Running Head: SUBJECTIVITY GROUP WORK

Subjectivity and Culture Group Work

Maura Lewis, Karin Fonseca, Amber Hurst, Melissa Harrell
Valdosta State University

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GROUP WORK
Work in your group to develop responses to the following issues/questions. Take
time to individually read each question or set of questions and jotting down your thoughts
and ideas. Then pool the results of your individual efforts with your group. Be prepared
to report your results in our next class meeting (September 17). Use your texts as needed.
Your final group report should be turned into the assignment drop-box on BlazeView on
September In the meantime you can start working in groups in your groups forums under
the discussion section of BlazeView. I will be monitoring your group postings.
What is the role of subjectivity and culture in qualitative research? Give an
example of a way in which your subjectivity influenced a recent work-based
decision you made. How would you deal with your subjectivity when
designing and implementing qualitative research?
A. What is the role of subjectivity and culture in qualitative research?
A researchers subjectivity guides the topic of research selected,
the methodology selected, and how data is interpreted.
Subjectivity defines the interest of a person and gives shape to
their perspective. If subjectivity influences the research findings
then it is considered a bias.
Patton (2002) defines culture as the collection of behavior patterns
and beliefs constituting standards for deciding what is, standards
for deciding what can be, standards for deciding how one feels
about it, standards for deciding what to do about it, and standards
for deciding how to go about doing it (p. 81).
B. Give an example of a way in which your subjectivity influenced a
recent work-based decision you made. I recently implemented
MindTap as a secondary Learning Management System (LMS)
supplementing GAView the primary LMS in courses I teach online and
hybrid courses. I hesitated in adopting this secondary LMS as I was
concerned that a majority of the students would struggle with learning a
new LMS as well as the logistical skills required to navigate two systems.
I presupposed students would not take the time nor exert the effort
necessary to master the new LMS; however, I was proven wrong in my
presupposition and the students have embraced MindTap and ultimately
improved their overall averages in the classes utilizing the new, secondary
LMS.
C. How would you deal with your subjectivity when designing and
implementing qualitative research? In order to successfully deal with
subjectivity in the design and implementation of research I must first
acknowledge my subjectivity and the areas in which it may have the
greatest impact. I must be careful to not allow my subjectivity to
influence the implementation of my research or the interpretation of its
subsequent data to the point of bias.

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What are the essential differences between qualitative research and
quantitative research? How are these differences related to underlying
philosophical assumptions? How do they relate to design and
implementation of a research project? What are the strengths and
weaknesses of each?
A. What are the essential differences between qualitative research and
quantitative research?
Qualitative research is exploratory in nature and seeks to define
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. Through
qualitative research one gains appreciates the problem identifying
patterns that lead to a deeper contemplation of the problem.
Collection methods for qualitative research may include focus
groups, observation of participants, and interviews. Participant
numbers are generally lower in qualitative research than in
quantitative research.
Quantitative research involves larger numerical samples in which
data is transformed into statistics. These statistics provide insight
into defined variables such as attitudes and opinions providing for
the researcher to generalize the findings to a larger population.
Collection methods for quantitative research include surveys,
interviews, and online polling.
B. How are these differences related to underlying philosophical
assumptions? How do they relate to design and implementation of a
research project? Through quantitative research, conducted by a
distinctly removed researcher, relationships are discovered, explained,
and predicted with the assumption that facts and values are independent
of one another. However, qualitative research is conducted by a researcher
embedded in and a part of that which is being researched. Through this
relationship, the researcher attempts to comprehend the meaning of things
to those individuals being studied. These meanings are often not
generalizable to the larger population.
C. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each?
Quantitative Research
Strengths
o Generalizable findings
o Data collection is quick
o Data is often available through various resources
o Precise, numerical data
o Results independent of researcher
o Provides for studying large numbers of people
Weaknesses
o Focus on hypothesis testing may result in oversight
of a phenomena
o Research findings may be too general

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Qualitative Research
Strengths
o Provides for depth of studying of individuals
o Provides for studying complex phenomena
o Participants personal experiences are studied
o Rich detail of phenomena is possible
o Participants are observed in naturalistic settings
o Researchers may alter focus as needed
Weaknesses
o Findings are not always generalizable
o Research groups are small
o Collection time is lengthy
o Analysis is lengthy
o Researchers subjectivity and culture are influential

What is emergent design? Naturalistic inquiry? Purposeful sampling?

