressure breaking the seal, and is pushed up through
the product to the burning surface where it expels the foam to extinguish the fire.
Thus the foam does not come into contact with the product until it reaches the
product surface. PETRONAS experience with this device, available from two
different suppliers, is at present limited.
(b) Recommendations
Base injection is generally regarded as one of the most effective means of
extinguishing white product petroleum fires in fixed roof tanks. Nevertheless, a
decision whether or not to install base injection on one or more tanks in a tank farm
should take account of the following:
(i)
It is more difficult to extinguish fires by conventional means in large-diameter

and high tanks than in small and low tanks. To extinguish a fire in a
large-diameter tank requires a higher foam flow rate owing to the greater
product surface area, and with high tanks there is the difficulty of throwing
the foam sufficiently high. Base injection therefore offers greatest
improvement over conventional methods of fire fighting for large-diameter,
high tanks which are more difficult to tackle using hoses, branch pipes and
monitors.
(ii)
Irrespective of tank diameter or height, base injection has the advantage that
it is relatively safe from damage or obstruction should an explosion distort
the roof or tank shell.
(iii)
For tanks with properly fitted and maintained floating roofs or screens, which,
provided the ullage spaces are effectively ventilated to remove product
vapour, are themselves an important means of reducing the risk of fires,
base injection offers little benefit and is not normally recommended. Where
base injection already exists, or where no increased ventilation is provided,
the installing of floating screens should not seriously interfere with its
operation, however the fitting of two foam inlets would increase the likelihood
that one still works should the other be obstructed by a1screen sinking inside
the tank.
(iv)
A fixed base injection system and to a lesser degree a semi-fixed system

[see (c) below] require less manpower and time to start up and operate than
conventional hose systems. This is a particular advantage in areas where
municipal fire brigade support is either slow or inadequate.
(v)
Either fluoroprotein foam (not normal protein foam) or aqueous film forming
foam (e.g. light water) can be used, though the latter may be expensive,
requires higher water pressures, can be less stable and more difficult to
control, and is likely to leave small rim fires (caused by the effect of the hot
steel shell) which may have to be extinguished using hand extinguishers or
hoses.
(vi)
Where outside developments exist or have approached installation/depot

boundaries such that, in spite of safety distances, there is an increased risk
and consequence of fire both to the installation/depot and to the outside
environment, base injection may offer a practical and economic means to
improve both the speed and effectiveness of response.
(vii)
In spite of the foregoing, there are locations where the risk of a fire starting
and/or of consequential damage or operational disruption may be judged too
small to warrant the cause of conversion of all or any tanks to base injection,
e.g. some up country depots in isolated areas and at small storage points.
Careful appraisal of the above factors in relation to local circumstances is therefore

recommended. If base injection is being seriously considered, money can be saved
initially be fitting the necessary foam inlets and valves when constructing new tanks
of emptying/cleaning existing ones with a view to ultimate conversion at a later date.
Design of base injection systems, even for initial cost estimates, requires careful
thought by competent engineers.
(c) Type of system
Base foam injection facilities can be installed either as a fixed system in which all
equipment is permanently in place or as a semi-fixed system necessitating the use of
portable or mobile foam generating equipment and hoses brought and connected up
at the time of the fire. With either system the foam can be injected either direct into
the tank through dedicated foam inlets or via existing product lines. The choice of
which system to use should be based on a cost versus benefit analysis of the
alternatives taking into account the advantages and disadvantages given in the
following descriptions.
(i)
Semi-fixed system
The fixed part of the system consists of the foam line which runs from
outside the tank bund to the tank inlet and is fitted with suitable valves and
an inlet manifold to which the foam generators can be connected when
needed. Since the tank valve has to be open to permit foam to enter, it must
either be remotely operated or be left permanently open, in which case it is
necessary to fit a second steel tank valve and/or bursting disc Just outside
the bund to contain the tank contents. If manually operated this valve must
be located and protected such that an operator can get to it quickly and open
it even when the tank and/or the bund is on fire. A possible arrangement is
shown in Figure 10.03.21. The foam compound, inductors, and generators
can be carried in a van or trailer and brought to a fire when required, for
connection by hoses between the water supply hydrants and the foam lines.
Foam generation is initiated by opening the water supply and foam line
valves and maintaining adequate supplies of water and foam compound.
The main advantage of the semi-fixed system is that only one set of
generators, inductors and foam compound is needed to cover perhaps
several tanks or different groups of tanks. This however carries with it the
main disadvantage of the system which is that it obviously takes time to
connect and start foam injection, and in addition a means to transport the
foam injection, and in addition a means to transport the foam and equipment
to the appropriate foam line manifold must be provided and kept in constant
readiness. Furthermore, suitable and protected access to every foam line or
manifold connecting point must be provided.
(ii)
Fixed system
The foam line and valve requirements within the bund are much the same as
for the semi-fixed system, but outside the bund all foam inductors and
generators plus a foam compound tank are installed as fixed parts of the
system (see Figures 10.03.16 to 20 inclusive). An obvious advantage of the
fixed system is the speed with which it can be operated, since there is no
delay while bringing up foam and equipment, connecting hoses, etc. A
disadvantage is the cost of the greater number of generators, inductors and
foam compound tanks that are required. However, judicious layout design
can minimise this by grouping tanks so that each battery of generators and
related equipment will serve several different tanks. One, two or at the most
three such batteries will normally be sufficient to cover most marketing tank
farms.
Generally, therefore, the fixed system is to be preferred since the additional
cost is not large compared with the longer delay and lower reliability of the
semi-fixed system which requires more manpower and the need to maintain
equipment in constant readiness. Furthermore, for Class I product tanks, a
fixed system that can be started up within 10 minutes can be designed for a
lower
foam
application
rate
with
obvious
cost
benefit
(see Appendix 10.03.27).
(iii)
Separate foam line or product line

For either fixed or semi-fixed systems the choice lies between injecting foam
through dedicated foam lines connected direct to the tank or via existing
product (inlet) lines (see Figure 10.03.16). Use of the product outlet line is
less attractive as it is more likely to be complicated with branches, pumpsets,
etc., and better kept free for possible use to empty a tank in the event of a
fire. Provided that the product inlet line is of large enough diameter
(see Appendix 10.03.27, Velocity Restrictions) its use will usually be simpler
and cheaper since the necessary pipeline modifications can be made without
emptying and gas-freeing the tank. However, careful thought must be given
to the location of the connection to the product line since the finished
installation must allow for the tank valve being kept open or being operated
in the event of a fire, and there must also be a valve upstream of the
connecting point to prevent back-flow of foam in the wrong direction. Where
the inlet line is not large enough to accommodate the full foam flow without
exceeding design velocity limits, then an additional or alternative foam inlet
line will be necessary. If it is decided to use separate foam inlet lines then
again the tank valves must either be kept open or remotely operated in the
event of a fire.
(iv)
General arrangement
Deciding on the disposition of the various system components (pumps,
inductors, generators, foam solution lines, finished foam lines,
valves/bursting discs, etc.,) requires careful consideration of a number of
factors. These relate primarily to the distance from the water supply pump to
the tanks to be protected; the high back pressures on the system caused by
the product heads in high tanks; the need for the foam inlet valves being
open at the time of starting base injection; the inability for men to operate
valves or replenish foam compound within intolerable heat radiation levels of
tanks or bunds on fire, etc. To illustrate one typical problem area the
simplest system may be to group pump, foam compound indicators and
foam generators together so that foam can be directed via a manifold to any
one of a group of tanks. This necessitates pumping finished foam all the way
from the pump outlet to the tank inlet. However, if the tank is high and
relatively distant the pumping pressure to achieve this may be excessive.

