Holidays in Cambodia

Compiled By Thearith EAT
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Festival In Cambodia
Contents
Preface
Lists of Cambodian Holidays
Lists of other Festival
1.
International New Year Day
2.
Victory over Genocidal Regime Day
3.
Meak Bochea Day
4.
Women Right Day
5.
Khmer New Year
6.
International Labor Day
7.
King Norodom Sihamoni Birthday
8.
Visak Bochea
9.
Royal Ploughing Ceremony
10. International Childrens Day
11. King Mother Birthday
12. Constitutional Day
13. Pchum Ben Day
14. Commemoration of Kings Father Norodom Sihanuok
15. Paris Peace Agreement Day
16. King Norodom Sihamoni Coronation Day
17. Independent Day
18. Water Festival
19. Human Right Day
Page
1
2
3
4
6
14
45
48
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102
107
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125
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155
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205
Other festivals
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Kite Flying Festival

Chinese New Year Festival
Hei Neak Ta
Mid-Autumn Festival
Qingming Festival/Chinese Grave Ceremony
Siem Reap Puppet Parde
Christmas
References
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Holiday is a salubrious-day of all the countries around the world that is now exploding in popularity.
From urban to rural retreats, more and more people are experiencing firsthand participant the
holidays and many ceremonies in their own country and abroad.
My own exploration of festivals began more than 10 years ago when I was a young. One of my
colleagues invited me to accompany him to Siem Reap province, Angkor Wat, he was training to destress his life. Curious about this gait called Holiday, I accept his invitation. The trip was started with
wonderful intention but I did not know clear about the history of that place. Because of interested with
this, I decided to compile a book called Holidays and its origin.
In this, Holidays and its origin, book, consists of Holidays and festivals in Cambodia and other
festivals that most Cambodians do in tourism sites such as Siem Reap, Phnom Penh, Kompot, Sihanuok
Vill, Kep, etc., With this achievement of the book, I have written nineteen holidays and festivals in
Cambodia and other seven festivals that always celebrated in interesting places in Cambodia with
282 page long. You should use this book in the same way you have been using another book or
internet to search for holidays/festivals and its background because it is useful for
learners/researchers.
Nothing is perfect. Mistakes always occur while compilation unless comments for constructing criticize
to me. Thanks for texting me eat.thearith@gmail.com
Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Dated: November 20, 2016
Thearith EAT
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Cambodian holidays and its origine

Name
Date
Remarks
New Year's Day
January 1
Celebrates the beginning of the Gregorian New Year
Victory Day
January 7
This national holiday was established to commemorate the end of

the Khmer Rouge regime in 1979
Meak Bochea
moveable
February
This national holiday was established to commemorate the

spontaneous gathering of monks to listen to the Buddha's preaching
International
Woman's Day
March 8
This national holiday was established to commemorate the brave

history of women around the world
Khmer New
Year
April 14
16
This national holiday was established to celebrate the New Year in

Cambodia. The holiday lasts for three days and is considered to be
the most important festival on the calendar.
Visaka Bochea
moveable
April or
May
This national holiday was established as a Buddhist observance

commemorating the birth, enlightenment and passing of the Buddha.
Labor Day
May 1
This national holiday was established to celebrate the economic and

social achievements of workers.
Royal Ploughing
Ceremony
moveable
May
This national holiday corresponds to the start of the planting season.
King Sihamoni's
Birthday
May 1315
This national holiday was established to celebrate the birthday of

HM King Norodom Sihamoni on May 14, 1953.
International
Children's Day
June 1
This national holiday was established to celebrate the memorial and

try to keep the children safe
Queen Mother's
Birthday
June 18
This national holiday was established to celebrate the birthday of

Queen Mother Norodom Monineath on June 18, 1936.
Constitution Day
September
24
This national holiday was established to celebrate the signing of the

Cambodian constitution by King Sihanouk.
Pchum Ben
Festival
moveable
September
or October
This national holiday was established for buddhist to pay their

respects to deceased relatives by cooking meals for monks and
making offerings to the "ghost" of deceased relatives. It is also
known as "Ancestor's Day".
King Father's
Commemoration
Day
This national holiday for Commemoration Day to the Royal Soul of

His Majesty Preah Bat Samdech Preah Norodom Sihanouk,
October 15
Preahmahaviraksat, King-Father of the Cambodian National
Independence, Territorial Integrity and Unity on October 15, 2012.
Paris Peace
Agreement Day
October 23
This holiday is to commemorate the Treaty of Paris on October 23,