Holistic perspective? Context sensitivity? Reflectivity?
A. Emergent design, according to Patton (2002), is a design strategy that
allows Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or
situations change; the researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs
that eliminate responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they
emerge (p. 40). By being flexible, researchers use this strategy, as a tool
to embrace the unpredictable events. Making decisions on the spot as the
fieldwork develops researchers must consider what they believe will be
most beneficial to the research and make decisions that will lead to the
development of the research.
B. As stated by Patton (2002), Naturalistic Inquiry is studying real-world
situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative and noncontrolling;
openness to whatever emerges (lack of predetermined constraints on
findings) (p. 40). Therefore, researchers will use this design to observe
situations and people as they naturally occur, instead of creating a special
setting for the research. The research will develop based on the natural
discoveries.
C. Purposeful sampling defined by Patton (2002), are cases for study (e.g.,
people, organizations, communities, cultures, events, critical incidences)
are selected because they are information rich and illuminative, that is,
they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling,
then, is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical
generalization from a sample to a population (p. 40). The researcher has
to purposefully select the sample in order to study the phenomenon in its
complexity. This method is not intended to generalize to the large
population.
D. Holistic perspective, according to Patton (2002) determines that the
whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is

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more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies and
system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete
variables and linear, cause-effect relationships (p. 41). The researcher
focuses on understanding the phenomenon as a whole considering all the
parts and environment during fieldwork.
E. Context sensitivity, specified by Patton (2002) places findings in a
social, historical, and temporal context; careful about, even dubious of,
the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and
space; emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and
extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new
settings (p. 41). Context is fundamental to qualitative research, as it is
the base for the study and builds it.
F. Reflexivity by Patton (2002) has entered the qualitative lexicon as a way
of emphasizing the importance of self-awareness, political/cultural
consciousness, and ownership of ones perspective (p. 64). Researchers
must be attentive to self-questioning as to what does he/she knows and
how do they know it. These can certainly influence on the observations
of the research. Furthermore, researchers must be aware of many factors
such as cultural, political, social among others not only to his/hers own
perfectives, but also considering the perspective of the participants being
studied as well as the audience which will receive the study.
What are the types of qualitative data and how do you gather and analyze
them?
o There are three types of qualitative data, which are interviews, observations
and documents.
o Interviews: Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about
peoples experiences, perceptions, opinions, feelings, and knowledge. Data
consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable
(Patton, 2002, p. 4).
o Observations: Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors, actions,
conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community
processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience. Data consist
of field notes: rich, detailed descriptions, including the context within which
the observations were made (Patton, 2002, p. 4).
o Documents: Written materials and other documents from organizational,
clinical, or programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official
publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs,
and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys. Data consist
of excerpts from documents captured in a way to records and preserves
context (Patton, 2002, p. 4).
o The data is gathered in the fieldwork and normally starts with observations of
the natural environments, activities, interactions etc. After the researcher
might become a participant observer and interact with people. Later the in
depth interviews are set, which could be done individually or in groups.
Finally document, records, and fieldwork is examined (Patton, 2002, pp. 4-5).