One answer would be to locate the generators further downstream, i.e. closer
to the tanks since foam solution pressure losses are lower than those of
finished foam. Then the problem becomes one of opening valves closer to
the tanks without exposing men to intolerable heat radiation. Alternatively,
instead of valves one may choose to design a system using bursting discs
which will blow open when foam pressure builds up behind them.
Some suggested layouts are discussed in Appendix 10.03.27 (under B)
Design Factors. Operating companies who have problems with this aspect
that are not covered here should consult SIPC, (MKDD/21) for further
advice.
(d) Operating factors
To extinguish a fire successfully by base injection, three operational factors are
particularly important:
(i)
Foam solution must be supplied to the generators at or above the specified

minimum flow rate continuously until the fire is extinguished. Application at a
lower rate for a longer duration of time will not generally extinguish a fire.
Additionally, if (perhaps through lack of foam compound), injection has to be
stopped before the fire is totally extinguished, this will allow the flames to
spread back across the product surface thus losing all that one has gained up
to that requirement of foam compound is assembled or immediately
available before base injection operations start. (See Appendix 10.03.27.)
(ii)
The inlet pressure specified for the high back-pressure generators used
(normally 7 bars but for some makes as high as 10 bars) must be maintained
continuously otherwise inferior quality foam may be produced leading to
extended extinction time or even failure to extinguish the fire. It is important
therefore that, during the actual base injection operation, significant changes
in demand on the water supply, (which could upset the flow/pressure supply
to the base injection system) do not occur.
(iii)
If variable foam inductors are considered necessary to permit the use of

different concentrations of foam compound, they should preferably be set
and sealed at the correct percentage. Alternatively, a clear sign should be
posted directing the fire fighters to set the inductors at the correct percentage
induction rate for the foam compound in use. If foam compound is induced
too slowly, poor foam will result; if induced too fast stocks will be consumed
wastefully and too little foam will be produced.
(e) Design and equipment

Guidance on the design of base-injection systems is given in Appendix 10.03.27,
together with a calculated example, and some design features. Examples of typical
foam generators and foam inductors are shown in Figures 10. 03.22 to 25 inclusive.
A sketch showing the recommended tank inlet for base injection is given in
Figure 10.03.26.
A computer programme has been developed to carry out design calculations - given
the necessary details of tank dimensions, layout, products stored, etc.
APPENDIX 10.03.01 RECOMMENDED SCALE OF FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

INSTALLATIONS (INCLUDING LOBP - Note (7), AND CHEMICALS - Note (5), BUT EXCLUDING LPG PLANTS SEE SECTION 11)
APPENDIX 10.03.02 RECOMMEDDED FIRST AID FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
APPENDIX 10.03.03 - INSPECTION AND TESTING OF EXTINGUISHERS
Extinguishers, spare gas cartridges and replacement charges should be visually inspected at
least monthly by a responsible person to make sure that appliances are in their proper
positions and have not been discharged, or lost pressure (in the case of extinguishers fitted
with a pressure indicator), or suffered obvious damage. The provision of brackets, shelves or
base blocks will help to show if any appliance is missing.
A more thorough inspection should be carried out at least twice a year by a competent
person, e.g. a properly trained member of staff, or a service man from the extinguisher
suppliers, or from a firm specialising in this type of work. The recommendations below are
intended as a guide.
Faulty, damaged or corroded parts should be replaced only by the correct component
supplied or recommended by the extinguisher manufacturer.
Before opening any extinguisher it is important to check the vent holes or other venting
device. Any blocked vent should be cleared before the extinguisher is opened, and then the
extinguisher should be opened slowly in order to allow any gas present to escape in a
controlled manner.
The dates of inspection and refilling should be indelibly recorded on a label securely attached
to the extinguisher or painted on the body (it should not be stamped into the body of the
extinguisher).
Extinguishers should be recharged in accordance with the supplier's instructions immediately
after they have been completely or partly discharged. Sufficient refills for this purpose should
always be kept available. The date of refilling should be recorded as above.
Periodic pressure testing of extinguishers other than carbon dioxide and halon extinguishers
is not considered necessary.
Water (gas cartridge

At least twice a year see that:
1. Corrosion is not visible externally.
2. On emptying the liquid into a clean container and examining the body with an
illuminating probe, corrosion is not visible internally.
3. The gas cartridge is weighed to detect any loss, and if this loss exceeds 10 per cent of
the weight marked on the cartridge (or the percentage recommended by the
manufacturer, if less than 10 per cent) then the cartridge should be replaced.
4. The nozzle, strainer, vent holes in the cap and (where fitted) the internal discharge tube
and breather valve are not clogged; clean if necessary.
5. The operating mechanism and discharge valve (where fitted) move freely. Rectify or
replace if necessary.
6. The sealing washers and hose (if fitted) are in good condition.
7. After returning the original charge to the extinguisher, it is filled to the correct level. More
water should be added if necessary except in the case of special solutions (such as
anti-freeze or corrosion inhibitor) when the manufacturer's instruction should be followed.
8. The extinguisher is correctly re-assembled and safety device fitted.
Every extinguisher should be test discharged at least once every five years.
Water (stored pressure)

(a)
The correct pressure is shown on the indicating device or tell-tale indicator. Where
possible the extinguisher pressure should also be checked using an independent
pressure-measuring device.
(b)
Corrosion is not visible externally.
(c)
The weight of the extinguisher is correct.
The extinguisher should be test discharged at least once every two years.
After discharge see that:
1.
The pressure-indicating device or tell-tale indicator is functioning correctly and

showing zero pressure.
2.
On opening the extinguisher and examining the body internally using an illuminating
probe, corrosion is not visible.
3.
The nozzle, strainer, venting device and (where fitted) the internal discharge tube are
not clogged. Clean if necessary.
4.
The operating mechanism moves freely. Rectify or replace if necessary.
5.
The sealing washers and hose (if fitted) are in good condition.
6.
The extinguisher is refilled with water, or with special solution in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
7.
The extinguisher is re-assembled and repressurised in accordance with the

manufacturer's instructions. Effective means should be provided to ensure that
extinguisher bodies are not over-pressurised.
8.
The safety device is fitted.
Water (soda/acid)
1.
After carefully removing the acid bottle, the extinguisher is filled to the correct level.
2.
On pouring the main liquid charge into a clean container and examining the body
internally with an illuminating probe, corrosion is not visible. The body should also be
examined externally for corrosion.
3.
There has not been acid leakage, which can be caused by seepage past the lead
stopper in the case of some turn-over models, or which may result from a cracked
bottle. (Cracked bottles should be replaced.)
4.
The nozzle, strainer, vent holes in the cap and (where fitted) the internal discharge
tube and breather valve are not clogged. Clean if necessary.
5.
6.
The sealing washer and hose (if fitted) are in good condition.
7.
If there has not been a leakage of acid, the original main liquid is returned to the
extinguisher. Any slight loss should be made up with water. If leakage of acid or a
large loss of water has occurred the extinguisher should be recharged according to
the manufacturer's instructions.
8.
The extinguisher is correctly re-assembled and the safety device fitted. Each
extinguisher should be test discharged at least once every five years. Turn-over
models (loose stopper acid bottle), however, should be discharged every two years.
After discharge, extinguishers should be thoroughly washed out with clean water and
any pieces of glass or solid matter removed.
Foam (chemical)
1.
The extinguisher and inner container are filled to the correct levels.
2.
On pouring the liquids into separate clean containers and examining the extinguisher
body internally with an illuminating probe, corrosion is not visible. The body should
also be examined externally for corrosion.
3.
The nozzle, vent holes in the side of the cap, and breather valve (if fitted) are not
clogged. Clean if necessary.
4.
The operating mechanism and discharge valve (if fitted) move freely. Rectify or
5.
All washers and hose (if fitted) are in good condition.
6.
The original liquid charges, including any undissolved powder, are returned to the
appropriate containers. Any slight losses should be made good with water. If large
losses have occurred, new charges supplied by the extinguisher manufacturer should
be used.
7.
The extinguisher is correctly re-assembled and the safety device fitted. It is not
necessary to stir the contents of this type of extinguisher and stirring may, in fact,
cause damage.
Every extinguisher should be test discharged at least once every two years.
Foam (mechanical, gas cartridge)

1.
The extinguisher is filled to the correct level.
2.
On pouring the main liquid charge into a clean container and examining the
extinguisher body internally with an illuminating probe, corrosion is not visible. The
body should also be examined externally for corrosion.
3.
The gas cartridge is weighed to detect any loss and if this exceeds 10 per cent of the
contents (or more than the percentage recommended by the manufacturers, (if less
than 10 per cent) the cartridge should be replaced. The sealing washer should also
be checked to ensure that it is in good condition.
4.
The nozzle, strainer, branch pipe, internal discharge tube, breather valve and vent
holes in the cap are not clogged. Clean if necessary.
5.
6.
The washers and hose are in good condition.
7.
Where the foam compound is in a separate container, leakage of foam compound

has not occurred.
8.
The extinguisher is refilled with the original main liquid charge. Any loss should be
made up with water.
If the charge is a pre-mixed foam solution and there has been a loss of more than 5
per cent by volume, then a new charge should be used.
9.
The extinguisher is correctly re-assembled and the safety device fitted.
Every extinguisher should be discharged at least once every four years.
Foam (mechanical, stored pressure)

