MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

cure, void content, shrinkage, etc.), and also the interface

between fiber and matrix. All these aspects are affected by
the manufacturing process.
In order for composite materials to achieve their full
potential, the functions of design and manufacture should
be closely integrated. The design of composite components is necessarily more complex than that for metals.
This is inevitable, since there are so very many possible
permutations of reinforcement and matrix. Additionally,
composite materials have properties that depend on the
quantity, form, and distribution of the constituentsthey
are anisotropic. Even a notionally isotropic GRP laminate containing short, randomly distributed fibers is only
isotropic in-plane, and its through-thickness properties
will be dominated by the matrix rather than the fiber.
But another consideration confronts the designer: how is
the composite product to be manufactured? This decision
must be part of the initial design loop, as the choice of processing route will influence what is achievable in terms of
fiber content, orientation, geometry, and ultimately cost.
Compared to metals, there are relatively few design codes
available, and those that do exist give little guidance
regarding manufacture.

STEPHEN GROVE
University of Plymouth,
Plymouth, UK

INTRODUCTION
A large number of different composites manufacturing
processes and process variants can be identified. This
is because polymer composites have found applications
across all industrial sectors. At one end of the spectrum, we have advanced, high performance (and high
cost) materials used in aerospace; these will incorporate
high performance fibers (e.g., carbon or aramid) and polymer resin systems capable of retaining their properties
at elevated temperatures. At the other end are lower cost
composites generally referred to as glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), based on glass fibers and cheaper resin systems
which can be processed at or slightly above room temperature. In his article titled manufacturing from the previous
edition of this encyclopedia, Brent Strong discussed the
opposing factors of cost and quality in some detailthis
has led to the historical situation where advanced composites and reinforced plastics appear to be quite different
materials, requiring different approaches to manufacture
and demanding different quality standards. Yet we still
speak of a composites industry, and it has been encouraging in recent years that some convergence has taken
place. This is partly because the advanced composites sector (especially aerospace) has paid serious attention to
cost reduction, while the reinforced plastics sector has
improved its approach to quality control. An example of
this convergence, or even synergy, has been the development of the resin infusion process (see the section titled
Resin Infusion) simultaneously as a low cost alternative
to prepreg in the aerospace industry and a high quality alternative to hand layup (see the section titled Wet
Layup) of GRP.
The objective of manufacture is common to all industrial
sectors, and indeed all materialsto produce a product
that meets its specification at the lowest possible cost.
The factors that influence the cost of a composite product are essentially no different from any other artifact:
materials, capital investment, overheads, labor, and so on.
Where polymer composites differ from other materials is
that, usually, the material itself is being manufactured
at the same time as the product. This is less true with
thermoplastic polymers, which are usually required only
to soften and solidify during the forming process but is a
fundamental principle in thermosetshere, the matrix is
required to undergo polymerization and change state (permanently) from a viscous liquid to a rigid solid. Achieving
the specification and required performance in a composite product thus requires an appropriate level of control
over the reinforcement (volume fraction, orientation, fiber
length, etc.), the matrix (viscosity, rate and degree of

THERMOSET COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Resin Characteristics for Manufacture
Thermosetting resins are all required to undergo a chemical cross-linking reaction, which transforms them from a
low molecular weight, relatively low viscosity fluid into a
rigid solid. The overall reaction is known as curing, and it
can be a significant proportion of the total manufacturing
cycle time. The details of the curing reaction vary considerably between different resin systems, and the reader is
referred to other articles in this encyclopedia (e.g., see the
article titled Thermoset Resins), and to the text books
listed in the bibliography. As far as the manufacturer
of the composite is concerned, this chemical reaction is
largely under his or her control and, depending on the
process, may involve controlled mixing of the chemical
constituents, followed by controlled heating and cooling
in order to fully complete the curing cycle. Some resins
are formulated to cure at room temperature, over a period
of minutes, hours, or even days. Figure 1 shows some
viscositytime curves for a theoretical epoxy resin system,
using a thermochemical model [1]. Under isothermal conditions, the viscosity of the resin will increase with time.
At higher temperatures, the initial viscosity is reduced,
but cross-linking occurs more rapidly. As cross-linking
proceeds, the liquid eventually achieves a viscosity that is
too high to allow flow to take place. The resin is then said
to have reached its gel point, and this usually corresponds
to the matrix being between 40% and 60% cross-linked.
A fully cured resin will have formed permanent chemical cross-links at all available molecular sites. But the
full cure process is not always completed during the molding cycle or even while the part is still on the mold tool.

Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites, Second Edition. Edited by Luigi Nicolais and Assunta Borzacchiello.
2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

140

T = 100
T = 120
T = 140

10,000

120
100
Temperature

Dynamic viscosity (cP)

100,000

1000

80
60
40

100

20
0

10

20

40
60
Time (min)

80

50

100

100

150

Time (min)
(a)

Figure 1. Isothermal viscositytime curves for a model epoxy

resin at 100, 120, and 140 C.

90

If sufficient cross-linking has occurred, the part may be

rigid enough to be removed from the tool and given a
postcure, either at ambient or elevated temperatures.
This procedure is particularly advantageous if the mold
tool is made from a material that cannot withstand the
full cure temperature.
Traditional methods of heating are based on hot air,
either inside an oven or occasionally by direct application.
However, almost all possible methods of process heating have been evaluated, including infrared, ultraviolet,
microwave, and lasers [2]. In some processes, electrical or
circulating oil heating is embedded in the mold tool. The
cross-linking reaction is generally exothermic, and, especially in thick composite laminates, the process engineer
may have to consider whether heat needs to be removed
rather than added to the mold tool.
Most thermosetting polymers cross-link in an addition
reaction, where initially short molecules become chemically bound to others. Some, notably phenolic resins,
polymerize by a condensation reaction, which results in
the evolution of a by-product. In the case of phenolic resin,
the condensate is water. This can be a source of voids in
the laminate if the resin is cured without pressure.
Thermoset resins that require elevated cure temperatures must be subjected to a ramp up to the required
temperature, followed by a dwell and a subsequent controlled cooling period. A simple cure cycle for an epoxy
resin is shown in Fig. 2. The corresponding resin viscosity
initially falls to a minimum value and then increases
rapidly toward the gel point. As shown in Fig. 3, the minimum viscosity decreases with increasing ramp rate, and
the gel point is reached more quickly.
As explained below, different processes have different requirements in terms of viscosity. Those involving
long-range flow of resin will obviously require viscosity to
be minimized and will also require a suitably long processing window at that viscosity for mold filling to complete.
The cure cycle may be modified to include a dwell at an
intermediate temperature, as in Fig. 2b. This is commonly
specified for relatively thick prepreg composite laminates,

Temperature (C)

80
70
60

3C/min

50

1C/min

40
30
20

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (min)
(b)

Figure 2. Typical epoxy resin cure cycles. (a) Temperature ramp

followed by 1 h at 120 C. (b) The manufacturers recommended
cure cycles for a marine epoxy prepreg (Advanced Composites
Group, Heanor, UK), incorporating an intermediate dwell at 65 C.
Initial ramp rate can be between 1 and 3 C/min.

where additional consolidation time at low resin viscosity

is required for the removal of defects.
It must be emphasized that the relationship between
the resin supplier and the manufacturer is crucial. Thermosetting polymers must be carefully selected for specific manufacturing processesfor example, a thixotropic
epoxy resin for wet layup will lack the correct flow properties for resin transfer molding. Modifications to formulation and processing conditions should only be made
after careful consideration of the manufacturers data
sheets and preferably after some trial moldings. The manufacturer should also be aware that, as well as being
exothermic, most resins will shrink to some extentthese
factors can have important considerations for tooling material selection and design.
Reinforcements for Manufacture
The composite designer will have made an early decision
regarding basic fiber type (e.g., carbon, glass, or aramid)
and laminate specification (ply orientations, thicknesses,
etc.) but may not be aware of the vast range of alternative

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Once again, the selection of reinforcement for a given

process (or vice versa) must be carried out in close consultation with the materials supplier.