1991.
Independence
Day
November
9
This national holiday was established to celebrate Cambodia's

independence from Francein 1953.
Water Festival
moveable
This national holiday was established to commemorate ancient
"October"
Cambodian navy soldiers under King Jayavarman VII during
orNovember the Khmer Empire.
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Human Rights
Day
December
10
This national holiday was established to commemorate the United

Nations General Assembly's adoption and proclamation of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Other Festivals and its origine

Name
Kite Flying
Festival
Date
Remarks
November
or
December
Exactly one month after the Water Festival, the Festival of Kite Flying
follows and brings together kite makers to demonstrate their talents
in the full-moon night of Maksir, the first month of the Khmer lunar
calendar, which usually falls in November or December. For Khmers,
the festival means an occasion to pray for good weather, good
harvest of crops, and a favorable situation free from destruction by
floods or heavy rains. In Khmer folklore, the kite has always
symbolized many things. A good number of locals hold the Festival of
Kite Flying annually and wish for peace, freedom, and happiness for
everyone.
The festival is held on a full-moon day in September every year. The

traditions had been almost disappearing in the long civil war. And
Silkworm Festival September the traditions were revived by the hands of the experienced elderly
women who slightly kept the memories. This is a festival to celebrates
Cambodia's long history of silk textiles.
Chinese New
Year Festival
Chinese New Year, or Spring Festival, has been broadly celebrated

in Cambodia thanks to the country's respect for cultural diversity and
close relationship between the peoples of the two countries. It is often
January or celebrated by Cambodian citizens regardless of ethnic background
February
as it if commonly believed that the festival brings luck. Lion dance or
"Mong Say" as referred by the locals is often seen throughout the
country and many businesses close down as family go home to spend
time with their families.
Hei Neak Ta
Known as the Hei Neak Ta, or Spirit Parade, the festival is held each
year to mark the official end of the Chinese New Year celebrations
in a uniquely Khmer manner. While the holiday is known as the
January or
Lantern festival in other parts of Asia, and is celebrated solely on the
February
15th day of the lunar calendar, festivities in Cambodia can go on for
three to four days and often feature elaborate parades with a wide
range of spirit mediums.
Mid Autumn
Festival
More commonly called "Full Moon Festival" by locals (as Cambodia

does not have an Autumn season). Cambodians organize the
traditional festival of prostrating the moon". In that early morning,
people start preparing sacrifices to worship the moon, including fresh
September flowers, cassava soup, flat rice, and sugar cane juice. At night,
or
people put the sacrifices into a tray, place on a big mat, and sit at
October
ease waiting for the moon. When the moon rises up over the top of a
branch, everyone whole-heartedly worships the moon, implores
blessings. After the ritual of worshipping the moon, the old take flat
rice to put into the mouth of children until they are entirely full in
order to spray for perfection, and good things. Although this is a
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Chinese festival, many Cambodians celebrate this festival as it is

believed that exchanging moon cake during this time is thought to
bring luck and prosperity. Among Cambodians, this holiday is
associated with Khmer beliefs of "Praying to the Moon" and the
Buddhist legend of the rabbit.
Qingming
Festival
Siem Reap
Puppet Parde
April
The Qingming Festival, also known as Tomb Sweeping Day (or

"Chheng Meng among the Khmer locals), is a Chinese festival when
people bring food and drinks to the graves of their ancestors. In
Cambodia, this festival is largely associated with Pchum Ben Festival
and is mainly a chance for people to pray for happiness, success and
promotion.
February
A festival celebrated in Siem Reap that commemorates the artistic