(a)
pressure measuring device.
(b)
(c)
Every extinguisher should be test discharged at least once every four years.
1.
The pressure indicating device or tell-tale indicator is functioning correctly and

2.
3.
The nozzle, strainer, branch pipe, venting device and (where fitted) the internal
discharge tube are not clogged. Clean if necessary.
4.
5.
The sealing washers and hose (if fitted) are in good condition.
6.
The extinguisher is refilled with special solution in accordance with the

manufacturer's instructions.
7.
The extinguisher is re-assembled and repressurised in accordance with the

manufacturer's instruction. Effective means should be provided to ensure that
extinguisher bodies are not over-pressurised.
8.
After discharge, foam extinguishers should be thoroughly washed out with clean water and
any solid matter should be removed.
Dry powder (gas cartridge)

Powder extinguishers should be opened only in a dry room and for the minimum time
possible in order to minimise the effect of atmospheric moisture on the powder. Only
extinguishers containing the same type of extinguishing powder should be opened and
examined at any one time in order to avoid the danger of cross-contamination.
Where a discharge control is fitted on the nozzle at the end of the hose, this should be
operated before opening the extinguisher in order to relieve immediately any pressure which
may be present in the extinguisher. The following checks should then be made at least twice
a year:
1.
The extinguisher contains the correct weight of powder.
2.
On emptying the powder into a clean dry container, it is free-f lowing and does not
contain lumps or foreign bodies. If only small, soft lumps occur these can be
removed by sieving the powder. Otherwise powder should be replaced.
3.
On examining the body internally using an illuminating probe, corrosion is not visible.
The body should also be examined externally for corrosion.
4.
The gas cartridge is weighed to detect any loss and if this exceeds 10 per cent of the
contents (or more than the percentage recommended by the manufacturers if less
than 10 per cent) the cartridge should be replaced.
5.
The nozzle, hose, vent holes in the cap and internal discharge tube are not clogged.
Clean if necessary.
6.
The washers and hose are in good condition.
7.
The operating mechanism and discharge control (where fitted) operate freely. Rectify
or replace if necessary. (Do not use grease or oil on these parts.)
8.
The original charge, or a new one if necessary, is returned to the extinguisher.
9.
The extinguisher is correctly re-assembled and the safety device fitted.
Every extinguisher should be discharged at least once every five years.
Dry powder (stored pressure)

1.
pressure measuring device.
2.
3.
4.
The nozzle and hose are not clogged. Clean if necessary.
5.
The hose is in good condition.
6.
Where extinguishers are designed to have the operating mechanism removed, the
operating mechanism and discharge control (where fitted) move freely. Rectify or
replace if necessary. (Grease or oil should not be used on these parts.)
7.
The safety device is replaced.
Every extinguisher of the field refillable type should be discharged at least once every five
years.
(i)
The pressure indicating device or tell-tale indicator is functioning correctly and

(ii)
(iii)
The nozzle, hose, venting device and internal discharge tube are not clogged. Clean
if necessary.
(iv)
replace if necessary. (Grease or oil should not be used on these parts.)
(v)
The sealing washers and hose are in good condition.
(vi)
The extinguisher is refilled and repressurised in accordance with the manufacturer's

instructions. Effective means should be provided to ensure that extinguisher bodies
are not over-pressurised.
(vii)
All dry powder extinguishers should be kept perfectly dry after discharged and not washed
out.
Carbon dioxide
At least once a year see that:
1.
2.
The weight of the extinguisher is correct. If a loss in weight of more than 10 per cent
of the contents (or more than the percentage recommended by the manufacturer, if
less than the percentage recommended by the manufacturer, if less than 10 per
cent) has occurred, then the extinguisher should be taken out of service and
replaced.
3.
The horn, and valve assembly are in good condition.
4.
5.
Every carbon dioxide extinguisher should be discharged at least once every ten years.
Halon (stored pressure)

At least once a year see that:
1.
2.
3.
The correct pressure is shown on the indicating device (if fitted). Where possible the
extinguisher pressure should also be checked using an independent measuring
device. Extinguishers showing a significant loss of pressure (as defined in the
manufacturer's recommendations) should be taken out of service and replaced.
4.
5.
Every halon (stored pressure) extinguisher should be discharged once every ten years.
Extinguishers containing carbon tetrachloride should not be used.
FIGURE 10.03.04 CHUBB MOBILE PD150 DRY CHEMICAL POWDER EXTINGUISHER
CAPACITY:
PRESSURE CHARGE:
OPERATING PRESSURE:
DURATION OF DISCHARGE:
70kg (150lb) Chubb standard dry powder

One 3.6kg (8lb) CO2 gas cylinder
7 bars
45-55 seconds
Note:
90-litre AFFF (model SF 20 FN) and fluoroprotein foam (model PF 20 and SF20) mobile units of
similar design to this extinguisher are also available
APPENDIX 10.03.05 CHUBB MOBILE FOAM UNITS
CAPACITY :
11 litres (2.5 UK gal) foam compound (6% only)
OPERATING PRESSURE:
2 10.5 bars
At operating pressure of 3.5 bars it produces about 1400 litres foam during operating time of
4 minutes
CHUBB FL 2.5 HOSE REEL FOAM UNIT
CAPACITY :
WATER SUPPLY REQUIRED:
OPERATING PRESSURE:
OPERATING TIME:
100 litres (22 UK gal) foam compound (3% or 6% only)

225 litres/min
3 10 bars
3% compound 14 minute
6% compound 7 minute
CHUBB FL 22 MOBILE FOAM LIQUID PROPORTIONER UNIT
FIGURE 10.03.06 FLOW RATES FROM FIRE HOSE NOZZLES
FIGURE 10.03.07 PRESSURE LOSS IN FIRE HOSES
FIGURE 10.03.08 HYDRANT-FED FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 10.03.09 TYPICAL FOAM-GENERATING FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 10.03.10 TYPICAL FOAM COMPOUND INDUCTION
FIGURE 10.03.11 TYPICAL MECHANICAL FOAM GENERATORS
FIGURE 10.03.12 FOAM CHUTE WITH STAGGERED OPENINGS INSIDE TANK
FIGURE 10.03.13 BASE INJECTION OF FOAM (folded hose system)
FIGURE 10.03.14 CHUBB JET-MASTER PORTABLE MECHANICAL FOAM/WATER MONITOR
Foam improver/nozzle
section in which foam
of correct consistency
is formed and expelled
as high-velocity rope
jet. For water spray
only, this section is
removed
Total weight 34 kg (74.5 lb)
Foam generator
section which
combines water,
foam liquid and air
Main body comprises

two sections joined by
quick action thread
Two legs, independently

adjusted and lockable,
support monitor at
elevations between 40 to
70
Easily observed
pressure gauge,
recessed for
protection
Carrying handle
Connection for
aluminium foam
compound pick-up
tube/hose assembly
or for 1-inch hose
from wheeled foam
liquid tank
Swept-elbow
connector fitted with
two 2-inch
instantaneous male
couplings. (Other
couplings can be
fitted)
Swivelling base
plate allows
alteration of
elevation while the
unit is operating
JET LENGTH
JET HEIGHT
- FOAM
WATER FLOW :
FOAM COMPOUND
1600 litres/min at 10.5 bars

3% or 6% by calibration
: 40m at 10.5 bars

:
: 12m at 6.7 bars
23m at 10.5 bars
- WATER : 30m
FIGURE 10.03.15 DISTRIBUTION OF FOAM AND CIRCULATION OF TANK CONTENTS IN

FOAM BASE INJECTION SYSTEMS
FIGURE 10.03.16
FIXED BASE INJECTION

Inductors and generator near pump discharge single tank near to foam station
FIGURE 10.03.17
FIXED BASE INJECTION SYSTEM

Inductors and generators near pump discharge multiple tanks short distance to foam station
FIGURE 10.03.18
FIXED BASE INJECTION SYSTEM

Generators separated from inductors single tank
FIGURE 10.03.19 GENERATORS SEPARATED FROM PROPORTIONER MULTIPLE TANKS SEPARATE FOAM LINES TO EACH TANK
FIGURE 10.03.20
GENERATORS SEPARATED FROM PROPORTIONER MULTPLE TANKS SINGLE FOAM SOLUTION LINE
TO GENERATOR MANIFOLD
FIGURE 10.03.21 SEMI-FIXED BASE INJECTION SYSTEM
FIGURE 10.03.22 ANGUS FIRE ARMOUR HIGH-BACK-PRESSURE FOAM GENERATORS
MODEL HBPG 450
MODEL HBPG 2250

