Open Channel Flow & Uniform Flow

I. Introduction
Open channel flow:
flow of liquid in a
conduit in which the
upper surface of the
liquid is in contact
with the atmosphere.

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1.1. Type of open channel

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 Channels are classified also as:

Rigid boundary channel : the channel boundary is not
deformable.
=> y changes Q
Loose boundary channels: the channel boundary
undergoes deformation > scour & deposition of
sediment.
=> y, width, slope & plan of channel change Q

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1.2. Elements of the channel section

1. Depth of flow, y: vertical
distance from the channel
bottom to the free surface.
2. Depth of flow section,
h:depth of flow normal to
the direction of flow.
3. Top width, T or B:width at
the free surface.
4. Flow area, A :crosssectional area of the flow
normal to the direction of
flow.
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5. Wetted perimeter, Pw : across a channel section,

the length of the channel surface in contact with
water.
6. Hydraulic Radius, R: ratio of the flow area to the
wetted perimeter.
7. Hydraulic depth, D: ratio of the flow area to the
top width.

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1.3. Channel Geometry

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5. Classification of open channel flow

Open-channel flow can be classified as
follows:
o Steady or unsteady
o Uniform or equilibrium
o Gradually varied or rapidly varied
o Spatially varied

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=o

when =0

Steady flow when

Uniform flow

Uniform steady flow when =0 and =0

Varied steady flow when 0 =0

Varied unsteady flow when 0 and

The flow is spatially varied when

0

Rapidly varying flow depth change is rapid

Gradually varying flow depth change is gradual.

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 Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance

near the obstacle.
Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger
distances and usually connects UF and RVF.

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Steady non-uniform flow in a channel

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1.6. State of flow

Viscosity and gravity affect the state of flow in an open channel.

Viscosity Effect
Reynolds number (Ratio of inertia force to viscous force)

Re: Reynolds number (-)

V: mean velocity of flow (m/s)
R: Hydraulic radius A/P (m)

: kinematic viscosity of water

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(m

/s)

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 < 500 laminar flow ( dominating viscous force)

> 2000 turbulent flow (weak viscous force)
500 < < 2000 transitional flow (weak viscous force)

Gravity Effect
Froude number(Ratio of inertia force to gravity force)

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 Fro: Froude number (-)

V: mean velocity of flow (m/s)
D: Hydraulic depth / (m)

=1 critical flow
Fr < 1 subcritical / tranquil flow (low velocity)
> 1 supercritical / shooting flow (high velocity)

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1.7. Velocity profile

The velocity distribution in an open channel

flow is quite non uniform
because of :
Non uniform shear stress along the
wetted perimeter,
Presence of free surface on which
the shear stress is zero.
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2. Total head at a cross section

Total head at a cross section:

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Where:
H = total head
Z = elevation of the channel

=y=

the vertical depth of flow

(provided that pressure distribution is hydrostatic)

2
=
2

velocity head

= velocity coefficient is used to account non uniformity of the velocity

distribution when using average velocity.

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 varies from 1.05 (for uniform cross-sections) to 1.2 (non

uniform sections).
For turbulent flow in artificial channels
= 1.15, usually assumed to be = 1
For turbulent flow in natural channels
2.0, Should be considered in computations
For natural channels, a common method to estimate :

Weighted mean velocity:

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A channel section divided into three sections

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3. Specific Energy
Specific energy = energy in a channel section measured with
respect to the channel bottom as the datum.

For a given specific energy => Two alternate depths, one in

the supercritical range and one in the subcritical range!

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 Minimum specific energy

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4. Comparison of open channel flow and pipe

flow

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Open channel flow

1). OCF must have a free surface
2). A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure
3). The driving force is mainly the
component of gravity along the flow
direction
4). HGL is coincident with the free surface
5). Flow area is determined by the
geometry of the channel plus the level of
free surface, which is likely to change along
the flow direction and with as well as time
6). The cross section may be of any from
circular to irregular forms of natural
streams, which may change along the flow
direction and as well as with time
7). Relative roughness changes with the
level of free surface
8). The depth of flow, discharge and the
slopes of channel bottom and of the free
surface are interdependent.
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Pipe flow
1). No free surface in pipe flow
2). No direct atmospheric pressure
hydraulic pressure only
3). The driving force is mainly the pressure
force along the flow direction
4). HGL is usually above the conduit
5). Flow area is fixed by the pipe
dimensions. The cross section of a pipe is
usually circular.
6). The cross section of a pipe is usually
circular
7). The relative roughness is a fixed
quantity.
8). No such dependence.

