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Chapter 1
Classification of Volcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits
Based on Host-Rock Composition
C. T. BARRIE* AND M. D. HANNINGTON
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0E8
4567
13-16
1
2
9
3
10
27
28
29
17-20
12
11
23
21
24
25
26
32
22
30
33
31
34
35
CENOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
PROTER.
ARCHEAN
MESOZOIC
PROT/MZ
AR/MZ
AR/PT
FIG. 1. Location of major VMS districts of the world, with total tonnages
in million tonnes (MT). M: Mafic; B-M: Bimodal Mafic; M-S: Mafic Siliciclastic; B-F: Bimodal-Felsic; B-S: Bimodal-Siliciclastic.
1 Windy Craggy, NW British Columbia: 297 MT, Mesozoic M-S;
2 N. Cordillera, Canada (including Eskay Creek): 100 MT, L. Paleozoic, M,
B-M, B-F;
3 Jerome, Arizona, USA: 30 MT, E. Proterozoic, B-M;
4 Slave Province, Canada: 50 MT, L. Archean, B-M, B-F;
5 Flin Flon-Snow Lake, Man. and Sask., Canada: 160 MT, E. Proterozoic, BM, M;
6 Ladysmith-Rhinelander, Wisconsin, USA: 80 MT, E. Proterozoic, B-M;
7 Abitibi-Superior, Canada (incl. Kidd Creek): 500 MT, L. Archean, B-M, BF.
8 Ducktown, Tennessee, USA: 180 MT, L. Proterozoic, M-S;
9 Bathurst, New Brunswick, Canada: 250 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-S;
10 Buchans-Victoria Lake, Newfoundland: 20 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F;
11 Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portugal and Spain: 1000+ MT, E. Paleozoic, B-S;
12 Rouez, Bretagne, France: 100 MT, M. Proterozoic, M-S;
13 Trondheim, Norway: 40 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M, M-S, B-F;
14 Skellefte (including. Boliden), Sweden: 75 MT E. Proterozoic, B-M, B-F;
15 Rana-Grong-Sulitjelma, Sweden, Sweden: 80 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M, M-S;
16 Outokumpu-Pyhasalmi, Finland: 60 Mt, E. Proterozoic, B-M, M-S;
17 Central Urals, Russia: 100+ MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
18 Buribai-southern Urals, Russia and Kazikstan: 100+MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F,
B-M;
19 Turkey (including Murgul): 170 MT, Paleozoic and Mesozoic, B-M, B-F, M;
20 Zyryanowsk, Kazakstan: 500 MT, Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
21 Troodos, Cyprus: 35 MT, Mesozoic, M;
22 Presika, Otjahasi, Matchless, S. Africa-Namibia: 140 MT, M. Proterozoic,
M-S;
23 Gai-Uchali, Kazakstan: 100+ MT, Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
24 Yidan, China: ?, Mesozoic, B-F;
25 Qilian, China: ?, E. Paleozoic, B-M, B-F;
26 Kang Dian, China: 500 MT, L. Proterozoic, B-M;
27 Hongtouchan, China: ?, L. Archean, B-M;
28 Hokuroku, Japan: 100 MT, Miocene, B-F;
29 Besshi, Japan: 230 MT, L. Paleozoic and Mesozoic, M-S;
30 Big Stubby, Mons Cupri, Whim Creek, W. Australia: 15 MT, M.+L.
Archean, B-F;
31 Scuddles-Golden Grove, W. Australia: 45 MT, L. Archean, B-M;
32 Philippines: 60 MT, Cenozoic, B-F, M, B-S;
33 Mt. Morgan, Queensland, Australia: 50 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M;
34 Benambra-Woodlawn, Victoria-NSW, Australia: 35 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F;
35 Mt. Read, Tasmania, Australia: 150 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F.
120
150
180
150
120
90
60
30
30
60
90
70
70
60
60
30
30
30
30
60
60
70
90
FIG. 2.
120
150
180
150
120
90
60
30
30
60
70
90
Location of sea-floor hydrothermal vent sites and massive sulfide deposits. Modified after Hannington et al., 1995.
the thickened oceanic crust in the Galapagos area by Perfit et al.(1999), and more generally in bimodal volcanic
settings by Barrett and MacLean (1999); hydrothermal alteration of the oceanic crust by Alt (1999); fluid-rock interactions in VMS systems as recorded by stable isotope
systematics by Huston (1999); the metal transport capabilities of hydrothermal fluids by Seyfried et al. (1999); precious metal enrichment associations and processes in VMS
systems by Hannington et al. (1999); and heat and fluid
flow in VMS systems by Barrie et al. (1999a).
