Presence of Eye Contact and Effects on Dissonance

Discovering the Importance of the Presence and Absence of Eye Contact and its Effects on
Dissonance
Quiaira Johnson
University of Indianapolis

Abstract
The Problem under investigation in this particular research paper is whether the level in
of dissonance in which a person experiences is affected by the presence and lack thereof eye
contact when being presented to. A total of 34 college undergraduates was used during the study.
Participants were members of two sections of the Education 290: Teaching in a Diverse Society
course at a private Midwest university. Using two sections of the Education 290 course, subjects
were given surveys to each individual. Subjects were told that the purpose of the speech they
about to hear was to give awareness to the importance of a college degree and resources a higher
education institution should have available. The intended purpose of the surveys was to rate the
level of dissonance each subject felt during the speech presented. Results indicated that while

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there was little difference to the level of dissonance individuals felt with the presence and lack of
eye contact during the speech, there was still more dissonance experienced in those who received
no eye contact during the speech. These observations uncover important aspects of eye contact
and the way individuals perceive eye contact in regards to the level of dissonance the experience.
Keywords: Dissonance; Eye Contact; Non-verbal Communication;

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Discovering the Importance of the Presence and Absence of Eye Contact and its Effects on
Dissonance
Introduction
The eyes are often times considered to be the windows to the souls, which means that
individuals rely on eye contact heavily in order to feel a connection to those who are speaking.
Dozens of studies have documented that eye contact is important in human interaction and there
have been as well as examined the importance of eye contact as in regards to the importance it
has on connections within human interaction.
Previous research on eye contact has focused on topics including individual differences in
nonverbal communication in the different stages of relationships (Prinsen & Punyanunt-Carter,
2010) and the differences between men and womens responses to each individual stage of the
relationship. Eye contact studies have also focused on both male and female students feelings
towards eye contact in relations with state, trait, and test anxiety (Brooks, Droney & Napieralski
1995). Further studies have focused on general questions such as what the differences in eye
contact between genders (Hewig, Hecht, Miltner, Straube & Trippe, 2008) and how gazing
behaviors affect high and low apprehensive individuals (Butler, 1991). One interesting aspect of
human interaction in regards to eye contact is the amount that individuals solely depend on the
comfort they feel in regards to the accuracy of the messages they are receiving.
The problem under investigation is what exactly the relationship is between the presence
and the lack of presence in eye contact in relations to the level of dissonance an individual feels.
According to an article by Knofler & Imhof (2007), gaze and eye contact are very important
factors the way in which individuals receive messages and feel positive level of comfort while
those messages are being delivered. Technology and its exponential growth is now playing a

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major role in the way that individuals interact with one another and receive messages differently.
This study is important because it will focus on the college demographic, students who are
heavily submerged in technology and the lack of face-to-face human interaction, and analyze the
effects the presence or lack thereof has on the level of comfort they feel from the speaker. This
paper begins with a brief review of literature. Thus, an experiment designed to test the level of
dissonance in relations to eye contact.
RQ1: What is the relationship between presence and absence of eye contact and the level
of dissonance?
Review of Literature
Research shows that eye contact is a drastic influencer in the way messages are received.
For example, a study conducted by Hewig, Trippe, Hecht, Straube & Miltner (2008), concluded
that when it came to how both male and female participants focus facial features during face-toface interaction upon first glances of individuals before men lowering their eyes to stare longer at
womens breast and women staring longer at mens legs. This particular study revealed that
importance of nonverbal communication and how prevalent they are when communicating with
others.
According to Beebe (1974), speaker credibility is something that listeners establish when
experiencing different speeches and most often individuals feel those who have direct eye
contact with the audience while speaking are credible. This particular study focuses on the lack
of studies on the way in which eye contact is perceived in a public speaking setting with live
speakers. The study concluded that the increased amount of eye contact that the live speaker has
during the live speaking event will enhance the level of credibility that the audience perceives.