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5. UNIFORM FLOW
Uniform flow refers to a hydraulic condition in which
the flow depth, channel discharge, and flow area do
not change over a channel reach having constant
section characteristics such as shape and material.

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 Bed slope, water surface slope, total energy line slopes are
parallel and equal (0 = = )
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5.1. Hydraulics of Uniform flow

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 The expression is generally written as:

Where
Equation (3) is the fundamental equation for uniform flow in
channels. It is known as the Chezys formula, named after a
French Engineer Antonie Chezy who developed this formula in
1775.
C is known as Chezys coefficient and f is the Darchy-Weisbach
resistance coefficient
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Ganguillet-Kutter Formula
Although Chezys equation is quite simple, the selection of a
correct value of C is rather difficult.
Two Swiss engineers proposed an empirical formula in 1869 to
compute Chezys C as;

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Basins Formula
In 1897, a French hydraulics engineer H. Basin
proposed another empirical formula for Chezys C as;

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Mannings Formula
In 1889 an Irish Engineer Robert Mannings
presented a formula for mean velocity of uniform
flow in open channel as;
Mannings formula in SI units

Manning s formula in FPS Units

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Relationship between Chezys C and Mannings

Formula
Chezys formula
Mannings Formula

Comparing Mannings andChezys equation shows

that the Chezys C is related to Mannings n as:

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5.2. Normal Depth

The depth of flow at which the flow is uniform is
called the normal depth (yn).
From Chezys Equation:

From Mannings Equation:

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 The RHS of Eqn. (a) or (b)contains terms which

depends only on the geometry of wetted area:

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 Eqn. (a) or (b) shows that:

For a given n, Q, and S, there is only one
possible depth of flow at which the flow will be
uniform. This depth of flow is called the normal
depth yn.
For a given n, S, and y, there is only one
possible discharge Q, at which the flow will be
uniform. This discharge is called the normal
discharge, Qn
For a given n, Q, and y, there is only one
possible bed slope S at which a uniform flow
can be maintained in a channel section. This
slope is called the normal slope Sn.
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Computation of Normal Depth

Since normal depth is associated with uniform flow, therefore
uniform flow equations- either Chezys Formula or Mannings
Formula are used while computing Normal Depth.

For computation of normal depth it is always convenient to

write the discharge equation in the form

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 All variables in the LHS of the equations are usually known,

therefore when substituted becomes a constant.

The RHS of the Equations contains terms which depends only

on the geometry of the wetted area and when substituted for
any channel shape (here trapezoidal) becomes an implicit
function of normal depth yn

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 These equations therefore cannot be solved directly for the

normal depth yn

How do we than solve for yn?

Use trial and error method
Use Graphical solution
Solver (Excel)

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Graphical Method (Example)

We know :

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Example- (Trial & Error Method)

A rectangular channel 5 m wide carries a discharge
of 100 m3/s and has a Mannings n of 0.035. Determine
the normal depth for this situation?.

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Solution (Trial & Error Method)

Using Mannings equation:
Then

By trial and error,

yn= 6.64 m (Ans)
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5.2. Channel Design

Channel design comprises determining
The channel depth and other dimensions along with the
bed slope

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Channel Efficiency
Suppose that to accommodate a certain discharge a
rectangular 20 m2. flow section is required
Some of the options for constructing a 20m2 rectangular
section are:

Which section do you think is most efficient?

Any reasoning to support your choice?
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 A channel section is considered to be most economical or

efficient when it can pass:
A maximum discharge
For a given cross sectional area (A),
Resistance coefficient (n, or C) and
Bed slope (S)
Under what conditions of channel section can pass maximum
discharge?

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 The continuity equation show that

Chezys equation and Mannings equations show that

Expression for hydraulic radius show that

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 Thus it appears that a channel section is most economical

when the wetted perimeter P is minimum.
Therefore the necessary conditions for most economical
channel sections of different geometric shapes can be derived
by differentiating P with respect to y (since P is a function of y)
and equating to zero

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Conditions for Most Economical

Rectangular Channel section

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 Thus a rectangular channel section

will be most economical when any
of the following two conditions are
satisfied:

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Conditions for Most Economical

Trapezoidal Channel section
Consider the trapezoidal channel section shown in the Figure.
Assume A and t are constant.

