PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

MANUAL

INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS

PART 6 - PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

PTS 20.158F
JUNE 1993

PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :
1)
2)
3)

PETRONAS and its affiliates.

Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.

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INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS

Part 6
SECTION 09.00.00 - PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS MANUAL
Section List
Part 1

Section 00.00.00

Introduction

Section 01.00.00

Master Development Planning

Section 02.00.00

Construction Projects

Part 2

Section 03.00.00

Sites and Layouts

Part 3

Section 04.00.00

Building and Civil Engineering

Section 05.00.00

Tanks and Pressure Vessels

Part 4

Section 06.00.00

Pipelines

Part 5

Section 07.00.00

The Design Of Berthing Facilities for Tankers and Small Craft

Section 08.00.00

Heating and Insulation

Part 6

Section 09.00.00

Plant and Equipment

Part 7

Section 10.00.00

Utilities

Section 11.00.00

Mechanical Handling

Section 12.00.00

Maintenance and Workshops

Section 13.00.00

General Services

Section 14.00.00

Chemicals Handling

Part 9

Section 15.00.00

Fire Protection

Part 10

Section 16.00.00

Electrical and Static Electricity Hazards

Section 17.00.00

Bibliography

Part 8

INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS

CONTENTS
09.00.00.

PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

09.01.00

PRODUCT PUMPS

09.01.01

General Considerations

09.01.02

Selection and Design Features of Pumps

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

09.01.03.

Centrifugal Pumps (for use with products or water):

Rotary Pumps (for use with products only):
Special Products and Purposes
Design Data References

Pump Suction/Inlet Conditions

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Effect of Temperature
Cavitation
Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

09.01.04.

Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps

09.01.05.

Pump Power Requirements and Flow Rate Relationship

09.01.06.

Pump Location
(a)
(b)

Electric Motor-driven Pumps:

Compression-ignition (CI) Engine-driven pump sets: Fixed and portable

09.01.07.

Pump Installation

09.01.08

Pump Control

09.01.09

Individual Pump Capacities

09.01.10

Pump and Motor Specification

09.02.00

LOADING AND UNLOADING FACILITIES FOR ROAD AND RAIL VEHICLES

09.02.01

Introduction

09.02.02

Rail Tank Wagons

09.02.03

Bulk Road Vehicles

09.02.04

Loading by Weight

09.03.00

DRUM/CONTAINER FILLING

09.03.01

References

09.03.02

Handling of Drums and Packages

09.03.03

Drum Filling: Black and White Oils

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

09.03.04

Metal Drums
Plastic Drums
Filling by Positive Displacement Meters
Filling by Weight

Small Packages Filling

(a)
(b)

Metal Containers
Plastic Containers

09.03.05

Re-use of Second-hand Containers

09.04.00

DRUM CLEANING AND RECONDITIONING

09.04.01

Introduction

09.04.02

Types of Drum
(a)
(b)
(c)

09.04.03

All-welded heavy-gauge steel drums

Light-gauge steel drums
Special lightweight drums

Stocks of Empty Drums

09.04.04

Internal Washing

09.04.05

Washing Equipment

09.04.06

Rumbling

09.04.07

Dent Removal

09.04.08

Chimb Straightening

09.04.09

Repairs
(a)
(b)

Metal Containers
Plastic Drums

09.04.10.

Testing for Leaks

09.04.11

Cleaning, Repainting and Stencilling

09.04.12

Re-use of Second-hand Containers and Disposal

09.05.00.

STEAM PLANT AND DISTRIBUTION

09.05.01

General Considerations

09.05.02

Types of Steam Boiler

(a)
(b)
(c)

Fire-tube Boiler
Water-tube Boiler
The 'Package' Boiler

09.05.03

Hot Water Boilers

09.05.04

Boiler Capacity

09.05.05

Boiler Feed-water Treatment

09.05.06

Boiler Fuel Supply

(a)
(b)

09.05.07

Steam Distribution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

09.05.08

Fuel Oil
Gas, or Oil/Gas, Fuel
Pipework Costs
Expansion of Pipework (see also 06.04.06)
Condensate and Drainage
Steam Velocity
Steam Traps

Instruments and Controls

(a)
(b)
(c)

Measurement Equipment
Control Equipment
Testing and Maintenance

09.05.09

Safety Equipment and Procedures

09.05.10

Efficiency of Boilers

09.05.11

Boiler Replacement Considerations

09.06.00

AUTOMATED CONTROL OF LOADING

09.06.01

Introduction

09.06.02

Objectives of Automated Loading Systems

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Security
Safety
Date Capture
Productivity

09.06.03

Scope and Methods of Operation

09.06.04

Loading Controls
(a)
(b)
(c)

09.06.05

Security
Grade and Quantity Control
Safety

Demanded Depots

09.06.06

Computer Equipment
(a)
(b)
(c)

Control PCs
Supervisory PC
Electric Cabling

09.07.00

BLENDING AND MIXING EQUIPMENT

09.07.01

References

09.07.02

In-tank Blending

09.07.03

In-line Blending
(a)
(b)
(c)

09.07.04

Blending Fuel Oils

Blending White Oils
Gasoline

Mixing Systems
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Compressed Air
Jet Recirculation
Pump Recirculation
Mechanical Mixing

09.07.05

Additive Injection

09.08.00

PRIME MOVERS

09.08.01

Engine Selection

09.08.02

Engine Rating
(a)
(b)
(c)

09.08.03

Altitude
Air Temperature
Humidity

Engine Location

09.00.00.

PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

09.01.00

PRODUCT PUMPS

09.01.01

General Considerations
Pumps are devices for raising the pressure of liquids and are used for the transport of
liquids through pipes. Pumps are classified in three main groups, as follows:
(i)

Reciprocating: These pumps are of the positive displacement type and will deliver a
certain volume against pressure determined by the pipe system, etc. They are used
for delivering small quantities at high pressure.

(ii)

Rotary: These pumps, e.g. gear and vane types, are also positive displacement types
but generally have a greater clearance leakage than reciprocating pumps and have
lower inertia forces. Rotary pumps are used for small/medium quantities and in view
of the need for lubrication, are particularly suited to oil product duties.

(iii)

Centrifugal: These pumps are entirely dynamic and therefore generate a head, the
volume passing depending upon the pipe system, associated pressure vessels, etc.
Centrifugal and axial flow pumps are used for almost all flow rates and pressures but
in view of their dynamic nature the choice is limited to duties such that the
combination of pressure, quantity and speed results in favourable proportions in the
pump. In consequence single-stage centrifugal pumps are used for the largest
quantities against low and medium heads, and multistage for smaller quantities
against high heads.

The forms of energy affecting the flow of liquids are:

-

Potential head (or positive static head), e.g. height of liquid above the centreline of
the pump;
Pressure head, i.e. the upstream pressure induced in the product by a pump;
Kinetic head, i.e. energy due to velocity.

The main properties of liquids affecting flow and the selection of appropriate pumps, are
density, temperature, vapour pressure, pour point and viscosity. Appendix 09.01.01
summarises average properties of products for quick reference; figures for precise
calculations applying to local products must be obtained from local sales technical
departments.
The flow of fluids in pipelines is the subject of Appendix 06.01.09.
In regard to discharge of tankers into shore tanks, the head-flow relationship for ship and
shore is dealt with in the Plant Operating Manual, Volume 1, Section 02.01.02 (Tanker
Port Performance).

09.01.02.

Selection and Design Features of Pumps

For most installation and depot duties centrifugal or rotary positive-displacement pumps
are recommended because they have smooth flow characteristics, are reliable and easy
to operate.
Centrifugal pumps can be used to pump liquids with viscosities up to 350 centistokes
(mm/s) at the pumping temperature. At viscosities greater than 350 centistokes (mm/s)
rotary positive displacement pumps should be used. Rotary pumps are more efficient on
viscous liquids and require less power for equal performance.
As viscosities increase so do power requirements, until eventually a stage is reached at
which it is more economical to reduce the viscosity of the liquid by heating than to
increase the power supply to the pump, or to reduce the resistance to pumping by
increasing the size of the pipelines. In general this stage is reached at viscosities of
about 900- 1 000 centistokes (mm/s).
The main factors to be considered at the selection stage are duties; type of pump; pump
drive; reliability; standardisation; availability of spare parts; manufacturers and service
arrangements.
(a)

Centrifugal Pumps (for use with products or water):

Figure 09.01.02(1) shows types of centrifugal pump and Appendix 09.01.04
gives the main items involved in estimating the performance of centrifugal
pumps.
A typical data/requisition form is given in Appendix 09.01.08A; recommended
features are as follows:
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
(v)

(vi)
(vii)
(b)

Direct drive from electric motor or CI engine; see Appendix 09.01.09 for
electric motor order and Appendix 09.08.02 for CI engine order form.
Cast iron pump casing. Note: Cast steel casings are available at
considerably higher cost, if required, for greater mechanical strength
(particularly in fire risk situations).
Cast iron impeller unless product service requires different material.
Note: If copper alloys are used, the copper content should be less than 35
per cent for Jet A-1 handling systems.
High-tensile steel shaft.
No relief valve.
Note: A centrifugal pump need not be provided with a bypass to ensure
cooling unless it is to be operated against a closed discharge valve
for periods exceeding two minutes. In the latter case, the outlet of the
relief valve should be connected to the suction pipeline approximately
3 m from the suction connection. A flow rate equivalent to
approximately 5 per cent of maximum flow will ensure adequate
cooling.
Mechanical seals for petroleum products but conventional stuffing box type
seals for water pumps.
When pumping conditions allow, single-stage horizontal split-case or endsuction, depending on the flow rate required, should be selected.

Rotary Pumps (for use with products only):

Figure 09.01.02(2) shows two types (gear and vane) of positive displacement
PUMP.
A typical data/order form is given in Appendix 09.01.09B.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Direct drive or gear drive from electric motor or CI engine.

Cast-iron pump casing (see note under Centrifugal pumps (a)(ii))
Mild-steel impeller or cast-iron gears.
High-tensile steel shaft.
Fitted with a relief valve to pass full flow and preferably back to storage.
(Note: a relief valve integral with the pump is not permitted.)
Mechanical seals.

(c)

Special Products and Purposes

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(iv)
(v)

(d)

'Teepol': positive displacement pumps are required, constructed of

materials such as stainless steels to avoid corrosion; see 14.02.04.
Solvents: centrifugal pumps are normally used; the specification should
allow for PTFE joints and gaskets.
Bitumen: low-speed positive-displacement pumps fitted with heating jackets
are recommended for pumping bitumen and viscous cutbacks; see
Bitumen Manual.
Heavy fuel oils: rotary positive-displacement pumps are normally used; the
viscosities of the fuel oils are reduced, as required, by heating.
3
Fire water pumps: Centrifugal pumps: up to 100 m /h capacity - end suction
3
type: up to 250 m /h - horizontal split casing type. A typical pump
specification is given in Figure 09.01.03. Such pumps are not self-priming
and hence, suction conditions from sea or inland waters need to be
carefully considered. The suction intake should be sized for the maximum
designed flow rate, positioned so as to be always below lowest water/tide
level, and protected from clogging with vegetation or other matter by a
cage-type screen. A foot valve (non-return valve) should be fitted at the
intake but, to ensure a flooded suction, a priming tank may be necessary in
the suction system. To avoid corrosion problems with salt/brackish water in
the hydrant system, consideration should be given to flushing the system
with sweet water after fire exercises and tests. This may be obtained either
from the fresh water supply system or from a water storage tank.

Design Data References

For general pump design purposes reference may be made to national or
international standards such as BS 5257, DIN, NFPA 20, etc.

09.01.03.

Pump Suction/Inlet Conditions

The pressure difference between the absolute pressure of the atmosphere 10.3 m head
of water at sea level and the partial vacuum induced in the pump is available to lift
product a certain height, to overcome frictional losses in the suction pipe and to provide
velocity energy in the inlet passage. The permissible suction lift is limited by vapour
pressure, by gases in the liquid, and the speed of the pump.
Certain pumps may require an inlet pressure greater than atmosphere in order to permit
operation at the designed speed. Suction lift is reduced approximately 1 m for each 1000
m of altitude because of reduced atmospheric pressure.
Inlet problems are more readily solved by referring all pressures and levels to metres
absolute of the liquid handled. Except on very viscous liquids the pressure drop
necessary to induce the designed quantity into the pump (Nett Positive Suction Head,
see (iii) below) may be assumed to have the same value of metres head of liquid as on
the same pump operating on water - see also 09.01.04.
In this context the question of discharge of multi-compartment bulk vehicles needs to be
considered when large capacity pumps in the depot are used for off-loading the vehicles
and plugs of air are induced into the pump system. For operational reasons there is a
good case for installing self-priming pumps (or de-aerating equipment) for discharging
aviation bridging vehicles particularly at airfield depots.
(i)

Effect of Temperature
Increase of temperature reduces the suction lift by the increase of vapour
pressure requiring an inlet pressure above atmospheric pressure in some
cases. It is therefore essential to know the vapour pressure, density and
viscosity at the pumping temperature. Inlet/suction problems are more readily
solved by referring all pressure and levels to metres absolute of the liquid
handled.

(ii)

Cavitation
Cavitation is caused by the reduction of pressure below the saturation pressure
of the liquid handled. The subsequent recondensation of the vapour while
passing through the impeller causes mechanical impact with adverse effects on
the metal. To prevent cavitation, suction conditions (head in the storage vessel,
pipeline design, atmospheric pressure, etc) must be such as to ensure sufficient
residual head at the pump suction flange to overcome the problems mentioned
above. Pipeline planning (including changes in diameter) is discussed in
06.03.02.
(Note: Water generally contains dissolved air and when subjected to a partial
vacuum, the oxygen in the air tends to come out of solution and causes direct
metal corrosion.)

(iii)

Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

A reduction of pressure occurs between the suction branch of the pump and the
impeller inlet, because of:
-

friction loss in the passage,

change of velocity, the impeller inlet velocity being very much greater than
the pump suction branch velocity.