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o Furthermore according to Merriam (2002), the data collection strategy used
is determined by the question of the study and by determining which source
(s) of data will yield the best information with which to answer the question
(p.12).
o Reading the interview transcripts, observational notes, and documents are the
first step in analyzing the data. Also researchers should listen to the interview
tapes before the transcription as it can help in organizing observation notes.
After that the researcher listen and read he/she should write down notes and
try to categorize information as how they relate to one another (coding,
memos, categorizing strategies). Identify the connections among the
categories or themes that evolved (Maxwell, 2013, p.105).
What is phenomenology? Heuristic inquiry? Ethnomethodology? Symbolic
Interaction? Hermeneutics? Narrative analysis? Systems perspective?
Grounded theory?
A. Phenomenology focuses on the essence or structure of an experience
(Merriam, 2002). Phenomenologists see how complex meanings are built
from direct experience. This research design attempts to understand the
essence of a group, culture, experience, or person through how they
experience a phenomenon (Patton, 2002). Detail direct first-person
interviews are the center to data collection in phenomenological studies.
Phenomenologist focus on how we put together a phenomena we
experience and develop a worldwide view (Patton 2002, p. 106).
B. Heuristic inquiry- Heuristic inquiry is a form of phenomenological
inquiry that uses the personal experiences of the researcher (Patton,
2002). The focus of the research is on the intense human experience from
the perspective of the researcher. Heuristic emphasizes relationships and
connectedness on the part of the researcher in analyzing the data.
C. Ethnomethodology- Ethnomethodology focuses on the ordinary, daily
lives of people. The focus of studies is on the patterns and routines
people take for granted and what these patterns say about a group (Patton,
2002). The study of methods and the how. One area of interest within
ethnomethodology is on how people adapt to new situations (new job,
culture, and a time of change in a persons life like a birth or death). Data
is often collected through many hours of observations and fieldwork.
D. Symbolic Interaction- Symbolic interaction is an inquiry approach with
emphasis on human response to meanings. The emphasis is one shared
meanings and how they become reality for groups (Patton, 2002).
Researchers using a symbolic interaction approach have direct and close
interaction with their participants. How societies, cultures, and individuals
label other groups is an example of symbolic interaction studies.
E. Hermeneutics is a theoretical approach that encompass cultural and
challenges that all research is viewed through the lens of culture (Patton,
2002). Hermeneutic research establishes context and meaning for what
people do (Patton, 2002). Hermeneutics argues that although a person can

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examine a meaning it can only be interpreted in the context of their own
culture and experience thus limiting the context.
F. Narrative Analysis- One of the most popular forms of qualitative research
design, narrative analysis examines peoples lives and life narratives
(Merriam, 2002). Stories and life experiences in first-person form are
used for data. Narratives can include interview transcripts, biographies,
and memoirs (Patton, 2002). Narratives offer a window into society and
cultural patterns through individual experiences.
G. Systems perspective- Systems perspective examines systems within
themselves and their place within a larger whole (Patton, 2002). Holistic
thinking is essential to systems study. Systems perspective observes the
function of systems more than the independent parts.
H. Grounded theory emphasizes discovery with description and verification
as secondary concerns (Merriam, 2002, pp.7-8). In grounded theory
hypothesis are suggestive and tentative and are tested. Data used in
grounded theory is analyzed using the constant comparative method
(Merriam, 2002). The theory is grounded on data that has already been
collected in prior studies and focuses on the process of generating theory
than content (Patton, 2002)
Give 5 examples of particularly appropriate qualitative applications (use
examples other than ones in the book).
A. More examples of appropriate qualitative applications could include
ethnography of communication (Jacob, 1987), historic inquiries ( Lancy,
1993), historical research (Munhall & Oiler, 1986), sociological
perspectives (Lancy, 1993), and conversational analysis (Strauss &
Corbin, 1990).
How do we assess quality and credibility in qualitative research? (See
Patton, p.544). I know that we have not really read Patton (or Maxwell) on
this yet but I want to hear how you think about this issue particularly as
you compare with what you learned about validity in your quantitative
course. Is quantitative objective and qualitative subjective? Does
quantitative get at facts and the truth while qualitative is just subjective
opinion?
A. According to Patton (2002), we asses quality and credibility in qualitative
research through three sets of criteria: traditional scientific research,
social construction and constructivist, and artistic and evocative. When
discussing traditional scientific criteria, Patton lists numerous criteria
including objectivity of the inquirer (attempts to minimize bias), validity
of the data, systematic rigor of fieldwork procedures, triangulation
(consistency of findings across methods and data sources), reliability of
codings and pattern analyses, correspondence of findings to reality,
generalizability (external validity), strength of evidence supporting causal
hypotheses, and contributions to theory (p. 544). When discussing social
construction and constructivist criteria, Patton details subjectivity
acknowledged (discusses and takes into account biases), trustworthiness,
authenticity, triangulation (capturing and respecting multiple