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Conditions for Most Economical

Triangular Channel section
Consider the triangular channel section shown in the Figure.
Assume A is constant

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 Condition 1: A triangular section will be most

economical when each of its sloping sides makes
an angle of 45o with the vertical (i.e. side slope
ratio is equal, i.e. t:1=1:1)

Condition 2: For a most economical triangular

section a semicircle with its center at O and a
radius of ( 2) will be tangential to the two
sloping sides of the triangle.

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Conditions for Most Economical Circular

Channel Section
Condition for Maximum Discharge
(using Chezys Eqn.):

From Chezys equation:

Assuming C and S are constant

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Then

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 = 1.876 = 0.938

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 Conditions for maximum discharge of flow using

Mannings equation:

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Rigid Channels Carrying SedimentFree Water

The design of a channel
that is cut in rock or
constructed with a
lining is based on
UNIFORM
FLOW
CONDITION
and
additional relations and
criteria needed.

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Rigid Channels Carrying Sediment-Free

Water
Bottom Longitudinal Slope
The conveyance channels for water supply,
irrigation, and hydropower required a higher level
at the point of delivery and have a relatively small
slope.
For circular pipes, for pipes flowing full at a
minimum velocity of 0.6m/s and a value of n of
about 0.015 the slopes required.

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Channel side slope

Channel side slope depends on the type of
material of the channel.

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Freeboard
Free board : the vertical distance from the water
surface to the top of the channel in order to
prevent the overtopping of the channel by waves
or a fluctuating water surface
Formula (Bureau of Reclamation)

Where:
u : freeboard (m)
c : coefficient varies from 0.5m for a flow capacity of
0.6m3/s to 0.76m for a capacity of 85m3/s or more.
y : water depth in the canal
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Rigid Channels Carrying Sediment-laden

Water
A minimum limit is necessary in order to prevent
sediment deposit, aquatic, growth, or sulfide
formation in the case of sanitary sewers.
Minimum velocity is 0.7 to 1 m/s (for open
channel, sanitary and storm sewers) to move a
15.0 mm diameter organic r 2.0 mm sand particle.
Upper velocity limit is 2 m/s to prevent erosion in
grass-lined channels.
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Loose-Boundary Channels Carrying SedimentFree Water

Tractive force or drag force : the hydrodynamic
force of water flowing in a channel.

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Critical Tractive Force

Stable channel => theoretical unit force < limiting
or critical tractive force!

Two approaches for determining the

critical force
1. USBR method
2. The stability Parameter method

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USBR method
For coarse non cohesive material

Where

cr is critical stress (N/m2)

ds is the diameter of the particle of which 75% of bed
material is finer by weight as determined by sieve
analysis
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For fine non cohesive material, use the design curve

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For cohesive material, use the design curve based on void ratio
and soil type

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Critical tractive force and mean velocity for different bed materials

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 For the sides of channel, the critical force is reduced by the factor
for permissible stress on sides.

Where:
K is the factor for permissible
stress on side
is angle of channel side slope to the horizontal
is the angle of repose of material (Angle of repose describes the
natural angle at which a granular material, such as earth or sand, will
rest without slipping)
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Stability Parameter Method

Critical Shields parameter

Where

*= critical Shields parameter

0= unit tractive force=
s= specific weight of bed material
=specific weight of water
=representative size of bed material
=water depth
0=channel slope
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Loose-Boundary Channels Carrying SedimentLaden Water (erodible/alluvial material)

Hypotheses of Stable Channel Design
1) Channel adjusts its slope and geometry to maximize the capacity
2) The shape maximizes the boundary friction factor
3) The shape adjust to attain the maximum flow efficiency
4) Form mobility is minimal
5) The Froude number is minimum
6) Channel bed adjusts fro the maximum energy yield
7) Minimum rate of energy dissipation
8) Dimension for minimum stream power (minimum slope)
9) Minimum rate of degradation
10) Minimum energy characteristic equation
11) Minimum values of sum of variances of velocity, depth, width, and
slope
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Laceys Original Regime Theory

Laceys four basic relations

Where:
Vc= regime velocity (m/s)
F = silt factor
= sediment size, (mm)
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References
Hydrology and Hydraulic Systems, Third Edition, Ram S.
Gupta.
Concise Hydraulics, Dawei Han.
Water- Resource Engineering, DAVID A. CHIN

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