The head required at the pump suction to offset the internal head loss in the
pump and to maintain sufficient pressure to avoid cavitation problems
mentioned under (ii) above, is known as the Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH).
This figure can vary considerably with the type of pump, speed, duty, etc. Actual
data should be obtained from the pump supplier.
To determine the NPSH available (in absolute terms) the following information is
required: it is called for in the data/requisition sheets given in Appendices
09.01.08A and B, and is represented diagrammatically in Figure 09.01.07.
'a'

Head of liquid in metres equal to the atmospheric pressure (1.013 bar at

sea level and correspondingly less at higher altitudes, see Figure
09.01.05) acting on the liquid surface. Alternatively, this may be the
absolute pressure in the suction vessel expressed in height of liquid
column. Note: the pressure acting on the liquid surface may be
atmospheric in the case of an open tank, or vacuum as in the case of a
condenser, or above atmospheric as is the case of a de-aerator.

'b'

Head of liquid in metres equal to the vapour pressure of the product at

the pumping temperature, see Figure 09.01.05.

'c'

Head of liquid in metres equal to the friction loss in the suction pipeline
system at full pumping speed.

'd'

Head of liquid in metres above pump suction, or

'e'

Head of liquid in metres below pump suction

Using the above symbols the NPSH available to overcome the NPSH required is
calculated as follows:
Head in metres = (a + d) - (b + c) when the liquid level is above the pump suction
OR = (a - e) - (b - c) when the liquid level is below the pump suction.
In order to ensure trouble-free operation of pumps there should be at least 1
metre difference between the theoretical NPSH available and the NPSH
required.
A diagrammatic illustration of differential head and NPSH for liquefied petroleum
gases is given in Figure 02.06.01 of the LPG Manual.

09.01.04.

Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps work by imparting energy to liquid in the form of high velocity and this
can be converted to pressure by slowing it down in a suitably shaped casing. If the back
pressure on the pump is high, each particle of liquid requires more energy than if the
back pressure is low; consequently less liquid passes through the pump when back
pressure is high. This characteristic of the centrifugal pumps is important and, for one
given pump speed, the relationship between flow rate and head generated is fixed, as
shown in the diagram (known as the QH curve) below:

When describing a pump, one point - called the specified duty point - is nominated and
the pump capacity given as the flow and head at that point. However, this is only one
point; the pump works equally well at any point along the curve from 'closed valve'
condition on the left to 'very low head' on the right. Such a curve, if drawn on the basis of
volume and head units, applies to all liquids irrespective of densities, provided their
viscosities are roughly the same. The curves are usually drawn for water which is a
convenient test fluid, and are then applicable to most white oils. For example if the pump
3
is handling 500 m /h against a head of 100 m, it will be moving 500 tonnes of sweet
water per hour against 9.8 bar, but if it is pumping gasoline at 0.75 density it will move
only 375 tonnes against 7.3 bar though its performance is unchanged. In this example
the head remains the same at 100 m; for this reason the volume and head units are
preferred in pumping work.
The method of calculating performance of centrifugal pumps is given in Appendix
09.01.04. This includes theoretical considerations of the variation of head, capacity and
power consumption with speed, from which expressions QH curves can be derived from
the original curve, showing the output at other speeds.

09.01.05.

Pump Power Requirements and Flow Rate Relationship

Pump efficiency is determined for various operating considerations and plotted as a
curve showing the pump efficiency at varying flow rates. The point of maximum efficiency
should coincide with the specified duty point of the pump.
The graphs shown in Figure 09.01.06 indicate the power (kW) required at a pump
coupling for pumping liquids of different viscosities using pumps of different overall
efficiencies. The true relationship between viscosity and pumping efficiency is complex
and varies from one pump to another, so a simple approximation for estimating purposes
is given below. The quoted viscosities of 370 centistokes (mm/s) and 1000 centistokes
(mm/s) respectively, should not be exceeded for general service pumps.
Types of Pump

Overall Pumping Efficiency

Rotary Positive displacement e.g.

gear, vane types, etc.

Above 80% for white oils, falling uniformly to

60/65% at a viscosity of 1000 centistokes (mm/s)

Centrifugal

Above 70% for water and white oils, falling

uniformly to 40/45% at a viscosity of 370
centistokes (mm/s)

The power required (brake power) for pumping can be determined from the equation
given in Appendix 09.01.04 under 'Power Consumption'. As discussed in 09.01.04, the
specified duty point of a pump is not necessarily the theoretical maximum output of the
pump and hence, it may be desirable for the power output of the driving unit to be able to
accommodate the whole range of the pump flow curve. For example, in cases where
there is no method of flow control or flow limiters downstream of the pump, the output will
follow the curve until a hydraulic balance is achieved. With a centrifugal pump this could
mean an output of anything up to 150% of the duty flow rate with a corresponding
increase in power requirement. Therefore to accommodate possible overload conditions
and to avoid burnt-out motors, it is advisable to select motors which are suitable for the
whole range of the pump flow curve.
When a reliable electricity supply is available, pumps driven by electric motors are
recommended. Power ratings for standard electric motors is given in the Electrical
Engineering Guidelines for Marketing Facilities, Section 5.5. The types of starting for
electric motors, e.g. direct-online, auto-transformer, etc, are discussed in Appendix VIII
of the same manual.
In general, for marketing installations and depots, direct-online (DOL) starting of motors
should be the first choice. The reason is that the initial cost of the motor is less than for
other systems, and so are the costs of installation. Subsequent maintenance costs are
also less. However, some electricity supply authorities do not permit DOL, or they restrict
its use to small size motors. Usually it depends on the capacity of the source of supply of
the electricity since a direct-online starter may impose a starting current of up to 7 times
the full-load current of the motor.
The alternative system is to use star-delta motors which have a much lower starting
current requirement. This type of motor can be readily converted to DOL starting if
required. It is impractical to convert a DOL motor to star-delta. It is essential that
PETRONAS verify with the local electricity authority the mode of starting that is acceptable
before ordering electrical motors.
Engine-driven pumps should only be used when it is uneconomical or impossible to use
electric motors, subject to the provisos in 09.01.06 below. As a general rule, the pump
and driving unit should be on a combined bed plate; this form of construction is easier to
install and there is less likelihood of misalignment. However, if space is limited vertical
close-coupled (in line) pumps should be used.

09.01.06.

Pump Location
Pump suction pipelines should be as short as practicable and arranged in accordance
with Section 06.03.04. Pump delivery pipelines are discussed in 06.03.05.
(a)

Electric Motor-driven Pumps:

(i)

Fixed installations
The type of electric motor is governed by the classification of the area
where a pump is positioned. Open-sided pump houses are preferable
and would normally be classified Zone 2 (see Section 03.04.00)
provided product leakage - for instance from seals - or escape of vapour
does not occur under normal operation.
If pumps are in a closed pumphouse there must be adequate
ventilation, and either motors are separated from pumps by a vapourtight wall (including shaft seals) from floor to floor, or the motor and
associated electrics must be flame/explosion proof, i.e. suitable for
Zone 1. Starters should preferably be located in safe areas; if this is not
possible flame/explosion proof equipment must be provided. Remote
start/stop buttons must be of a design suitable for the classification of
the area of location.

(ii)

Portable pumps
These pumps should not be located inside tank bunds since they are a
potential hazard, see Section 03.09.01.

(b)

Compression-ignition (CI) Engine-driven pump sets: Fixed and portable

The requirements for protecting CI engines in hazardous areas are given in
Section 03.09.01. Similarly to (a) portable CI engine pump sets should not be
used in tank bunds.

09.01.07.

Pump Installation
Pumping units should be set on a concrete foundation prepared in accordance with the
maker's foundation plan. Steel wedges should be used to set the unit in position, and a
spirit level should be used to check that the pump is level before the foundation bolts are
grouted in. When the grout has set, the foundation bolts should be provisionally
tightened and the level rechecked. Alignment of the pump and motor shafts should also
be checked by means of a dial gauge and adjusted as required.
The suction and delivery connections must be properly supported to prevent distortion of
the pump frame or casing. The effects of thermal expansion in the piping should be
taken into account as this can also exert sufficient force to distort the casing and disturb
shaft alignment, see 06.01.03. Stainless steel bellows should be used as joints in order
to prevent undue stress on the pump connections; in normal circumstances this should
not be necessary unless the piping layout is restricted.

09.01.08.

Pump Control
The different systems and equipment available for the operation of pump drives are as
follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Push-button remote control for starting and stopping.

Automatic control.
Grouped and coordinated control.

Each control system is confined to the method of switching on and switching off the
pump machinery; see Electrical Engineering Guidelines for Marketing Facilities.
The most commonly used and recommended system for large loading facilities requires
the product lines to be pressurised. As soon as the demand for product is made (a valve
is opened at the delivery point) pressure in the line falls and a pressure switch - sensing
the pressure drop - signals the motor starter to start the pump. When flow is stopped the
pump drive is switched off. A leak-tight non-return valve must be fitted at the pump outlet
to maintain pressure in the line.
The operation of a pump emergency shut-down button at the pump platform, vehicle
loading bay or at other locations should trip the main contactor/isolator/breaker on the
pump starter board, stopping all pumps immediately. When flow is stopped the pump
drive is switched off. Re-engagement of the main contactor/isolator/breaker after the
emergency stop should be possible only by an authorised person, using a key, and only
after an investigation into the reason for the shut-down.

09.01.09.

Individual Pump Capacities

Pumping requirements in the form of numbers of pumps, and their performances
(output/head) for loading, unloading, inter-tank transfer, etc, should be determined from
the analysis of the total workloads established by the Master Development Plan (see
01.00.03). General guidelines for the capacity of individual pumping units are given in the
following table.
Reference should also be made to Section 16.04.00 for possible restrictions on loading
rates, e.g. switch loading.
Service

Capacity
l/min

m /h

Bulk loading, road (4-inch diameter system)

2330*

140*

Bulk loading, rail (small demand)

2500

150

Drum filling

500

30

Marine Bunkers - fuel oils

8300

500

Marine Bunkers - diesel fuel

5000

300

Marine Bunkers - gas oil

2500

150

* where no static restrictions apply: normal loading rates; maximum 7 m/s through 4-inch
3
system, i.e. 205 m /h.
In systems where a pump supplies product through more than one meter, metering
equipment must be protected by flow control valves; for details of meters and ancillary
equipment see the Oil Measurement and Product Conservation Manual.
For higher loading rates, pumps operating in parallel are recommended. When
centrifugal pumps are required for parallel operation the suitability of the pumps for this
duty should be checked with the suppliers and non-return valves should be installed on
the delivery side of each pump. Such pumping systems should use the same type and
make of pump.
09.01.10.

Pump and Motor Specification

Typical PETRONAS data/order forms are shown in the following references:
Appendix 09.01.08A: Centrifugal pumps
Appendix 09.01.08B : Rotary pumps
Appendix 09.01.09 : Electric motors
Appendix 09.08.02 : Compression Ignition engines
Order forms should be completed with as much data as is available locally so that the
company buyer (or local agent) will have adequate information on the material required.
It is important to note that selection of standard equipment is advantageous in respect of
cost, spare parts availability, delivery time, and maintenance. Variations to standard
equipment specifications - for example positioning of suction and discharge connections
on pumps - which may appear to be desirable but which are not strictly necessary, may
inhibit the buyer's choice of equipment and, in most cases, results in a higher purchase
price.

APPENDIX 09.01.01
PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS (excluding lubricants)

FIGURE 09.01.02
CENTRIFUGAL AND POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

FIGURE 09.01.03
TYPICAL HORIZONTAL SPLIT CASING CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SPECIFICATION FOR FIRE WATER
SUPPLY (WORTHINGTON SIMPSON)

APPENDIX 09.01.04
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS: PERFORMANCE ESTIMATES
Centrifugal pumps are usually operated at constant speed, and they deliver a constant smooth flow of
liquid at a certain head in equilibrium with the resistance to flow in the pipeline.
The height to which the liquid is raised depends mainly on the acceleration imparted by the rotating
impeller. This acceleration is expressed by the relation
a=

V2
where
r

a = acceleration (m/s)
V = linear velocity at the periphery of the impeller (m/s)
r = radius of the impeller (m)
The head developed by the pump is therefore independent of the liquid density although differential
pressure is directly proportional to the density. Consequently, a centrifugal pump will deliver liquid butane
with a density of about 0.5 at the same head as a very viscous liquid with a density of say, 1.5, but in the
latter case the differential pressure - expressed in bar is 1.5/0.5 = 3 times as high. It follows that in this
case the power required is also 3 times as high.
The performance curve of a pump shows the variation of differential head with discharge capacity at a
constant speed. From theoretical considerations of the variation of head, capacity and power
consumption with speed the following rules apply:
(i)

Discharge Capacity Q (m/h) varies directly with speed n (rev/min):

Q 1 n12
=
Q 2 n2
(ii)

Differential Head H (m) varies directly with the square of the speed n:

H1 n12
=
H2 n 22
(iii)

Power Consumption N (kW) varies directly with the cube of the speed n (rev/min):

N1 n13
=
N2 n 32
These rules apply exactly for conditions of optimum efficiency and by approximation for other working
points.
The derivation of the Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is given in 09.01.03.
The NPSH available should always be greater than the NPSH stated as being required by the pump
manufacturer. The NPSH required is a function of the physical dimensions of the pump chamber and of
the speed and type of impeller.

Example 1
3

A cooling-water self-priming pump for sea water with a capacity of 300 m /h is placed in such a way that
at low tide the water level is 4 m below the centreline of the pump. The density of the sea water is 1.03,
and the vapour pressure under the prevailing conditions 0.05 bar absolute. If the friction loss in the
suction line is 0.4 m, then the NPSH available is :
(a - e) (b + c) (see 09.01.03)
OR

1 x 10.3
0.05 x 10.3

4
+ 0.4 = 6 0.9 = 5.1 m of sea water
103

.
103
.

Power Consumption
The power consumption N is determined from the relation N=
Where :

kW

m /h

(rho)=

Q. H.
C. e.

relative density of liquid

efficiency of pump

362 the constant for flow in m /h

Example 2
The example shown in Figure 09.01.06 can be calculated as follows :
N=

180 x 50 x 0.8
= 24.86 kW
362 x 0.8

= say 25 kW

FIGURE 09.01.05
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - ALTITUDE AND TRUE VAPOUR
PRESSURE - TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 09.01.06
POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PUMPING

FIGURE 09.01.07
DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF NPSH

APPENDIX 09.01.08A

APPENDIX 09.01.8B

APPENDIX 09.01.09

09.02.00.