ability of the locals in the area. It shows a large display of giant
puppets as well as showcasing traditional shadow puppet plays. It
first began in 2007 and has since then gained widespread
popularity.
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1
New Year's Day
New Year's Day/International New Year
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
New Year's Day, also called simply New Year's or New Year, is observed on January 1, the first
day of the year on the modern Gregorian calendar as well as the Julian calendar. In pre-Christian
Rome under the Julian calendar, the day was dedicated to Janus, god of gateways and beginnings,
for whom January is also named. As a date in the Gregorian calendar of Christendom, New Year's
Day liturgically marked the Feast of the Naming and Circumcision of Jesus, which is still observed as
such in the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church. In present day, with most countries now using the
Gregorian calendar as their de facto calendar, New Year's Day is probably the most celebrated
public holiday, often observed with fireworks at the stroke of midnight as the new year starts in each
time zone. Other global New Years' Day traditions include making New Year's resolutions and calling
one's friends and family.
History
In Christendom, under which the Gregorian Calendar developed, New Year's Day traditionally marks
the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ, which is still observed as such by the Anglican Church and
the Lutheran Church.
Mesopotamia (Iraq) instituted the concept of celebrating the New Year in 2000 BC, celebrated New
Year around the time of the vernal equinox, in mid-March. The early Roman calendar
designated March 1 as the New Year. The calendar had just ten months, beginning with March. That
the New Year once began with the month of March is still reflected in some of the names of the
months. September through December, our ninth through twelfth months, were originally positioned as
the seventh through tenth months (septem is Latin for "seven," octo is "eight," novem is "nine," and
decem is "ten.")
The first time the new year was celebrated on January 1 was in Rome in 153 BC (In fact, the month of
January did not even exist until around 700 BC, when the second king of Rome, Numa Pontilius,
added the months of January and February.) The new year was moved from March to January
because that was the beginning of the civil year, the month that the two newly elected Roman
consuls - the highest officials in the Roman republic - began their one-year tenure. But this New Year
date was not always strictly and widely observed, and the New Year was still sometimes celebrated
on March 1.
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In 46 BC Julius Caesar extend year to 445 days (annus confusionis). The normal number of 355 days
had already been increased by the addition of the ordinary 23 days, inserted after February 23. As
many as 67 days, divided into two menses intercalates, were now interposed between November and
December. This year thus consisted of 15 months. After this year of confusion, the new calendar
really started. Since 153 BC, January 1 was the day new consuls in Rome took office and Romans had
commonly used the name of the two consuls to identify a specific year in question. Thus, by officially
making January 1 start the New Year, it simply lined up with the consular year. One proposed reason
for this switch is that January is thought by most to have been named after the god of transitions and
beginnings, Janus, during the reign of the second King of Rome, Numa Pompilius, who lived from 753
673 BC. Thus, it was naturally enough for the Romans to eventually decide to make the switch.
However, whether this is the reason or not is very much up for debate. There is no consensus on the
question. After Julius Caesar reformed the calendar in 46 BC as the Julian Calendar and was
subsequently murdered, the Roman Senate voted to deify him on 1 January 42 BC, in honor of his life
and his institution of the new rationalized calendar. Dates in March, coinciding with the March Equinox,
the Solemnity of the Annunciation of Jesus Christ, or other Christian feasts were used throughout
the Middle Ages as the first day of the new year, although their calendars nonetheless often
continued to display the months in columns running from January to December.
In 567 AD the Council of Tours abolished January 1 as the beginning of the year. At various times
and in various places throughout medieval Christian Europe, the new year was celebrated on Dec. 25,
the birth of Jesus; March 1; March 25, the Feast of the Annunciation; and Easter.
Among the 7th century pagans of Flanders and the Netherlands, it was the custom to exchange gifts
on the first day of the New Year. This custom was deplored by Saint Eligius(died 659 or 660), who
warned the Flemish and Dutch: "(Do not) make vetulas, [little figures of the Old Woman], little deer or
iotticos or set tables [for the house-elf, compare Puck] at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply
superfluous drinks [another Yule custom]. However, on the date that European Christians celebrated
the New Year, they exchanged Christmas presents because New Years' Day fell within the twelve
days of the Christmas season in the Western Christian liturgical calendar;[10] the custom of exchanging
Christmas gifts in a Christian context is traced back to the Biblical Magi who gave gifts to the Child
Jesus.
In 1582, the Gregorian calendar reform restored January 1 as New Year's Day. When the new
calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was
corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday, 4 October 1582 was
followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of
weekdays was not affected), So January 1 is after Winter Solstice 10 days now. Although most
Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian calendar almost immediately, it was only gradually
adopted among Protestant countries. The British, for example, did not adopt the reformed calendar
until 1752. Until then, the British Empire and their American colonies still celebrated the New
Year in March.
Most nations of Western Europe officially adopted 1 January as New Year's Day somewhat before
they adopted the Gregorian Calendar. In Tudor England, New Years Day, along with Christmas
Day and Twelfth Night, was celebrated as one of three main festivities among the twelve
days of Christmastide. There, until the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, the first day of
the new year was the Western Christian Feast of the Annunciation, on 25 March, also called "Lady
Day". Dates predicated on the year beginning on 25 March became known as Annunciation
Style dates, while dates of the Gregorian Calendar commencing on 1 January were distinguished
as Circumcision Style dates,[14]because this was the date of the Feast of the Circumcision, the observed
memorial of the eighth day of Jesus Christ's life after his birth, counted from the latter's observation on
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Christmas, 25 December. Pope Gregory christened 1 January as the beginning of the New Year
according to his reform of the Catholic Liturgical Calendar.
New Year's Days in other calendars. In cultures which traditionally or currently use calendars other
than the Gregorian, New Year's Day is often also an important celebration. Some countries
concurrently use the Gregorian and another calendar. New Year's Day in the alternative calendar
attracts alternative celebrations of that New Year.
African
Ethiopian New Year called Enkutatash. It is celebrated on September 11 (September 12 in leap