8000
3C/min

Dynamic viscosity (cP)

7000

2C/min

6000

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR THERMOSET

COMPOSITES

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
10

30

50

70

90

110

Time (min)
Figure 3. Model resin (Fig. 1) viscositytime curves for constant
temperature ramp rates of 2 and 3 C/min.

material forms, ranging from unidirectional tapes through

woven and/or stitched fabrics and braided tubes to knitted preforms. In many cases, these material forms have
been developed to facilitate manufacturing. The primary
characteristics include: (i) drapeis the reinforcement
capable of conforming to the mold shape without wrinkling or bridging across internal mold details? (ii) areal
weight (weight per unit area)is it high enough to efficiently lay up a thick preform if required or low enough
to give the required laminate design possibilities in thin
plies? (iii) surface finishparticular weave styles (such
as satin) or low areal weight fabrics may be specified
to ensure a protective layer of resin at the part surface;
(iv) fiber coatingis it compatible with the resin, such
that good wet-out and chemical bonding between fiber and
matrix is achieved? (v) wet-outfiber forms such as woven
or stitched fabrics usually have the individual filaments
arranged in bundles or tows; if these bundles are too large,
full impregnation of the resin matrix can be difficult.
Several processes use raw material forms that combine reinforcement and matrix. Prepregs (preimpregnated
fibers) are highly quality-controlled sheet materials in
which the reinforcement, which may be unidirectional,
woven, or stitched, has been impregnated with a controlled amount of premixed resin (usually, but not exclusively, epoxy). The resin has then been partially cured
(B-staged) so that it achieves a tacky consistency and is
subsequently refrigerated to prevent further cross-linking.
Sheet molding compound (SMC) is widely used in the compression molding of GRP parts and consists of roughly
equal proportions of polyester resin, fillers, and chopped
glass fibers (up to 50 mm in length), rolled into a sticky,
pastry-like sheet a few millimeters thick. Other premixed
forms include dough molding compound (DMC) or bulk
molding compound (BMC), which contains rather shorter
fibers and is usually delivered as an extruded sausage
shape.

There are several ways in which alternative processes

could be classified and compared. For example, one could
start from a geometrical viewpoint and identify candidate
processes in terms of their suitability for, say, a constant
cross section profile or a thin, complex-curved sheet. Alternatively, one could rank processes in terms of quality
or properties of the end product or according to capital
and/or labor costs. Here, we make an initial distinction
between contact molding (in which only one surface of a
part is defined by the mold tool) and matched molding
(in which all external surfaces are defined by the tool).
For each subprocess, we will attempt to compare, at least
qualitatively, some of the more important attributes, for
example, material forms, capital cost, cycle time, and labor
requirements.
Most thermoset composites are laminated from relatively thin layers of reinforcement and resin. In the case of
prepreg, these layers (plies) may be as thin as 0.1 mm, so
tens or hundreds could be required for a structural component. During the laminating process, the inclusion of
air between or within the layers is unavoidable, so efforts,
usually in the form of a consolidating pressure, must be
made to reduce the final void content in the cured composite. A void content of only 2% by volume can reduce
the composites interlaminar shear strength by as much as
30% [3]; so generally, the higher the required properties,
the more attention must be paid to control of pressure
and/or vacuum during shaping and curing.
Contact Molding
Many composite parts are relatively thin compared to their
overall size and require an accurate, molded surface on
only one face. Examples include boat hull, aircraft wing
skin, and wind turbine bladein all these, the inner surface is not visible in the final assembled product. In its
simplest form, therefore, a contact mold is a smooth surface that defines the obverse of the required component.
In most contact molding processes, the forces are low, so
the mold surface can be quite thin and supported by a
simple backing structure (Fig. 4). Mold surfaces can be
manufactured from a wide variety of materials, including
metal, glass or carbon-fiber composite, wood, or plaster.
Materials selection depends crucially on what is expected
from the mold tool, in particular, how many moldings are
to be made and what cure temperature is used. Molds
made from polymer composites have the advantage of
being relatively light weight and of low thermal mass (so
heating and cooling in the cure cycle, if required, can be
more efficient). They are also easier to repair and/or modify than some other materials. Many advanced epoxy resin
composites have to cure at temperatures of up to 180 C;
at these temperatures, thermal expansion and durability become dominant issues and metallic tooling becomes

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

(a)
Figure 4. Contact mold tools for an aerospace component nose
cone assembly. Epoxy-faced plaster fabrication, with simple
wood support structure. Source: Photo courtesy Sage Cheshire
Aerospace, Lancaster, CA, USA.

more widely used. Mold tool design and manufacture is

another specialist sector of the composites industry, and,
yet again, expert advice is recommended.
Wet Layup. The simplest and earliest technique of composites manufacture involves the manual application of
liquid thermosetting resin to successive sheets of reinforcing fibers, thus, building up the part thickness on the mold
tool (Fig. 5). No special equipment is required, other than
brushes and rollers. Resin is usually mixed by hand and
poured or brushed onto the reinforcement. The process is
labor intensive, and composite quality depends on operator
skill in ensuring the even distribution of resin, the correct
wet-out of the fibers and the reduction, through careful
use of the roller, of trapped pockets of air. Better control
of resin content can be achieved by applying measured
amounts of resin to sheets of reinforcement before it is laid
in the mold.
Wet layup parts, especially those made from polyester
resin are often gel coated. A layer of modified resin is first
applied by brush or spray to the mold and allowed to gel
before the lamination of reinforcement begins. The gel coat
forms a protective and cosmetic layer on the outer surface
of the part.
Deposition of reinforcement and resin can be achieved
more quickly using a handheld or robotically controlled
spray gun (Fig. 6). This device chops continuous glass
fibers into short lengths, mixes them with catalyzed
resin, and deposits the mixture on the mold surface.
The composite then requires rolling by hand to improve
consolidation.
Wet layup is most commonly done with polyester and
vinylester resins. Formulations for wet layup will often
have thixotropic properties, to help reduce resin flow
on vertical mold surfaces, and will usually cure at room
temperature. These resins contain the volatile compound
styrene as an essential component of the cross-linking
reaction, and styrene emissions from open molds have been
a sensitive health and safety issue in the GRP industry

(b)
Figure 5. Wet layup of glass-fiber/polyester resin. Pressure from
the hand roller forces resin through the initially dry reinforcement. (a) Chopped strand mat, and (b) woven fabric.

for many years. All industrialized countries have legal

exposure limits, although there is little agreement as to
what these limits should be. Regardless of the legislation,
the working environment in a large wet layup facility
can be unpleasant, and considerable investment in vapor
extraction and personal protection equipment is necessary. Recently, resin suppliers have continued to develop
more environmentally friendly resins with lower styrene
contents and to support the transition to closed-mold
technologies.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Low capital costs

Health and safety issues

Low cost tooling

Low fiber content (up to

25 vol%)

Unlimited part size

High void content (up to

10 vol%)

Wide range of resins and

reinforcements can be used

Shrinkage (due to high

resin content)
Part quality dependent
on operator skill

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Spray application of GRP. Handheld gun (a) chops
continuous glass fiber strands, mixes fibers with catalyzed
polyester resin, and then sprays the mixture onto mold surface (b). Subsequent manual consolidation is required before
cure.