LOADING AND UNLOADING FACILITIES FOR ROAD AND RAIL VEHICLES

09.02.01

Introduction
This Section concerns loading and unloading of bulk road and rail transport units; it
comprises in the main, references to complementary manuals. The workload in the form
of requirements for loading of road and rail vehicles - by product - should be established
from the plant master development plan, see 01.01.02.
Facilities for special products are dealt with as follows:
Lubricating Oil

Specific Lubricating Oil Blending Plant Operations

Manuals

Bitumen

Bitumen Manual and Volume 4 of the Plant

Operating Manual

Liquefied Petroleum Gases

LPG Manual and Volume 3 of the Plant Operating

Manual

Chemicals

Section 14.00.00 of this manual, and SICC/SICM

manuals (see Bibliography 17.00.00).

Features which require consideration are:

09.02.02.

(i)

In all cases, and irrespective of product and activity (loading/unloading), facilities

must include a readily accessible means of stopping product flow quickly in
emergency. This is a mandatory safety requirement.

(ii)

Vapour recovery systems for volatile products are dealt with in a comprehensive
joint MF/MK study (MOR 860) entitled 'Hydrocarbon Vapour Retention in Product
Distribution'.

(iii)

All meters on loading systems should be protected by a strainer. Air eliminators

need not be provided if the liquid in the tank is above the pump suction. Meters
and metering installations are dealt with in the Oil Measurement and Product
Conservation Manual.

(iv)

Where provision is (or is likely to be) required for automated loading control, or
simply data capture from flow meters, arrangements must be made for
appropriate cable conduits, see Section 10.01.04.

Rail Tank Waggons

Information concerning the selection and design of facilities for rail tank waggon (RTW)
loading and discharging is given in the Loading and Discharging Manual - Rail. The
precautions and procedures to be observed when loading products in RTWs is dealt with
in Section 02.06.00 of the Plant Operation Manual, Volume 1. The following comments
summarise some of the main items to be considered:
(i)

When planning facilities for loading/unloading rail tank waggons consideration

should be given to providing either sufficient bays for the maximum number to be
accommodated, or a few bays with facilities for moving waggons.

(ii)

The economic loading rate will depend upon local conditions and solutions
should be based on consideration of all the factors involved as shown in Section
01.01.02 of the Loading and Discharging Manual-Rail.

(iii)

Discharging flow rates and manning assessment should be established from

data given in Section 01.02.02 of the Loading and Discharging Manual - Rail.

(iv)

The choice between top and bottom filling will depend upon local conditions,
loading demand, area available, etc, as discussed in 01.01.02 of the Loading
and Discharging Manual - Rail.

(v)

Measurement arrangements and equipment are discussed in Section 02.01.03

bottom loading and Sections 02.02.04/02.03.05 top loading, respectively, of the
Loading and Discharging Manual - Rail.
Where the number of rail tank waggons to be filled per day is small, a trolleymounted meter, as shown in Figure 09.02.01, may be used to reduce capital
expenditure on meters and to cut down the movement of waggons at filling
points.

(vi)

Hoses are usually the simplest and most economical way of making connections
to waggons fitted with bottom connections or internal pipes.

(vii)

When filling from the top the fill pipe must extend to the bottom of the tank for
Class I and Class II products to ensure sub-surface filling. This is a safety
requirement to minimise the hazard of static charging, see Section 16.04.00.
Sub-surface filling also reduces vapour loss when loading volatile products.

(viii)

Loading pumps should be controlled by remote start/stop buttons at the loading

points.

(ix)

Discharging systems are discussed in Section 03.00.00 of the Loading and

Discharging Manual - Rail.
Sight-flow glasses installed in the system at each discharge point will clearly
indicate when RTWs are empty (not for black oils).
In some areas consideration may have to be given to making provision for
preventing movement of RTWs while loading or unloading lines are connected;
any system may include a 'Breakaway' feature such as a special intermediate
coupling.

09.02.03.

Bulk Road Vehicles

Information concerning facilities for top and bottom loading of bulk road vehicles is given
in the Loading and Discharging - Road Manual Loading Facilities for Bulk Road
Vehicles; the relative merits of top and bottom loading systems are discussed in Section
06.00.06 therein. Drive-through type loading bays are recommended. Care must be
exercised in allocating adequate area for arrival, waiting, safety distances, and departure
of the largest (foreseen) types of bulk vehicle, see Figures 10.01.04 and 15.01.05 of the
Loading and Discharge - Road.
For loading bulk vehicles a 4-inch (100 mm) diameter pipework system should be used
in the loading bays, as follows:
(a)

Top Loading
4-inch (100 mm) articulated counter-balanced arms are recommended.

(b)

Bottom Loading
Hoses suspended from overhead product lines and fitted with self-sealing
couplings, are recommended. However, as these hoses are kept full of products
they become unwieldy or too heavy to handle in any size over 3 inches (75 mm).
To offset this problem, it is acceptable to reduce the diameter of the final short
length of hose or pipe by one size without affecting the calculated safe loading
rates, provided that the total length of the reduced diameter (including piping on
the vehicle) is not more than 10 metres. For example, if a 4-inch product handling
system (pipeline, meters, etc) was installed it would be acceptable for a 3-inch
hose to be used provided the length of 3-inch equipment (hose and any vehicle
piping) is not greater than 10 metres. In these circumstances, the safe loading
rate - as defined in Section 16.04.00 - may still be calculated based on the 4inch diameter line system.
The reduced diameter acceptable for the loading hose facilitates the bottom
loading operation by permitting the use of smaller, lighter and easier-to-handle
equipment which, in turn, facilitates simultaneous loading through two or three
separate lines into separate compartments and reduces the total time the vehicle
spends in the loading bay, see Section 06.00.03 of the procedures of the
Loading and Discharge Manual - Road.
Bottom loading is recommended when a vapour recovery system is installed.
Discharge procedures for road bridging vehicles are discussed in 02.01.04 of the
Plant Operating Manual, Volume 1.

09.02.04.

Loading by Weight
Bulk products such as chemicals, lubricating oils, fuel oils, bitumen and LPG are usually
sold by weight.
Where the majority of loads are of one product only it is possible to use a single weigh
bridge at the depot entrance/exit. The procedure is tare weighing on arrival, loading of
product to ullage indicator(s) in the compartment(s) or through positive displacement
meters, and total vehicle weighing (which establishes the payload) before departure.
Where traffic flow is high, twin weigh bridges - one at the entrance (tare weight) and the
other at the exit (gross weight and therefore load) - can be used, but they must be
checked frequently to ensure there is no discrepancy between them.
Where the majority of road tank vehicles (e.g. chemicals and luboils) load more than one
product/grade - by compartment it is desirable to have a separate weigh bridge at each
loading bay. Similarly for RTWs dedicated weigh bridges can be used in loading bays but
in this case, the tank waggons are invariably of a single compartment type.
Traditional designs of weigh bridge have used mechanical linkages which require deep,
pits and careful maintenance. Load cells are now supplied by most weighbridge
manufacturers and have the advantages of a shallower pit, consistent performance, low
maintenance, long life, and (if required) direct electronic linkage with digital signals to
control operations and/or record data.
Existing mechanical weighbridges can sometimes be converted to load cell operation by
the manufacturers.

FIGURE 09.02.01
TYPICAL TROLLEY MOUNTED METER

09.03.00.

DRUM/CONTAINER FILLING

09.03.01

References
Detailed information on receipt, handling, storage and loading of all packed products and
containers, whether full or empty, is given in the following manuals:

09.03.02.

Plant Operating Manual, Volume 1, Section 03.00.00 Packed Products.

Shell Aviation Quality Control Manual, Sections IV and VI.

Bitumen Manual and Plant Operating Manual, Volume 4, Section 04.00.00.

Chemicals : Packaging Manual and Warehousing for Packed Products.

Handling of Drums and Packages

A large proportion of petroleum and chemical products is marketed in decorated metal
and plastic drums and packages. The condition of these packages when delivered to the
customer is important from a competitive point of view and hence care must be
exercised at all stages of filling and handling in order to avoid damage.
As recommended in 01.01.03 and 04 the detailed planning of each operation should
precede the installation of newly acquired filling equipment, i.e. planning at the design
stage, since bad siting of material, incorrect flow arrangements, or unsuitable equipment
will reduce output and increase manpower requirements.
Recommendations on manual and mechanical handling equipment are given in Section
11.00.00.

09.03.03.

Drum Filling: Black and White Oils

The requirements of drum filling - by product - should be established from the plant
master plan [see 01.01.02(s)], and provides the basis for the selection and layout of
suitable filling, measuring and handling equipment. Some of the design and handling
features which must be taken into account in the selection process are discussed below.
Information on filling of lubricants into drums is given in Specific Lubricating Oil Blending
Plant Operations Manual.
Note: If secondhand drums have to be used for aviation products, (or aviation drums to
be re-used for other purposes), then existing markings must be removed completely
before filling, see also Shell Aviation Quality Control Manual Section IV 5.
A filling time of approximately 45 seconds per drum is within the operating range of
preset repeating meters which are recommended for all products, including fuel oils. This
rate will permit the filling of gas oil/diesel and fuel oils without excess frothing. If more
rapid filling is required with oils liable to froth, it is necessary to extend the filling nozzle to
the bottom of the drum.
(a)

Metal Drums
Safety requirements do not demand sub-surface filling for metal drums, but it is
essential to keep the drum and filling facilities at the same electric potential. This
can be achieved by standing the drums on a metal base which is bonded to the
earthed filling facilities, see Section 16.04.00. However, where such a base
cannot be provided, for example on a packed vehicle body, bonding must be
accomplished by means of a wire and earthing clip or by ensuring that the metal
nozzle, itself bonded to the filling facilities, is in firm and constant contact with
the drum.

(b)

Plastic Drums
If drums made from suitable petroleum-resistant plastic material are to be filled
with white oils, the following additional precautions should be taken to prevent
hazards from static electricity:
(i)

The maximum filling speed should not exceed 100 litres per minute.

(ii)

A metal filling pipe should extend to the bottom of the drum, and should
be electrically continuous with the nozzle and filling facilities.

(iii)

If a microfilter is included in the filling system, sufficient pipeline - or a

relaxation chamber - must be provided to allow a residence time of 50/k
where k = product conductivity in picosiemens/metre. However, if the
products contain ASA-3, an extended residence time is not required, see
Section 16.06.04.

(c)

Filling by Positive Displacement Meters

Typical drum-filling arrangements using preset meters are shown in Figure
09.03.01. An alternative arrangement using meters with trigger-operated hose
nozzles is shown in Figure 09.03.02.
Drum-filling meters should be protected by a line strainer.
Air eliminators are unnecessary if static head conditions in the tanks ensure full
pipelines.
Flow-rate control valves are recommended for drum-filling points when two or
more meters are fed from the same line.

(d)

Filling by Weight
For more viscous products, weight-filling machines are recommended as an
alternative to a meter.
To avoid excessive wear and tear on the mechanism of weight-filling machines
the platform should be set level with the floor or incorporate a short length of
gravity-roller conveyor in conjunction with feed-on and feed-off conveyors.

09.03.04.

Small Package Filling

The requirements of package filling (similarly to drums) - by product - should be
established from the plant master plan [see 01.01.02(s)].
(a)

Metal Containers
The following general recommendations apply to the filling of white and black
oils into metal containers:

(b)

(i)

For 20/25-litre drums, jerricans or tins where throughputs are small, preset
repeating meters capable of filling at a rate of approximately 120/150
container units per hour should be used.

(ii)

For 20/25-litre tins where throughputs are large, rotary volumetric filling
machines with a filling rate of 1500/1600 tins per hour should be used.

Plastic Containers

The same precautions against static electricity hazards as are specified for drum filling in
09.03.03 (a) and (b) above, should be taken when filling metal or plastic containers with
white oils.
Contact with petroleum products and exposure to sunlight (ultra-violet rays) can lead to
some weakening of some plastic materials. Therefore plastic containers should be of an
approved design and material specification - refer to PETRONAS for further details.
09.03.05.

Re-use of Second-hand Containers

When second-hand containers which originally contained petroleum products, lubricants,
etc, are re-used the brand markings must be correct and clear. If a new product is filled
into the container, the old markings must be removed (before the container is filled) and
the new brand markings added.
Containers which have been used for pesticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals
should never be re-used. They should be rendered unusable by puncturing, incineration
or by other means and should be disposed of in a manner which does not permit them to
reach the general public.
Other precautions which must be observed when considering the re-use of second-hand
containers are given in Section 09.04.12.

FIGURE 09.03.01
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SINGLE-LINE TWO-FILLING POINTS FOR DRUM

FIGURE 09.03.02
ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENT OF DRUM FILLING USING POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS
AND TRIGGER-OPERATED HOSE NOZZLES

09.04.00.

DRUM CLEANING AND RECONDITIONING

09.04.01

Introduction
All drums should be clean internally, of sound structure and good appearance.
Therefore, both new and secondhand drums should be inspected and where necessary
washed internally before filling with product.
Whether or not reconditioning of drums should be undertaken by an operating company
or allocated to contractors depends upon local conditions, the number of drums to be
handled, the amount of machinery needed, the degree of mechanisation of the process,
and relative costs. This section considers the main features of the reconditioning process
which must be taken into account in any study of existing methods and future plans.

09.04.02.

Types of Drum
The types of drum most commonly reconditioned are the standard 200-litre and 210-litre
capacity steel drums described below:
(a)

All-welded heavy-gauge steel drums

These are standard heavy gauge drums with all welded seams, usually
constructed from 2.0 mm (14 BG) steel and employed as returnable packages
for gasoline, kerosine and fuel oils. The drums may be lined internally and
painted externally in accordance with the specifications contained in the PETRONAS
Painting and Coating Manual Section 9.4 page 48. For aviation use see: Shell
Aviation Quality Control Manual Section (IV) page iv:4.

(b)

Light-gauge steel drums

These are standard light-gauge drums with double-seamed ends and a welded
body seam. They are usually manufactured for 1.25 mm thickness (18 BG) steel
and are known as 'one trip' or 'non-returnable' drums for lubricating oils and
chemicals; in practice, however, a number of trips can be obtained from these
containers. The number of times drums can be used again depends on local
service conditions, but a planned reconditioning programme and care in handling
will greatly extend their useful life.