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This shows that speaker preparedness is an important aspect when determining speaker
credibility in a live setting.
While there is a great deal of research conducted that establish how important the
presence of eye contact is when establishing credibility as well as less levels of dissonance,
research also suggests that eye contact is not an influencer of the way messages are received. A
study conducted by Levine, Asada and Park (2006), concluded that although many may
believe that one way to know if a person is truly lying is to pay attention to whether they are
avoiding eye contact, but eye contact is no real determining factor on detecting whether
individuals are delivering truthful messages (p. 407-408). There are a lot of ways in which an
individual can choose to use in order to determine the way in which they perceive different
messages, and this particular study is a representation of that fact. While we automatically
associate eye contact with credibility it does not always mean that the level of dissonance
individuals experience is closely related to eye contact received.
A study conducted by Prinsen & Punyanunt-Carter (2010), concluded that nonverbal
communication in correlation to women in long-committed relationships, such as marriages, has
higher concerning rates than men who are in the same type of relationship. This study
demonstrates the importance of eye contact in relationships.
The literature reviewed above is important to this study because it demonstrates the
different views regarding eye contact and the levels of dissonance associated with it. The above
literature also demonstrates the need for more studies examining eye contact and dissonance in a
live setting as Beebe (1974) suggests.
Statement of Hypotheses

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The reasonings following the literature reviews leads us to the hypothesis that will be
tested in this research study.
Research hypothesis.
H1: Speakers utilizing eye contact will cause less dissonance in audience than those who
do not use eye contact.
Null hypothesis.
H0: Speakers utilizing eye contact will cause no difference in level of dissonance in
audience than those who do not use eye contact.
Method
Participants
The participants (N=34) for this study included undergraduate students enrolled in a
12:30 p.m. and a 6 p.m. section of the Education 290 course Teaching in a Diverse Society at a
small private Midwest university. The sample consisted mainly of White Americans (n=16 (day
section), n=15 (evening section)), but it also included Mexican/Latino/Hispanic Americans (n=1
(day section) n=1 (evening section)), and African Americans (n=1 (evening section)). The vast
majority of participating subjects consisted of the female population. Participating subjects were
not compensated for their participation. We did not have a representative sample, subjects
constituted a convenience sample, therefore the research team gathered a non-probability sample.
Definition of Variables
Conceptual definitions.
According to Festinger (1957), dissonance is the inconsistencies in valuations that are
publically exposed, along with the feeling of need for logical consistency within the hierarchy of
moral valuations.

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According to Phillips, Cohen, and Rutter (1992) eye contact is defined as a persons eye
direction reliably in regards to figuring out a persons goal.
Operational definitions.
Our research team conducted four semantic scales on rated from levels1-7 as measuring
tools for determining the level of dissonance subjects experiences. They marked on a paper
survey (operational survey) which was used as the measuring tool to gather information.
Procedures
Prior to the experiment, a group of six individuals constructed a survey. The goal of the
survey was to test the level of dissonance participating subjects experienced through eye contact
or the lack of eye contact. In order to examine the level of dissonance each individual
experienced it was vital to cover up the real purpose of the survey being distributed. In an
attempt to cover up the real purpose, the group constructed a set of distracting questions in an
effort to persuade participants the survey was testing the importance of a college degree and how
prepared each individual felt for life after college.
One person from the group was collectively selected as a speaker to deliver the testable
stimulus. The group also collectively gathered a speech from Harvard University President Drew
Gilpin Faust entitled A Case for college. The speech was then deconstructed by the speaker in
order to meet the needs of the university. Following the gathering of the speech, one member of
the group then reached out the professor of the course to receive permission to use both sections
of the class as experimental sessions.
Each experimental section was conducted separately. Using two sections of the Education
course, subjects were told that the purpose of the speech being given was to give awareness to
the importance of a college degree and the resources a higher education institution should have