years). Ethiopia uses its own ancient calendar, which was based on the Julian calendar. The New Year
is the end of the summer rainy season.
The Odunde Festival is also called the "African New Year" is celebrated
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the United States on the second Sunday of June. While the name was
based on the Yoruba African culture, its celebration marks the largest African celebration in the
world, which more or less was started by a local tradition.
East Asian
Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey) is celebrated on April 13 or April 14. There are three
days for the Khmer New Year: the first day is called "Moha Songkran", the second is called "Virak
Wanabat" and the final day is called "Virak Loeurng Sak". During these periods, Cambodians often
go to pagoda or play traditional games. Phnom Penh is usually quiet during Khmer New Year as most
of the Cambodians prefer spending it at their respective hometowns.
Thai New Year is celebrated on April 13 or April 14 and is called Songkran in the local language.
People usually come out to splash water on one another. The throwing of water originated as a
blessing. By capturing the water after it had been poured over the Buddhas for cleansing and then
using this "blessed" water to give good fortune to elders and family by gently pouring it on the
shoulder.
Chinese New Year is celebrated in many countries around the world. It is the first day of the lunar
calendar and is corrected for the solar every three years. The holiday normally falls between
January 20 and February 20. The holiday is celebrated with food, families, lucky money (usually in
a red envelope), and many other red things for good luck. Lion and dragon dances, drums, fireworks,
firecrackers, and other types of entertainment fill the streets on this day.
Vietnamese New Year (Tt Nguyn n or Tt), more commonly known by its shortened name Tt or
"Vietnamese Lunar New Year", is the most important and popular holiday and festival in Vietnam, the
holiday normally falls between 20 January and 20 February. It is the Vietnamese New Year marking
the arrival of spring based on the Chinese calendar, a lunisolar calendar. The name Tt Nguyn n
is Sino-Vietnamese for Feast of the First Morning, derived from the Hn nm characters .
Japanese New Year is celebrated on January 1 because the Gregorian calendar is now used instead
of the Chinese calendar.
Korean New Year, called Seollal (), is the first day of the lunar calendar. Koreans also celebrate
solar New Year's Day on January 1 each year, following the Gregorian Calendar. New Year's Day is
a national holiday, so people get the day off while they have a minimum of three days off on Lunar
New Year. Koreans celebrate New Year's Day by preparing food for their ancestors' spirits, visiting
ancestors' graves, and playing Korean games such as Yunnori () with families. Young children
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give respect to their parents, grandparents, relatives, and other elders by bowing down in a
traditional way and are given good wishes and some money by the elders. Families enjoy the New
Year also by counting down until 12:00 am on New Year's Eve.
European
In the Gwaun Valley, Pembrokeshire, Wales the New Year is celebrated on January 13, based on
the Julian calendar. See New Year celebrations in Gwaun Valley.
Middle Eastern
Hijri New Year in the Islamic culture is also known as Islamic New Year (Arabic: Ras
as-Sanah al-Hijriyah) is the day that marks the beginning of a new Islamic calendar year. New Year
moves from year to year because the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar. The first day of the year is
observed on the first day of Muharram, the first month in the Islamic calendar.
Nowruz marks the first day of spring and the beginning of the year in Iranian calendar. It is
celebrated on the day of the astronomical vernal equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the
previous/following day depending on where it is observed. Nowruz has been celebrated for over
3,000 years by the related cultural continent. The holiday is also celebrated and observed by many
parts of Central Asia, South Asia, Northwestern China, Crimea and some groups in the Balkans. As
well as being a Zoroastrian holiday and having significance amongst the Zoroastrian ancestors of
modern Iranians, the same time is celebrated in the Indian sub-continent as the New Year. The moment
the Sun crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day is calculated exactly every year
and Iranian families gather together to observe the rituals.
Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish new year, is celebrated by Jews in Israel and throughout the world. The
date is not set according to the Gregorian calendar, but it always falls during September or October.
The holiday is celebrated by religious services and special meals. The night of December 31/January
1, the New Year according to the Gregorian calendar, is also celebrated widely in Israel and is
referred to as Sylvester or the civil New Year.
South Asian/India
Christians in India celebrate January 1 as the New Year according to the Gregorian
calendar. Catholic Christians also celebrate January 1 as The Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God,
