INTRODUCTION

The analysis is the ordering of data into constituent parts in order to obtain answers to
research questions. For example a researcher formulates a hypothesis pertaining to relation
between high educational level and positive attitude towards a certain phenomenon. He
conducts a study and gathers data from the respondents in a college/university. He then
breaks down the data and so orders them that he can obtain an answer to the question: does
high education change the attitudes? However merely analysis does not provide answers to
research questions. Interpretation of data is also necessary. Interpretation takes the results of
analysis makes inferences and draws conclusions about the relationship. Thus to interpret is
to explain to find meaning. In most cases it is difficult to explain raw data. One must first
analyse the data and then interpret the results of the analysis.

DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming and modelling data with
the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions and supporting
decision-making.
Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected
data.1 Analyzing data involves examining it in ways that reveal the relationships, patterns,
trends, etc. that can be found within it. It may mean subjecting data to statistical operations
that can tell you not only what kinds of relationships seem to exist among variables but also
to what level you can trust the answers you are getting. It may mean comparing your
information to that from other groups to help draw some conclusions from the data. The point
in terms of your evaluation is to get an accurate assessment in order to better understand your
work and its effects on those you are concerned with or in order to better understand the
overall situation.

There are two kinds of data you with which one researcher normally work that is to say
quantitative data and qualitative data.
1 Marshall & Rossman, Designing Qualitative Research, (1990) Newbury Park, retrieved from https://s3-apsoutheast-1.amazonaws.com/erbuc/files/5210_c7a266e1-96c7-4edc-898d-653d4951a35b.pdf
visited on 19
November 2016, at 5 PM.

Quantitative data refer to the information that is collected as numbers or can be translated
into numbers which can then be displayed and analyzed mathematically.

Qualitative data are collected as descriptions, anecdotes, opinions, quotes, interpretations etc
and are generally either not able to be deduced to numbers or are considered more valuable or
informative if left as narratives. Unlike numbers or hard data qualitative information tends to
be soft meaning it cannot always be reduced to something definite. That is in some ways a
weakness but it is also strength. A number may tell you how well a student did on a test, the
look on her face after seeing her grade however may tell you even more about the effect of
that result on her. That look cannot be translated to a number nor can a teachers knowledge
of that students history, progress, and experience, all of which go into the teachers
interpretation of that look. Quantitative and qualitative information needs to be analyzed
differently.
Qualitative data can sometimes be changed into numbers usually by counting the number of
times specific things occur in the course of observations or interviews or by assigning
numbers or ratings to dimensions.

WHY DO WE ANALYZE DATA?

The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful information. The analysis
irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quantitative may:
Describe and summarise the data.
Identify relationships between variables.
Compare variables.
Identify the difference between variables.
Forecast outcomes.

STAGES IN ANALYSIS OF DATA

The analysis of data in research is done in 4 stages2. These are:1) Categorisation

2) Frequency Distribution
3) Measurement
4) Interpretation

Categorisation
Categories are to set up according to the research problem and purpose of study. These are
mutually exclusive, independent and exhaustive.

Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution is the tabulation of quantitative data in classes. It indicates the number
of cases or distribution of cases falling into different categories. It is of two types primary and
secondary.
Primary analysis it is descriptive and gives the number of cases in each class.
Secondary it is comparison of frequencies and percentages. It is concerned with
relations.

Measurement
Measurement could be in the form of central tendencies i.e. calculating mean, mode and
median or statistical averages. The mean is the arithmetic average of set of measures. The
mode is the frequently occurring measure of a set of measures. The median is the midmost
measure of any set of measures. Further there are four scales used for measurement i.e.
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The nominal scale is merely a classificatory scale in
which a number is assigned to each object for identification. The ordinal scale consists of
ranking of objects. The interval scale is like an ordinal scale plus the fact that the intervals or
2 Ram, Ahuja, Research Methods, Jaipur, Rawat Publications, 2016, pp. 315-317.
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the distances between numbers on the scale are equal. The ratio scale is used for determining
ratios of the numbers assigned to categories.

Interpretation
Interpretation of data can be descriptive or analytical or it can be from a theoretical
standpoint. Negative results are much harder to interpret than positive results. After
measurement and statistical analysis certain question arises and thereafter answers are given
to those questions based on data analysis. Thus interpretation consists of the conclusions the
researcher has reached.

STAGES IN DATA
ANALYSIS

Interpretati
on

Categorisati
on
Frequency
Distribution

Measureme
nt

ADVANTAGES OF DATA ANALYSIS

There are many benefits of data analysis however the most important ones are as follows:Data analysis helps in structuring the findings from different sources of data collection like
survey research.
1. Data analysis is very helpful in breaking a macro problem into micro parts.
2. Data analysis acts like a filter when it comes to acquiring meaningful insights out of
huge data-set. Every researcher has sort out huge pile of data that he/she has collected
before reaching to a conclusion of the research question.
3. Mere data collection is of no use to the researcher. Data analysis proves to be crucial
in this process. It provides a meaningful base to critical decisions. It helps to create a
complete dissertation.
4. One of the most important uses of data analysis is that it helps in keeping human bias
away from research conclusion with the help of proper statistical treatment.
5. With the help of data analysis a researcher can filter both qualitative and quantitative
data for an assignment writing projects.3

Thus it can be said that data analysis is of utmost importance for both the research and the
researcher. Or to put it in another words data analysis is as important to a researcher as it is
important for a doctor to diagnose the problem of the patient before giving him any treatment.