Performance Data
Model
Design Flow Rate
Design Inlet Pressure

Max design Back Pressure
Expansion
HBPG 225
HBPG 450
HBPG 900
HBPG 2250
225 litres/min
450 litres/min
900 litres/min
(50 lmp GPM)
(100 lmp GPM)
(200 lmp GPM)
2250 litres/min
(500 lmp GPM)
7 bars (100 lb/in2)

25% of inlet Pressure
34:1
FIGURE 10.03.23 CHUBB BIG 10, 20 AND 30 BASE INJECTION FOAM GENERATORS
MODEL
BIG 10
20
30
FOAM SOLUTION FLOW RATE:
litres/min
455
910
1365
FOAM OUTPUT:
litres/min
1800
3600
5400
DESIGN INLET PRESSURE:
Bars
Note : Maximum back pressure 25% of inlet pressure
FIGURE 10.03.24
CHUBB JET-MASTER MECHANICAL FOAM MONITOR WITH ADAPTOR

FOR BASE INJECTION
FOAM SOLUTION FLOW RATE :

1600 litres/min (350 UK gal/min)
FOAM OUTPUT:
6300 litres/min (1400 UK gal/min)
DESIGN OPERATING PRESSURE:
10 bars
Maximum Design Back Pressure 25% of Inlet Pressure
FIGURE 10.03.25 ANGUS VARIABLE FOAM INDUCTOR
FIGURE 10.03.26 TANK INLET FOR BASE INJECTION OF FOAM
APPENDIX 10.03.27 -
BASE INJECTION - DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT
A. General Description
The capacity of a base injection system for fixed roof tanks is based on the minimum
foam solution (water plus foam compound but not aerated) flow rate required to extinguish
a storage tank fire. The Recommended minimum rates are as follows:
Class I products -
7.4 litres/minute/m (0.15 UK gallon/minute/ ft ) of product surface to

be protected.
Note: If a fixed system is to be installed which can be started within
10 minutes of the onset of tank fire, then a foam solution flow rate of
2
2
4.9 litres/minute/m (0.10 UK Gallon/minute/ ft ) can be used.
2
Class II products - 4.9 litres/minute/m (0.10 UK gallon/minute/ft ) of product surface to

be protected.
2
Class III products - white oils - 4.9 litres/minute/m (0.10 UK gallon/minute/ft ) of product
surface to be protected.
- black oils - base injection not suitable.
Sufficient foam compound and water should be available to permit operation at the above
application rates for a period of 30 minutes.
The design of a base injection system involves a sequence of steps as follows:
(i)
Calculating the minimum acceptable foam solution flow rate. When more than
one tank is to be protected by the same system, the design flow rate is
determined by the tank requiring the highest flow rate.
(ii)
Selecting the number, size and distribution of foam generators plus the general
layout of water, foam solution and finished foam pipelines. Depending on the tank
farm layout as well as the location and orientation of water supply, the
combination and grouping of generators (and their related inductors) may vary
from:
(a) a single battery of generators to supply all needs via a foam distribution
manifold, to:
(b) a number of separate batteries of generators strategically located to serve
different groups of tanks.
The decision between semi-fixed and fixed systems will also have to be made at
this point in the calculation.
(iii)
Selecting the number of foam inlets for each storage tank, which is governed
primarily by the diameter of the tank in accordance with the 'Number of Inlets'
table shown in C5. An alternative arrangement using a single tank inlet and
multiple foam outlet points is shown in Figure 10.03.28.
(iv)
Estimating the foam inlet diameters. Foam inlets must be sized so that the
velocity of foam entering the tank is not greater than 3.0m/second (10ft/second)
for volatile products (flash-point less than 21C) or 6.0m/second (20ft/second) for
non-volatile products (flash-point equal to or greater than 210C). The correct
attitude of the inlets is horizontal (not upwards or downwards); a 45 chamfer is
acceptable, see Figure 10.03.26.
Foam velocities may be greater in the pipelines further upstream (which permits
the use of smaller pipelines) but pipelines must be increased to the correct inlet
diameter at a distance of not less than 20 times the pipe diameter from the inlet to
the tank. At no point should the foam velocity exceed 9.15m/second
(30ft/second).
The inlet diameters estimated at this stage will have to be checked at a later
stage in the design depending on the ultimate hydraulics of the system (see D(c)
below).
(v)
Calculating system pressure losses so as to derive the finished foam supply

pipeline diameters downstream of the foam generators. This part of the design is
governed by a number of parameters:
-
The design of foam generators is normally such that the maximum back
pressure downstream of the generator outlets (caused by pipeline losses plus
static head of product in the tank) must not exceed 25% of the inlet pressure
to the foam generators. This then is the starting point of the hydraulics
design and in situations with high tanks (i.e. high static head of product) and
high foam flow rate requirements, can result in substantial pressure
requirements. For this reason since pipeline pressure losses for water or
foam solution are much lower than for finished foam, a guiding principle is to
minimise the lengths of finished foam lines by positioning the foam
generators as far downstream as practically possible so as to limit the
distance finished foam has to be pumped before it enters the storage tank.
Foam generator inlet pressure requirements vary from 7 to 10 bars

depending on make. Higher pressures can be used to give higher
throughputs and/or to meet high downstream back pressures.
To allow full development of finished foam properties a foam line length of

preferably 20m is required before entering the tank, but 5m is an absolute
minimum without significant foam deterioration.
(vi)
Estimating the inlet pressures to the foam generators (i.e. 4 times the outlet back
pressures derived from (v) above): thence calculating the foam solution pipeline
sizes between the pump discharge and the generator inlets (including the
pressure losses sustained through the foam compound inductors).
(vii)
Estimating the volume of foam compound as well as the water flow rate and
water volume needed to provide base injection operation at the recommended
application rate for a period of 30 minutes.
From the above the base injection system for one or more tanks can be calculated in
isolation from the requirements for the rest of the fire fighting system. Section D below
describes the points to be considered to produce an overall tank farm fire fighting
protection system.
B. Design Factors
(i)
Foam pipelines should, whenever possible, run outside the bund area so as to be
less exposed to fire. This may lead to longer lines which will add to pipeline
friction losses. Where a foam line has to run inside the bund area flanges should
be eliminated or minimised. Wrapping and burying lines will provide additional
fire protection.
(ii)
Testing - once a base injection system has been installed it has to be tested in
order to prove the equipment as well as train personnel in its operation. This is
straightforward if the tank is still empty and the injected foam can be removed
from the tank. If however, the tank contains product, a perfectly adequate test
can be carried out if a foam outlet/sample point is installed in the foam line
upstream of the tank valve.
The sample points do not have to be close to the storage tanks but may be more
conveniently located near the foam generators (subject only to the 20m
minimum distance necessary to permit full development of the foam properties
or even in the foam solution lines in which case a generator would have to be
attached at the time of sampling. This will minimise consumption of foam
compound during tests and fire practices, and will also facilitate flushing out the
lines after such tests. A minimum slope of 1/240 with suitable drainage outlets
will facilitate flushing and draining foam lines after testing or usage.
(iii)
Quick-action valves - all valves at the tank selection manifold should be

quick-action (ball) valves. Particularly for aviation products a double seal valve,
bursting disc, or two valve separation is required to prevent water contamination
of the aviation product.
The size of the ball valves can be reduced to limit cost but to no less than 50%
of the pipeline cross-sectional area. In such a case however, the additional
pressure lost through the valve must be allowed for in the back pressure
calculations.
(iv)
The non-return valves should preferably be soft seated (but not spring-loaded).
Accepted materials for the soft seat are nitrile rubber, Viton and Buna-N but not
Neoprene. In the event that product passes the non-return valve and fills the line
from the tank to the generator manifold, the aerated foam is able to push the
product back to the tank without significant deterioration. If soft seated non-return
valves are not available, conventional non-return valves can be installed.
(v)
As mentioned in 10.03.15(d) sufficient foam compound must be available or