Vacuum Bag Molding. Very significant improvements in

composite laminate quality are obtained if consolidation
pressure can be applied during the cure cycle. In contact molding, this is readily achieved by sealing a flexible
polymeric sheet (usually nylon) to the mold tool and evacuating the space inside. This has the effect of applying a
consolidating pressure of up to 1 bar on the laminate and
also facilitates the removal of trapped air, moisture, or
other volatile constituents. (It follows that the application
of vacuum to resins containing styrene should be done
with extreme caution, since the result could be an increase
rather than a decrease in void content as the styrene is
removed from solution.)
If a laminate is to be cured under vacuum, steps must
be taken to control the flow of resin. Figure 7 shows a
typical vacuum bag assemblythere are many variants
on this arrangement and only the essential components
are shown. A porous peel ply (labeled bleed out fabric in
Fig. 7) is first placed over the laminate. This allows excess
resin to flow through and gives a uniform surface finish
on the back of the component. If significant resin flow is

expected, an absorption layer is next, typically a nonwoven

polyester mat. A release film then prevents resin from
percolating any further through the assembly, although
it should still allow the passage of air and/or volatiles.
The final layer is the breather, which is another highly
porous mat or felt, responsible for ensuring that the air is
extracted from the entire part. A polymeric vacuum bag
is sealed to the edges of the mold tool and fitted with
attachments for connection to the vacuum pump. All these
components are referred to as ancillary or consumable
materials. Reusable silicone rubber can sometimes be used
for the vacuum bag, but generally all the components are
used only once.
Compared to wet layup, a different skill set is required
for satisfactory vacuum bag assembly. The operators must
ensure that all the consumable materials conform to the
mold shape (to avoid bridging across internal features
and consequent poor consolidation) and that the vacuum
bag is free of leaksthese may occur at the seal or vacuum
line connections, or through damage to the bag itself. Mold
tools for vacuum bagging are similar in concept to those
used for wet layup; however, they must not be porous and
should incorporate sufficient flange area for vacuum bag
attachment.
The concept of vacuum consolidation can be applied
to a variety of shapes. For example, a hollow shape with
molded outer surface can be produced by making a tubular
nylon bag, inserting it through the tool and resealing on
the outside. When the bag is evacuated, pressure is exerted
on the inner mold surface. Similarly, a tubular bag can
be inflated inside a hollow mold to give a consolidating
pressure.
Vacuum bag molding is commonly used with laminates assembled from a prepreg. The layup procedure
is generally much slower than wet layup, often because
prepregs are relatively thin and also because greater care
is taken with fiber positioning and consolidation. To ensure
good consolidation, especially on thick laminates, it may
be necessary to schedule regular debulk periods in the
layup process. After each multiple of three to five plies
have been placed on the tool, a temporary vacuum bag
assembly (which, with care, can be reused) is applied and
allowed to preconsolidate the laminate for up to 30 min.
An important feature of a prepreg is its resin content
(typically 3040 wt%). This affects its tack and drape.
Many prepreg systems are supplied as low or net resin
contentthis means that very little resin is wasted in the
consolidation and cure cycle, but with little resin flow, it
can be more difficult to eliminate voids.
A low cost alternative to fully impregnated prepregs
is the semipreg material. This is used in a very similar
way to prepregs, but the manufacturing process is sometimes called resin film infusion. Semipregs are cheaper
than prepregs because the resin exists as a thin film sandwiched between layers of reinforcement. This means that
particular care must be taken with the assembly of the
vacuum bag to ensure the extraction of the additional air,
which cannot be removed during lamination.

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Vacuum

Bagging film
Breather fabric
Release film (pinholed)
Absorption fabric
Bleed out fabric
Figure 7. Schematic layout of vacuum bagging consumables. Not all the materials
illustrated are always used; for example,
the absorption and breather fabrics may
be combined in a single layer. Source: Diagram courtesy Tygavac Advanced Materials,
Rochdale, UK.

Prepreg layup
Release fabric or film
Tool

Advantages

Disadvantages

Moderate capital costs

Highly controlled fiber : resin
ratios if using prepreg

Labor intensive
Bagging procedure is
difficult on complex
shapes
Tooling requires more
careful design
Oven may be required for
curing
Epoxy resin may require
long cure cycles
Cost of ancillary
materials

High fiber content (5060%)

Low void content (23%)
Reduced health and safety
issues with prepreg
Automated layup possible in
some cases

Sealant tape

General purpose PS tape

Autoclave pressure
Autoclave pressure shell

Composite laminate
Vacuum bag
Bag seal
Autoclave tool
Vacuum

Vacuum bag/autoclave molding process

Figure 8. Schematic showing vacuum bag assembly inside an

autoclave.

Autoclave Molding. The autoclave is essentially a

large heated pressure vessel. Its use can provide
laminate consolidation pressures of up to 10 bar
or more, thus increasing fiber content and reducing
void content. It also provides a controlled thermal environment for the resin cure cycle. Figure 8
shows a vacuum-bagged laminate assembly inside
the autoclave. The vacuum line is connected to an
external vacuum pump; once pressure is applied
inside the vessel, the vacuum line is commonly
vented to atmosphere. Heat is usually supplied
by electrical resistance heaters or gas burner heat
exchangers, although some designs may use circulating steam or hot oil. Pressurization may be done
with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen) to avoid the risk of
fire.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Highly controlled fiber : resin

ratios if using prepreg

As for vacuum bagging

above, plus:

Very high fiber content

(6070%)

Very high capital and

running costs

Low void content (<1%)

Storage costs of
refrigerated prepreg

Out-of-Autoclave Technologies. Autoclave molding

has become the standard manufacturing method for
aerospace quality structural composite components. As
civil aircraft have increased in size and the applications
for composites have grown, the autoclave has become
bigger and more complex (Fig. 9). Aerospace composites
are also being used increasingly in the form of thick
laminates, in excess of 100 mm, resulting in extremely
long layup and consolidation times. The early years of
the twenty-first century have thus seen considerable
efforts devoted to finding lower cost alternatives to the
autoclave which do not compromise laminate quality. One
major route is in the adoption of various liquid composite
molding (LCM) technologies (see the sections titled Resin
Infusion and Resin Transfer Molding). The other has
been the development of out-of-autoclave (OoA) or
vacuum-bag-only (VBO) prepregs. These are capable of
producing autoclave-quality laminates (in terms of fiber
and void content) when cured only with vacuum pressure.
Generally, however, they require rather longer cure cycles
and particular arrangements of the vacuum bagging
consumables to allow edge breathing, which is essential
to remove trapped air and volatiles [4]. Technologies
are advancing rapidly in this field, including alternative
heating methods such as microwaves, and a number of
OoA prepregs are now qualified for aerospace use.

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Figure 9. The worlds largest autoclave (as of 2010) built by

ASC Process Systems, Valencia, CA, USA, for the manufacture of
Boeing 787 fuselage sections. Inside diameter: 9.3 m and overall
length: 34.5 m.