VARIOUS KINDS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALYSIS

3 Steve, Johnson, Importance of data Analysis, , retrieved from

http://dissertation-help uk.blogspot.in/2011/12/importance-of-data-analysis-inresearch.html visited on 20 November 2016 at 9 AM.
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By analysis we mean the computation of certain measures along with searching patterns of
relationship that exists among data groups. Analysis may be categorised as Descriptive or
Causal Analysis and Inferential or Statistical Analysis.
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. This study provides us
with the profiles of companies, work group etc. Descriptive analysis may be in respect of: One variable ( Unidimensional Analysis)
Two variables ( Bivariate Analysis )
More than two variables ( Multivariate Analysis )

Casual analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect change in
other variables. It is the study of functional relationship existing between two or more
variables. It is considered to more important in experimental researches.

Multivariate analysis can be done by following techniques.

a) Multiple Regression Analysis:4 This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent
variables.

4 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 131.
8

b) Multiple Discriminant Analysis:5 this analysis is appropriate when the researcher has
a single dependent variable that cannot be measured but can be classified into two or
more groups on the basis of attribute.
c) Multivariate Analysis of Variance (Multi - ANOVA)6: This analysis is the extension
of two- way ANOVA wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group
variance is worked out on a set of variables.
d) Canonical Analysis7: This analysis can be used in both measurable and nonmeasurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent
variables from their joint covariance with set of independent variables.
Inferential statistics which is also known as sampling statistics is concerned mainly with two
major problems:
1) The estimation of population parameters
2) The testing of statistical hypotheses.
The important statistical measures that are used to summarise the research data are:Measures of Central Tendency among the measures of central tendency the three most
important ones are mean, mode and median. Central tendency also known as statistical
averages tell us the point about which items have a tendency to cluster.

5 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 131.
6 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 131.
7 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 131.
9

Measures of Dispersion An averages can represent a series only as best as a single figure
can bit it certainly cannot reveal the entire story of any phenomenon under study. Specially it
fails to give any idea about the scatter of the values of items of a variable in the series around
the true value of average. In order to measure this scatter measures of dispersion are used.
Among the measures of dispersion variance and its square root - the standard deviation are
the most used measures. Other measures like mean deviation, range are also used.8

Measures of Asymmetry ( Skeweness): Skewness is the measure of asymmetry and shows

the manner in which the items are clustered around the average. In a symmetrical distribution
the items show a perfect balance on either side of the mode but in skew distribution the
balance is thrown to one side. The amount by which the balance exceeds on one side
measures the skewness of the series. Kurtosis measure is also used to measure the peakedness
of the curve of the frequency distribution.9

8 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 139.
10

Measures of Relationship: in this measures the most frequently used methods are Karl
Pearsons coefficient of correlation and Yules coefficient of association.
Some others measures of analysis are:Simple Regression Analysis: Regression is the determination of a statistical relationship
between two or more variables. In simple regression we have only two variables one variable
(defined as independent) is the cause of the behaviour of another one (defined as dependent
variable). Regression can only interpret what exists physically.10
Multiple Correlation and Regression: when there are two or more than two independent
variables the analysis concerning relationship is known as multiple correlation and the
equation describing such relationship is called as multiple regression equation.
Partial Correlation: It measures separately the relationship between two variables in such a
way that the effects of other related variable are eliminated. In other in partial correlation we
aim at measuring the relation between a dependent variable and a particular independent
variable by holding all other variables constant.

9 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 140.
10 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 142.
11

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

After collecting and analyzing the data the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully otherwise
misleading conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get
vitiated. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and
processes that underlie his findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies if hypotheses are
tested and upheld several times the researcher may arrive at generalizations. But in case the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with he would try to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. This may at times result in new questions leading to further researches. All this
analytical information and consequential inference(s) may well be communicated preferably
through research report to the consumers of research results who may be either an individual
or a group of individuals or some public/private organisation.

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MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawingg inferences from the ccollected facts after an
analytical and or experimental study. In fact it is a search for broader meaning of research
findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects
(i)

The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given

(ii)

study with those of another and

The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

In one sense interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the
results of other research theory and hypotheses. Thus interpretation is the device through
which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of
the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception Which can
serve as a guide for further researches.11
11 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New
Age International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 319.
13

WHY INTERPRETATION?
Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research
findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research
process because of the following reasons:1) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other
studieds having the same abstract principle and thereby can predict about the concrete world
of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in
research can be maintained.
2) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies. It opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the
quest for more knowledge.
3) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what
they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
4) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition
from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a
hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a post-factum
basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as 'post factum interpretation.12

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
The task of interpretation is not an easy job rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the
part of Researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience.
The researcher may at times seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of
interpretation.

12 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 320.
14

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

1) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to
find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research
findings. In fact this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be
formulated.
2) Extraneous information if collected during the study must be considered while interpreting
the final results of research study for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the
problem under consideration.
3) It is advisable before embarking upon final interpretation to consult someone having
insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions
and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation
and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.

4) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while
interpreting results for quite often the conclusions which appear to be all right at the
beginning may not at all be accurate.13

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analysed wrong
interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is therefore absolutely essential that the
task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in
correct perspective. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct
interpretation:
(i) At the outset researcher must invariably satisfy himself that:-

13 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New Age
International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 321.
15

o the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences
o the data reflect good homogeneity and
o Proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process
of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and due to wrong
interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range of
observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like.
(iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined with
analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of interpretation as
a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one usually
observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning the
reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences but also to identify and disengage the factors that are
initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines.
(v) Broad generalisation should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the
coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions.
(v) The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a research study there should
be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions. He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.14

14 C.R., Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.), New Delhi, New
Age International Pvt. Limited, 1992, pp. 323.
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