immediately accessible before base injection operations begin. One way to
minimise total stocks of foam compound held at any plant, is to keep part of the
total requirement in a small bulk tank suitably located for base injection
purposes. The balance can then be stored in easily movable containers ready to
be carried to any part of the site when needed. For example, if the base injection
requirement is 2.5m of compound, and this is estimated to be more than enough
for any other possible fire, then 1.5m could be stored in a small tank or trailer
ready for immediate use in the base injection system, and the remaining 1m
kept in containers at the most strategic location for any other fire. The
emergency fire plan should then be arranged so that should a tank fire occur,
previously detailed personnel would take the foam containers to the bulk foam
tank ready for decanting as the initial compound in the tank is consumed. If a fire
occurs elsewhere, the portable containers can be taken to the site of the fire for
use with the normal hoses and foam making equipment, and if necessary further
stocks of foam compound can be drawn from the compound tank.
To minimise foam compound deterioration, the tank should be fitted with an
expansion dome on top and the level of compound maintained within the dome.
To protect the tank against internal corrosion the tank should be lined with
bitumen or an 'EPIKOTE' resin based paint.
(vi)
The principle mentioned in A(v) above of converting foam solution into aerated
(finished) foam at the latest possible moment will help limit pressure
losses/reduce pipe diameters. Against this saving will have to be offset the
possible need for additional generators because rather than a single battery of
generators to cover all needs, locating generators further downstream in the
system may mean having to install more than one small battery of generators
resulting perhaps in a greater total number of generators required. The relative
economics of this must, of course, be estimated. Such a situation would probably
not occur with a semi-fixed system which depends on a common store of
generators which are taken to whichever is the appropriate foam inlet point.
(vii)
Foam/foam solution distribution systems

Depending on the number of tanks, as well as the size and layout of the site,
various designs of distribution systems can be employed as shown in
Figures 10.03.16 to 10.03.21 inclusive, and described below.
1. Fixed base injection system where tanks are only a short distance from fire
pump/water supply permitting the foam station [foam compound tank,
inductor(s), generator(s), etc.] to be positioned together near the pump
discharge.
(a)
This layout (see Figure 10.03.16) is appropriate for single tank

protection, and show how the product inlet may be used as one of
the foam inlets. As the tank valves (VO) must be kept open, a second
valve (VT) or bursting disc with gate valve to protect it when
sampling foam acts to contain any product that may pass the
non-return valve in the foam lines. Valve (VP ) is to prevent backflow
of foam in product line and wily normally be closed.
(b)
This layout (see Figure 10.03.17) is for multiple tank protection,

where the foam station is only a short distance to the tank farm but
pressure drops are nevertheless low enough to permit foam
generation at the foam station close to the pump. As tank valves VO
remain open, valves VT outside the bund must either be quickly
accessible (fire screen plus rapid access) or be remotely operable
(reliable power) by a protected system. Bursting discs are not
appropriate since one can not select which disc to burst.
2. Fixed base injection system where for distance and/or pressure drop reasons
the foam generators are separated from the inductor/proportioner units.
(a)
This layout (see Figure 10.03.18) is appropriate for single tank

protection. As the tank valve (VO) is kept open, a bursting disc is all
that is required outside the bund. A manual valve would not be
suitable because of the time taken for someone to get to it and open
it, but a remotely-operated valve could be used provided that there is
a reliable power supply.
Foam sampling is best done by connecting a generator at the
solution outlets shown. To sample downstream of the generators
entails filling the whole pipeline with solution which is both costly and
would necessitate a laborious draining and flushing operation
afterwards.
(b)
This layout (see Figure 10.03.19) is for multiple tank protection with
separate lines to each tank. A foam proportioner may be considered
here since it will automatically induce the correct rate of foam
compound depending on which foam control valve (VC) is opened,
and in addition has a much lower pressure drop compared with
inductors. As this system permits manual control it is ideal where
power supply (for remote valve operation) is unreliable. For foam
sampling see the comment given in 2(a) above.
(c)
An alternative layout (see Figure 10.03.20) is to run a single foam

solution line from the discharge side of the proportioner to a manifold
positioned immediately upstream of the generators. In this case the
control valves (VC) would have to be remotely operated, which
means a reliable and protected power supply is essential. Bursting
discs are necessary to contain product as tank valves (VO) are kept
open. The same comment as in 2(a) above covers foam sampling.
3. Semi-fixed base injection system. A typical layout is shown (Figure 10.03.21)

in which the foam inductor and generator are brought to the foam inlet point
outside the tank bund and connected to the water supply by hoses. Foam
sampling can be done in either way (1 or 2 above) depending on pipe
lengths, layout, etc.
(viii)
Equipment - all pipelines, valves and other standard fittings should be in

accordance with the specification for normal installation operations given in the
'Installations and Depots' manual, 05.00.00. In addition, the following items of
equipment have been developed especially for base injection:
(a) High back-pressure generators - these are required to produce foam with
suitable properties for base injection; expansion 2 to 4 and a 25% drainage
time of 90-180 seconds. Models are available from different manufacturers
for a range of foam solution flow rates of between about 50 and 2 250 litres/
minute (10 and 500 UK gallons/minute) and which operate at inlet pressures
ranging from 7 to 10 bars; examples are shown in Figures 10.03.22 to
10.03.24 inclusive.
One supplier has produced an adaptor, see Figure 10.03.24, for use with the
existing foam monitor shown in Figure 10.03.14.
(b) Foam compound inductors and proportioners - most in-line inductors working
on the venturi principle with a minimum induction rate of 3% can be used.
One of the models available is illustrated in Figure 10.03.25. This type of unit
suffers one major drawback in that pressure lost through it equals one-third
of its inlet pressure. Thus to feed high back-pressure generators which
require minimum inlet pressures of 7.0 bar, the inlet pressures to the inductor
must be 10.5 bar. These pressure levels may be tolerable for relatively small
or simple applications where back-pressures downstream of the generators
can be kept to reasonable levels (or for non-base injection applications) but
for larger systems at higher pressure levels generally an alternative such as
a variable-flow proportioner may be considered as it has a considerably
lower pressure drop and inducts foam compound at a rate directly
proportional to the water flow rate through it. However, the relative
economics must be assessed before the choice is made.
C. Design Example for Base Injection of Foam into Single Tank (see Fig 1)
1. Tank Details
Product
Gasoline
Tank size
34.0 m dia. x 22m height
Product inlet (existing)
10" (250mm)
Distance from fire pump
150m
907.5m
Minimum solution flow rate
7.4 litres/min/m
(see A General Description)
7.4 x 907.5
6716 litres/min
Assuming design is a fixed

system, startable within 10 min,
then solution flow rate can be =
reduced to
=
4.9 x 907.5
4447 litres/min
2. Product surface area
x 34 2
4
3. Foam Solution Flow Rate :
4. Generator Requirements (based on Angus Range)

Generators - 2 x 2250 litres/min =
Note:
4500 litres/min
While these two large units are ideal for this particular single tank size, were
it intended to use the same set-up to supply foam to a number of tanks of
which this was the largest, a combination of say 1 x 2250 plus 2 x 900 and
1 x 450 litres/min generators would permit using various combinations to
match the different tank sizes.
5. Number of Inlets
The number of tank inlets required depends upon the diameter of the tank:
Minimum No of Inlets
Tank Diameter in Metres
Volatile products
(Flash-point<21.0C)
Non-volatile products
(Flash-point>21.0C)
18.5
18.5 - 35.5
35.5 - 42.5
42.5 - 48.5
48.5 - 55.0
55.0 - 61.0
Above 61m add one inlet for

each additional:
465m
695m
In the example, two inlets are required.