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perspectives), reflexivity, praxis, particularity (doing justice to the
integrity of unique cases), enhanced and deepened understanding
(Verstehen), and contribution to dialogue (p. 544). Finally Patton lists
artistic and evocative criteria as opens the world to us in some way,
creativity, aesthetic quality, interpretive vitality, and flows from self;
embedded in lived experience (p. 544).
B. We would postulate that quantitative is objective, in that it deals with
numbers and data and is much more black and white in its answers; it
does not use the human factor in any way. The answers are usually clear
and there is little room for interpretation. However, we would not say
that qualitative is purely subjective. Qualitative delves into the heart of
the research much deeper and deals mainly with observing people in their
habitats. Thus, the researcher is not getting black and white numbers, but
rather an in depth look at the research question at hand, or firsthand
experience at uncovering the answer. Thus, we do not believe qualitative
research to be purely subjective, but a fine mixture of objectivity and
subjectivity. The evaluation of internal and external validity in a
quantitative study are, once again, much straighter forward. The main
idea in quantitative research is to make the study generalizable to larger
populations. The validity checks associated with quantitative research
enable this to happen. However, when evaluating the validity of
qualitative research, it too has many preventative measures to ensure
validity and prevent the research from being deemed as purely subjective.
The very nature of qualitative research is to remove ones bias from the
research and observe firsthand what he/she is questioning. This does not
allow for objective data as in numbers, but rather objective looks into the
lives, culture, project, phenomenon, etc. you are researching. Thus, we do
feel like quantitative delivers facts, but also strongly feel qualitative
delivers truths and facts as well. In fact, we would argue that qualitative
research is more truthful and factual, because there is context for what is
being discussed and analyzed.
Pick a research question or focus based on a problem you see in your work
environment and sketch out a design to address it. Can you see a way you
could use a quantitative design to address some part of the problem?
Explain.
o GOALS: Bridging the ever-growing gap between admin and their staff.
Creating a better culture in more schools. Having valuable research that
allows admin to really understand where teachers are coming from and
vice versa, because there is a huge disconnect between the two.
A. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: Data on the changing 21st century
classroom will be examined. Data on how the United States competes in
the global education system. The information on United States
educational system will be applied to common practices in todays
classrooms: testing, differentiation, assessment, etc.

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B. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: How are administrators out of touch with
what is happening in the modern classroom? How do administrators
impact the modern classroom environment? What are the ramifications of
out-of-touch administrators for teachers and their students?
C. METHODS: Observation: observing multiple classrooms in multiple
schools. Since multiple schools would be used and one would want a
large variety of school make-up, socioeconomic background, ethnic
background, etc. would be considered when choosing schools. Interviews
of students, teachers, and administrators at all schools, literature search,
possible surveys.
D. VALIDITY: Threats: Investigator bias towards administration, teachers,
or students, particularity, and correspondence of findings to reality.
E. POSSIBLE QUANTITATIVE DESIGN: We could see employing the use
of some quantitative research methods during this study. For instance,
one could administer a survey about culture of the workplace or duties of
employees, and gain quantitative data based on the surveys.
Use the guidelines mapped out by Merriam in chapter 2 to assess and
evaluate the research reported in chapter 3.
A.
Problem Yes, the problem is appropriate for qualitative research. The
problem is presented in the literature and related to previous research. The
researchers perspective and assumptions are revealed. An example of one
assumption made was that participants learning would reflect cultural values
inherent in the Asian society. There are statements relating to the significance of
the research.
B.
Methods The particular research design was not mentioned. The sample
selection is described in detail, and the data collection methods are outlined.
How the data was managed is not described in great detail, but it was analyzed by
using the constant comparative method. Triangulation was used to ensure
validity. In regards to ethical concerns, no participants were known personally
by the researchers.
C.
Findings The participants of the study were described. The findings are
clearly organized, in chart form, as well as descriptive narrative. The findings are
directly responsive to the problem, and the data presented is in support of the
findings. Direct quotes are provided in the narratives.
D.
Discussion The findings are positioned and discussed in terms of
literature and previous research. The studys insights are clearly stated, and
implications for practice are discussed. The studys implications do follow from
the data. Yes, there are suggestions for future research.