Resin Infusion. Resin infusion was mentioned in

the introduction as a relatively recent (or possibly
rediscovered) process of interest to many sectors of the
manufacturing industry. Variants have been adopted
as a lower cost alternative to autoclave molding, while
producers in the GRP sector are using the technology to improve part quality and to reduce styrene
emissions.
Resin infusion is one of a number of processes generally known as liquid composite molding (LCM). The
basic principle is that the mold is first loaded with dry
reinforcement, either laminated in the tool or externally
preformed. The mold cavity is sealed and liquid resin is
introduced either by positive pressure, internal vacuum,
or a combination of the two. Resin infusion relies only on
a vacuum and uses very similar ancillary materials and
tooling to those described in the section titled Vacuum
Bag Molding above. A typical process schematic is shown
in (Fig. 10). Dry reinforcement is sealed within a polymeric
bag, and the application of a vacuum draws in premixed
liquid resin. When the reinforcement is fully saturated,
inlet lines are clamped, and the laminate is held under
vacuum until the cure is complete.
The success of resin infusion depends firstly on the use
of the correct raw materials. The fiber reinforcement must
be sufficiently permeable to allow the resin to fill the mold
and to fully wet-out the individual filaments. The resin
itself must possess the correct viscosity characteristics to
infuse the fibers in a reasonable time. Yet again, there is
no substitute for close cooperation between manufacturer
and material suppliers. The second factor concerns the control of resin flow inside the vacuum bagreinforcements
usually have too low a permeability to allow in-plane resin
flow over large distances, so a permeable resin distribution medium is often used on top of the reinforcement
(Fig. 10). This allows rapid resin flow over the surface of
the reinforcement, followed by slower infusion through the

Figure 10. Schematic layout of ancillary materials used in vacuum resin infusion. Note that the resin distribution mesh stops
short of the vacuum takeoff to ensure that resin fully penetrates
the stack of dry reinforcement.

thickness. Resin infusion is widely used in the manufacture of sandwich structures, and there are now several
specific forms of foam and balsa core materials that
incorporate flow channels to encourage resin distribution; this may obviate the need for a separate distribution
medium.
Process design and control for the production of large
components requires considerable planning with regard
to the delivery and distribution of large quantities of
liquid resin. The rate at which resin will flow between
two points through a porous medium depends on the
pressure gradient, so the further the resin front travels
from an inlet, the slower it gets. It is often necessary
to incorporate several inlet lines and vacuum connection points and to monitor and manage these during
the fill process. Figure 11a shows the resin infusion
of a large and complex boat hull, which incorporates
a number of automated resin flow and pressure control
systems.
Low viscosity resins formulated for LCM processes
are relatively brittle due to their shorter molecular
length. Many aerospace-grade epoxy systems require a
toughening thermoplastic additive, but this adversely
affects the flow properties. One solution is to attach a
soluble thermoplastic binder to the fiber preform, which
is incorporated into the resin matrix as the polymer flows
through the molding.
Aircraft manufacturers have combined resin infusion
with autoclave consolidation. Dassault Aviation began
using autoclave-assisted resin infusion in 2004 and
demonstrated its use on a complex integrated subscale
business jet wingbox as part of the EU Framework
VI ALCAS programme [5]. The schematic in Fig. 11b
is largely self-explanatory; autoclave pressure, applied
after resin infusion, achieved fiber content in excess of
60 vol%. The complex part (incorporating skin, stiffeners, and spars; Fig. 11c) was produced in a single
operation.

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Advantages for GRP

Disadvantages of GRP

Greatly improved health and

safety over wet layup

Higher quality tooling

required

Lower resin content laminates Operator retraining may

be required
Low void content

Cost of ancillary
materials

Reduced material waste

More expensive raw

materials may be
required

Faster layup
Advantages for Advanced
Composites

Disadvantages for
Advanced Composites

Materials cost savings

(compared to prepreg)

Laminate properties
reduced compared to
autoclave

No prepreg refrigeration costs Low viscosity resins may

lack toughness
No autoclave capital or
running costs

Unsuitable for
honeycomb-cored
structures

Familiar with vacuum

bagging techniques
Faster layup and preforming
of reinforcement, especially
for thick laminates

Matched Molding Processes

Matched molding is used where production runs can justify the necessary capital expenditure in permanent, rigid
mold tools, or when molding tolerances and/or surface
finish cannot be achieved in contact molding. Relatively
high capital expenditure is required for a dedicated press
and for robust tooling to withstand the higher pressures
involved.
Compression Molding. The variants of compression
molding differ mostly in terms of the molding materials
used. A hydraulic press incorporates a matched (male and
female) mold tool set (Fig. 12). The tools may have integral
heating, or be placed between heated platens in the press.
The molds are usually steel to withstand the high closing
forces (up to several hundred tonnes) involved.
In preform molding, the open mold cavity is loaded
with a shaped arrangement of the reinforcement to be
usedthis preform may be assembled in the tool or
more likely molded or sprayed off-line. In spray methods, fibers are chopped and sprayed together with a
binder against a screen. Alternatively, a fiber preform
can be stitched or otherwise assembled from precut fabrics. Liquid resin is added, usually manually, to the mold
cavity, then the press is closed and the part cured under
pressure.

SMC and BMC materials are widely used in compression molding. The former material has more and longer
glass fiber reinforcement, and both contain a cocktail of
fillers and additives to facilitate the molding process. Both
materials are based on polyester resins and are, of course,
already catalyzed, so they have a limited shelf life. Materials are formulated to give rapid cure, and molding cycle
times of a few minutes are possible at process temperatures of around 150 C. These short cycle times mean that
compression molded parts are suitable for low to medium
series automotive parts, such as body panels and doors.
Compression molding in matched metal tooling has been
used with continuous fiber prepregs, although it is difficult
to amortize the cost of tooling unless the products are of
particularly high added value or cannot be molded in any
other way.
Advantages

Disadvantages

All exterior surface molded

High capital costs for

equipment and tooling

Complex and net shapes

possible

Limited shelf life and

properties of SMC/BMC

High production rates

Size limitation (23 m)

Low labor costs

Resin Transfer Molding. RTM is an LCM process. The

distinction between RTM and resin infusion is that the
dimensions of the mold cavity are fixed, and liquid resin
is driven into it mainly by positive pressure, although
some processes also evacuate the mold cavity to improve
part quality. Resin injection occurs at modest pressures
(typically 25 bar) compared to thermoplastic injection
molding; nevertheless, mold opening forces can be very
high, and detailed attention must be paid to methods
of sealing, venting air displaced by flowing resin, and
clamping. RTM mold tools can be operated within a
hydraulic press or can incorporate individual clamping
devices.
The schematic in Fig. 13a represents an injection
machine with in-line mixing of the components of the
resin system. It should be appreciated that the mix ratios
of polyester resin and catalyst are very different from those
of, for example, epoxy resin and hardener, so static mixing
equipment should be specified and tested with care. If
the injection system incorporates a positive displacement
pump, then a mold inlet sensor must be incorporated to
avoid excessive back pressures. As an alternative, resin
can be premixed and injected as a batch. Commercial
equipment is, of course, fully instrumented and includes
systems for self-cleaning at the end of the injection
cycle.
In contrast to compression molding, RTM tools are
often made from composite, usually with a steel backing
structure (Fig. 13b). This enables complex mold shapes
to be formed relatively cheaply, and they often incorporate integral heating. Metal (or metal-faced) tools are used
for higher production runs or where tighter dimensional

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

(a)

(b)

Rib foot

Rib 0 (R0)

Stiffener

Spar

Rib 5 (R5)

Vertical
stiffener
(c)

Figure 11. (a) Resin infusion of Princess 105 (32 m) motor yacht hull. The extent of resin flow
at this stage is shown by the darker area along the keel region. Source: Photo courtesy Princess
Yachts International, Plymouth, UK. (b) Schematic of autoclave-assisted resin infusion. Source:
Reproduced with permission from Dassault Aviation, Paris, France. (c) Integrated subscale
wingbox components for business jet, produced by autoclave-assisted resin infusion. Source:
Reproduced with permission from Dassault Aviation, Paris, France.

tolerances or high curing temperatures are required. The

design and manufacture of an industrial mold is a specialist activity and may require careful consideration of
resin flow paths within the mold tool, especially for high
fiber-content parts with low permeability. In contrast
to resin infusion, the progress of flowing resin within
the mold is not visible, and there is little that can be
done to intervene if the process is not progressing as
expected.
In advanced composites, RTM was originally used
where thickness tolerances could not be achieved using
prepregs, for example, aircraft radomes. The interest now
centers around RTM as an OoA process, and it has been
used in the manufacture of large structural parts such
as spars and ribs. In the GRP industry, RTM has all the
attractions of a closed-mold process and is often said to

fill a niche in low series production, where compression

molding is uneconomic. A lower cost variant of RTM is
known as Light RTM or RTM Light. This process has
lower tooling costs than RTM as it uses one rigid mold
face and a thin, semiflexible second tool (Fig. 14). The
mold tools are held together by a vacuum between two
edge seals on the lower tool. A lesser vacuum (i.e., closer
to atmospheric pressure) is applied to the mold cavity
itself, and the resin is pumped in under a suitably low
pressure (to avoid forcing the tool apart). It is recognized
that mold filling is very much faster if resin can converge
toward a vent, rather than diverge from a single injection
point. Hence, where possible, a flow channel is built into
the periphery of the mold, and the vacuum and catch pot
positioned centrally.