6. Inlet Diameters [see A(iv)]
Each takes half the flow rate
0.5 x 4500 = 2250 litres/min
Maximum design flow rate
3.0m/second (flash-point <21C)
Diameter needed
250mm (see Fig 3 of this Appendix)
Can use product inlet (250mm) plus one new foam inlet.
7. Pressure Drops:
(a) Back pressure due to height of product (assume full tank).
22m x 0.7 (density) x 0.0978 = 1.51 bar
(b) (i) Pipeline friction loss if finished foam pumped whole distance (150m) from
pump to tank:
4500 litres/min solution
finished foam expansion
=18000 litres/min
=4
Pipe diameter
Loss (bar/100m)
Total loss (150m)
250mm
0.3
0.45 bars
200mm
0.9
1.35 bars
150mm
3.5
5.25 bars
(ii) Friction loss if foam solution pumped 125m at 4500 litres/min (i.e. finished
foam only for final 25m (250mm) see A(v)
Pipe diameter
Loss (bar/100m)
Total loss (125m)
150mm
0.62
0.77 bars
(iii) Assume alternative (ii) and base design on pumping foam solution through
125m of 6 inches (150mm) pipe to vicinity of tank before generating foam
which then passes through 25m of 10" (250mm) pipe system to tank inlets.
(c) Friction losses through fittings and line (250mm) downstream of generators refer Figure 1 of this Appendix, 50% of foam goes through each branch to tank.
Friction loss @ 9000 litres/min finished
0.2 bars/100m line
foam (equivalent length 81.8m)
0.2
0.17 bars
81.8
m
100
(d) Total back pressure downstream of generator outlet;

Static head in tank
1.51 bars
Loss in 250mm pipe and fittings
0.17 bars
1.68 bars
Sub-totals
(e) Generator inlet pressure
As stated in A(v) maximum back pressure downstream of generator must not

exceed 25% of generator inlet pressure.
Calculated back pressure downstream of generator =
1.68 bar
Generator inlet pressure
4 x 1.68
6.72 bar
Specified inlet pressure of Angus Generators
7.0 bar
Generator inlet pressure to be provided
7.0 bar
24% OK
Downstream back pressure =
1.68
100
7.00
Note: In some cases the back pressure downstream of the generator may be
such that the required inlet pressure could be higher than 7.0 bar. For example if
the downstream back pressure came to 2.0 bar, then the generator inlet pressure
would have to be 2.0 x 4 = 8.0 bar. The effect of this would be to increase the
generator throughput from its design of 2250 litres/min at 7.0 bar to:
Throughput @ 8.0 bars
8
7
2250
2405 say 2400 litres/min
This higher flow rate would marginally increase downstream friction losses which
would have to be checked before settling on the correct design flow rate for the
rest of the calculation. Additionally it will be necessary to check that tank inlet
velocities have not increased above the design maximum.
(f) Losses through pipeline system upstream of generators.

Friction losses in 150mm pipe @ 4500 litres/min
0.62 bar/100m
125
100
0.62
0.77 bar
0.62
0. 13 bar
(iii) Ground elevation differences
Nil
(iv) Total
0.90 bar
(i) Pipeline (125m @ 150mm)
(ii) Fittings (21.4m equivalent length)
21.4
100
(g) Back pressure at inductor outlet:

This equals pressure at generator inlet (7.0 bar) plus losses upstream of
generators (0.90 bar).
Inductor outlet pressure = 7.90 bar, say 8.0 bar
Inductor inlet pressure to compensate for inductor pressure loss of one third
[see B(viii)b] = 12.0 bar
Required pump discharge pressure =
12.0 bar
8. Total Foam Compound Requirement:

=
Solution flow rate x induction rate x time
4500 litres/min x 4%* x 30 mins [see A(vii)]
5400 litres foam compound
Recommended rate for base injection using 3% fluoroprotein foam

compound.
9. Total Water Requirement:

(i)
Volume
= solution flow rate x (100% - foam induction rate) x time

= 4500 litres/min x 96% x 30 min
3
= 129 600 litres (say 130m )

(ii)
Flow rate
= 4500 x 0.96 = 4320 litres/min
(iii)
Pressure
= 12 bar at pump discharge (see 7(g) above).
10. Groups of Tanks

When investigating the requirements for a group(s) of tanks the basic calculation is
the same as above subject to the choice of layout as described in B(viii). The total
overall design flow rate is based on the tank (or group) with the greatest demand but
the hydraulics calculations must be done for flow to each tank to ensure lines are
economically sized, that generator back pressures do not exceed 25% inlet
pressures, and that maximum tank inlet velocities are not exceeded.
D. Total Tank Farm Protection

Sections A, B and C have described the design of a base foam injection system for
storage tanks in isolation, have given a number of related design factors that must be
taken into account, and have illustrated the design calculation.
In order to complete the protection of a tank farm two further aspects must be
considered:
(i) Supplementary protection
Supplementary protection should be provided either to extinguish small ground fires
within the bund or elsewhere, or to enable extra cooling water to be directed at
storage tanks if needed. For this, branch pipes with a foam solution flow rate of
approximately 450 litres/minute (100 UK gallons/minute) plus supplementary foam
compound should be provided as shown in the following table:
Diameter of largest
tank in m
Number of branch
pipes
Minimum operating
time in minutes
up to 10
10
10 - 20
20
20 - 29
20
30 - 37
30
over 37
30
(ii) Water for cooling tanks and/or LPG vessels

Guidance on this aspect is given in 10.03.03 and 11.00.00 (LPG)
The overall combination therefore of:

(1) the requirements for base injection.
(2) the supplementary protection needed, and
(3) the tank and vessel cooling by sprinklers,
will result in a total demand for water flow rate and pressure necessary in the event of a
storage tank fire. From this the pressure and flow specifications of the fire water pump(s)
can be derived. A major practical element in the design of the system is the actual
method of sharing the total water supply between base injection, supplementary
protection and cooling sprinklers.
The first requirement is a centrifugal pump whose flow/head curve is reasonably flat
particularly on the low head side of the design operating point. This will minimise
variation in discharge pressure irrespective of the actual total demand. The following
factors must next be considered:
(a) Cooling water for sprinklers for oil storage tanks
For very simple tank farms where the cooling water systems may comprise separate
lines running from the pump discharge manifold to each tank, it may be possible to
size the lines such that each tank receives close to the correct flow rate of water.
However, for most systems operating from a ring main (complete with hydrants and
base injection systems) the hydraulics are too complicated for such treatment. The
recommended solution in such cases is to fit a simple but appropriate pressure
gauge downstream of the cooling water offtake valve to each tank. From initial trials
for each tank sprinkler line, the valve opening to give the correct cooling water flow
rate can be determined. The corresponding pressure reading can then be read and
marked on the face of the gauge so that in future the correct flow rate to each tank
can be set simply by adjusting each sprinkler line valve until the related gauge reads
the pre-determined pressure. During actual usage, the setting of these valves will
have to be back-checked and re-adjusted both at the time of initial opening to start
the cooling, and subsequently at intervals since fluctuations in water demand will
cause some pressure variations during the fire fighting activity.
(b) Supplementary protection

These requirements are not so critical in terms of exact flow rates. If either ground
foam or additional water for cooling purposes are required, these can be provided by
opening the necessary hydrant valve on the ring water main and the pump discharge
will automatically adjust. If they are not required then the capacity will remain
available for other purposes.
(c) Base injection

Depending on which tank is on fire the demand for foam will vary from the maximum
(design) flow rate to something less. The actual foam flow will be controlled on site
by opening the requisite number of foam generators for the tank concerned. The
generators are largely self-governing in that at design pressure they will pass the
design flow rate but at higher pressures they will pass more in accordance with
normal hydraulic flow criteria, i.e. that velocity is proportional to the square root of
the pressure. If therefore a smaller tank is on fire, requiring only a proportion of the
total number of foam generators to be opened, this will present to the pump a back
pressure somewhat higher than its design. The pump will automatically adjust to
these flow conditions which will result in an increased inlet pressure and flow rate
through each generator such that the inlet velocity to the tanks may exceed the
allowed limit (3m/second or 6m/second). If the pump (centrifugal) operating curve is
flat enough such that the increase in pressure between the design point and the
actual operating point is small enough, then the flow rate increase will also be
relatively low. To illustrate-if, for example, only opening 2 out of 3 available
generators caused a pump discharge pressure increase of say 15% above pump
design point, this would lead to an increased flow rate, per generator, equal to the
square root of 1.15% which equals 1.07%. Thus the flow velocity would be 7% higher
and whether this increase causes the tank inlet velocity to exceed the permitted
limits can thence be checked. In the same way the various downstream flow
conditions (caused by opening all relevant combinations of foam generators) must be
re-checked against the operating curve of any existing pump or new pump under
consideration.
Note:
Another situation which does not have any adverse effect is when the
product level in a tank is particularly low at the time of a fire. In such a case
the back pressure downstream of the generator is reduced and it might be
thought this would lead to an increase in flow rate and consequent tank inlet
velocity problems. That this does not occur in practice is because the foam
generator design is such that the foam throughput is only dependent on
upstream flow conditions and is independent of downstream conditions as
long as the 25% back pressure maximum is not exceeded.
(d) Result
From the above considerations, it should be possible to design a total tank farm
protection system which will, given sufficient stocks of foam compound and water,
provide the total demand to meet most foreseeable tank farm fire situations. It must
be realised however that the highest foam demand for a tank fire may not coincide
with the highest cooling water demand for adjacent tanks. For this reason all
combinations of tank foam plus adjacent cooling must be calculated to determine the
maximum total demand on which the overall design should be based.
APPENDIX 10.03.27 BASE INJECTION DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 10.03.28 ALTERNATIVE TANK INLET ARRANGEMENTS USING SINGLE INLET

AND MULTIPLE FOAM OUTLET POINTS
10.04.00
FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS
10.04.01
Types of Fire
Fires are classified as follows:
A. Dry fires: combustible solid materials such as paper and wood.
Normally these fires can best be extinguished by cooling with water.
B. Oil/Grease fires: liquids or liquefiable solids.