In Part II, descriptions of land-based and sea-floor deposits or districts are given, within the context of the
processes described in Part I. They are arranged in an
order from primitive, mafic-dominant systems to evolved,
felsic and sedimentary rock-dominant systems, similar to
the order in the classification scheme described below.
Deposits in mafic-dominant, ophiolitic settings are described by Galley and Koski (1999). Many of these deposits are believed to represent supra-subduction zone
tectonic settings, and they provide the closest comparison to mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal vent fields. A review of the giant Kidd Creek deposit of the Late Archean
Abitibi subprovince by Barrie et al. (1999b) provides a
view of a bimodal-mafic, primitive arc VMS setting. The
largest Besshi-type, or mafic-siliciclastic type VMS deposit
in the world at Windy Craggy, British Columbia is described by Peter and Scott (1999). In a broad sense, modern analogs for deposits like Windy Craggy are described
by Goodfellow and Zierenberg (1999) in their paper on
massive sulfide-forming hydrothermal systems in sediment-covered oceanic spreading centers. Felsic volcanic
and sedimentary-influenced VMS systems are found in
more mature volcanic or continental arc settings. These
types are represented in this volume by the precious
metal-rich Eskay Creek deposit, described by Roth et al.
(1999), and the incredibly prolific Iberian pyrite belt of
Portugal and Spain, described by Carvalho et al. (1999).
The Classification Scheme
For the purposes of this volume, a simple, five-fold classification of VMS deposits is proposed that encompasses
most of the known ancient and active VMS settings. The
classification draws from a comprehensive database selected from Mosier et al. (1983), the Geological Survey of
Canada VMS database for Canada (Franklin, 1993), the
published literature, annual reports of major mining companies, and our own files. The database includes 878 deposits, of which 811 have proper geological control and accurate grade and tonnage information (mined, mineable,
and geological reserves, and drill indicated resources). The
deposits in the database represent ~60 percent of the total
subaerial continental areas; data from deposits in ex-Soviet
bloc countries, China, and Antarctica are not included.
The five-fold classification is based on host rock composition, with emphasis on the pre-alteration composition of
coeval, or nearly coeval (within 34 m.y.) volcanic host
rocks. Rocks up to ~3 km into the stratigraphic footwall, ~1
km into the stratigraphic hanging wall and up to 5 km
Mafic Type
The mafic type is defined by two principal criteria: a predominantly (e.g., >75%) mafic host rock stratigraphic succession, and rare or absent (<1%) felsic volcanic rocks.
The host rocks commonly have minor (<10%) siliciclastic
or ultramafic rocks, or both. The mafic type encompasses
Total and Average Grade and Tonnage for VMS Types, Excluding China and ex-Soviet Block Countries
n
Total Tonnage1
in billion tonnes
Total Cu1
in million tonnes
Total Pb1
in million tonnes
Total Zn1
in million tonnes
Total Au1
in tonnes 102
Total Ag1
in tonnes 103
62
284
113
255
97
0.18
1.45
1.24
1.29
2.50
3.7
24.3
16.2
7.1
21.5
0.04
2.0
0.6
13.2
24.0
1.3
44.3
9.7
54.2
55.1
2.31
12.91
4.03
14.18
4.11
2.6
38.2
9.2
120.0
60.0
811
(878)2
6.66
(6.93)2
Average size
in million tonnes
Average Cu
grade in wt %
Average Pb
grade in wt %
Average Zn
grade in wt %
Average Au
grade in g/t
Average Ag
grade in g/t
2.8
5.1
11.0
5.2
23.7
2.04
1.88
1.74
1.44
1.10
0.10
0.75
1.83
1.64
1.84
1.82
4.22
2.43
5.63
4.16
2.56
1.52
0.84
2.06
1.13
20.0
36.5
19.8
92.8
84.4
Number
of deposits
>100 MMT
Number
of deposits
50100 MMT
Number
of deposits
2050 MMT
Number
of deposits
1020 MMT
Number
of deposits
510 MMT
0
1
3
0
9
0
6
1
3
4
3
9
10
12
5
1
16
7
19
6
7
20
10
29
11
Number
of deposits
in situ value4
>$1010
Number
of deposits
in situ value4
510 $109
Number
of deposits
in situ value4
15 $109
Number
of deposits
in situ value4
0.51 $109
05
15
15
05
25
0
5
1
2
10
5
16
10
42
16
2
28
10
36
9
TYPE
Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
Total
Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
1 Grade
successions), tectonic setting (e.g., deposits in metamorphic terrane with unclear origins) or age (e.g., many
Archean Cu-Zn deposits similar to Phanerozoic deposits)
are avoided.