10

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Advantages for GRP

Disadvantages for GRP

Greatly improved health and

safety over wet layup

Higher cost of tooling

Heat and pressure

(a)

Female mold half

Lower resin content laminates Investment in injection

equipment
Low void content

Operator retraining may

be required

Reduced material waste

More expensive raw

materials may be
required

SMC charge

Faster layup
Advantages for Advanced
Composites

Disadvantages for
Advanced Composites

Materials cost savings

(compared to prepreg)

Low viscosity resins may

lack toughness

Heat and pressure

Male mold half

(b)

No prepreg refrigeration costs Unsuitable for

honeycomb-cored
structures
No autoclave capital or
running costs
Familiar with vacuum
bagging techniques
Faster layup and preforming
of reinforcement, especially
for thick laminates

Structural Reaction Injection Molding. Reaction injection

molding (RIM) involves the precise and rapid mixing of
resin components (usually polyol and isocyanate), and its
immediate injection into a closed mold. Polymerization
(resulting in polyurethane) occurs within 3060 s, giving
a typical product cycle time of 12 min. Structural reaction
injection molding (S-RIM) has some similarities with RTM,
in which the resin is injected into a fiber preform within
the closed mold. S-RIM should not be confused with R-RIM
(reinforced reaction injection molding), in which very short
fibers or other fillers are added directly to the resin mix.
S-RIM finds many applications in the automotive sector
(e.g., for bumpers and spoilers); cycle times are not as
rapid as for thermoplastic injection molding, but capital
costs can be lower due to the low viscosity of the resin
systems used.

Quickstep . The relatively recent Quickstep process

uses a novel approach to laminate heating and consolidation and achieves much faster processing times compared
to autoclave molding. The mold tool is surrounded by a
flexible membrane or bladder (effectively a vacuum bag)
and floats in a heat-transfer fluid. The temperature and
pressure of the fluid are controlled, and it is additionally
vibrated to consolidate the laminate, remove entrapped
air, and cure the part. Figure 15 shows an experimental installation in which flexible membranes above and

Figure 12. (a) Schematic of compression molding, using a charge

of SMC. (b) Commercial downstroking SMC molding press.
Source: Santec Exim Ltd, Delhi, India.

below the two mold halves are attached to separate pressure chambers, which are filled with the heat-transfer
fluid. During processing, the two pressure chambers are
bonded together. Additional hardware and control systems
are required for the storage, pressurization, heating, and
circulation of the heat-transfer fluid.
Considerable savings in cycle time are claimed for
Quickstep compared to autoclave molding. For example,
the company quotes a process cycle time of only 110 min for
a 180 C cure aerospace prepreg, compared to an autoclave
cycle of 300 min [6].

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

11

Pump

Mixing head
Vent

Fibre pack
Mold
(closed before injection)
Catalyst

Resin
(a)

(b)

Figure 13. (a) Resin transfer molding. Catalyst and resin lines are not drawn to scale. Source:
Schematic courtesy Magnum Venus Plastech. (b) Typical mold tool for RTM production of a vehicle
panel. Despite being a low pressure process, substantial steel backing structure and clamping is
used to ensure mold stiffness. Source: Photo courtesy Composite Integration, Saltash, UK.

Other Processes
Centrifugal molding and filament winding are essentially
contact molding processes, while pultrusion uses matched
molds. However, they have been included in this category as they are dedicated to specific geometrical shapes.
They require considerable capital investment but can produce a wide range of products to a high and consistent
quality.
Centrifugal Molding. Centrifugal molding is used for the
production of large cylindrical shapes (e.g. utility poles and
storage vessels) with a molded outer surface. A mixture of
resin and chopped fiber reinforcement is deposited on the
inside surface of a closed mold. This can be achieved by
a retractable arm. The mold is then rotated rapidly such
that centripetal forces consolidate the laminate while it
is curing (usually at room temperature, although smaller
molds may be heated). The mold is then split longitudinally
and the part removed (Fig. 16). In the case of a tapered
cylindrical section, it may be possible to remove the part
without dismantling the mold. The process is different to
rotational molding of thermoplastics, which involves the
relatively slow rotation of a closed mold, often about more
than one axis.
Filament Winding. Filament winding is a very mature
process and produces a wide range of moderate and high
performance parts, from GRP storage vessels and pipes to
rocket motor components.
There are many variations and sophisticated modifications, but in the basic process, a collection of fibers
is continuously wound helically around a rotating mandrel. In Fig. 17a, the fibers have been drawn from spools

mounted on a carriage which translates in the axial direction, parallel to the mandrel, as the winding progresses.
Before reaching the mandrel surface, the fiber tows are
drawn through a bath of resin and fully impregnated
with a controlled proportion of polymer. This is known
as wet winding. Alternatively, filament winding can use
prepreg, thus eliminating the impregnation stage. Resin
systems for filament winding require careful specification.
The viscosity should be low enough to allow impregnation of the fibers but high enough to avoid further flow
on the mandrel surface. The fibers are normally used in
untwisted form and need to be spread out to ensure good
impregnation. The fiber handling system also includes
tensioning devicesthis is required to provide a force to
consolidate the wet fibers against the mandrel surface.
Control over fiber orientation and deposition means that
filament wound laminates can achieve very high fiber
contentvalues of 6070 vol% are common.
More sophisticated machines provide additional axes
in which the mandrel and/or the fiber payout head can
move. This gives more control over the precise placement
of reinforcement on the curved surface of the mandrel,
and filament wound parts are not restricted to purely
cylindrical shapes. It is common for a product to be
manufactured with many layers of different orientations,
achieved by varying the combination of mandrel rotation
rate and carriage translation speed, in order to optimize
the structural performance. Nevertheless, the achievable
fiber orientations are strongly influenced by the geometry of the mandrel and the tendency of the wet fibers to
follow a nonslip path when under tension. For example,
in a tapered mandrel, the winding angle will increase as

12

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Outer vacuum seal

Perlpheral vacuum port

Central vacuum connection

and resin catchpot

Lightweight
steel frame

Inner resin seal

Semi flexible
upper mold

Latch
clamps

Resin inlet port

Fiber pack

Semi rigid heated lower mold

Heating pipes
(a)

Figure 14. (a) Tooling schematic for Light

RTM process. Source: Courtesy Magnum
Venus Plastech. (b) RTM Light tooling for
small dinghycompare mold backing structure with Fig. 13b. Source: Photo courtesy
Christensen Fiberglass Tooling, North Holland, USA.

the diameter decreases, and hence, the laminate thickness

will also increase (Fig. 17b). Low (axial) winding angles of
less than 10 20 are difficult, since there is little surface
curvature to provide consolidation. At the end of each pass,
the winding head must reverse direction and return, and
this leads to a buildup of laminate thickness at the ends
of the part.
After winding, the mandrel is removed from the winding machine. The resin may be cured in an oven or the
mandrel may be fitted with internal heating. Removal of
the composite part from the mandrel is straightforward
for simple tubes and cylinders, especially if a taper can
be incorporated. If the mandrel is steel, then the relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion helps it to
shrink away from the composite. In more complex parts,
especially those with closed ends, the mandrel can be
segmented, and hence collapsible, made from a variety
of disposable or dissolvable materials (such as foam or
plaster) or inflatable.