Foam is normally used to blanket these fires. The effect is to prevent supplies of
oxygen from reaching the fire and to cool (by means of water in the foam) at the
same time. Dry chemical or inert gas (extinguishers) can also be used, but they do
not blanket the liquid and flash-backs can therefore occur.
C. Gas fires: methane, propane and butane, etc.

The normal agents used are dry chemical powders and carbon dioxide, but such fires
should usually only be extinguished after the gas supply has been turned off. Water
sprays are also effective in reducing the intensity of gas fires.
D. Metal fires: magnesium, etc.

These are not normally applicable to the oil industry.
If fires involve electrical equipment of any kind and the current cannot be switched off,
water and water based agents (i.e. foam) must not be used.
10.04.02
Water
Fresh or salt water can be applied in the form of jets, sprays or fog.
Sprays and fog are more effective for hydrocarbon fires because the particles of water
are more easily vaporised; the process of extraction of latent heat of vaporisation has a
cooling and therefore dampening effect upon the fire. Normally jets of water should not
be used is their effect as to spread hydrocarbon fires, the exception being if maximum
throw is required for example against strong winds.
The main uses of water for fighting fire are:
-
Extinguishing Class A fires.
Spray cooling of burning product surfaces and equipment adjacent to the fire.
Producing fire fighting foam.
Protection of personnel (sprays).
Directing pools of burning liquid.
Dispersion of escaping gases and vapours.
10.04.03
Foams
Mechanical foams are the usual type used. These are made from mixing foam
concentrate (compound) with water and then aerating the emulsion. Low expansion
foams are normally used for liquid hydrocarbon fires. Correctly applied foams form a
sealing blanket, have a smothering effect on the fire, suppress flammable vapours and
cool the product.
Low-expansion foams are not suitable for extinguishing LPG fires. High-expansion foams
can however be used for controlling LPG pool fires and to reduce heat radiation (refer
'Plant Operating Manual' Volume 3 for detailed information).
Although protein-based foams will gradually deteriorate during long-term storage,
particularly in ambient temperatures above 21C, much can be done to preserve this
valuable asset. Appendix 10.04.01, describe measures that should be taken to prolong
the shelf life of foam compounds. As a control measure compound containers should be
date marked when received so that they can be used on a first-in first-out basis for fire
training and fire drills. Notwithstanding the efforts taken there will be a need on occasion
to test the quality of foam compound and a simple field test is described in
Appendix 10.04.02.
The main types of foam are as follows:
(a) Fluoroprotein foam
This has largely replaced standard protein foam for fighting hydrocarbon fires
because of its better performance, higher fluidity and greater resistance to fuel
entrainment - particularly valuable for base injection into storage tanks, for which
standard protein foam is unsuitable. It can be used with fresh or sea-water.
(b) Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)

Because of its high fluidity, AFFF gives a rapid knock down of fires. It forms a thin
aqueous film on the fuel surface which acts as a barrier to exclude air and it is
capable of suppressing the development of vapours. However, it is less suitable for
fires after long pre-burn times especially where protruding pieces of hot steel work
may destroy the thin foam film.
Alcohol resistant types of AFFF are also available.
For high-risk areas such as vehicle loading bays, the use of AFFF provides both
rapid knock down and a sealing layer. AFFF is sometimes used to cover a spillage to
prevent a fire from occurring. It can be used for base injection in the same way as
fluoroprotein foam. It can be used with fresh or sea-water.
(c) Polar solvent alcohol resistant foam

This type of foam is of particular use for fires involving water miscible chemical
products (e.g. chemical solvents, alcohols, etc). It forms an insoluble membrane on
the surface of the burning liquid, thereby preventing direct contact between further
foam and liquid. Gentle application is essential to avoid disturbing the membrane,
and for this reason its use by base injection is not possible. An alcohol resistant type
of AFFF foam also exists.
10.04.04
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide being an inert gas extinguishes a fire by dilution or displacement of air. It
is particularly effective in sheltered locations containing electrical switches, motors or
other equipment. However, because of its suffocating effect its use in unventilated
spaces should be avoided except by an automatic atmospheric flooding system when
nobody is present.
10.04.05
Dry Chemical Powders

Dry powder generally provides the quickest means of extinguishing fires of flammable
liquids, though it has little cooling effect and does not form a sealing blanket on the
product surface. By interfering with the chain reaction of combustion, dry powder acts
more rapidly than foam and is particularly suitable for dealing with fires of free-flowing
liquids or fires which may spread to surrounding materials before a foam blanket could
be formed over the burning liquid. Dry powder is a non-conductor of electricity and can
safely be used on fires where there may be a risk of electric shock.
There are two main types of dry powder:
(a) Sodium or potassium bicarbonate powders - most suitable for Class B and C fires
and therefore recommended for most product distribution applications. Monnex is a
particular brand of potassium bicarbonate powder which, though inexpensive, is the
best available for petroleum fires.
(b) Mono-ammonium phosphate powders - so called multi-purpose powders - which
though suitable for Class A, B and C fires are not so effective on liquid hydrocarbon
fires and therefore not so appropriate for marketing distribution facilities.
10.04.06
Halogen Compounds (Halons)

These inhibit the chemical reaction of product with oxygen. The two main compounds
are:
(a) Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF)
This is used in hand held extinguishers and for protection of floating roof seals.
(b) Bromochlorotrifluoromethane (BTM)
This agent is appropriate for total flooding systems, e.g. the protection of computer
rooms.
The comments given in 10.03.08 Protection of Computer Facilities, largely cover the use
of halons which are primarily used on electrical and electronic equipment. They are
better than dry powders at penetrating spaces inside equipment. They are also suitable
for fires in flammable liquids and very effective for dealing with fires in gasoline or diesel
driven engines.
APPENDIX 10.04.01-
STORAGE OF PROTEIN AND FLUOROPROTEIN FIRE FIGHTING FOAM

COMPOUND
Proper storage of foam compound is necessary for two reasons. First, to ensure that it will
work effectively when needed in a crisis and, secondly, for economic reasons. When stored
correctly as outlined in the 'Plant Operating Manual' Volume 1 (07.02.02), foam compound
has an indefinite shelf life. Provided that exposure of the foam compound to the atmosphere
is kept to a minimum, a storage life in excess of 10 years should be possible. High
temperatures and excessive contact with the air will shorten shelf life.
Storage recommendations are summarised below:
Optimum Storage Conditions

(i)
In sealed containers as supplied, or in static foam tanks with a small air space above
the foam compound.
(ii)
At a temperature of 21C or less.
Other Storage Conditions

(i)
Prolonged storage at temperatures up to 40C is acceptable but may reduce foam

life.
(ii)
Temperatures of 50C are permissible for short periods of a few months, but are too
high for long-term storage.
(iii)
Temperatures above 50C should be avoided.
The temperatures quoted relate to the foam compound, not the air. Daytime air temperatures
in some tropical climates may exceed 50C, but a bulk liquid store will not reach this value
because average ambient temperatures over a 24-hour period are lower than this.
Bulk Foam Storage Tanks

Mild steel storage tanks can be used without incidence of serious corrosion; for extra
protection an epoxy or bitumen coating may be applied. Mild steel pipework and valves are
recommended. Internally galvanised components or light alloy fittings in contact with mild
steel, which may result in precipitation in the compound or corrosion of the alloy, should be
avoided.
Static Foam-tank Design

The aim in bulk foam storage-tank design is to minimise the foam compound surface area in
direct contact with air, in order to slow evaporation and surface oxidation. Tanks without
expansion domes are unsatisfactory.
Fittings required include:
-
an inspection hatch and air vent
a filling connection with cap and dipstick
an outlet at least 30mm above the base of the tank
Handling of Foam in Storage