the liturgical feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Diwali related New Years celebrations include Marwari New Year and Gujrati New Year.
Indian New Year's days has several variations depending on the region and is based on the Hindu
calendar.
Hindu In Hinduism, different regional cultures celebrate new year at different times of the year. In
Assam, Bengal, Kerala, Nepal, Odisha, Punjab and Tamil Nadu, households celebrate the New Year
when the Sun enters Aries on the Hindu calendar. This is normally on April 14 or April 15, depending
on the leap year. Elsewhere in northern/central India, the Vikram Samvat calendar is followed.
According to that the New Year day is the first day of the Chaitra Month, also known as Chaitra
Shukla Pratipada or Gudi Padwa. This basically is the first month of the Hindu calendar, the first
shukla paksha (fortnight) and the first day. This normally comes around March 2324, mostly around
the Spring Equinox in Gregorian Calendar. The New Year is celebrated by paying respect to elders
in the family and by seeking their blessings. They also exchange tokens of good wishes for a healthy
and prosperous year ahead.
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Malayalam New Year (Puthuvarsham) is celebrated either on the first day of the month of Medam in
mid-April which is known as Vishu or the first day of the month of Chingam, in the Malayalam
Calendar in mid-August according to another reckoning. Unlike most other calendar systems in India,
the New Year's Day on the Malayalam Calendar is not based on any astronomical event. It is just the
first day of the first of the twelve months on the Malayalam Calendar. The Malayalam
Calendar (called Kollavarsham) originated in 825 CE, based on general agreement among scholars,
with the re-opening of the city of Kollam (on Malabar Coast), which had been destroyed by a natural
disaster.
Nepal Sambat is the Nepalese New Year celebration, which also coincides with the Diwali festival.
The Sikh New Year is celebrated as per the Nanakshahi calendar. The epoch of this calendar is the
birth of the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak in 1469. New Year's Day falls annually on what is March 14
in the Gregorian Western calendar.
Sinhalese New Year is celebrated in Sri Lankan culture predominantly by the Sri Lankan Sinhalese,
while the Tamil New Year on the same day is celebrated by Sri Lankan Tamils. The Sinhalese New
Year (aluth avurudda), marks the end of harvest season, by the month of Bak (April) between April 13
and April 14. There is an astrologically generated time gap between the passing year and the New
Year, which is based on the passing of the sun from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha
Rashiya (House of Aries) in the celestial sphere. The astrological time difference between the New
Year and the passing year (nonagathe) is celebrated with several Buddhist rituals and customs that
are to be concentrated on, which are exclusive of all types of 'work'. After Buddhist rituals and
traditions are attended to, Sinhala and Tamil New Year-based social gatherings and festive parties
with the aid of firecrackers, and fireworks would be organized. The exchange of gifts, cleanliness, the
lighting of the oil lamp, makingkiribath (Milk rice), and even the Asian Koel are significant aspects of
the Sinhalese New Year.
Tamil New Year (Puthandu) is celebrated on April 13 or April 14. Traditionally, it is celebrated
as Chiththirai Thirunaal in parts of Tamil Nadu to mark the event of the Sun entering
Aries. Panchangam (almanac), is read in temples to mark the start of the Year.
Telugu New Year (Ugadi), Kannada New Year (Yugadi) is celebrated in March (generally), April
(occasionally). Traditionally, it is celebrated as Chaitram Chaitra Shuddha Padyami in parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka to mark the event of New Year's Day for the people of the Deccan
region of India. It falls on a different day every year because the Hindu calendar is a lunisolar
calendar. The Saka calendar begins with the month of Chaitra (MarchApril) and Ugadi/Yugadi
marks the first day of the New Year. Chaitra is the first month in Panchanga which is the Indian
calendar. Panchangam (almanac), is read in temples to mark the start of the Year.
Traditional and modern celebrations and customs
New Year's Eve
Sydney contributes to some of the major New Year celebrations each year.
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January 1 represents the fresh start of a new year after a period of remembrance of the passing
year, including on radio, television, and in newspapers, which starts in early December in countries
around the world. Publications have year-end articles that review the changes during the previous
year. In some cases publications may set their entire year work alight in hope that the smoke emitted
from the flame brings new life to the company. There are also articles on planned or expected
changes in the coming year.
This day is traditionally a religious feast, but since the 1900s has also become an occasion to
celebrate the night of December 31, called New Year's Eve. There are fireworks at midnight at the
moment the New Year arrives (a major one is in Sydney, Australia). Watch night services are also still
observed by many.
Regional celebrations
In European countries, the New Year is greeted with private fireworks.