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Qualitative Research Terms/Concepts: Briefly define each and discuss its significance.
Limit your response to 250 words. Answers may differ in length but be sure to discuss
each in enough detail to indicate its importance for qualitative research.
1. Purposeful sampling: Purposeful sampling defined by Patton (2002), are cases
for study (e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures, events, critical
incidences) are selected because they are information rich and illuminative, that
is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling, then,
is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization from a
sample to a population (p. 40). In qualitative studies the researcher will select
the sample purposefully for the study so that the phenomenon can be analyzed
profoundly and in its complexity.
2. Credibility: Credibility is a nontraditional criteria used to judge the quality of the
findings of the inquirer to primary users. (Patton, 2002, p.13). According Patton
(2002), creditability of qualitative methods, therefore, hinges to a great extent on
the skills, competence, and rigor of the person doing fieldwork- as well as things
going on in a persons life that might prove a distraction (p. 14). The
researchers accurate unbiased reporting of data gathered from the fieldwork is
fundamental for developing credibility of the research.
3. Member checking: Stated by Merriam (2002) member checks is a strategy used
for validity and reliability by taking data and tentative interpretations back to the
people from whom they were derived and asking if they were plausible (p. 31).
By doing this researchers can assure that their interpretations of the data gathered
during the interviews and fieldwork is in accordance to what participants really
meant and assuring that the information is valid.
4. Ethnography: Ethnography is a form of qualitative research that was developed
by anthropologists in order to study human society and culture (Merriam, 2002, p.
8). For qualitative purposes, according to Merriam (2002), ethnography must
present a sociocultural interpretation of the datait is not defined by how data are
collected, but rather by the lens through which the data are interpreted (p. 9).
The main focus of this qualitative research method is in the culture and it takes a
great amount of time and effort for researchers to immerse themselves into the
cultures in order to gather all the correspondent data for the research.
5. Naturalistic inquiry: Naturalistic Inquiry is studying real-world situations as
they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; openness to whatever
emerges (lack of predetermined constraints on findings) (Patton, 2002, p. 40).
This design strategy allows for researchers to reduce manipulation of the study as
it is done in its natural environments. As the fieldwork happens naturally, there
are no limits or control of possible outcomes.
6. Emergent design: According to Patton (2002), emergent design is a strategy that
allows Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations
change; the researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate
responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge (p. 40).
Researches understand that unpredictable events will occur during fieldwork and
they will be forced to make on the stop decisions. By understanding this strategy
researchers can be more flexible and tolerate the uncertain and have confidence
that in the end results generated by the fieldwork.