From the most primitive to the most evolved in a chemical sense, the five host rock compositions considered are:
mafic, bimodal-mafic, mafic-siliciclastic, bimodal-felsic, and
bimodal-siliciclastic. The average grade and tonnage of deposits in these groups are given in Table 1, and the average grade and tonnage for each type divided by time period is given in Table 2. These data are presented in a
variety of bar graphs and ternary plots in Figures 36.
and tonnage for combined mined and mineable reserves and resources
deposits with limited information
3 Several small deposits with reported high Au grades disproportionately bias this value
4 In US $, with 1 lb. Cu = $1.10, 1 lb. Zn = $0.60, 1 lb. Pb = $0.30, 1 oz. Au = $350, 1 oz. Ag = $5.00; excludes other metals
5 Kidd Creek: $24.6 109, Brunswick #12: $22.1 109 ; Neves Corvo deposits: $16.1 109; Windy Craggy: $10.8 109
2 Includes
TABLE 2.
Average
Cu grade
in wt %
Average
Pb grade
in wt %
Average
Zn grade
in wt %
Average
Au grade
in g/t
Average
Ag grade
in g/t
(4.15)
(0.34)
(1.72)
(5.23)
Total tonnes
in MT
MAFIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic
1
3
0
23
35
1.5
1.9
0.0
60.0
115.9
1.5
0.6
(1.5)1
(4.83)
2.6
3.3
1.77
2.00
(0.05)
(0.10)
2.86
(1.13)
(3.02)
(1.74)
(18.0)
(25.2)
BIMODAL-MAFIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic
1212
73
17
54
19
606.7
410.2
24.5
278.8
130.6
0.5
5.6
1.4
5.2
6.9
1.66
2.20
2.06
1.93
1.74
0.42
0.98
(0.97)
(0.35)
(0.43)
5.04
4.32
2.64
3.02
2.54
1.32
1.47
(1.42)
2.40
(1.60)
38.6
28.7
(37.9)
44.4
28.4
MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic
2
7
16
25
63
1.4
159.8
307.4
256.3
519.4
(0.7)
(22.8)
19.2
10.3
8.2
(1.37)
(2.38)
1.68
1.46
1.81
(0.01)
(2.91)
(1.73)
(0.02)
(1.46)
(1.27)
(2.44)
4.21
0.80
(0.49)
(0.51)
0.80
1.00
(42.5)
(25.7)
(17.4)
(33.2)
(12.4)
BIMODAL-FELSIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic
24
42
14
82
93
170.2
222.9
68.0
375.0
472.6
7.1
5.3
4.9
4.6
5.1
1.09
1.05
1.53
1.53
1.64
1.23
0.72
0.85
2.50
1.52
6.23
4.45
4.07
6.69
5.29
0.83
1.65
1.47
2.63
2.04
125.2
49.3
109.2
85.8
115.7
BIMODAL-SILICICLASTIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic
2
9
4
75
7
0.6
24.6
13.3
2451.1
14.9
0.3
2.7
3.3
32.7
2.1
(1.23)
(1.60)
(1.15)
0.93
(2.06)
(1.67)
(1.82)
(1.61)
1.74
(2.13)
(4.60)
(5.45)
(5.28)
3.83
(4.48)
(1.36)
(1.09)
0.97
0.76
(2.85)
(37.7)
(63.2)
(57.1)
54.8
(238.3)
1 Grades
2 Values
Cu
wt. %
FIG. 3. Histograms for total tonnage, average tonnage and number of deposits for VMS types in database. The bimodal-siliciclastic type clearly has
the highest total and average tonnage, whereas the bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic types are the most numerous.
Zn
wt. %
Pb
wt. %
Ag
g/t
Au
g/t
FIG. 4. Histogram of average metal contents for VMS types. Legend same
as in Fig. 3. See Table 1 for values. The mafic type has the highest average Cu content and the lowest average Pb content, whereas the opposite
is true for the bimodal-siliciclastic type.
AE SM
MAFIC
Cu
a.
20
15
10
5
KC
140
120
80
.-
IC
AF
.-M
M
BI
Zn
BIMODAL-FELSIC
Cu
b.