On New Year's Day, people in certain countries gather on beaches and run into the water to
celebrate the new year. In Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States,
and the Netherlands this is very popular. These events are sometimes known as polar bear plunges,
and are sometimes organized by groups to raise money for charity. Polar Bear Clubs in
many Northern Hemisphere cities near bodies of water, have a tradition of holding organized
plunges on New Year's Day.
National celebrations
Happy Christmas and New Year card

Throughout Great Britain there are many celebrations across the island, particularly in Scotland.
In London, thousands gather along the Embankment on the River Thames to watch the fireworks around
the London Eye. The New Year officially starts when Big Ben strikes twelve.
In Scotland, there are many unique customs associated with the New Year. These form the Scottish
celebration Hogmanaythe Scotsname for New Year's Eve. The street party in Princes
Street in Edinburgh is one famous example.
In Wales, Calennig is celebrated, with celebrations attracting thousands of people to the
capital, Cardiff.
In Greece and Cyprus, families and relatives switch off the lights at midnight, then celebrate by
cutting the vassilopita (Basil's pie) which usually contains one coin or equivalent. Whoever wins expects
luck for the whole year. After the pie, a traditional game of cards called triantaena (31) follows.
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In Nassau, Bahamas, the Junkanoo parade takes place.

In the Philippines, New Year's is considered part of the Christmas holiday. Noise is made on New
Year's Eve with firecrackers and horns (amongst other methods) to dispel evil spirits and to prevent
them from bringing bad luck to the coming new year. Tables are laden with food for the Media
Noche (midnight meal), and a basket of twelve, different round fruits is displayed to symbolise
prosperity in each of the coming twelve months. Public New Year's parties are organised by city
governments, and are very well-attended.
In Russia and the other 14 former republics of the Soviet Union, the celebration of Novi God is
greeted by fireworks and drinking champagne. Because religion was suppressed in the Soviet
Union the New Year holiday took on many attributes associated with Christmasin other countries,
including Christmas trees, Ded Moroz (a variant of Santa Claus) and family celebrations with lavish
food and gifts. InMoscow, the president of Russia counts down the final seconds of the "old year".
The Kremlin's landmark Spassky Clock Tower chimes in the New Year and then the anthem starts. It is
customary to make a wish while the Clock chimes. The Old New Year is celebrated on January 13
(equivalent to January 1 in the "old style" Julian calendar). Although not an official holiday, it marks
the end of the holiday season and is usually when people take down trees and other decorations.
In Davos, Switzerland, the final match of the Spengler Cup ice hockey Tournament is usually held on
this day by tradition.
In the United States, it is traditional to spend this occasion together with loved ones. A toast is made to
the New Year, with kisses, fireworks and parties among the customs. It is popular to make a New
Year's resolution, although that is optional. In the country's most famous New Year celebration in New
York City, the 11,875-pound (5,386-kg), 12-foot-diameter (3.7-m) Times Square Ball located high
above One Times Square is lowered starting at 11:59 pm, with a countdown from sixty seconds until
one second, when it reaches the bottom of its tower. The arrival of the New Year is announced at the
stroke of midnight with fireworks, music and a live celebration that is broadcast worldwide. (Hundreds
of local imitations of the ball drop also occur throughout the United States.)
In France, some regard the weather as the prediction of that year: wind blowing east, fruit will yield;
wind blowing west, fish and livestock will be bumper; wind blowing south, there will be good weather
all year round and wind blowing north, there will be crop failure. People would like to toast for the
New Year.
In Spain, it is customary to have 12 grapes at hand when the clock strikes 12 at midnight. One grape
is eaten on each stroke. If all the grapes are eaten within the period of the strikes, it means good luck
in the New Year.
New Year's Day
The Annual Stoats Loony Dook held in Edinburgh, Scotland on the 1st January.
The celebrations held world-wide on January 1 as part of New Year's Day commonly include the
following:
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Parades
American football: In the United States, January 1 is the traditional date for many postseason college football bowl games, which are usually accompanied by parades and other activities
to celebrate the events
Football: In Europe, Association Football, where a Full Fixture programme is usually played throughout
the Premier League and the rest of the League/Non League system in England
Ice hockey, most famously the Winter Classic in North America, a National Hockey League game that
is played outdoors Concerts Entertainment, usually enjoyed from the comfort of home
Family time Traditional meals Church services an annual dip in ice-cold water by hearty individuals,
most famously by members of the Polar Bear Club
New Year's babies