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7. Researcher subjectivity: According to Maxwell (2013) qualitative research is
primarily concerned with understanding how a particular researchers values and
expectations may have influenced the conduct and conclusions of the study
(which may be either positive or negative) and avoiding the negative
consequences of these (p. 124). Reporting the researchers bias as well as how
the research will deal with it is fundamental in qualitative research. The
researcher must be aware of his/hers possible bias address them accordingly so
that it does not invalidate the research.
8. Cultural lens: Culture lens is the lens through which everyone sees his or her
culture. As a researcher, it is important to view things from the perspective of the
culture of study and not their own. It is fundamental that researches develop
skills to deal with people while having empathy, understanding and sensitivity. It
is important for researchers to not assume that what they see is what they think
they see, as cultures are not the same and behaviors may not mean the same
either.
9. Culture: Many have defined culture and it commonly referred to the values,
beliefs, attitudes that define a particular group of people. As stated by Merriam
(2002), One common approach is to view culture as the knowledge people have
acquired that in turn structures their worldview and their behavior (p. 236). In
qualitative research understating culture is really important as any particular
group of people has its own culture. Researchers must be aware of it while
collecting data and fieldwork in order to be unbiased and provide accurate
information. This means intensive fieldwork in which the investigator is
immersed in the culture under study (Patton, 2002, p. 81).
10. Subjectivity: Peshkin uses the dictionary definition (Websters Third New
International) of subjectivity to begin his discussion on the topic: the quality of
an investigator that affects the results of observational investigation. Through
the various readings assigned and our knowledge of subjectivity as educators, we
would define subjectivity as the bias through which we evaluate other people,
items, work, cultures, etc. This can most certainly influence investigations, but it
also influences peoples lives every day. We would go as far to assert that
subjectivity is the stereotypes each person carries with them.
11. Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a study you develop without a
theory and then you develop the theory throughout the study.
Patton (2002) defines grounded theory research as a theory that
is inductively generated from fieldwork, that is, theory that
emerges from the researchers observations and interviews out
in the real world rather than in the laboratory or academy (p.
11).
12. Conceptual framework: Conceptual framework is a vital part of the Interactive
Model of Research design according to Maxwell (2013). The conceptual
framework is the background knowledge of prior research, methods, data, people,
theories, beliefs, etc. that a researcher needs to study when establishing the basis
for his/her research.
13. Narrative research: Simply put, narrative research is looking at a persons
stories; what story does this person have to share and why is it important?

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Maxwell (2013) explains this is called hermeneutics and extends the idea of text
to include in-depth interview transcripts, life history narratives, historical
memoirs, and creative nonfiction (p. 115).
14. Phenomenological research: Phenomenological research is a form of qualitative
research that basically tires to understand the perspectives of people and where
their constructs of the world are coming from. Merriam (2002) explains that
phenomenological researchers would be interested in how people interpret their
experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to
their experiences (p. 38).
15. Case study: A case study can be performed in either quantitative or qualitative
research, and is used to examine one particular case in an assortment of many.
Merriam (2002) defines a qualitative case study as the search for meaning and
understanding, the researcher as the primary instrument of data collection and
analysis, an inductive investigative strategy, and the end product being richly
descriptive (pp. 179-179).
16. Participant observation: A form of data collection for qualitative research is
observation. Merriam (2002) explains that observers can either be complete
observers, which just observe but are not active members of the observation, or
can be a participant observer, where they are completely immersed in the
observation by being a member of the activity they are observing.
17. Map the territory or grand tour question: Grand tour questions are used in
qualitative interviews, specifically ethnography studies, to map out or get the
grand tour of what one is trying to focus on. These questions ask broad topics
about the people, places, items, etc. you are researching, so you can start to put
them together and see how they all relate in relation to your study.
18. Paradigms: I have often used the word paradigm when discussing the
educational shift we have seen from Industrial Age paradigms to 21st Century
paradigms. Thus, to us, paradigms are the construct through which certain ideas
are created and embraced. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, a
paradigm is a theory or idea about how something should be done, made, or
thought about. Maxwell (2013) discusses various paradigms in the social
sciences to include: positivism, constructivism, realism, pragmatism, and
postmodernism. Maxwell explains that these paradigms embodying very
different ideas about reality (ontology) and how we gain knowledge of it
(epistemology) (p. 42).
19. Analytic induction: A specific form of analysis that focuses on forming
hypothesis and then examining a particular case in depth to determine if the
hypothesis is supported or negative (Patton,2002). If the hypothesis is supported
more studies are conducted to being leading to a generalization. Patton (2012)
explains that analytic induction focuses more on method and practice (pp.95).
20. Epistemology- According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary,
epistemology is the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge
especially with reference to its limits and validity. Patton (2002) discusses how
the inquiry approach of qualitative research and how different qualitative research
designs are all centered on six core questions (What do we believe about the
nature of reality? How do we know about what we know? How should we study