(c)

Special lightweight drums

When repurchase and reconditioning is uneconomical and new drums have to
be used, standard thin steel plate or special lightweight drums should be
considered.

09.04.03.

Stocks of Empty Drums

Stocks of new or reconditioned empty drums should be kept to a minimum consistent
with security of supply, and must be used in strict rotation to prevent deterioration. Both
bungs on empty drums must be screwed in tightly for transport or storage. Loose bungs
may result in accumulation of moisture in the drum and internal rusting, caused by
'breathing'. Empty drums received in the plant can often by unloaded directly into the
drum filling conveyor system, thereby avoiding double handling, but conveyors,
structures and a building to carry all empty drums can seldom be justified. Empty drums
are usually stacked horizontally to form a pyramid, each drum resting between the two
drums below to provide stability in a high wind. The bottom row of drums should be
secured by removable or fixed wooden wedges, not stones or bricks.
All drums should undergo a visual examination in order to segregate those which are in
obvious need of repair by welding or are unsuitable for further use, from those which
require cleaning and reconditioning. When drums are returned to a central point for
reconditioning it is recommended that those known to leak are suitable marked at the
point of leakage.

09.04.04.

Internal Washing
The washing medium for internal cleaning varies with the product to be filled into the
drum; the main recommendations are as follows:
PRODUCT

MEDIUM

Aviation gasoline (Avgas)

Gasoline

Aviation turbine fuels, kerosine, motor gasoline and white spirits

Kerosine

Gas oil, diesel and fuel oils

Gas oil

Lubricating oil

Hot spindle oils

09.04.05.

Washing Equipment
Drum washing equipment based on the eductor spray system is recommended. The
drum is positioned on a tilted stand with the large bung at the highest point, and a
combined spray and eductor tube assembly is inserted downwards into the tilted drum.
The washing fluid is sprayed over the whole internal surface at high pressure and then
falls to the lowest point of the drum, where the eductor pipe picks up the fluid together
with any dirt or foreign matter.
A compact single drum washing unit is available to meet the requirements of depots with
a small throughput. By installing a battery of these single units a large throughput may be
allowed for, with the added advantage that the number of units can be increased or
decreased if the volume or throughput changes. The unit is illustrated in Figure 09.04.01
from which it will be seen that in addition to the main eductor spray pipe, a small drain
probe is provided to remove the last drainings from the drum. It is recommended that an
inspection torch (flame proof) should be attached to the drain probe to enable draining
and inspection to be carried out in one operation. The pump for this unit is rated at 135
litres per minute at a pressure of 4 bar; it is driven by 1.5 kW flameproof electric motor.
For single point applications when the unit is used intermittently, a tank of about 450
litres capacity, or two 210-litre drums connected together, is adequate for the washing
fluid. However, for continuous use, a separator tank is recommended. For one or two
units a tank having a capacity of 4 000 litres is suitable, and a tank of 8 000 litres
capacity for three or four units. When separator tanks are employed a coarse screen
should be used in the filter. This allows most of the dirt to pass through the separator
tank, but retains in the filter chamber any large particles which might block the eductor.
For cleaning lubricating oil drums internally, hot spindle oil is a suitable washing medium,
but to maintain a high standard of external finish it is usually necessary to repaint drums
for each trip; for this reason machines in which drums are stripped of old paint and
simultaneously washed internally are frequently employed. A number of machines of this
type are available but all these utilise hot caustic solution for internal and external
cleaning, as described in the PETRONAS Painting and Coating Manual. The cleaning medium
is followed by a wash with clean hot water and the drum is finally air dried. When using
this type of equipment the steam consumption is fairly high; however, as machines are
usually installed as part of the lubricating oil blending plant, sufficient steam is normally
available.
A 4-station steam/vacuum drying unit is shown in Figure 09.04.03.

09.04.06.

Rumbling
When internal scale or other extraneous matter cannot be removed satisfactorily by the
action of the washing machine, the drum can be subjected to a rumbling process.
Rumbling machines are available for handling from one to twelve drums at a time. The
rumbling time required depends on the internal condition of the drum, but with four
lengths of cutting chain, each about 1.2 m long, and a small quantity of kerosine to assist
the chain action, the rumbling time should not exceed 10 minutes.
Figure 09.04.04. shows a 12-station chaining machine.

09.04.07.

Dent Removal
Dents in the body of both light and heavy gauge drums can be removed by water
pressure applied internally, and simple de-denting machines of various designs are
available; an example is shown in Figure 09.04.05A. Basically, these machines consist
of a suitable steel frame into which the drum is clamped in order to restrain the ends and
resist the thrust caused by the water pressure. The maximum pressure required for this
operation is about 7 bar. When this type of equipment is used it may not be necessary to
carry out an air test for leaks at any later stage, as any leaks in the drum will be seen
during the process of dent removal.
A semi-automatic air operated de-denting machine is shown in Figure 09.04.05B.

09.04.08.

Chimb Straightening
Dents and leaks in the chimbs of light gauge drums having double-seamed ends can be
rectified by means of a chimb straightening and sealing machine. It is usually sufficient to
re-roll only those chimbs which are dented or leaking, either one end at a time or both
ends simultaneously; an example of a single-end unit is shown in Figure 09.04.06A. A
type of machine which is fully automatic in operation and requires no operators can be
installed in the line and all light gauge drums pass through it, regardless of the condition
of their chimbs; this machine operates on both ends of the drum simultaneously and
ejects it on completion. An automatic double-end chimb straightening and resealing
machine is shown in Figure 09.04.06.B.

09.04.09.

Repairs
(a)

Metal Containers
Many accidents have occurred because welding, brazing, soldering or cutting
operations, involving the application of heat, have been attempted on containers
- particularly drums - known to have contained flammable liquids, but which have
not been safe for such work. Therefore before any operation involving the
application of heat to any drum or similar vessel is undertaken, it must be
ensured either that no flammable material is present within the vessel, or that
any such material is completely removed by steaming or boiling out before heat
is applied. Steaming is normally carried out by inverting the drum over a lowpressure steam nozzle inserted into the large bung hole. The drum should be
supported in a manner which allows the condensate to drain from the bung hole.
For scrap metal it is often economically impossible to make drums whose
contents are uncertain, adequately 'gas-free', and hence it is much safer to cut
off the ends of the drums by cold cutting.
Other means of repair not involving heat are sometimes possible. For
example,emergency repairs of small leaks can sometimes be carried out with
the aid of cold plastic metal compositions. In certain instances similar types of
repair can be carried out by the use of cold-curing synthetic resins. These are
temporary repairs pending decanting of the liquid.

(b)

Plastic Drums
If reconditioning/cleaning of plastic drums is necessary special precautions must
be taken to prevent a hazardous accumulation of static electricity caused by
pressure jets. Such charges do not dissipate in the nominal way because of the
high resistivity of the plastic material.

09.04.10.

Testing for Leaks

In principle, drums should be tested for leaks before filling them rather than to fill and
afterwards decant faulty drums.
The incidence of leakage is greatest with secondhand light-gauge steel drums and it is
sound practice to test these drums for leaks at the stage of reconditioning immediately
preceding repainting, unless they have been through the dent removal process. The test
is carried out by applying compressed air at a pressure of 0.35 to 0.5 bar to the inside of
the drum while the drum is rotated in a water bath. It is seldom necessary to test new
light-gauge drums, bought-in reconditioned drums, or returned heavy-gauge drums,
except when there is evidence of damage in transit or when drums have been under
repair. Figure 09.04.02 shows a typical connection for air-testing of drums.

09.04.11.

Cleaning, Repainting and Stencilling

The ends of heavy-gauge and other returnable drums should be painted a distinctive
colour to denote the product carried; it is generally necessary to repaint the ends after
each trip. The bodies require repainting only when this is justified by a deterioration in
appearance. The drums should be scrubbed with a wire brush to remove dirt and rust
and must be clean and dry when painted. If spray painting equipment is available a
single coat of quick-drying drum paint should be used, see Paints and Paint Manuals
Section 9; if not, a coat of brushing quality drum paint should be used.
Before repainting a light-gauge lubricating oil drum it is necessary to strip off the existing
paint using a hot caustic soda solution. A method of stripping the paint is to rotate the
drum within a totally enclosed cabinet while the external surfaces are sprayed with the
hot solution for approximately 10 minutes. The spraying is then followed by a hot water
rinse to ensure that all traces of solution for approximately five minutes and then fed into
a wire-brushing machine, which brushes the external surfaces and simultaneously rinses
them with fresh water. Such machines have a capacity of about 60 drums per hour and
the finish obtained is usually better than that achieved from only spraying with hot caustic
solution.
Painting of lubricating oil drums should be carried out by spray application methods,
using quick-drying paint for the work, see Paints and Paint Materials Section 9, so that
stoving plant is not required.
Paint spraying cabinets into which the drum is fed in a horizontal position are available
for throughputs of from 500 to 1000 drums per day. The drum is automatically located on
four conical rollers which rotate at the required speed for paint spraying operations. On
completion of spraying, the drum is ejected in the vertical position onto a gravity roller
conveyor. The conveyor should be long enough to allow the paint to dry sufficiently
before handling.
When the paint is dry, drums should be passed to the stencilling and marking bay. For
drum head markings, silk screen stencils are normally employed.
Information on cleaning and repainting drums, the use off paint spraying equipment an
silk screen stencilling is included in the PETRONAS Painting and Coating Manual.

09.04.12.

Re-use of Secondhand Containers and Disposal

Because of the serious potential consequences of product contamination (e.g. a very
small amount of gasoline can make kerosine lethally explosive) the filling of secondhand
containers must be carefully supervised and controlled. Secondhand containers must not
be filled until it has been ascertained that they are empty. This must be done by means
of inspection probe lamps. Any product remaining in containers must be removed by an
air operated/flameproof eductor system.
Note: Drums/containers to be filled with Class I or Class II (2) Products must not be filled
on the vehicle which is to transport them. They must be removed from vehicles before
filling in order that any leaking containers can be identified and removed, and to prevent
the risk of any product spillage on sub-standard vehicle electrics, exhausts, etc, being
ignited.
When secondhand containers which originally contained petroleum products, lubricants,
etc, are re-used the brand markings must be correct and clear. If a new product is filled,
the old markings must be removed and the new brand markings added.
If plastic containers are refilled, it should be ensured that:
(a)
(b)

(c)

The brand markings for the new products are clear.

The container material or its lining is suitable and safe for use with new the
product. (For example polyethylene is permeable by gasoline and therefore
unsuitable for this product.)
Suitable precautions against generation of static electricity are taken to avoid
any possibility of hazards from a flammable air-vapour mixture, see Section
16.04.00.

Containers which have been used for pesticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals
should never be re-used. They should be rendered unusable by puncturing, incineration
or by other means and should be disposed of in a manner which does not permit them to
reach the general public, see section 14.05.00 and SICC Handling and Safety Manual.
Other containers should be decontaminated (refer PETRONAS for details if
required and all markings removed before selling. Containers which have not yet been
decontaminated should only be disposed of to a recognised reconditioner known to
employ effective and safe processes for the removal or obliteration of labels,
decontamination, cleaning and refurbishing, see Shell Safety Committee publication 'The
Secondary Use of Containers'.

FIGURE 09.04.01
DRUM WASHING AND DRAINAGE UNIT

FIGURE 09.04.02
TYPICAL CONNECTION FOR AIR-TESTING DRUMS

FIGURE 09.04.03
DRUM CLEANING : RHEEM BLAGEN 4-STATION STEAM/VACUUM DRYING EQUIPMENT

FIGURE 09.04.04
RHEEM BLAGEN 12-STATION CHAINING MACHINE FOR REMOVING LIGHT RUST AND SCALE
FROM SURFACES INSIDE DRUMS

FIGURE 09.04.05
A.

B.

WATER PRESSURE DRUM DE-DENTING MACHINE

SEMI AUTOMATIC AIR-OPERATED DRUM DE-DENTING MACHINE

FIGURE 09.04.06
A.

B.

SINGLE-END CHIMB STRAIGHTENING AND RE-SEALING MACHINE

AUTOMATIC DOUBLE-END CHIMB STARIGHTENING AND RE-SEALING MACHINE RHEEM

BLAGEN DRUM CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT

09.05.00.

STEAM PLANT AND DISTRIBUTION

09.05.01

General Considerations
The main requirements for steam at installations and depots are for heating heavy fueloil tankage, and for lubricating-oil blends. However, as 'hot-oil' heating is recommended
for bitumen plants, the advantage of standardising on this form of heating for products
must be evaluated and the conclusions on boiler plant - now and in the future - included
in the plant master development plan.
Local and/or national regulations usually control the design, fabrication, inspection and
testing of boilers. In cases where these do not exist (or are considered to be
inadequate), the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section I or BS5500 should be
applied. The design of boilers must ensure that there is sufficient space and access for
inspection, cleaning, removal and maintenance of fittings.
When there is a danger of freezing during operation or drainage of any part, protection
against such freezing must be provided.
Adequate protection against the hazard of persons touching surfaces hotter than 70 C
must be provided.
Boiler attendants, for either manually or automatically controlled (steam and hot water)
boilers, must be properly trained in the safe operation of such plant, the action to be
taken in emergencies, maintenance, and testing of controls. In some countries they are
required to be certified by and registered with the local Factory Inspectorate.
Recommended operating procedures for Boilers and Heating Plant are given in Section
05.00.00 of the Plant Operating Manual Volume 1. Guidance notes on operation, testing
and maintenance of automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers are given in
Appendix 09.05.02.

09.05.02.

Types of Steam Boiler

Boilers are divided into three types, as follows:
(a)

Fire-tube Boiler
A boiler in which the fluid to be heated is contained in a vessel which may be
directly heated and/or contain tubes in which combustion takes place or through
which products of combustion flow.

(b)

Water-tube Boiler
A boiler in which the heat transfer takes place through the wall of tubes inside
which the fluid to be heated flows or circulates and which are exposed externally
to combustion or products of combustion.