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available. After the instructions were given, participants were handed the survey before the
speech began and each survey was collected about two minutes after the speech concluded. The
day section of the course received the speech without eye contact while the evening section of
the course received the speech with eye contact throughout the speech.
Method of Data Analysis
Specifically, here is what the statistical test used to test the studys research hypothesis is
identified, and that test is properly known as the two independent sample t-test.
Results
Statistical Results
Survey Responses on the level of dissonance individuals felt from speech given with eye
contact and no eye contact (1=Very Little 7= Very High) revealed there were low evaluations of
both. Table 1 shows that there were little difference in the mean of the group showing eye contact
(1 = 2.06) and the group that experiences no eye contact (2= 2.41) in the average for those who
felt no dissonance from the speaker and those who felt dissonance from the speaker. The table
also demonstrates that there was no significant difference (0.012) in standard deviation with eye
contact being 0.449 and those who experienced no eye contact throughout the speech being
0.437. The t-stat was calculated to be 1.546 while the t-critical was calculated to 1.694. See Table
1 for summary data.
Table 1
[Eye Contact and Cognitive Dissonance]
_______________________________________________________
[Eye Contact]

[No Eye Contact]

_______________________________________________________
N1 = 17
1

= 2.06

N2 = 17
2

= 2.41

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S1 = 0.449

S2 = 0.437

_______________________________________
t = 1.546
tcrit = 1.694
df = 32
= 0.05
Action Taken on Null Hypothesis
We failed to reject the null hypothesis. There were differences between the data received
from the study conducted. The values that were computed demonstrated such a minute difference
in the level of dissonance subject did or did not experience to conclude the pervious stated
hypothesis was valid.
Discussion
Interpretation of Results
The present findings from the current study conducted support the idea that there are
different levels of dissonance individuals experience in regards to the presence or lack thereof, in
eye contact. For example, the effectiveness of eye contact has been a focus of research for
decades in regards to the way in which individuals receive messages and feel positive or negative
levels of comfort while those messages are being delivered (Knofler & Imhof, 2007). According
to Hall (2005) it is no secret that face and eyes are considered an important feature of social
interaction and communication to most individuals. While there have also been studies that have
been conducted to refute the importance of eye contact in regards to being an influencer of the
way messages are received, stating that eye contact is no real determining factor when detecting
whether individuals are delivering truthful messages ( for review see Levine, Asada & Park,
2006). We point this out because our particular study on eye contact ad dissonance show results
that highlight both spectrums of past studies conducted.

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In addition, our findings highlight the differences in dissonance that individuals face with
and without eye contact. There were low evaluations of the level of dissonance individuals felt
from both eye contact and no eye contact from the speaker during the speech. The observation
supports recent studies on the importance of eye contact as well as the argument that eye contact
is not an influencer in the way in which messages are received (Levine, Asada & Park 2006).
While there were slight differences the research result does suggest that there is more dissonance
experienced in those who received no eye contact from the speaker during the speech given.
Validity Issues:
Internal validity.
Our study conducted low internal validity. While the results show that the lack of eye
contact was the main factor in why individuals felt a high level of dissonance, it may not have
been the sole reason given that the results were low on both spectrums. According to Zamborlin
(2007), the way in which the speech was given could play major roles in the level of dissonance
individuals feel from the speaker. The levels in which the speaker is speaking, vocal variety, and
speech preparedness are all determining factors when examining dissonance according to the
same article.
External validity.
Our findings are restricted to a convenience sample, therefore making it a nonprobability
sample. We cannot claim external validity due to these factors.
Suggestions for Further Research:
New directions for research.
Further research might further aim to provide data on dissonance in regards to eye contact
and speakers in one-on-one sessions outside of the collegiate demographic. It is clear that no eye-

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contact in a group setting causes more dissonance that having eye contact in the collegiate
demographic. It would be interesting to investigate this concept in one-on-one sessions with a
speaker outside the collegiate demographic to see whether results are drastically adjusted with a
different target group as well as offering an incentive to receive truthful results.