A common image used, often as an editorial cartoon, is that of an incarnation of Father Time (or the
"Old Year") wearing a sash across his chest with the previous year printed on it passing on his duties
to the Baby New Year (or the "New Year"), an infant wearing a sash with the new year printed on it.
Babies born on New Year's Day are commonly called New Year babies. Hospitals, such as the
Dyersburg Regional Medical Center in the US, give out prizes to the first baby born in that hospital in
the new year. These prizes are often donated by local businesses. Prizes may include various babyrelated items such as baby formula, baby blankets,diapers, and gift certificates to stores which
specialize in baby-related merchandise.
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2
Victory over Genocidal Regime Day
January 7
Khmer Rouge
Pol Pot, leader of the Khmer Rouge and Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea, in 1978
Khmers rouges (French for "Red Khmers"; French pronunciation: [km
u]; Khmer: Khmer Kraham), more commonly known in English as Khmer
Rouge (/kmr ru/) was the name given to the followers of the Communist Party of
Kampuchea in Cambodia. It was formed in 1968 as an offshoot of the Vietnam People's
Army from North Vietnam, and allied with North Vietnam, the Viet Cong, and Pathet Lao during
the Vietnam War against the anti-communist forces from 1968 to 1975. Khmer Rouge emerged
victorious in the Cambodian Civil War, overthrew the military dictatorship of the Khmer Republicand
installed their own government Democratic Kampuchea in 1975, led by Pol Pot, Nuon Chea, Ieng
Sary, Son Sen, andKhieu Samphan. This was followed by the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until
1979, when Khmer Rouge was finally removed from power by Vietnam in the Cambodian
Vietnamese War. The military power of the Khmer Rouge organization was not broken however, and
a long era of guerilla warfare involving large swaths of the Cambodian countryside began, involving
many different military fractions and ending around 1994.
The Khmer Rouge organization is remembered especially for orchestrating the Cambodian genocide,
which resulted from the enforcement of its social engineering policies. Its attempts at agricultural
reform led to widespread famine, while its insistence on absolute self-sufficiency, even in the supply of
medicine, led to the death of thousands from treatable diseases such asmalaria. Arbitrary executions
and torture carried out by its cadres against perceived subversive elements, or during purges of its
own ranks between 1975 and 1978, are considered to have constituted genocide.
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The governments-in-exile (including the Khmer Rouge) held onto Cambodia's UN seat (with
considerable international support) until 1993, when the monarchy was restored and the country
underwent a name change to the Kingdom of Cambodia. A year later, thousands of Khmer Rouge
guerrillas surrendered themselves in a government amnesty. In 1996, a new political party,
the Democratic National Union Movement, was formed by Ieng Sary, who was granted amnesty for
his role as the deputy leader of the Khmer Rouge. The organization (Khmer Rouge) was largely
dissolved by the mid-1990s, and finally surrendered completely in 1999. In 2014, two Khmer Rouge
leaders, Nuon Chea and Kheiu Samphan, were jailed by a UN-backed court for life, which found
them guilty of crimes against humanity and responsible for the deaths of up to 2 million Cambodians
(Khmer), nearly a quarter of the country's then population, during the "Killing Fields" era between
1975-1979.
Name history
The term "Khmers rouges", French for "Red Khmers", was coined by Cambodian head of
state Norodom Sihanouk and later adopted by English speakers (in the form of the corrupted version
'Khmer Rouge'). It was used to refer to a succession of communist parties in Cambodia which evolved
into the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) and later the Party of Democratic Kampuchea. The
organization was also known as the Kampuchea or Khmer Communist Party and the National Army of
Democratic Kampuchea.
Ideology
The Khmer Rouge's ideology combined elements of Marxism with an extreme version of Khmer
nationalism and xenophobia. It combined an idealization of the Angkor Empire (8021431), with an
existential fear for the existence of the Cambodian state, which had historically been liquidated
under Vietnamese and Siamese intervention.[6] The spillover of Vietnamese fighters from the Vietnam
War further aggravated anti-Vietnamese feeling. The Khmer Rouge explicitly targeted the Chinese,
Vietnamese, and even their partially Khmer offspring for extinction; although the Cham Muslims were
treated unfavorably, they were encouraged to "mix flesh and blood", to intermarry and assimilate.
Some people with partial Chinese or Vietnamese ancestry were present in the Khmer Rouge
leadership; they either were purged or participated in the ethnic cleansing campaigns.
Khmer Rouge bullet holes left at Angkor Wat temple