(c)

The 'Package' Boiler

The evolution of modern package boilers has resulted in considerable savings in
space and fitting cost, also in improved efficiency and running costs. The
package boiler is a multitubular shell boiler mounted on a box frame complete
with accessories such as combustion appliances, control panel, feed pump etc,
the whole being factory assembled and easily transportable. On site, all that
needs to be done it to connect the boiler to the services and it can be
commissioned immediately. It is widely used for steam heating requirements.

09.05.03.

Hot Water Boilers

Hot water boilers may be required as a means of ensuring limited heat input for certain
products such as additives and 'Teepol' see 14.02.02.
Water heaters are classified as either low-temperature/low-pressure (up to about 100 C
and 4.5 bar) or high-temperature/high-pressure (say 200 C and 17 bar). The main
advantages of hot water compared with steam are:
(i)

For certain applications the temperature range is more suitable for process.

(ii)

Return condensate lines and their attendant troubles are absent.

(iii)

Being virtually in a closed system there is no evaporation and water treatment

costs are reduced.

(iv)

For a given thermal output the boilers are somewhat smaller.

These boilers have fully flooded systems and normally operate without continuous
supervision; therefore, automatic controls must be provided to ensure safe operation. For
the purpose of detailing standards for automatic controls, the boiler systems can be
divided into four categories, as follows:
A

Static Head Systems open to atmosphere

Closed Pressurised Systems with separate pressurising vessels and provision

for make-up water

Sealed Pressurised Systems with separate pressurising vessels and no provision

for make-up water

System Pressurised by a feed pump and/or static head with provision for makeup water.

The boiler controls and guidance on operating procedures are discussed under 'Hot
Water Boilers' in Appendix 09.05.02.
09.05.04.

Boiler Capacity
The heat requirement of the plant should be determined from the procedures
recommended in 08.00.00.
The boiler plant should have sufficient capacity (when steaming at its most economical
rate) to make good the heat loss from storage tanks and to cover additional requirements
such as raising the temperature of stored oil, supply to suction heaters, space heating,
etc
As a general guide, if the boiler plant has the capacity to make a good full day's heat loss
in a working day, there will normally be sufficient capacity to cover peak-load
requirements.

09.05.05.

Boiler Feed-water Treatment

Water from different sources show wide variations in behaviour when used in boilers. It is
seldom that the water available is suitable for boiler feed without some form of treatment
to counteract the effects of dissolved salts or organic matter which may cause corrosion,
formation of scale, and the deposition of sludge.
The function of a boiler is to transfer heat produced by the combustion of fuel to the
water confined within the boiler in order to generate clean, dry steam under pressure. A
boiler can function efficiently only if the heat transfer surfaces and the other waterways
within the boiler are maintained in a clean and intact condition by proper control of the
quality of the feed water and boiler water.
Virtually all natural waters contain impurities in solution and suspension. When
introduced into the boiler with the make-up water some of these impurities can produce
scale or other deposits which may restrict water circulation or retard the transfer of heat
from the tube wall to the water. In consequence, the metal of the heat transfer surface
may be inadequately cooled and if steps are not taken to remedy this condition the metal
may finally become so hot and weakened that it can no longer withstand the operating
pressure.
Impurities in the feed water and boiler water may also cause corrosion of the metal in
contact with the water unless the quality of the water is adjusted to counteract this effect.
The prevention of scale or deposit requires that all water entering the boiler plant, via the
feed system, must be free from suspended solids, or any substance in solution which
may precipitate as solid by concentration or be formed by reaction with other
constituents in the boiler water. The prevention of corrosion requires that where possible
the aggressive constituents be removed or neutralised before the water enters the feed
system.
In the case of 'once-through' boilers where all of the water entering the boiler is
evaporated and there is no reservoir of water in which dissolved solids may concentrate,
it is essential that the feed water should be completely free from both suspended solids
and dissolved solids.
It is beneficial to recover as much steam condensate as possible from process
equipment provided that it is a suitable quality for re-use as feed water, e.g.
contamination with oils can cause excessive foaming in addition to local overheating and
tube burnout. Filtration of the condensate, or other treatment methods may be required.
Having regard for the significance of the foregoing notes, specialist advice on water
treatment should always be obtained.

09.05.06.

Boiler Fuel Supply

The relative costs and environmental considerations of different fuels, e.g. oil, gas,
oil/gas, etc. must be evaluated when considering selection and design of boiler
equipment at the planning, or replacement of equipment, stage.
(a)

Fuel Oil
The boiler fuel supply should be taken from a small tank located outside the
boiler house and preferably above-ground to ensure gravity flow to the fuel
pump or burner. The capacity of this tank, which can be filled from storage,
should be sufficient for a minimum of three days' steaming.
Fuels which must be heated before burning should not be heated above 60 C
in the feed tank. Any additional heat required to produce the desired velocity at
the burner should be done under pressure in a heater at the boiler. This is
important if the temperature required is near, or above, the flash-point of the oil.
Filters must be installed to protect fuel feed pumps, and burner makers'
recommendations for mesh size should be followed.

(b)

Gas, or Oil/Gas, Fuel

Availability of gas locally will determine whether this form of fuel, independently
or in conjunction with oil fuel, is a viable proposition.
The main advantage of multi-fuel systems, e.g. oil/gas, is the flexibility afforded
to the operator in balancing his fuel usage economically in times of uncertain
supply and varying tariffs.
Recommendations on fuels for heating plant, and fuel economy measures, are
available from PETRONAS. Information is also available in:
MOR.807: Storage, Handling, Preparation and Combustion of heavy residual
fuel oil in West Germany.
MOR.817: Industrial fuel oils and LPG: Properties and useful data.

09.05.07.

Steam Distribution
The ultimate uses of the heat contained in the steam, i.e. heating of products in pipes
and tanks, together with energy conservation considerations, condensate return and
steam traps are discussed in 08.00.00.
The steam mains will normally operate at boiler pressure. Pressures will be reduced
where necessary at the offtake points, e.g. the points of entry to tank heating coils.
The major factors governing the layout of a pipework system are:
(i)

The disposition of other plant to be inter-connected;

(ii)

The relative costs of accommodating and supporting pipework including

anchoring where necessary.

(iii)

Access to valves, pressure-reducing and other equipment which may require

access for operation or maintenance;

(iv)

Whether provision is to be made for expansion;

(v)

Acceptable loading on plant arising from thermal movement of pipework;

(vi)

Provision for drainage;

(vii)

Avoidance of air or vapour locks;

(viii)

Access to pipework joints to ensure their integrity against leakage;

(ix)

Safe design and erection.

Codes of good practice, e.g. BS 3974, give information on typical methods of supporting
steam pipework.

Comments on some of the above factors are as follows:

(a)

Pipework Costs
As a contributor to the total cost of any steam heating installation, the pipework
should be designed so as to keep an economic balance between installation
and operating costs. Whilst there are often major factors governing the location
of the major sections of any plant, one consideration should be the arrangement
of the interconnecting pipework. Erection costs for pipework are often a
disproportionate portion of the pipework total costs compared with those for the
major sections of the plant, therefore ease of erection should be taken into
consideration when determining the pipework arrangement.

(b)

Expansion of Pipework (see also 06.04.06)

Pipework carrying steam or other high-temperature fluids must include provision
for expansion. Carbon and low-alloy steel tubing will expand by approximately
0.13 mm per metre of length for each 10 C temperature increase. In addition,
movement of plant due to temperature changes or other causes may increase
the pipe movement which has to be accommodated.
Provision for expansion is provided to limit the bending and torsional stresses in
the pipework and also the loads and movements imposed by the pipework on
adjoining plant and buildings. Pipework expansion can be accommodated by the
following means:
-

Expansion loops or offset bends formed from the same tubing as used for
the pipework;
Bellows expansion pieces;
Swivel joints; or
Stuffing box expansion pieces.

The first two methods are not subject to any wear and do not normally require
any further attention after installation. The last two methods are based on one
part being allowed to slide over the other, some form of packing being provided
to seal against leaks; provision for the adjustment of the seals must be made.
Once the expansion of the steam pipes has been calculated it should be
decided where the movement is to take place. Fixed anchorage must then be
placed so as to compel the pipe to move in the direction desired. Details of
typical pipe anchorage and guides are shown in Figures 06.04.02 and 06.04.03.
(c)

Condensate and Drainage

It is essential to ensure adequate drainage of steam mains to avoid:
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

The effects of water hammer and erosion by water accelerated to a high

velocity by the steam;
The effects of corrosion fatigue due to the water draining back onto
surfaces where the metal temperature is substantially higher than the
saturation temperature at the operating pressure;
The reduction in heating effect in heat transfer systems by the reduced
area of contact between the steam and the heating surfaces.

It is usual where possible to arrange steam mains with a continuous fall in the
direction of the steam flow. This ensures that drainage is adequate during the
warming-up of the pipework and plant when the steam flow will be low and when
the drainage rate is usually greatest.
Where condensation of the steam occurs during operation, it is necessary to
provide means for the continuous removal of drainage water by automatic mean
such as traps, orifices, etc.
(d)

Steam Velocity
Excessive steam velocity should be avoided as this can cause erosion of the
pipe walls, noisy operation and varying steam pressure at the far end of the line.
Taking account of these considerations, the following table gives a range of
velocities normally used:
Fluid

Service

Velocity (m/s)

Water

Space Heating

2-4

Water

Boiler Feed

3-6

Saturated Steam

30-50

(e)

Steam Traps
These are defined as automatic valves capable of distinguishing between
condensate and live steam, opening to discharge the former but closing to trap
the latter. The difference between condensate and steam is sensed in three
ways: by detecting the difference in density; by reacting to a difference in
temperature; and by relying on the difference in flow characteristics.
The type shown in Figure 09.05.01 is a mechanical steam trap of the bucket
type which operates on the difference in density between condensate and
steam.
Liquid-expansion steam traps (also shown in Figure 09.05.01) are simple and
satisfactory where steam pressures are reasonably steady. They operate over a
temperature range which can be set to suit any given steam pressure, but
variations of steam pressures, and hence temperature, beyond the set range
will result in steam leakage at low pressures, or water-logging at high pressures.
A strainer for trapping pipe scale is required in the inlet line to each steam trap.
If the condensate is being fed back to the boiler house through a closed system,
a sight glass in the outlet is useful.
Traps used in cold climates require protection against frost during shut-down
periods.

09.05.08.

Instruments and Controls

(a)

Measurement Equipment
The safe and efficient use of steam-generating and steam utilising plant requires
accurate and reliable measurement and display equipment; preferably coupled
with some form of automatic control. The main items to be considered are:

(b)

(i)

Flow measurement, e.g. direct actuation of an in-line mechanism.

(ii)

Water level: this may be indicated by visual, mechanical float gauge,

hydrostatic head, or differential pressure means.

(iii)

Pressure: The ultimate control factor in a boiler is the final steam

pressure and hence the measuring equipment must be accurate, safe
and reliable. Pressure is measured as gauge, absolute or differential.
Means of pressure measurement are based on the Bourdon tube or
bellows operated gauge, etc.

(iv)

Temperature: this may be obtained from expansion of fluid in a closed

tube, change in resistance of a metal wire, or a thermocouple.

Control Equipment
There are several common types of control, e.g. on/off (or two position control)
for smaller boilers or where conditions are stable; proportional or modulating
control, proportional plus integral control, etc. The basic requirements for boiler
automatic control are to control firing to meet the load and to feed in water to
match the steam output. The master signal for control is the pressure. A change
in pressure is used to signal for a change of firing rate calling for fuel and air
changes.
The advent of micro-processors will enable more complex and intelligent action
to be taken in response to the changes; and adaptive control will be more readily
achieved.

(c)

Testing and Maintenance

Regular servicing and maintenance by competent personnel are essential to
ensure that controls are kept in good working order, see Appendix 09.05.02
items 10 and 11.

09.05.09.

Safety Equipment and Procedures

Guidance notes regarding operation, testing and maintenance of automatically controlled
steam and hot water boilers are given in Appendix 09.05.02. Item 13 stresses the need
for ensuring that boiler attendants are properly trained in the operation of such plant.
It is necessary to install between a supply boiler and low-pressure vessels, suitable
reducing valves or other appliances. In particular, it is essential that suitable safety valve
equipment is fitted; this must conform with local industrial regulations. Safety valves must
be sized to meet the maximum flow conditions whilst not exceeding a permitted rise
above the working pressure.
All automatic controls incorporate alarms of one form or another, e.g. thermostatic
control with visual/audible warning. Such alarms must be so situated that personnel are
in the vicinity at all times. The controls require testing every day and there must be some
person with sufficient training to carry out the tests; also to attend to the feedwater
treatment, and to keep the boiler and its surroundings clean. Cleanliness is necessary in
all boiler houses, but more particularly with oil or gas firing, in order to minimise the
danger of fire or explosion.
Electrostatic charging can be experienced with steam; in particular, wet steam, or steam
entraining water droplets produces a high rate of charge generation. The risk can be
virtually eliminated by the earthing of all conductors (metal plant and personnel) and,
wherever possible, the use of dry steam.
Starting up from cold must be done systematically and slowly in order to avoid damaging
equipment. It is essential therefore that the start-up and shut-down procedures
recommended by the manufacturer must be carefully followed.

09.05.10.

Efficiency of Boilers
The efficiency of boilers of all types depends upon their combustion performance. Heat is
lost from boilers in several ways:
-

Incomplete combustion
High excess air for combustion
High flue gas temperatures
Heat losses from the boiler shell.

These losses will be minimised by maintaining the equipment in good order and
operating it correctly. Effective boiler maintenance will be ensured by checking the
combustion efficiency frequently by means of portable automatic flue gas analysers.
Means of heat recovery, use of economisers, etc, should only be undertaken after study
and expert advice.
09.05.11.

Boiler Replacement Considerations

An example of the factors involved in boiler replacement proposals is given in Appendix
09.05.03.