(b)

Advantages

Disadvantages

Low cost raw materials

Moderately high capital

costs

High fiber-content laminates

with high mechanical
properties

Accurate materials and

process control
required

Reproducible products

Limited range of
moldable geometries

Wide range of product size

Some design limitations

due to available fiber
orientations
Molded inner surface

Pultrusion and Pulwinding. Pultrusion is a continuous,

matched-die process for the production of constant
cross-sectional solid or hollow profiles. Fibers are pulled
from creels or spools, impregnated with resin, and cured
under pressure in a heated die. Resin impregnation

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

13

(a)

(b)

Figure 15. Quickstep process: (a) demonstration tooling and (b)

heat-transfer fluid system. Source: Photos courtesy Quickstep
Technologies Pty Ltd.

may occur in a resin bath outside the die; alternatively,

resin may be injected under pressure into the die cavity
(Fig. 18). A wide variety of cross sections may be produced, from small rods and tubes up to complex structural
sections of the order of meters in lateral dimensions. As is
apparent from the process description, the predominant
fiber direction is longitudinal, although off-axis fibers
and surface veils (for improved surface finish) can be
incorporated using appropriate mats or fabric.
Most pultrusions use polyester resins, which can be
formulated to cure rapidly in the short time that the composite is passing through the die. Their inherent shrinkage
is an advantage in releasing the profile from the die. Epoxy
resins are more difficult to process, since they tend to stick
to the die, and special surface treatments and/or release
agent additives are required.
The resin is required to at least reach its gel point
before the profile emerges from the die. It is possible
for cure to be completed while the profile is passing
through the die; if not, the profile proceeds through an
oven or other cure process such as microwave heating.
Resin cure is thus the principal rate-determining phase

Figure 16. Removal of centrifugally molded GRP silo from split

mold.

of the entire process. Typical production speeds are of the

order of 1 m/min.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Low cost raw materials

Moderately high
equipment capital costs

High fiber-content laminates

with high mechanical
properties

High cost tooling

Reproducible products

Accurate materials and

process control
required

High production rates

Limited to constant cross

section profiles with
generally longitudinal
reinforcement

Wide range of product sizes

Good surface finish on all
sides of product

Pulwinding is essentially a combination of pultrusion

and filament winding. Machinery can be added to a standard pultrusion machine which winds impregnated fibers

14

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

(a)

(b)

Figure 17. (a) Filament winding of large GRP pipe. The gantry to the right includes fiber
tension control and a resin wet-out stage. Source: Photo courtesy Magnum Venus Plastech. (b)
Demonstration winding of dry glass fiber tows on a noncylindrical shape. Both winding angle and
thickness increase as diameter decreases.

Guide
plate

Rovings

Resin
impregnator Surfacing
veil
Forming and
curing die

Pulling system*
Cutoff saw

Continuous
strand mat
Preformer

Figure 18. Pultrusion process schematic. *Caterpillar pullers (shown) or reciprocating pullers. Source: Courtesy Strongwell, USA.

over the top of a profile as it emerges from the die. The

process gives increased design flexibility and enables the
production of tubes and pipes with almost any combination
of fiber alignment.

Automated Methods of Manufacture

Composite manufacturing processes have been slow to
adopt automation, and many of the process variants
described above (particularly those in the section titled
Contact Molding) rely heavily on skilled labor input.
This is partly because the raw materials (fibers, fabric,
prepregs, vacuum bags, etc.) are not particularly easy
to handle by automated methods, especially on complex
geometries, and also because thermoset composites have

historically been produced in small numbers, and amortizing the high cost of automated equipment is difficult
unless the part is of very high value. Filament winding
is, of course, an early example of a semiautomated process, dating from the mid-twentieth century. Commercial
automated tape laying (ATL) machines were developed
in the early 1970s, shortly after the use of unidirectional
prepreg became widespread. These were large fixed bed
machines, used exclusively for the controlled deposition of
prepreg tape for flat and gently curved aircraft laminates.
In recent ATL machines, the tape is cut to shape as it
passes through the multiaxis delivery head and applied to
the tool with compaction pressure (Fig. 19). Alternatively,
prepreg can be cut to shape off-line, respooled, and then
transferred to a laying machine that places the plies in

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

15

manufacturing process, generate laminate descriptions for

structural analysis, and send CNC instructions to the tape
laying or fiber placement machine (Fig. 20).
Automation is another integrating technology that
helps address common manufacturing challenges across
all sectors of the composites industry. There are examples
of significant advances in the manufacture of wind
turbines, power boat hulls, and automobiles, as well as in
aerospace. Resin infusion and RTM in the GRP industry
uses customized injection machinery, incorporating
temperature and pressure control and integrated data
logging.

(a)

(b)
Figure 19. (a) Large tape laying concept for wind turbine blade
application (JEC Magazine, 2011). (b) Detail of prepreg tape
laying head. Source: Courtesy MTorres Aeronautics Division,
Murcia, Spain.

order and location. ATL machines may also incorporate

heating at the deposition head to improve compaction and
layup rates.
The search for cost reductions in composites manufacture has increased interest in dry fiber/liquid resin
processes, such as RTM and resin infusion. In many
industries, there is also the fear of a skills shortage as
well as the high cost of labor, and these factors affect
both advanced composite and GRP sectors equally. So
the challenges of automation have shifted toward the
manufacture of dry fiber preforms, using processes such
as automated fiber placement (AFP), through-thickness
stitching, and 3D weaving; the development of handling
and placing techniques; and the monitoring and control of
resin injection. The principal difficulties relate to geometrical complexity and sizein some applications, automation
is used to produce a flat prepreg or dry fiber stack, which
is subsequently preformed for manufacture.
The development of automated equipment goes hand
in hand with software. CAD packages now simulate the

Manufacture of Sandwich Structures

Sandwich construction (thin composite or metallic skins
either side of a relatively thick, low density core) is
ubiquitous in all sectors of composite applications. Large
increases in flexural strength and stiffness are achieved
at very low weights. Honeycombs, polymer foams, and
balsa wood are commonly used as core materials, and
for the sandwich structure to be effective, these must be
fully bonded to the skin laminates. Hand layup, vacuum
bag, and compression molding processes can all incorporate the core material as another layer in the laminate.
If there is sufficient polymer available in the composite
skins, the sandwich can be cobonded (all layers assembled
then consolidated and cured as a single laminate). If not,
an adhesive layer (paste or film) is added at the interface
between skin and core. The core material may be as much
as 100 mm thick and so has very little ability to conform,
even to modestly curved surfaces. Preshaping, involving
heat, machining, or tailoring may be required. Because
cores are low density, they also lack compression stiffness
and strength, and care is required to ensure that the core
is not crushed during the molding process, especially at
elevated temperatures. Aerospace laminates using honeycomb cores are often built in several stagesthe first
skin is laminated and cured (using autoclave pressure
if necessary), then the core is bonded to it using a film
adhesive and vacuum pressure only. The integrity of the
structure relies on the creation of a fillet of adhesive
between skin and honeycomb cell wall, so control of pressure and resin viscosity (via temperature) is essential.
In matched mold processes, polymers may be foamed in
situ, and the expansion of the core into the mold cavity
can provide the pressure necessary to consolidate the skin
laminate.
The use of porous core materials (e.g., balsa wood) in
vacuum-dependent processes also requires care. In vacuum bag consolidation, air may be drawn from the core
and result in voids in the laminate or disruption of the
skin/core bond. In resin infusion, the assembly should be
held under vacuum until the pressure inside the bag has
stabilized. A fully evacuated porous core, such as balsa,
can act as a sink for air entrained in the flowing resin
and hence reduce the ultimate void content in the skin
laminate.