Redesign considerations.
There are very few factors that would change the direction in which the research would
have gone. Some things that would be suggested to be done differently in conducting this
research would start with the audience we chose to use as samples. The samples we used were
from two sections of a particular class that received no incentives for their participation. Results
may be more drastic if were to use a random selection population rather than a fixed one if done
again. In the section where there was no eye contact, individuals really did not pay attention to
the speaker instead some were on their phones, looking around the room and others filling out
the surveys. While initially we thought that handing the surveys out before the speech was a
good idea because it provided individuals an opportunity to get a feel for what was going to be
discussed. There were some group members that argue that it should have been done differently.
Some suggest that handing the surveys out before the speech causes a distraction to the speaker,
while it was proved to be true during the speech with no eye contact was conducted because
individuals were filling out the surveys rather than listening to the speaker.

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References
Beebe, S. (1974). Eye contact a nonverbal determinant of speaker credibility. Speech Teacher,
23(1), 21-25.
Butler, J. (1991). An empirical investigation of gazing behaviors in high and low apprehensive
individuals. Florida Communication Journal, 19(1), 13-17.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, Ca: Row, Peterson and
Company.
Hall, J. A., Coats, E. J., & LeBeau, L.S. (2005). Nonverbal behavior and the vertical dimension
of social relations: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 898-924.
Hewig, J., Trippe, R., Hecht, H., Straube, T., & Miltner, W. (2008). Gender differences for
specific body regions when looking at men and women. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior,
32(2), 67-78. doi:10.1007/s10919-007-0043-5.
Knofler, T., & Imhof, M. (2007). Does sexual orientation have an impact on nonverbal behavior
in interpersonal communication? Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 31(3), 189-204.
Levine, T.R., Asada, K.J., & Park, H.S. (2006). The lying chicken and the gaze avoidant egg: Eye
contact, deception, and casual order. Southern Communication Journal, 71(4), 401-411.
Napieralski, L.P., Brooks, C. I., & Droney, J. M. (1995). The effect of duration of eye contact on
American college students attributions of state, trait, and test anxiety. Journal of Social
Psychology, 135(3), 273-280.
Phillips, W. Cohen, S., & Rutter M. (1992). The role of eye contact in goal detection: Evidence
from normal infants and children with autism or mental handicap. Development and
Psychopathology, 4, pp 375-383. doi:10.1017/S0954579400000845.

Presence of Eye Contact and Effects in Dissonance

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Prinsen, T., & Punyanunt-Carte, N.M. (2010). The Difference in nonverbal behavior changes in
different stages of a relationship. Texas Speech Communication Journal, 35(1), 1-7.
Schwartz, P. (2000). Truth maintenance with cognitive dissonance. University of Maryland
Independent Research Journal, 40(2), 188-193.
Zamborlin, C. (2007). Going beyond pragmatic failures: Dissonance in intercultural
communication. Intercultural Pragmatics, 4(1). 21-50. Doi:10.1515/IP.2007.002.

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Appendix A
Measuring Instrument:
Instructions: Please respond to each question below. Work quickly and reread any questions before
answering.

1. Generally speaking, an undergraduate degree is beneficial in preparing you for your future
career? (SELECT ONE OPTION BELOW)
_____ Yes
_____ No
2. Rate your level of anxiety after the speech: (CIRCLE ONLY ONE NUMBER BELOW)
Not Anxious

Very Anxious

3. Do you feel that the University of Indianapolis has prepared you for your life after college?
(SELECT ONE OPTION BELOW)
_____ Very prepared
_____ Somewhat prepared
_____ Not that prepared
_____ Not at all prepared
4. Do you feel the University of Indianapolis has given you ample opportunities to interact with
future employers? (SELECT ONE OPTION BELOW)
_____ Yes
_____ No
5. Rate how satisfied you are with the speech delivered: (CIRCLE ONLY ONE NUMBER BELOW)
Very satisfied

Not satisfied

6. What is your ethnicity? (SELECT ONE OPTION BELOW)

_____ White
_____ Hispanic
_____ Asian
_____ African American
_____ Other
7. Rate the level of internal conflict you feel after the speech was delivered: (CIRCLE ONLY ONE
NUMBER BELOW)