FIGURE 09.05.01
TYPICAL STEAM TRAPPING ARRANGEMENTS AND EXPANSION BENDS

APPENDIX 09.05.02
AUTOMATICALLY CONTROLLED STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS
(Extract from UK Health and Safety Executive Guidance note PM5)
STEAM BOILERS
Overheating caused by low water level is the most frequent cause of boiler explosions and other
damage. In many cases this has been caused by lack of adequate supervision or control. Controls were
initially provided as an automatic aid to boiler attendants, but in recent years sophisticated automatic
controls have been provided on industrial boilers to increase boiler efficiency and reduce the amount of
attendance required. Most new industrial boilers are fitted with automatic water level and firing controls.
Experience has shown that the incidence of damage or explosion caused by low water conditions has
been higher pro rata with boilers having fully automatic water level and firing controls than those which
are manually controlled. Analysis of these incidents shows the main causes to be:
'Lack of testing and maintenance of controls an alarms, leading to malfunction; isolation of
control chambers; and occasion inadequate standard of controls'
This Note is intended to draw attention to the causes of damage and explosions and to make
recommendations designed to prevent such occurrences. The recommendations apply to industrial
boilers of the shell and water tube type with a perceptible water level; they may now be wholly applicable
to electrode boilers, coil boilers, boilers which are continually attended or highly rated water tube boilers.
The most common form of water level and firing controls are float operated controls situated outside the
boiler. The floats are housed in chambers which are connected to the steam and water spaces in the
boiler so that the water level in the chambers will be approximately the same as that in the boiler. Water
level controls, low water alarms and fuel firing controls may be incorporated in the same chamber but an
additional chamber, with an independent electrical control circuit and independently connected to the
boiler, is required for an overriding low water alarm and fuel cut-off in the case of full automatically
controlled steam boilers. Float controls can also be of the internally mounted type and the following
recommendations, where applicable, relate equally to this type of control.
1)

Standards for Automatic Controls

Automatic water level controls are of two basic types:
-

2)

controls intended to assist the boiler attendant who constantly supervises the boiler, and
controls intended to replace continuous supervision with occasion supervision.

Isolation of Control Chambers

The isolation of the control chambers caused by the attendant closing and leaving closed, either
the water or steam isolating valves or both, after closing the drain, has resulted in many cases of
damage and explosion from overheating of the boiler brought about by the resulting low water
level.
To prevent isolation of control chambers it is therefore essential that the water isolating valve
cannot be closed unless the drain valve is open. This ensures that, with the drain valve open,
the float will be at the bottom of the chamber thereby cutting off the fuel supply to the boiler. It
will not be possible to relight the boiler under these conditions. Valves are available which
perform this function and allow steam and water connections to be blown independently. They
are usually known as 'sequencing blow down valves' and unless this type of valve is used it will
not be possible to blow independently through the water connection to the control chamber
without the use of a steam isolating valve in the steam line to the control chamber. The
sequencing type of blow down valve, by closing the bottom of the chamber while blowing
through the water connection, averts the damage which may be caused to a float by water
violently entering the chamber when blowing through a water connection with the steam isolating
valve closed.
Isolating valves in steam pipes to control chambers are not always fitted by boiler
manufacturers. When boilers cannot be shut down to enable maintenance to be carried out to
control chambers it is necessary to fit such valves. When they are fitted, they should either be
locked in the open position and the keys kept with a responsible person, or they should be of a
type which cannot be accidentally left closed. When a locked valve is used, a duplicate key
should be kept in a glass fronted cabinet in the boiler house for emergency use.

3)

Pipe Connections
To reduce the possibility of pipe connections to chambers becoming blocked the internal
diameter should be as large as practicable, and in no case less than 25 mm.

4)

Drains
Drains from control chambers should be conveyed to waste through prominently placed
tundishes wherever practicable.

5)

Water Level Gauges

At least one, and preferably two water level gauges should be fitted directly to the boiler shell.
The practice of fitting both water gauges to control chambers has, in the past, contributed to
boiler explosions because of low water. If in such circumstances the control chamber is
inadvertently isolated, the boiler attendant has no means of ascertaining the true water level in
the boiler. This matter should be clarified by the manufacturer.
The minimum recommended requirements for automatic controls for boilers not continuously
supervised are as follows:
(a)

Automatic water level controls. So arranged that they positively control the boiler feed
pumps or regulate the water supply to the boilers and effectively maintain the level of
water in the boiler between certain predetermined limits.

(b)

Automatic firing controls. So arranged that they effectively control the supply of fuel to
the burners of oil or gas fired boilers, or air (and possibly fuel) to solid fuel fired boilers,
and effectively shut off the supply in the event of any one or more of the following
circumstances:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

6)

Flame/pilot flame failure on oil or gas fired boilers. The control should be of the lockout type requiring manual resetting.
Failure to ignite the fuel on oil or gas fired boilers within a predetermined time. The
control should be of the lock-out type requiring manual resetting.
When a predetermined high pressure at or below the safety valve set pressure is
reached.
When the water level falls to a predetermined point below the normal operating
level. This control should also cause an audible alarm to sound.
Failure of forced or induced draught fans, or any automatic flue damper, when
these are provided.

(c)

Independent overriding control. This control should cut off the fuel supply to oil or gas
fired boilers or air (and possibly fuel) to the stokers of solid fuel fire boilers and cause an
audible alarm to sound when the water level in the boiler falls to a predetermined low
water level. The control or its electrical circuit should be so arranged that it has to be reset
by hand before the boiler can be brought back into operation.

(d)

Electrical failure to safety. All electrical equipment for water level and firing controls
should be so designed that faults in the circuits cause the fuel and air supply to the boiler
to be automatically shut-off. Positive means requiring manual resetting should be provided
to cut off the fuel and air supplies to be boiler and should there be a failure of electrical
supply to water level and firing control equipment. All electrical conductors and equipment
in connection with water level and firing controls should be of adequate size, and be
properly insulated and protected to prevent danger including, where necessary, adequate
protection against the ingress of moisture or the effects of high temperature.

Water Supply
To ensure a sufficient feed water supply at all times, an adequately sized pipeline (which should
not be used for any other services) should be fitted direct from the water supply main to the
boiler feed water treatment plant or tank.

7)

Water Treatment
It is essential for the safe operation of a boiler with automatic controls that proper quality feed
water is used. Scale and sludge can cause failure of controls. The recommendations under
'testing of controls' below should ensure, under normal circumstances of good water supply (see
Item 9 of this Appendix), that this does not happen, but regular blowing down will not prevent
scale formation if the feed water comes from a hard untreated supply.

8)

Blowing Down Control Chambers and Water Gauges

The steam and water legs of water gauges should be blown through separately at least once
every eight hours of normal steaming in the case of continuously supervised boilers to ensure
that they are clear and that water gauges are indicating the actual level of water in the boiler. In
other cases at least once a day or once a shift. Similarly, control chamber connections should be
blown through separately at least once a day or once a shift. This is done when the daily test
detailed below is carried out. (Blowing down procedures may differ on high-pressure boilers and
the advice of the manufacturer should be strictly followed.)

9)

Testing of Controls
It is strongly emphasised that the safe operation of an automatically controlled boiler depends on
the correct functioning of its water level and firing controls. Such controls should be regularly
tested to ensure this.
A suitable test procedure for externally mounted float controls fitted with sequencing blow-down
valves is given below. Where controls are not of this type the procedure will have to be modified,
and the advice of the competent person carrying out the statutory examination of the boiler
should be sought on this point.

10)

Daily Operating Test

The following tests should be carried out at least once a day or once a shift under normal
operating conditions by a trained boiler attendant or technician familiar with boiler controls.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

11)

Water level control

Close the water isolating valve to the control chamber and drain the chamber. Check
that the feed water is being automatically supplied to the boiler. Return valve to
operating position.
Firing Controls
With the burner operating, close the water isolating valve to the control chamber and to
the control chamber and drain the chamber. This should automatically cause the alarm
to sound and the fuel and/or air supply to be cut off. Return valve to operating position.
Independent Overriding Control
With the burner operating, close the water isolating valve to the independent overriding
control and drain the chamber. This should automatically cause the alarm to sound and
the fuel and/or air supply to be cut off and locked out to safety. Return valve to operating
position.
Note: The water level control and the firing controls are often in the same chamber
and if so, the two will be checked simultaneously.

Weekly Test
At least once a week the water control should be checked by manually interrupting the feed
supply and lowering the level of water in the boiler by evaporation until the alarm sounds and the
fuel and/or air supply is cut off.
The independent overriding low water control should be checked separately by continuing to
lower the level by gradual blowing down of the boiler until the alarm sounds and the fuel and/or
air supply locks out. After carrying out the daily and weekly tests the person making them should
ensure that the water level is restored and all valves are in the operating position. He should not
leave the boiler until he is satisfied that it is operating normally, remaining at least a further 20
minutes.
(a)

(b)

12)

Records
It is strongly recommended that a record be kept of all periodic tests and quarterly
servicing and maintenance of controls. Advice on a suitable record for the daily and
weekly tests of water gauges and controls can usually be obtained from the boiler maker
or competent person. An example is given at the end of these notes.
Maintenance
Automatic controls should be regularly serviced and maintained by persons having the
necessary competence and facilities for maintaining the particular type of control.
Regular maintenance should be carried out, at least at quarterly intervals. Manufacturers
of automatic control equipment usually provide maintenance contracts for this purpose.

Siting of Alarms
Many cases have occurred where low-water alarms have sounded a warning but have been so
situated that they were not heard, or had only been heard by a person (such as the watchman)
who did not understand the implication or know of the necessary action. When a boiler is not
continuously supervised it is usually not enough to have an alarm on the boiler. Alarms should
be provided at points where they can be heard by persons who are competent to take
appropriate action, see also 09.05.09.

13)

Training of Boiler Attendants

Many cases of damage arising from low-water conditions have been caused by lack of
knowledge of controls on the part of the boiler attendants. Attendants with experience limited to
manually controlled boiler may be unfamiliar with modern automatic boiler controls. Before they
take charge of such boilers it is essential that they should be properly trained in the safe
operation of such plant, the action to be taken in emergencies and to carry out the tests set out
under 'Testing of Controls' above. Most boiler manufacturers provide suitable training facilities.

APPENDIX 09.05.02
HOT WATER BOILERS
Hot water boilers operating without continuous supervision require automatic controls to ensure safe
operation. Minimum standards for such controls are given below. For the purpose of detailing these
standards, fully-flooded boiler systems can be divided into four basic categories:
A

Static Head systems open to pressure

Closed Pressurised systems with separate pressurising vessels and provision for make-up water

Sealed Pressurised systems with separate pressurising vessels and no provision for make-up water

System Pressurised by a feed pump and/or static head with provision for make-up water
Note:

1)

Boilers pressurised by steam are classified as steam boilers and should therefore
generally comply with the requirements for 'Steam boilers' above.

Automatic Controls
All the above categories of fully-flooded hot water boilers should have automatic control
apparatus to cut off the fuel supply to the burners of oil or gas fired plant, or the air (and probably
fuel) supply to the stokers of solid fuel fired plant in the event of one or more of the following
circumstances:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

2)

Flame/pilot. flame failure on oil or gas fired boilers. The control should be of the lock-out
type requiring manual resetting.
Failure to ignite the fuel within a predetermined time on oil or gas fired boilers. The
control should be of the lock-out type requiring manual resetting.
Failure of forced or induced draught fan or automatic flue damper, when these are
provided.
When the water at or near the boiler flow outlet rises to a predetermined temperature
providing a margin of at least 17 C below the temperature of saturated steam
corresponding to the pressure at the highest point of the circulating system above- the
boiler.
When the water level in the pressurising equipment in a category B system falls to a
predetermined level below the normal operating level. The control should also cause an
audible alarm to operate.
When the pressure in a category B, C or D system falls below the specified operating
pressure to a predetermined pressure. This predetermined pressure should be at a level
which will ensure that the water does not reach boiling point in any part of the system
while working temperature is maintained.
When the pressure in a category C system approaches to within 0.35 bar gauge of
safety valve load setting which must not exceed the design pressure of any part of the
system.

Independent Overriding Controls

In addition to the foregoing automatic controls, boilers should be provided with independent
overriding controls which cut off the fuel supply to oil or gas burners, or air (and possibly fuel)
supply to solid fuel stokers when:
(a)

(b)

3)

The water at or near the boiler flow outlet rises to a predetermined temperature
providing a margin of at least 6 C below the temperature of saturated steam
corresponding to the pressure at the highest point of circulating system above the boiler
except that, in the case of boilers fired with solid fuel automatic stokers, the margin
should be least 10 C. The control should be of the lock-out type requiring manual
resetting.
The water level in the pressurising equipment of a category B system falls to a
predetermined level below the level mentioned under 'Automatic Controls' above. The
Control should lock out the firing equipment and should be of a type that requires
manual testing.

Boilers Using Mixing Valves

When mixing valves are used to blend returned water with flow water to serve the heating
system, solid fuel boilers should serve at least one circuit which is independent of the mixing
valve and which is capable of dissipating residual heat in the fuel bed when the mixing valve
closes against the boiler, e.g. during mild weather. Alternatively, a heat dissipation thermostat
should be fitted in the boiler flow line which should override the mixing valve control in the event
of excessive temperature rise.

4)

Capacity of Safety Valves

The total capacity of the safety valves or vents fitted to any boiler system should be sufficient to
discharge the maximum quantity of generated liquid or steam without permitting a rise in
pressure of more than 10 per cent above the safe working pressure when the safety valve(s) are
discharging.

5)

Testing and Maintenance

Owing to the diversity of controls for fully-flooded hot water boilers it is not possible to give
details of testing and maintenance in these notes. The boiler or control manufacturers'
instructions or advice on regular testing should be strictly followed.
In addition, quarterly servicing and maintenance by competent personnel, are essential to
ensure that controls are kept in good working order.

APPENDIX 09.05.03
BOILER REPLACEMENT CALCULATIONS
Two boilers at a PETRONAS marketing installation handling bitumen and fuel oil were approaching the
end of their economical lives. Three solutions were available to management to deal with the situation:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Two new boilers could be installed at a cost of US$ 280 000.

The existing boilers could be overhauled for US$ 100 000.
A few more years' life could be squeezed from the existing boilers by minor repairs costing US$
20 000 per year.