16

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Figure 20. Screenshot of VERICUT composites application software. The software reads CAD
models of tools and fixtures and is able to simulate the layup process in a virtual environment.

THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Thermoplastic matrices have several attractions for
composite applications. First, being composed of long
molecules linked to each other by weak secondary bonds,
they are inherently much tougher than thermosets and
are of particular interest in situations where impact
and abrasion may occur. Second, the manufacturer has
little involvement in polymer chemistryhis or her task
is simply to shape and consolidate the material, so the
rate-determining part of the process is essentially one of
heat transfer. Third, thermoplastics can be repeatedly
reformed, giving considerably more latitude in the shaping
of complex geometries.
On the negative side, thermoplastics must be processed
close to their melting temperatures. These range from
at least 180 C for polypropylene to around 250 C for
polyamide (nylon). For the so-called advanced thermoplastics (which were developed as competitors for epoxy resins)
such as PEEK (polyetheretherketone), process temperatures are as high as 380400 C. This has major implications for tooling and ancillary materials. Thermoplastics,
even when molten, have much higher viscosities than
thermosets (a common comparison is chewing gum vs oil).
Complete wet-out of significant volumes of fiber becomes
difficult and requires a combination of high temperatures
and pressures. Many thermoplastics are non-Newtonian,
so shear thinning can be effective in reducing viscosity.
Injection Molding
Short fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composite parts are
produced in essentially the same way as unreinforced
thermoplastics, with little modification to the injection
machinery or mold tools. The raw material in the form
of pellets is fed from a hopper into screw barrel, where

the polymer is softened by electrical heating and mechanical friction. As the screw rotates, the molten polymer is
transferred at increasing pressure into a zone at the forward end of the barrel. The screw then acts as a plunger
and forces the molten polymer into the mold cavity. Pellets for injection molding of thermoplastic composites are
produced by coextrusion of matrix and chopped fiber reinforcement, which are then cut to a length of around
13 mm. Fiber length is typically 1 mm, and this may
be further reduced after injection and flow in the mold. An
injection-molded polyamide with 3040 wt% glass fibers
has a tensile strength of around 150 MPa, roughly double
that of the unreinforced polymer.
If fiber length can be increased substantially to the
range of 1050 mm, then mechanical properties can
increase by a further 50% or so. Pellets with longer
fibers can be produced by pultrusion or by crosshead
extrusion. The challenge here is to retain these fiber
lengths through the molding process and to minimize
the damage associated with mechanical heating and
flow under pressure. Specialist hardware such as screw
tip valves and enlarged mold gates and runners have
been developed to smooth the flow of molten composite,
resulting in injection-molded parts with up to 40 wt%
glass fiber at lengths of up to 15 mm [7]. The process is
used with a wide range of thermoplastics, polypropylene
and polyamide being the most common for LFT (long-fiber
thermoplastics). In-line compounding (Fig. 21) of fibers
and thermoplastic polymer can precede direct extrusion,
compression molding, or injection molding [8].
Prepreg Molding
Much effort was devoted in the 1990s to the development
of thermoplastic prepregs, that is, thin sheets of composite material, entirely analogous to thermoset prepreg in

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

17

Glass rovings

Polymer and
additives

Pressure

In-line
compounding/injection

Figure 21. In-line compounding and direct injection of

glassthermoplastic composite. Source: National Research Centre Canada.

terms of fiber content and orientation. These materials

have essentially infinite shelf life and in principle can
be processed in the same way as their thermoset equivalents. However, the materials have very different handling
characteristicsthey are stiff and boardy and have very
little ability to drape. While this characteristic can be
helpful for the automation of materials handling, it is
problematic for hand layup, even if the shape to be molded
is relatively flat. Some tack and drape can be achieved if
the prepreg is heated locally during layup, for example,
using a hot air gun or a soldering iron.
Alternatives to fully impregnated fibers are known
as comingled materials. Both the reinforcement and the
matrix are prepared in fiber form and then intimately
mixed into a single bundle. This hybrid strand can then
be woven or stitched into a variety of conventional fabric
forms. If the polymer fibers are thin enough, the resulting
fabric can have good drape and conformability. Alternative
material forms combine reinforcing fibers with powdered
thermoplastic.
Because processing temperatures can be significantly
higher than those for thermosets, specialist ancillary
materials may be required. For example, the polymer
Kapton has been used as a bagging material for the processing of fiber-reinforced PEEK thermoplastic at up to
400 C. These materials are expensive and can be as difficult to handle as the prepregs, in that they too are stiff
and difficult to shape. High processing temperatures also
have implications for mold designmaterials must be
selected which can withstand repeated thermal cycles at
high temperature, and consideration of thermal expansion becomes more important than for lower temperature
curing thermosets.
Although the processing cycle is potentially much
shorter than for thermosets, sufficient time and consolidation pressure are required for the viscous thermoplastic
to flow and fully coat all the reinforcing fibers, taking into
account the time necessary for mold tools to reach the
relatively high processing temperatures. Figure 22 shows
an experimental wind turbine blade section, including
integral shear web, molded by a vacuum bag inside a
matched aluminum mold tool [9].

Figure 22. Experimental integral wind turbine section, vacuum

molded from comingled glass fiber/polypropylene [10].

The application of thermoplastic composites in aircraft

structures has been driven partly by their inherent toughness and also by the ability to weld components after
forming. Fokker began using resistance welding, in which
a sacrificial metal mesh heating element is placed between
the parts to be joined, in the 1990s. For leading edge
components on the Airbus A380 aircraft, the same company used a thermoplastic semipreg material, consisting
of layers of woven glass fabric and PPS (polyphenylene
sulfide) film [11]. Hand layup techniques with vacuum
bag/autoclave consolidation were used, and although, at
up to 350 C, process temperatures are much higher than
a typical thermoset prepreg, the autoclave cycle is much
shorter.
Compression Molding
Different forms of compression molding have been adapted
from traditional thermoplastic methods. In Fig. 23, the
stack of reinforced thermoplastic prepreg is preheated
outside the mold tool, typically in an oven or by infrared
lamps. When softened, it is rapidly transferred to the
matched mold tool, where it is simultaneously shaped and
cooled. Again, the process cycle time is determined not only
by heat-transfer rates but also by the ability of the matrix
to flow and achieve adequate consolidation. This process is
sometimes referred to as stamping and is widely used for
the mass production of glass mat-reinforced thermoplastic
parts for automotive applications.
In hydroforming, one half of the matched tool set is
flexible. This achieved using a high temperature silicone
rubber, which, for simple shapes, is not necessarily shaped
exactly to the other (rigid) die half. When the mold closes,
the rubber tool conforms to the lower mold and exerts a
hydrostatic pressure on the composite. For more complex
shapes, the rubber tool can be cast to conform to the part
geometry.
In principle, heated tooling could be used in compression molding. However, this is often impractical, as it
is inefficient to thermally cycle a large mass of metallic
tooling.

18

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

Robot

Robot
Molding press
Preheater
Robot

GMT sheet
Figure 23. Schematic of glass mat thermoplastic (GMT)
press molding [12].