20
Tonnage, in MT
AF
-S
F.
M
BI
60
40
IL.
L
FE
.-S
BI
ML
100
IL.
Pb
BIMODAL-MAFIC
MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC WC
250
200
150
100
BIMODAL-FELSIC
Mu
60
MS
20
350
300
40
MC
BIMODAL-SILICICLASTIC
NC
RT
LZ
250
200
150
100
50
3.0
2.0
1.0
Age, in Ga
FIG. 5. Tonnage vs. age for VMS types. The major periods of VMS formation were in the Late Archean at ~27302700 Ma, in the Early Proterozoic at ~18901870 Ma, in the Early Paleozoic and more broadly through
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The largest examples are labeled as follows:
Mafic: AE: Anayatak-Ergani, Turkey; SM: Sirrt Madenkoy, Turkey; M:
Mavrovouni, Cyprus. Bimodal-Mafic: KC: Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada;
G: Geco, Ontario, Canada; H: Horne, Quebec, Canada; R: Ruttan, Manitoba; C: Crandon, Wisconsin, USA; ML: Mount Lyell, Tasmania, Australia. Mafic-Siliciclastic: S: Saladipura, Rajasthan, India; D: Ducktown,
Tennessee, USA; R: Rouez, Bretagne, France; WC: Windy Craggy, British
Columbia, Canada. Bimodal-Felsic: MC: Mons Cupri, Western Australia;
S: Selbaie, Quebec, Canada; P: Pyhasalmi, Finland; M: Mt. Morgan,
Queensland, Australia; Mu: Murgul, Turkey; MS: Matsumine-Shakanai,
Hokuroku, Japan. Bimodal-Siliciclastic: NC: Neves Corvo, Portugal; RT:
Rio Tinto, Spain; LZ: La Zarza, Spain.
Pb
L.
T.
HA
50
E.
HA
+L
RO
T.
H. Zn
O RC
R
P
A
E.
(23.7 MT, Fig. 3). They have on average the lowest Cu content and the highest Pb content of the five VMS deposit
types (Fig. 4).
Host-Rock Composition and VMS Metal Content:
The Use of Primitive Mantle-Normalized Plots
Host-rock compositions may influence the metal content in VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 1981), and this is
clear in the classification scheme presented here. Mafic
rocks contain ferromagnesian minerals and minor magmatic sulfide (immiscible sulfide-oxide solid solution) that
are preferentially enriched in Cu; the Cu is available to hydrothermal fluids when the crystal lattice of the host mineral is destroyed during hydrothermal alteration. Similarly, felsic rocks contain feldspars that are preferentially
enriched in Pb and Ba, and siliciclastic rocks contain
feldspars and clays enriched in Pb, Ag and Zn. Gold enrichment in host rocks can be due to partial melting of a
residual mantle that has retained Au-enriched magmatic
sulfide to form boninites (Hamlyn et al., 1985), suppression of oxide and sulfide fractionation that sequester
gold in alkaline, high f O 2 magmatic systems leading to
(McInnes and Cameron, 1994), and a variety of hydrothermal processes (Hannington et al.).
The base and precious metal contents for the VMS deposit type averages are presented on primitive mantlenormalized diagrams for comparison in Figure 7, and in Figure 8, a comparison is made between deposits and possible
source rocks. The primitive mantle composition is used for
two reasons: the metal values are reasonably well established (Table 3), and it provides a reasonable comparison
for crustal reservoir source rocks as well as the deposits, so
both potential source rocks and deposits can be compared
from district to district. The ordering of the elementsPb,
Ag, Au, Zn and Cucorresponds to the degree of incompatibility in a source rock during magmatic processes (assuming the presence of trace immiscible sulfide-oxide
solid solution), with Pb representing the most incompatible metal. The ordering also corresponds to the relative
enrichment (enriched to the left) of metals in most VMS
deposits compared to the primitive mantle and to the relative solubility of different metals in modified seawater
with increasing temperatures. A more rigorous comparison would require that the metal contents for the deposit
averages be normalized to 100 percent sulfide, assuming
that the Cu, Zn and Pb are in chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
galena, respectively, with the remaining Fe and S distributed between pyrite, pyrrhotite and magnetite according
to the mineralogy. This approach, which has proven successful with magmatic sulfide ores (Naldrett and Duke,
1980), would alleviate some of the uncertainty in comparing semi-massive and massive ores, but requires knowledge
of the bulk Fe and S contents of the deposits and the
mode of iron sulfide and iron oxide minerals, which usually are not reported. It would also be desirable to include
other VMS metal co- and by-products (e.g., Hg, As, Sb, Ba,
Co, Sn, S, Se, Mn, Cd, In, Bi, etc.). In this way, variable
source rock or magmatic contributions, or the distinctive
physical properties of different hydrothermal fluids, could
be fingerprinted, even within a single deposit, but more
information is needed before such a comprehensive approach can be taken.