If the last course was adopted there would be no change in fuel efficiency. New boilers would be about
15% more efficient, saving an estimated US$ 100 000 per year on fuel costs. A boiler overhaul was
estimated to give a smaller fuel saving of US$ 35 000 per year, while requiring somewhat more annual
maintenance than new boilers (US$ 4 000 compared with US$ 2 000).
This situation is typical of many fuel saving investments. Comparison of the three options can only be
made by making a full Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) comparison. This is particularly important when, as
in the case of the company concerned, capital allowances are claimable against tax.
Such a calculation was made for these three cases; the results are summarised in the Figure below. It
will be seen that the new boiler option is clearly the most attractive giving a present value (PV) surplus
just below four years, whereas the others show a deficit.
However, further consideration showed that if only one boiler was replaced immediately (at US$ 140
000), a second boiler could be installed in the second year. Furthermore, the application of other energy
conservation measures, i.e. tank top insulation, improved line tracing, 'hot-oil' systems etc, shows that by
that time heating demand could be met with the installation of a smaller boiler; these options are not
shown in Figure 1.
The outcome of the exercise was that only one boiler needed to be replaced in the next year's budget,
thereby reducing immediate capital demand. The example demonstrates that such asset management
calculations are an aid in the selection of different methods of operation, maintenance and replacement,
thereby assisting management decisions.

09.06.00.

AUTOMATED CONTROL OF LOADING

09.06.01

Introduction
Automated control of loading of bulk products into road vehicles, rail waggons, barges
and coastal tankers has been introduced in many plants. Control systems are available
virtually as standard packages - both hardware and software. They should be considered
essential for new depots, or for plants which are being modernised.

09.06.02.

Objectives of Automated Loading Systems

The principal aims are:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

09.06.03.

Security
Accurately to control product loaded and moved in order to
prevent/minimise/isolate product losses; to ensure that only authorised vehicles
and drivers can load, that the correct products and volumes are loaded and that
all activities are logged continuously.
Safety
To improve the safety of loading operations by incorporating interlocks that
automatically prevent/stop product flowing unless all safety precautions are in
operation - particularly those related to static electricity hazards.
Data Capture
To capture data automatically - quickly and accurately as it is generated - in
order to provide accurate records of all the events relating to loading operations
for invoicing, control of exchange deals, stock management and planning (this
will include volumes at standard temperature if temperature probes are
incorporated), and performance control.
Productivity
To improve performance by minimising the manpower involvement in loading
control and on stock management - particularly data capture and calculations.

Scope and Methods of Operation

Depending upon local conditions and needs, a loading control system can be as simple
as an unattended keylock system (i.e. permitting only authorised key or card holders to
draw product and logging all transactions immediately afterwards), or as comprehensive
as a complete control system which is linked with the depot administration system and
which ensures that loading follows a strictly predetermined sequence and measures the
volumes into each compartment.

09.06.04.

Loading Controls
(a)

Security
(i)
Identity Card (ID)
Identity recognition is normally by means of an identify card (ID) which
may be associated with a: company (customer, jobber, other oil
company, etc); vehicle; driver; load for individual trip. The ID card can
either be 'swallowed' by the card reader or returned to the gate office in
exchange for the delivery note).
Such a card can be read to control: access to the depot using a barrier;
similarly, exit from the depot; authority to load, i.e. linked with the control
valves on the loading island and the product pumps; the printer
producing delivery note/gate pass.
The system can store information so that: any card lost by the
authorised user can be locked out; customers whose product quota or
credit limit has been reached can be locked out; cards can be valid for
certain products only; validity checks can be made on the card number
(parity or check digit).
The ID cards themselves should be tough, durable and unaffected by oil
products. Since the card readers are usually sited within a hazardous
area they must be intrinsically safe. The reading of the code is usually
either magnetic or optical.

(ii)

(b)

Vehicle Recognition
A device, can be fitted on each bulk vehicle so that when the bonding
connection is made at the loading bay, the system recognises the
unique coding of the vehicle device. However, this system is only useful
where the majority of vehicles are regularly loaded at the depot - either
company-owned or contractor's vehicles.
Grade and Quantity Control
(i)
Metering equipment
White oils and most black oils are normally measured by means of
positive displacement or turbine meters. These are well proven and are
accepted by most statutory authorities as accurate devices - subject to
regular checks and calibration to maintain their accuracy.
For data capture the preferred method is to replace the mechanical
computer with an electronic pulse unit. The latter may also be used to
control the whole loading operation, i.e. to preset quantities via the
gantry control system and use the pulses to initiate the control of the
slow flow and shut-off. Apart from eliminating the problem of
discrepancies this approach has the advantage of enabling all meter
adjustments to be made electronically, i.e. by feeding in a meter factor
update (under key control). Also the system can linearise the meter
output over its full operating range and allow compensation for changes
in the viscosity of the product being handled.
It may be desirable to have an electronic display panel visible to the
driver; this would take the place of the read-out head on the meter
stack-up and would show the countdown of litres loaded. Being in a
hazardous zone it must be explosion proof or intrinsically safe, and the
actual display must be easily readable in full daylight.
In all cases (to satisfy Customs and Excise regulations) the pulse unit
must generate and transmit dual pulses; these are compared
continuously and if any discrepancy arises the system must stop the
flow and send a warning message.
(ii)
Temperature Measurement
The temperature of the product being loaded can be measured
accurately (to say 0.1 C) by means of a platinum resistance probe
inserted in the product supply line close to the loading bays. The
loading control system polls the probes (and all the other
instrumentation devices) at regular intervals and can therefore relate the
temperature to the volume flowing through the meter, in order to
calculate the average temperature and then the volume at standard
temperature. While it may be neither necessary nor desirable to deliver
and invoice products at standard temperature to ordinary customers, it
is usually necessary for supplying other oil companies, e.g. exchange
deals, and is of course essential for accurate stock control.
(iii)
Valve Control
Having recognised at the loading bay the driver, vehicle or load, and
after the safety interlocks have been satisfied, the system should
release the inhibition of one or more of the meters to supply only the
appropriate product or products. Then the flow of product can be started
(solenoid valve open and pump started) and the pulse unit on the meter
will transmit signals to the system to record the volume metered.
Depending on the requirements and on the design, the system will
either:
- Monitor the loading i.e. record the volume after the event: this leaves
the complete responsibility with the driver to fill his bulk vehicle
correctly - with or without a preset mechanism on the meters, or
- Control the quantity taken: in this case the system presets the
volume automatically, having related the loading instructions to the
bulk vehicle being loaded. The driver will be told the total quantity of
a single product load, or total quantity by product and by
compartment.

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(c)

Weighbridges
Where the majority of bulk vehicles for luboils, or chemicals, load more
than one product/grade (by compartment), it is desirable to have a
separate weigh bridge at each loading bay. Such an arrangement
enables loading control to be automated. Accurate weights can be
predetermined and preset so vehicles are not overloaded and liable to
infringe traffic regulations.
Where the majority of loads are of a single product, and where efficient
and duplicated overfill prevention devices can be used on all bulk
vehicles, then it is possible to use a single weigh bridge at the depot
entrance/exit to capture the loading data after fill. Clearly this is a much
cheaper solution but is only suitable where the scale of the operation
and the traffic flow is not too great. Twin weighbridges - one at the
entrance (tare weight) and the other at the exit (gross weight and
therefore load) - can be used but have to be checked frequently to
ensure there is no discrepancy between them.
For rail tank waggons, dedicated weighbridges at each loading bay can
be used in the same way as for road vehicles above.
Additive Injection
The number of additives necessary for injecting into products, and
therefore into loading arms, depends on PETRONAS's needs and on
product drawing arrangements with competitors. The control system
must be able to select the additives for each loading arm on the basis of
the product required for the company/customer taking the particular
load, i.e. deriving the instruction from the system's customer file.
Product Returns
If a bulk vehicle equipped with a meter returns to the depot with some
product, the quantity remaining can be deduced and entered into the
administrative system so that the appropriate volume of the same
product can be loaded on top. However, if the tank contents on the
vehicle are not metered, any returns (other than full compartments)
have to be pumped back into depot storage - preferably at a special
unloading bay under the control of the gantry control system. Returned
product must either be pumped into the appropriate storage tank or via
an intermediate storage system; it must not be pumped into the product
delivery lines because of the hazard of air entrainment.

Safety
In some plants there are existing interlock systems linked to the flow control
covering earth bonding and/or overfill prevention; if the equipment is in good
condition the control can be incorporated into most forms of automated loading
systems.
All interlocks should be permissive, i.e. when satisfied they allow the solenoid
product control valve to open and the pump to start, and all must be designed to
fail safe.
It is essential that the sequence of work for the driver in any automated loading
control system should be exactly the same as that followed under a manual
operation which is correctly carried out.
(i)
Earth Bonding
In every case it is essential to have an interlock to ensure that the
vehicle tank is effectively bonded to the loading equipment by means of
a cable and a connection - preferably a well-designed plug and socket. It
is advisable to have the socket facing aft on the vehicle, so that if no
warning light is fitted and if the vehicle moves off without first removing
the bond, the plug can at least pull out.
(ii)
System Operating
Product flow should be stopped if for any reason the computer
controlling the system ceases to operate. For power failures the system
should shut-down in a safe condition and the battery back-up should
provide power to retain all data already collected by the system. If
mechanical presets and meter read-outs are retained it is possible to
switch over and operate a system manually under strict supervision.

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

Quantity Cut-off
Filling the correct quantity of product into a tank (or compartment) is
normally arranged through a preset positive displacement meter. The
provision of a ticket printer on the meter improves security if the
sequence of tickets is checked at the end of the shift. Irrespective of the
method of controlling loading, there should always be at least two
independent devices/methods to initiate the cut-off of product flow.
The addition of electronic-pulsing equipment to the meter enables data
to be automatically recorded and, as it is received in sequence, it
provides an automatic record and identification of all loadings.
Overfill Prevention Devices (See the Loading and Discharging Road Manual Loading Facilities for Bulk Road Vehicles 19.00.00)
These must be fitted to vehicles loaded through bottom outlet(s). If fitted
to top filling vehicles it permits two compartments to be loaded at the
same time. Where fitted, the overfill prevention device must be linked to
the product authority valve or safety lock system so that if the device is
not operating, product flow will be stopped.
Top Loading - Loading Arm Position
Interlocks should be fitted to ensure that the left/right proximity switches
confirm that the arm is on the same side as the card reader that has
been used (to prove that the correct vehicle is being loaded).
To confirm that the arm is fully down in the compartment, either a
pneumatically-operated or a mercury switch should be interlocked to
prove that the arm is fully down; therefore it prevents splash loading and
minimises the electrostatic hazard.
Top Loading - Access Bridge
An interlocked proximity switch can ensure that the access bridge from
the gantry platform to the vehicle is down while the vehicle is loading.
Opening this switch can also be used to indicate the end of the filling
operation.
Bottom Loading - Filling Arm Position
A proximity switch can indicate when the filling arm is correctly stowed
after loading is complete. The exit traffic signal (if installed) can only go
green after all the arms are stowed.
Vapour Recovery Connection
The correct positioning of the vapour recovery connection (where used)
can be ensured by an interlocked proximity switch.
Some Additional Control Features
As an additional safeguard, traffic lights - linked with the control system may be installed at the entrance and/or exit of each loading bay;
however, this is only likely to be justifiable for bottom loading. The entry
light should only go green when the bay is vacant and the loading
equipment is in satisfactory working order - the exit light should only go
green when the loading operation is complete, the loading arms/hoses
stowed, and the earthing bond disconnected.
An automatic barrier may also be used to augment the exit traffic light,
but would be obstructive should an occasional bulk vehicle come with a
trailer needing separate positioning for loading. The height of a barrier
should relate to the level of the driver's line of vision from a typical
vehicle cab.
Electrical Equipment
All electrics must be manufactured and certified for use in the particular
environment according to area classification requirements for explosive
gas atmospheres; specifically, loading islands are classified in Zone 1
and all electrical equipment must be flame/explosion-proof or intrinsically
safe.

(xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

09.06.05.

Emergency Stop Controls

Clearly marked and easily accessible emergency stop buttons should be
fitted at each end of bottom loading islands; for top loading they should
be at each end of the working platform at the top of the stairways (also
at mid-point of long gantry platforms, see the Loading and Discharging
Manual - Road 23.00.02). The emergency buttons should stop all
pumps, shut all solenoid control valves and set off the alarm signals.
Communication Between Office and Loading Bays
Amplifier equipment can be provided on the loading islands so that there
can be a dialogue between the dispatch office and the driver when
necessary. If provided, it must be certified safe for use in a hazardous
area.
Product Temperatures (if required)
Data can be generated by sensors in the product lines either at or
adjacent to the loading facilities. An accuracy to 0.1 C should be
specified. Temperature is not normally required for calculating volumes
at standard temperature for individual loads, but it is used for
aggregating totals for stock management.

Demanned Depots
When dealing with local authorities it is important to stress that such depots are only
unmanned when they are inactive; otherwise a responsible person is always in charge
whenever product is flowing - a driver filling his bulk vehicle, or an operator/supervisor
replenishing the depot tanks.
Self-service controlled by keylock systems using mechanical or electro-mechanical
equipment is well proven. The latest equipment is based on electronic systems in
modular form and service experience indicates that this method will become more
important.
In principle, keylocks can be fitted to any bulk metering system; however, experience is
mainly confined to handling of gas oils (heating oils and automotive fuel) and kerosine.
Electronic systems have the advantages that they may be read remotely, so that the
loading data can be summoned over a telecommunication system by a central computer.

09.06.06.

Computer Equipment
(a)

Control PCs
Modern loading control systems usually rely on computers to achieve the actual
process control of the operation. Each filling point may have its own controlling
computer (usually on a single-printed circuit board) or a number of points may be
controlled by one PC. The actual location of the computer depends on the
manufacturer's design; if intrinsically safe or housed in an approved
explosion/flameproof enclosure, they can be put on or near the loading gantry or
filling point - in that case they can be located with, for example, remote electronic
read-out and control heads for the meters, gantry card readers, etc. In this case
the computer acts as a multiplexor and simplifies the cabling to and from the
loading bays.
In other systems, the control computer may be grouped in a safe area - usually
in the office building alongside any other computing equipment. The
disadvantage of this layout is that either every pulse unit, temperature probe,
interlock and proximity switch has to be wired individually back from the loading
area to the office building, or a multiplexing device has to be added it the loading
area.