Molded components
Conveyor belt

Diaphragm Forming
Thermoplastic prepregs, especially those containing continuous fibers, have a tendency to wrinkle when they
are being formedthis is due to the relatively high melt
viscosity of the thermoplastic polymer. One solution has
been to cover the prepreg with a flexible diaphragm during forming. The diaphragm is an elastomeric sheet held
under tension in a frame; as the part is shaped by the die,
the diaphragm follows the geometry and prevents wrinkling. Advanced thermoplastic composites can be molded
in a double diaphragm process. Here, the prepreg stack
is encapsulated between two elastomeric sheets and the
gap between them is evacuated. The part is preheated,
normally using hot air or infrared radiation, and the
diaphragm assembly is stretched over a male or female
mold. In Fig. 24, a process schematic is shown which uses
pressurized air (e.g. in an autoclave). The use of a double diaphragm assembly is not limited to thermoplastic
prepregit has also been used for preforming dry reinforcement and thermoset prepregs. In a variation of the
resin infusion process (see the section titled Resin Infusion), a double elastomeric diaphragm is used instead of
a conventional vacuum bag. Once resin has been infused,
the entire sandwich is vacuum formed over a mold and
subsequently cured.
Resin Transfer Molding/In Situ Polymerization
RTM of thermoset composites relies on low resin viscosities to enable the matrix to permeate the reinforcement.
The melt viscosity of thermoplastic polymers is far too
high for RTM to succeed, unless the resin can be injected
before polymerization has occurred. A practical process

has been demonstrated, in which the monomer lactam is

combined with appropriate catalysts, activator, and solvent [13]. It is injected at only 2-bar pressure into the
mold cavity (heated to 250 C) while the viscosity is still
low, and allowed to polymerize to nylon-12 in situ. Mixing and temperature control are crucial, and the resin
constituents are held in a nitrogen atmosphere before processing (Fig. 25). The shrinkage of nylon is considerably
higher than, for example, epoxy resin, and variations in
the injection and tool compression stages may be required
to eliminate excessive voids in the composite. A commercial automotive application was demonstrated in 2010 [14].
Resin infusion of thermoplastic composites is also possible
and was demonstrated in wind turbine blade applications
as early as 2004 [15], using a cyclic form of polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT).

Pultrusion
Pultrusion of thermoplastic composites uses either comingled or fully impregnated fibers. As in pultrusion of
thermoset composites, the raw materials are drawn into
a heated die, but with thermoplastic pultrusions, postdie
cooling is necessary to maintain shape after forming. Tooling and machinery are generally different from those used
in thermoset processes, and successful mold design often
draws on thermoplastic extrusion technology to integrate
fiber preheating, thermoplastic melting, fiber wet-out, and
consolidation stages. Molds can be designed to incorporate additional reinforcement forms, such as overbraiding.
Depending on how the emerging profile is cooled, there is
also scope for postforming operations (Fig. 26) [17].

Pressure in an autoclave
Diaphragm

Diaphragm

Pressure

Clamp

Die
Figure 24. Diaphragm
[12].

forming

schematic

Laminate

Vacuum

Vacuum

Vacuum

Vacuum

Die
Laminate

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

N2

Toil
Tmonomer
Tliquid system
Those monomer
Tmix
Tbox
Pmax

Tmonomer

Vliquid system = 2 dm3

Toil

Vmonomer

19

= 170C
= 165C
= 20C
N2
= 200C
Tliquid system
= 180C
= 200C
= 10 bar Pump
= 25 dm3

N2

Valve

Tbox
Valve
Pump
Heater
Those monomer

Reactive
injection
machine

Valve
Mixing head
Tmix

Clamping
force

Final part
Injection point

Upper tool

Lower tool
Mold heating and
cooling conduits
(above and below matrix Tm)

Insulation

Activated monomer/
polymerising material
flow front through
fiber bed

Thickness changes,
ribs/stiffeners,
complex features

Figure 25. Resin transfer molding of thermoplastic polymer, with in-mold polymerization
[16].

Substrate
pyrometer
Nip point
pyrometer

Hot gas torch

Spool

Tow guide
Compaction roller

Figure 26. Example of twist postforming of a thermoplastic composite pultrusion. Source: Fibreglass Industries, NY, USA.

Mandrel

Figure 27. Filament winding of thermoplastic composite prepreg

tape, using localized heating and consolidation [19].

Filament Winding
Filament winding of thermoplastic prepreg requires the
application of local heating and consolidation at the point
of contact with the rotating mandrel (Fig. 27), so special
modifications are required for conventional (thermoset)
winding machines. Because the thermoplastic prepreg is
only molten at the point of contact with the mandrel, and
consolidation pressure is no longer dependent on fiber
tension, it is possible to wind profiles with reentrant or negative curvatures. As with other thermoplastic composite
molding technologies, online impregnation could lead to
faster processing cycles and reduced materials costs [18].
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is inevitable that an article on a technological subject
becomes out of date very quickly. At the time of writing,

the biggest challenges facing composites manufacture are

the rising cost of (mostly petroleum derived) raw materials
and, at least in the West, a perceived shortage of skilled
operatives and suitably qualified technical staff. At the
same time, the market for composite products is growing,
especially in civil aircraft and renewable energy. These
sectors are also demanding ever thicker monolithic laminates, which makes many of the traditional manufacturing
methods increasingly inefficient. The focus, therefore, over
the next few years is likely to be on the continued development of automation, both for increased production rates
and a reduction in labor content. This encompasses materials handling, preforming, and deposition, as well as
intelligent process control. Advances in software enable
the design engineer to simulate many aspects of the manufacturing process and to integrate these with the analysis
of in-service performance.

20

MANUFACTURE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES

To the dismay of some production engineers, new

materials will continue to make demands on the available manufacturing technologies. Nanoscale materials [20]
are just beginning to appear as reinforcement in structural composites, and their full potential for performance
enhancement can only be realized if the materials developers continue to work closely with the manufacturers. It
is not yet clear whether we can successfully adapt our current technologies or whether radical and novel approaches
to manufacture will be more fruitful.
The final challenge is education and training. We have
more graduate engineers that at any time in history, and
yet industry continues to speak of a skills shortage. Over
the last generation or so, composites have taken their place
alongside traditional materials in the university engineering curriculum, but we have been relatively slow to formalize the necessary training and qualification structure
for technicians. The future development of a competitive
manufacturing industry will require closer cooperation
between public and private training organizations and
national and international trade and industry bodies to
encourage and support present and future employees at
all levels.
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encyclopaedia of composite materials. Oxford, UK: Pergamon;
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FURTHER READING

6. Anon. Quickstep - the out-of-autoclave process for highperformance autoclave grade materials. http://www.
quickstep.com.au/files/files/113_306_Quickstep_Process_
Introduction.pdf Accessed 5 Jan 2012.

Tomas Astrom B. Manufacturing of polymer composites. London:

Chapman & Hall; 1997. ISBN: 0-7487-7076-3.
Rosato DV. Reinforced plastics handbook. 3rd ed. Amsterdam:
Elsevier; 2004. ISBN: 1-8561-7450-6.

7. RTP Company. Available at http://www.rtpcompany.

com/index.htm. Accessed 2012 Jan 5.
8. K-Tron, Pitman. Available at http://www.ktron.com/
industries_served/plastics/long_fiber_reinforced_thermoplastics.cfm. Accessed 2012 Jan 5.
9. Gardiner G. Wind blade manufacturing part II. High
Perfor Compos 2008. Available at http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/wind-blade-manufacturing-part-ii-arethermoplastic-composites-the-future. Accessed 2012 Jan 5.
10. Lilholt H, Madsen B, Andersen TL, et al., editor. Polymer
composite materials for wind power turbines. Proceeding
27th Ris International Symposium on Materials Science;
Roskilde, Denmark: Ris National Laboratory; 2006.
11. Thermoplastic composites gain leading edge on the
A380. High Perform Compos 2006;14(2). Available

Text Books
Brent Strong A. Fundamentals of composites manufacturing.
Dearborn: SME; 2008. ISBN: 0-87263-854-5.

Trade Handbooks and Guides

Gurit guide to composites.
composites.aspx

http://www.gurit.com/guide-to-

Hexcel Prepreg Technology. http://www.hexcel.com/Resources/

DataSheets/Brochure-Data-Sheets/Prepreg_Technology.pdf
Journals
High performance composites/composites technology. http://
www.compositesworld.com/
Professional boatbuilder. http://www.proboat.com/
Composites
in
manufacturing.
http://www.compositesmanufacturing.com/