(i)
Circulation of foam compound in tanks should be avoided because agitation may

cause foaming, sludge formation and precipitation.
(ii)
To minimise frothing when filling or topping-up bulk storage tanks, foam compound
should be introduced below the liquid surface.
(iii)
Open vents on a vehicle foam-tank compartments will not increase deterioration of

foam compound significantly.
(iv)
Nitrogen purging may be used to exclude oxygen above the stored compound and
prevent oxidation. However, this is expensive and not necessary with modern
compounds, and it will not significantly increase storage life.
APPENDIX 10.04.02 - SIMPLE FIELD TEST FOR EVALUATING PROTEIN/FLUOROPROTEIN

FOAM COMPOUND
Protein-based fire fighting foam compounds will gradually deteriorate during long-term
storage. Naturally some form of testing is desirable to confirm the efficiency of the product
and samples of the compound should be returned to the original supplier for laboratory
testing. However, where this is not possible or practicable the simple test procedure
described below will establish whether the foam compound will meet the minimum standards
acceptable or whether it should be discarded.
Storage life
Maximum storage life is obtained when the foam compound is kept cool (below 21C) in its
original sealed container or in a full storage tank with an expansion dome and vent to
minimise the surface of the compound in contact with the air (see Appendix 10.04.01).
Storage conditions, temperature cycle and the original quality of the foam can affect the
storage life which can vary between a few years to over 20 years.
After some years of storage it is desirable to test whether the compound will still perform
efficiently. A one litre sample of the compound (preferably drawn from the middle of the tank
or number of containers, and taking care to clear any pipelines and remove sludge before the
sample is drawn) should be sent to the original suppliers for examination in their laboratories.
Appropriate testing will establish if the foam:
Is up to specification
Has deteriorated somewhat but is still acceptable.
Has deteriorated significantly and should not be retained for fire protection.
Simple field test

Where a suitable laboratory is not available or sending samples may not be practicable then
the following field test should be used to establish whether the foam compound will perform
to the minimum standards acceptable should be discarded. The test is not meant to replace
laboratory evaluation but it will provide a fairly quick on-site method of assessing foam
quality.
A company with stocks of compound which are over five years old or of unknown quality is
recommended to carry out tests to ensure that the foam compound is still effective.
In the test, foam is produced with standard fire fighting equipment and samples are collected
in a clean open - top 200 - litre metal drum or similar container. The compound's ability to
produce foam of acceptable expansion is then measured indicating its stability.
During the development of the test procedure, trials were carried out using Angus foam
making branch pipes (F225S and F225 with IND 225 in-line foam inductor). However, the test
procedure is valid with other makes of equipment provided the expansion rate produced by
the branch pipe used is taken into account. Most branch pipes produce a foam expansion
seven to ten times the solution volume and a minimum value of six times has been used in
the calculation printed below.
Test procedure
The test should be carried out in cool conditions with water and air temperatures as near to
10C as possible. (In hot climates an early morning test is most likely to provide acceptable
temperature conditions.)
An empty metal drum with a splash board is set up against a wall as shown in Figure 1. The
pressure gauge should be as near the upstream of the branch pipe as possible. If a foam
inductor is used this must be located upstream of the pressure gauge and not between the
gauge and the branch pipe (see Figure 2). If an Angus variable foam inductor is used it
should be set at a four percent pick-up, no setting is necessary for normal pick-up tubes.
The branch pipe should be held approximately 10 to 15 metres from the splash board. With
the water supply connected, the flow is adjusted to give a reading of 5 bar on the pressure
gauge. The pick-up tube is placed in the foam sample and foam is produced for a few
seconds before directing the foam stream at the splash board so that the foam falls into the
empty metal container. As soon as the container is full the foam stream is moved away and
the splash board is used as a scraper to remove the excess foam to give a level filling of the
container.
The splash board is then placed as a cover over the open top and the drum is left in the
shade. After 30 minutes the cover is removed and the distance from the top of the container
to the foam level is measured. The cover is replaced and the drum is left to stand for a
further three and a half hours at the end of that time the liquid collected at the bottom of the
container is poured into a calibrated vessel and the volume of liquid collected is noted. Any
expanded foam still present should be ignored. The liquid can be scooped out with a small
container or poured out provided that none is lost. An alternative method would be to use the
drum upside down with the bottom cut out and remove the liquid either through the bung or
by fitting a small tap.
Calculating results
(a) Foam stability
The distance from the top of the container to the foam level should not be more than ten
per cent of the total depth of the container i.e.:
Distance measured x 100
Depth of container
foam stability (maximum value 10)
(b) Foam expansion

The foam expansion value should be a minimum of six. From the internal diameter (d)
and height (h) both in millimetres, calculate the volume of the container, i.e.:
d2 h
4 10 6
volume of container in litres
(c) Specimen calculation

Height of container
870 mm
Diameter of container
580 mm
Drop in foam level after 30 minutes
80 mm
Volume of solution after four hours
34 litres
Volume of vessel
870 580 2
4000000
230 litres
Stability
80 100
870
9.2 per cent
Expansion
230
34
6.8
(d) Conclusion
The sample is satisfactory.
Recommendation
PETRONAS companies holding stocks of protein and fluoroprotein foam compound of
doubtful or unknown quality are recommended to carry out this test as soon as possible.
Where problems arise it might be useful to test fresh samples of the same make of
compound and compare results of tests on old samples of the same make of compound and
compare results of tests on old samples of compound as an indication of whether correct test
procedure has been carried out.
If the test results are well within the limits given, further testing in two or three years time
should suffice. If results are only marginally adequate it may be advisable to check annually.
In order to minimise costs and gain the most benefit from the exercise it may be appropriate
to run the test as part of a fire fighting training session or practice.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2

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PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

SHELL MARKETING SAFETY CODE

PETRONAS and its affiliates.

SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION

GENERAL SAFETY PRACTICES

HEALTH AND PROTECTION

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS, HAZARDOUS AREAS AND STATIC ELECTRICITY

LAYOUT AND DESIGN FEATURES

INSTALLATION AND DEPOT OPERATIONS

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR (INCLUDING TANK CLEANING PROCEDURES

SAFE PRACTICE IN SPECIALISED OPERATIONS

SAFE PRACTICE FOR RETAIL OUTLETS AND CONSUMER FACILITIES

FIRE PROTECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GASES

SAFETY AUDITS AND INSPECTIONS

FIRE PROTECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FIRE PROTECTION

FIRE EMERGENCY PLANNING

Emergency Plans, Drill and Training

FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

Hand and Mobile Extinguishers

Water Supply, Fire Mains and Hydrant Systems

Fire Hoses and Accessories

Road and Rail Loading Facilities

Wharves and Jetties

Fires involving Electrical Equipment

Protection of Computer Facilities

Fires Involving Chemical Products

Fires Involving Class III Products

Fire Alarms and Emergency Calls

Foam and Water Monitors

Floating Roof Tanks

Base Injection of Foam for Storage Tanks

Recommended Scale of Fire Fighting Equipment

Recommended 'First aid' Fire Extinguishers

Inspection and Testing of Fire Extinguishers

Chubb Mobile PD 150 Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher

Chubb Mobile Foam Units

Flow Rates from Fire Hose Nozzles

Pressure Loss in Fire Hoses

Hydrant-fed Fire Fighting Equipment

Typical Foam-generating Fire Fighting Equipment

Typical Foam Compound Induction

Typical Mechanical Foam Generators

Foam Chute with Staggered Openings inside Tank

Base Injection of Foam (Folded Hose System)

Chubb 'Jetmaster' Portable Mechanical Foam/Water Monitor

Distribution of Foam and Circulation of Tank Contents for

Fixed Base Injection System - Inductors and Generators

Fixed Base Injection System - Inductors and Generators

Fixed Base Injection System Generators separated from

Fixed Base Injection System Generators separated from

Fixed Base Injection System Generators separated from

Semi-fixed Base Injection System

Angus Fire Armour High-Back-Pressure Generators

Chubb Big 10, 20 and 30 Base Injection Foam Generators

Chubb 'Jetmaster' Mechanical Foam Monitor with Adaptor

Angus Variable Foam Inductors

Tank Inlet for Base Injection of Foam Base

Base Injection - Design and Equipment

Alternative Tank Inlet arrangements using single inlet and

FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS

Dry Chemical Powders