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No conflict

Severe conflict

8. What are the top two issues you took away from this speech?

a. _______________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
9. Rate your level of uncertainty with the speechs content: (CIRCLE ONLY ONE NUMBER
BELOW)
Very Uncertain 1

Not Uncertain

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Appendix B
Text of Speech Delivered to the Treatment Group:

Deconstructed Speech: To ask Is College worth it? is a fair question too, and a lot of
people around the country are asking it. To me, the answer is easy: yes. Going to college is one
of the best decisions you will ever make.
In fact, I believe college is more important than ever, and I want to take a few minutes
today to explain why.
Let me begin with some benefits that can be clearly measured. There is no doubt that
college pays off financially. A wide range of statistics shows the economic advantage of a fouryear college education:
Over a lifetime, students who graduate from college can expect to make about 60 percent
more than those who do not, well over a million dollars more.
Another study shows that in 2011 a typical college graduate was not only more likely to
find a job than a high school graduate, but also made $21,000 more as a starting salary.
And young women, take note: A degree makes an even bigger difference to your earning
power. A 25- to 34-year-old female with a bachelors degree can expect to make 70 percent more
than if she had only completed her high school diploma.
College graduates also tend to lead more active lives. They vote more often. They
volunteer far more often. As early 20th-century civil rights leader Nannie Burroughs put it,
education is democracys life insurance. College graduates are also more likely to own a home.
They are healthier and less likely to smoke. Their children are more likely to go to college. These
are powerful reasons for earning a college degree.
But what about the benefits of college that are harder to measureones that I see around
me every day? They are equally significant reasons for a college education, and they add up to a
lot of value over the course of a lifetime:
First, college will take you to places youve never been before. Some of you will
choose a college or university in a different city, or state, or even country, and you will learn a lot
from these new surroundings. But even if you go to college close to home, your studies will
introduce you to places youve never been, and maybe never even imagined. A university course
can take you deep into the building blocks of matter, from the tiniest organisms on the planet to
the stardust of the outermost cosmos. Studying public policy can give you an inside look at the
workings of Congress, or the U.N., or the Dallas School Board, and can help you see what
happens there in a new light. Professors can help unearth the past, ground you in the present, and
prepare you for the future you will help shape. College is one of the best chances many of us will
ever have just too just our curiosityto take a course on art, or literatureor political
philosophyor to explore life in another century or another culture.

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College is a passport to different places, different times, and different ways of thinking. It
is a chance to understand ourselves differently, seeing how our lives are both like and unlike
those of people who inhabited other eras, and other lands.
Second, college introduces you to people youve never met before. This is true both
literally and figuratively. Even if you go to a school that is local and continue to live at home,
your classes will be full of people youve never encountered, with views and experiences new to
you. One of the most important ways in which students learn, at colleges and universities
everywhere, is by interacting with people who are different from themselves. If you go to a
residential college, your roommate might be from a different city, state, or even an entirely
different country. Inside and outside the classroom, you will encounter new points of viewin
conversations after a class, on a playing field, or in a study marathon in a crowded dorm room.
Third, college helps you to discover dreams youve never dreamed before. College
can offer you the satisfaction of hard, intellectual worka paper or a project or an experiment
or play or a musical compositionthat you are proud of. It also teaches you the power of
imagination. It urges you to dive down deep into yourself, and the results are often surprising.
I have called this speech the case for college because I believe that college changes
lives. It opens opportunities, reflected in the statistics I recited earlier. Perhaps even more
important, it opens minds and worldsin ways that stretch usalmost pull usto become
different people. I often ask students as they are approaching graduation how they are different
from when they arrived at college. They say they know more. They frequently say they found a
passion they had never imagineda field, a profession to which they intend to devote their lives.
But what is most important, they often tell me, is that they have a new way of approaching the
world, through the power of learning, analyzing, changing to adapt to what theyve come to
understand. And so I leave you with a question: Who can you be? Do you want to be that?
Wherever you go, whatever you do next, take up that challenge. Ask that question. You deserve
no less.

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Figure 1. Desai Media Communication Model

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