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the world? What is worth knowing? What questions should we ask? How do we
personally engage in inquiry?). Each inquiry design addresses the questions in
different context.
21. Critical research (theory) - Critical research focuses on the context of learning
and how context impacts individuals and groups (Merriam, 2002). After looking
at the context, often from a cultural or historical perspective, critical research
raises questions in relation to gender, race, and class and how the learning
environment shapes these groups and the system.
22. Coding- Coding is the procedure qualitative researchers use to analyze and
interpret data. Merriam (2002) discusses three stages of coding used in qualitative
research; Open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (pp.149). Open coding
is close examination and takin apart the data by sentence or paragraph. Codes are
then grouped together by common concept or wording. Axial coding follows and
includes putting the back together to make connections. Finally selective coding
integrates the categories to develop common themes (Merriam, 149).
23. Meaning in context- Context is the bases of all qualitative research.
Understanding meaning in context is defined as acknowledging the beliefs,
perspectives, experiences, history, cultural, and situations of the participant(s) in
the study (Maxwell, 2013). Students attending an inner city school in New York
City would have a different context than students in a rural school in Alabama.
24. Focus group interviewing- Focus group interviewing is a form of qualitative
research interviewing which a group of people are asked about their perceptions,
opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a topic. Each participant is free to talk
with other group members and thoughtful discussion occurs. During this process,
the researcher either takes notes or records the vital points he or she is getting
from the group. A benefit to focus group interviewing is the conversation provides
insight into different opinions and thoughtful discussion on a topic. The
researcher must be mindful of the interviewees and ensure opinions are not being
changed or information omitted to follow the crowd.
25. Holistic perspective- A holistic perspective is looking at a larger entity than the
induvial systems that encompass it. The bigger picture. Qualitative research is
personal and deals with peoples stories, perspectives, and experiences. The key is
to see how these individual experiences fall in context to the historical context.
26. Triangulation- Triangulation is when researchers use various data sources to
view emerging themes and concepts. Triangulation strengthens research and
offering validity and reliability to the research.
27. Fieldwork- Fieldwork is a researcher term for observation in conjunction with
interviewing (Merriam, 2002). Often times the researcher employees observation
first and returns to interview participants. Both allow for perspective on the
setting and observing the participants in practice.
28. Unstructured interview (informal conversational interview): Patton (2002)
defines unstructured interview as the most open-ended approach, relying on the
spontaneous generation of questions in the natural flow of an interaction (p. 421).
29. Interview guide approach: an interview in which prepared questions are asked
to each participant in the same order for continuity

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30. Phenomenological interview (Seidman): three-part interviews conducted in a
specific order in which the participant is asked about past life experiences, current
life experiences, and the meaning of life
31. Inductive analysis: According to Patton (2002), inductive analysis allows
meaningful dimensions to emerge from the patterns found in the cases of the
study with no presupposing in advance (p. 84).
32. Deductive analysis in qualitative research: According to Patton (2002),
deductive analysis is the extent to which qualitative data in a study support
existing general conceptualizations, explanations, results and/or theories (p. 541).
33. Reflexivity: Patton (2002) states reflexivity is a self-critical sympathetic
introspection and the self-conscious analytical scrutiny of the self as researcher (p.
70).
34. Data saturation: Patton (2002) identified data saturation as the point when no
new information is emerging or likely to emerge (p. 327).
35. Generalizability (in qualitative and quantitative): a statistical framework for
designing and investigating reliable observations that can then be used to predict
outcomes in similar situations
36. Transparency: clear expectations, methods, assumptions, outcomes, and results
or research are shown.
37. Key informant: one expected to have inside information and a broader
understanding of elements related to the research being conducted.
Let me know the terms/concepts you think should be added!