(b)

(c)

Supervisory PC
The individual loading control PCs are usually instructed by a single master
computer, which acts as the input device for the dispatcher and as the data
collector from the loading controllers. In large systems this supervisory PC may
be duplicated to minimise the hazard of computer failure. The supervisory PC is
usually located in the plant office and typically has disk storage for holding
permanent files order/loading instructions and the data on completed loads and
meter totals. Its peripherals include one or more VDUs for input or interrogation,
a logging printer and, depending on the system design, it may have printers for
producing loading instructions and/or delivery notes/invoices. An example of this
approach is shown as a line diagram in Figure 09.06.01; this system has given
satisfactory service for some years.
In an integrated system the supervisory PC is linked to the depot ordertaking/administrative system. This link enables the order-taking system to down
load order data into the supervisory PC, and so minimises the need for manual
input with its risk of errors. If the link is designed for 2-way operation,, the
supervisory PC can feed back the data on completed loadings to the
administrative system. Most of the end of day routines - back-up printing of
reports and transmission of data - can be done automatically at a specified time
of day or night; the log on printer should report successful completion or highlight
any problems for investigation or action next day. One system, which only has a
very simple printer connected to its PC uses one of the depot administrative
system's full-width printers to print its summaries and reports overnight.
Electric Cabling
Where power cables and signal cables have to be routed in the same direction it
is important to have the signal cables sheathed and led in separate conduits or
ducts from the power cables. This is particularly important for the cables from the
meter pulse units, as otherwise they could pick up spurious pulses. Further
information on cabling requirements is given in Section 10.01.04.

FIGURE 09.06.01
COMPUTER CONTROL OF BULK VEHICLE LOADING

09.07.00.

BLENDING AND MIXING EQUIPMENT

09.07.01.

References
Blending methods and equipment are designed to suit the components of the blending
operation and to achieve the right mix. Recommendations for particular products are
given in the following manuals:
-

Specific Lubricating Oil Blending Plant Operating Manuals.

Bitumen Facilities, also Plant Operating Manual, Volume 4
Safe Handling Procedures in Pesticide Formulation Plants: Parts I and II: SICM
Plant Operating Manual, Volume 1, Section 02.03.00
Additive Injection: Loading Facilities for Bulk Road Vehicles 18.00.09
Additive Injection: Rail Tank Waggon Loading and Discharging 06.07.00

Guidance on the choice of, and attachments for, positive displacement meters is given in
Section 06.02.00 of the Oil Measurement and Product Conservation Manual.
09.07.02.

In-tank Blending
In this method the components of the blend are pumped into the blending tank and then
agitated to obtain a homogeneous mixture. A bulk component can be measured either:
(i)
(ii)

In the tank, by means of tank dip or contents gauge,

By means of positive displacement flow meters.

The components are agitated in the blending tank by mechanical stirrers; alternatively,
and subject to the restrictions noted in 09.07.04 below, by blowing with compressed air
or recirculating the oil through a jet nozzle.
09.07.03.

In-line Blending
In this method all components must be pumped simultaneously. The rate of flow of each
component is controlled automatically, so that the proportions of the components in the
delivery line from the blending unit are correct. A mechanical mixer may be incorporated
in the delivery line.
Direct in-line blending of grades needed regularly, e.g. industrial and marine fuel oils,
into bulk rail or road vehicles, or into ships, can be economically feasible because
samples can be taken from the transport unit's tanks and tested/approved before
transporting the product.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Blending Fuel Oils

For blending intermediate grades of fuel oils from fuel and diesel, or gas oils
direct into ships' bunker tanks, an in-line blender is recommended - such as the
mobile blender shown in Figure 09.07.01, or the fixed type blending unit shown
in Figure 09.07.02 - in 3-inch, 6-inch and 8-inch sizes as required.
Figure 09.07.03 is a diagrammatic layout of the Fisher in-line blender, including
operating instructions.
Blending White Oils
Although blending of white oils is normally carried out at the supply point, in
some countries it may be necessary for PETRONAS companies to prepare
alcohol/methanol/gasoline blends at installations and depots. The methods in
use are:
(i)
In-line blending: an example of a Fisher blending valve is shown in
Figure 09.07.04. (Note: This valve is designed for blending non-viscous
products and is not recommended for fuel oils.)
(ii)
Jet-blending in the tank: see 09.07.04(b). In this application for Class I
products, the level of the liquid must be kept above the point at which
the jet stream could penetrate the surface of the product and cause
splashing. The level of about 2/3 tank height is suggested depending
upon the design and position of the jet orifice.
Gasoline
Tetra-ethyl Lead (TEL) is rarely blended with gasoline at installations and
depots. However, when special conditions require it all safety precautions given
in the Associated Ethyl Company's Octel Handbook must be closely followed
throughout every stage of the operation.

09.07.04.

Mixing Systems
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Compressed Air
This system must not be used for blending low-flash or volatile components of a
mix and is undesirable for heated products. Its advantages of simplicity and
cleanness are particularly suited to blending of lubricants.
Jet Recirculation
In this method oil is drawn from the bottom of the tank and returned through a
small diameter jet nozzle at high velocity towards the surface of the oil. The
nozzle is positioned so that a jet of liquid is directed across the diameter of the
tank. It is widely used in lub oil blending plants.
While this method can be used for Class I products it is essential to ensure that
the jet stream does not penetrate the liquid surface and cause splashing i.e. the
tank should be at least 2/3 full.
Pump Recirculation
This system is widely used for minimising sludge build-up in fuel oil tanks; also
when blends incorporate low-flash or volatile products.
Mechanical Mixing
Electric motor-driven stirrers fitted with propeller, paddle or turbine heads are
used for mixing liquids.
Side-entry mixers (MESC 43.55.70 and as shown in Figure 09.07.05) are fitted
in storage tanks for either:
(i)
Blending or homogenising of components and products - including
bitumen, or
(ii)
Control of tank bottom deposits such as sludge i.e. to create a
movement so that solids are kept in suspension. This ensures that all
the tank contents remain pumpable, which minimises tank corrosion and
laborious/costly tank cleaning.
Side-entry mixers have the ability to blend safety at most normal product heights
in the tank. Floating covers in tanks fitted with side-entry mixers should have
sufficiently long legs to prevent them fouling the mixer when in their lowest
positions.

09.07.05.

Additive Injection
Many products loaded into road and rail vehicles require additives to be incorporated
during the loading operation; moreover some products may require different additives in
different proportions for different customers - with additive quantities required ranging
from less than 1 ppm (part per million) for anti-static additive, up to 4 000 ppm for
gasoline additives.
The most satisfactory method of incorporating additives is to inject them into the product
pipeline just upstream of the meter, for example see Figure 09.07.06A and B, in the
exact proportion required. To achieve this, the injection pump should be synchronised
with the meter, either using a direct or geared drive mechanism or, preferably, a system
by which the injector is operated by signals sent from the meter, e.g. electrical or
pneumatic pulses.
If a simple manual method is required, additive quantities can be calculated by the
operator loading the vehicle, measured into a beaker for each compartment and added
to the vehicle before loading starts. Such methods are slow and liable to error, and are
not recommended where additive injection is required regularly.
When additive is to be injected using electric pulse transmitters or pneumatic
transmitters fitted to the meters, an electric supply (conforming with area classification
requirements), or air supply to the additive proportioner, must be provided. Such a
system requires delivery of additive at a pressure at least 50% above the product
pressure in the pipeline, and an additive pressurisation or pumping system will therefore
be needed.
To enable fixed additive injection systems to be calibrated without interrupting deliveries,
a calibrated container should be installed in the additive supply line, with a changeover
valve system to enable the container to be filled from the additive supply before
connecting to the injection pump; simultaneously isolating the mainline additive supply to
the injector pump.
Additive supply tanks installed at the loading bays should be sited to avoid obstruction of
working areas, and to avoid problems which might arise from the properties of the
additive, i.e. corrosive vapours, class of product, etc. The tank mounting arrangements
should be adequately protected in case of fire.
Facilities for filling additive tanks from bulk vehicles or drums should be located so that
normal vehicle loading operations are not delayed or obstructed. Alternatively, the
additive supply system should have sufficient capacity for replenishment to be delayed
until slack periods.

FIGURE 09.07.01
FISHER MOBILE IN-LINE BLENDER FOR FUEL OILS

FIGURE 09.07.02
FISHER FIXED IN-LINE BLENDER FOR FUEL OILS

FIGURE 09.07.03
FISHER BLENDING UNIT OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

FIGURE 09.07.04
FISHER IN-LINE BLENDING VALVE FOR WHITE OILS

FIGURE 09.07.05
STORAGE TANK SIDE ENTRY MIXER INSTALLATION

FIGURE 09.07.06A
AVERY-HARDOLL IN-LINE ADDITIVE INJECTOR
TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF IN-LINE INJECTION

TABLE OF ADDITIVE RATIOS

FIGURE 09.07.06B
AVERY-HARDOLL METER WITH IN-LINE ADDITIVE INJECTOR

09.08.00.

PRIME MOVERS

09.08.01

Engine Selection
If it is uneconomical to use the local electrical supply, or to generate electricity to meet
power requirements, compression-ignition (CI) engines are recommended for driving
plant and equipment such as generators, pumps, compressors and welding sets. As
there are many suitable makes of CI engines available for general installation and depot
duties, availability of spare parts, after-sales service and cost become the most important
considerations when selecting an engine.
For all normal operating requirements, multi-cylinder vertical or 'V' type, naturally
aspirated (or turbo-charged or turbo-intercooled), medium-speed engines are
recommended for direct coupling to pumps, generators, etc. Engines of up to about 200
kW will meet most installation and depot requirements and within this range air-cooled or
radiator-cooled engines are recommended.
Air-cooling has advantages, but the noise level which is higher than a water-cooled
engine, may be disturbing if the engine is located near an office or residential area.

09.08.02.

Engine Rating
Engines are usually rated by the brake power they produce at their operating speed for a
given period of time under specified atmospheric conditions. The effects of atmospheric
conditions on the performance of CI engines are important in two respects:
(i)
(ii)

In correcting engine performance for the effect of change of altitude (site rating).
In correcting engine performance, measured at a given site, to standard
atmospheric conditions.

In the first case the operator is generally concerned with corrections on a basis of
constant exhaust smoke density, whereas in the second case he is concerned with a
basis of constant fuel delivery.
Existing methods for correcting CI engine performance vary widely and, when applied to
constant fuel rate conditions, tend to be complex. Correction methods for different
altitudes, air temperatures and humidity have tended to be empirical and rough guidelines on the reduction of power which may be expected with naturally aspirated engines
are as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Altitude
Approximately 3% per 300 m of altitude above 150 m
Air Temperature
Approximately 3% per 10 C above 30 C
humidity
Percentage derating is approximately as follows:
Air Temperature
C

30

40

50

30
35

% HUMIDITY
60

70

80

90

100

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.4

0.2

0.9

1.6

2.2

2.9

3.6

4.2

40

0.3

1.2

2.1

3.0

3.0

4.8

5.7

6.6

45

1.1

2.3

3.5

4.7

5.9

7.1

50

201

307

503

6.9

Notwithstanding the foregoing, in order to ensure that engine equipment is

suitable for the operating conditions it is essential that the information which
should be supplied by the customer, and the information offered by the engine
maker, is comprehensive. To this end Appendix 09.08.01 lists the main items to
be considered by the customer, and the performance data which should be
submitted by the manufacturer.
A typical PETRONAS Data/Requisition Sheet for internal combustion engines is
given in Appendix 09.08.02.

09.08.03.

Engine Location
Small engines of up to 75 kW which are easily moved, can be provided with a
weatherproof casing and located in the open. Large engines which are not readily
moveable may require separate weather protection. Where climatic conditions permit,
open-sided buildings are recommended.
CI engines with electric starters may be used to drive gasoline pumps, provided that the
engine and pump are located in the open or in an open-sided building, and at the
recommended safety distances from tanks, filling points, fixed sources of ignition, etc;
otherwise air starters must be used. The requirements for protecting CI engines for
operation in hazardous areas are given in Section 03.09.01.

APPENDIX 09.08.01
SPECIFICATION OF PRIME MOVERS
1)

INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY THE CUSTOMER

The Customer shall supply the following information:
(a)

Site conditions
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

2)

Site barometric pressure (highest and lowest readings available; if no pressure

data are available, the altitude above sea level).
The monthly mean minimum and maximum air temperatures during the hottest
and coldest months of the year.
The highest and lowest ambient air temperatures around the engine.
The relative humidity (or alternatively the water vapour pressure or the wet and
dry bulb temperature) ruling at the maximum temperature conditions.
The maximum and minimum temperatures of the cooling water available.

(b)

Whether the engine is to comply with the requirements of any classification society or
with special requirements.

(c)

The probable period for which the engine will be running continuously, and the duration
of maximum and minimum load.

(d)

The specification and lower calorific value of the fuel available.

(e)

Any other information appropriate to the particular engine application, e.g. the preferred
method of cooling and starting, whether air is generally clean or dust/sand contaminated,
etc.

INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY THE ENGINE MAKER

The engine maker (or his agent) should be requested to supply the following information:
(i)

The declared powers

(ii)

The corresponding crankshaft and output shaft speeds

(iii)

The direction of rotation

(iv)

The number and arrangement of cylinders

(v)

Whether the engine is two-stroke of four-stroke, naturally aspirated, mechanically

pressure charged or turbocharged and whether with or without charge air cooler.

(vi)

The quantity of air required for the operation of the engine for:
-

Combustion and scavenging

Cooling and ventilation

(vii)

The method of starting, apparatus supplied and additional apparatus required

(viii)

The type and grade of lubricating oil(s) recommended

(ix)

The type of governing, with speed drop if required

-

If for variable speed duties, the working speed range and the idling speed.
If necessary, the critical speed range should be indicated.

(x)

The method of cooling and the capacity of the cooling system with the rates of oil and
water circulation

(xi)

For air-cooled engines only; whether hot air discharge ducting can be fitted

(xii)

A schedule of recommended maintenance and overhaul periods; special tools;

recommended spare parts (if not available locally)

(xiii)

Specifications and lower calorific values of fuels recommended

(xiv)

Maximum permissible back-pressure in the exhaust system and the maximum

permissible intake depression.

(xv)

Any other information appropriate to the particular engine application.

APPENDIX 09.08.02
DATA/REQUISITION : CI ENGINES