As expected, the mafic VMS-type averages have the flattest patterns when normalized to the primitive mantle.
They also have a tendency toward a relative enrichment in
Au in comparison to Ag and Zn. This could be due to: (1)
supergene processes that cause preferential enrichment in
Au in comparison to the other elements; (2) the recovery
TABLE 3. Metal and Elemental Concentrations in Chondritic, Mantle, and Crustal Reservoirs
Metal
Ba (ppm)
Au (ppb)
Ag (ppb)
Pb (ppm)
Cd (ppb)
Sn (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
Co (ppm)
Ni (ppm)
As (ppm)
Sb (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Bi (ppb)
Ga (ppm)
S (wt.%)
Se (ppm)
Mn (ppm)
1 Hofmann,
N-MORB
13.8710
0.8720
3030.00
0.3580
13090.00
1.3500
8480.00
7080.00
47.1100
149.5100
190.00
0.0150
0.3150
790.00
1770.00
0.1010
0.1670
1,00070.00
1988
et al., 1985
3 Keays and Scott, 1976
4 Sun and McDonough, 1989, Joachum et al., 1993
5 Wolf and Anders, 1980
6 Palme et al., 1981
2 Hamlyn
Primitive Mantle
6.04910
1.39000
1950.000
0.17510
4090.000
0.12400
5090.000
2810.000
10410.000
2,08010.000
10050.000
0.00550
0.06350
1090.000
470.000
0.02510
0.04700
1,01070.000
2.4100
15210.00
18030.00
2.4740
64070.00
1.6240
30070.00
10810.00
5160.00
10,50010.00
1,50070.00
0.1650
0.9250
11070.00
1070.00
5.4010
1910.00
1,70070.00
7 Sun,
1982
Mg number = 70: Doe, 1995
9 Taylor and McClennan, 1985. Values listed under N-MORB are for
average oceanic crust
10 McDonough and Sun, 1995
8 At
10
10
10
MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC
10
10
BIMODAL-MAFIC
10
10
MAFIC
10
10
BIMODAL-FELSIC
EARLY PHAN.
MAFIC VMS AVE.
EARLY PHAN.
MAFIC
VMS AVE.
PM-NORMALIZED
10
10
10
10
10
ENRICHMENT BY
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES
ENRICHMENT BY
MAGMATIC PROCESSES
N-MORB
N-MORB
10
BIMODAL-
Pb
SILICICLASTIC
10
10
10
Ag
Au
Zn
Cu
of metals for deposits mined historically (e.g., Zn not recovered from Cu ores in many Troodos deposits), or (3) a
relative enrichment in the source rocks by magmatic
processes (e.g., boninites relatively enriched in Au: Hamlyn et al., 1985). It is noted that there are few accurate gold
grades reported for the mafic VMS types, so the apparent
Au enrichment should be considered with caution. All of
the other types have negative slopes for their primitivemantle normalized patterns, with the steepest slopes for
the felsic-influenced VMS types. Systematic changes in the
patterns through geological time are lacking for all but the
bimodal-felsic VMS deposits. Younger bimodal-felsic deposits have higher Cu, Pb and Au contents.
10
10
10
Au
Zn
Cu
10
PM-NORMALIZED
Pb
10
Ag
ENRICHMENT BY
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES
ENRICHMENT
BY CRUSTALBUILDING PROCESSES
Pb
Ag
Au
Zn
Cu
10
Acknowledgments
We thank the three organizations that sponsored the short
course that lead to this volume: the Society of Economic Geologists, the Mineral Deposits Division of the Geological Association of Canada, and the Geological Association of
Canada. We also thank the Geological Survey of Canada and
the Chief Geologists office for support for this publication.
Mike Lesher, the former Series Editor for Reviews in Economic
Geology, invited us to consider overseeing this volume, and
we are grateful to him for providing us with this opportunity.
This contribution has benefited from discussions with Ian
Jonasson and John Lydon, and from comments by Wayne
Goodfellow. GSC Contribution No. 1997092.
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