The Khmer Rouge's social policy focused on working towards a purely agrarian society. Pol Pot
strongly influenced the propagation of this policy. He was reportedly impressed with how the
mountain tribes of Cambodia lived, which the party interpreted as a form of primitive communism; as
a result, those minorities received more lenient and sometimes even more favorable treatment than the
urbanized "bourgeois" Chinese and Vietnamese. Pol Pot wanted to remove social institutions and to
transform the society into an agrarian one. This was his way of "[creating] a complete Communist
society without wasting time on the intermediate steps," as the Khmer Rouge said to China in 1975.
The evacuation of the cities disproportionately affected Chinese and Vietnamese who were not
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accustomed to agricultural work, and therefore segregated from Khmers in labor camps, and
forbidden from speaking their own language.
The Khmer Rouge had a policy of state atheism.
Origins
Early history
The history of the communist movement in Cambodia can be divided into six phases: the emergence of
the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), whose members were almost exclusively Vietnamese,
before World War II; the 10-year struggle for independence from the French, when a separate
Cambodian communist party, the Kampuchean (or Khmer)People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), was
established under Vietnamese auspices; the period following the Second Party Congress of the KPRP
in 1960, when Saloth Sar (Pol Potafter 1976) and other future Khmer Rouge leaders gained control
of its apparatus; the revolutionary struggle from the initiation of the Khmer Rouge insurgency in
196768 to the fall of the Lon Nol government in April 1975; the Democratic Kampuchea regime,
from April 1975 to January 1979; and the period following the Third Party Congress of the KPRP in
January 1979, when Hanoi effectively assumed control over Cambodia's government and communist
party.
In 1930, Ho Chi Minh founded the Communist Party of Vietnam by unifying three smaller communist
movements that had emerged in northern, central, and southern Vietnam during the late 1920s. The
name was changed almost immediately to the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), ostensibly to include
revolutionaries from Cambodia and Laos. Almost without exception, all the earliest party members
were Vietnamese. By the end of World War II, a handful of Cambodians had joined its ranks, but
their influence on the Indochinese communist movement and on developments within Cambodia was
negligible.
Viet Minh units occasionally made forays into Cambodian bases during their war against the French,
and, in conjunction with the leftist government that ruled Thailand until 1947, the Viet Minh
encouraged the formation of armed, left-wing Khmer Issarak bands. On April 17, 1950 (25 years to
the day before the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh), the first nationwide congress of the Khmer
Issarak groups convened, and the United Issarak Front was established. Its leader was Son Ngoc Minh,
and a third of its leadership consisted of members of the ICP. According to the historian David P.
Chandler, the leftist Issarak groups, aided by the Viet Minh, occupied a sixth of Cambodia's territory
by 1952; and, on the eve of the Geneva Conference, they controlled as much as one half of the
country.
In 1951, the ICP was reorganized into three national units the Vietnam Workers' Party, the Lao
Issara, and the Kampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP). According to a document
issued after the reorganization, the Vietnam Workers' Party would continue to "supervise" the smaller
Laotian and Cambodian movements. Most KPRP leaders and rank-and-file seem to have been
either Khmer Krom, or ethnic Vietnamese living in Cambodia. The party's appeal to indigenous Khmers
appears to have been minimal.
According to Democratic Kampuchea's perspective of party history, the Viet Minh's failure to
negotiate a political role for the KPRP at the 1954 Geneva Conference represented a betrayal of
the Cambodian movement, which still controlled large areas of the countryside and which commanded
at least 5,000 armed men. Following the conference, about 1,000 members of the KPRP, including
Son Ngoc Minh, made a "Long March" into North Vietnam, where they remained in exile. In late
1954, those who stayed in Cambodia founded a legal political party, the Pracheachon Party, which
participated in the 1955 and the 1958 National Assembly elections. In the September 1955 election,
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it won about four percent of the vote but did not secure a seat in the legislature. Members of the
Pracheachon were subject to constant harassment and to arrests because the party remained outside
Sihanouk's political organization, Sangkum. Government attacks prevented it from participating in the
1962 election and drove it underground. Sihanouk habitually labelled local leftists the Khmer Rouge,
a term that later came to signify the party and the state headed by Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Khieu
Samphan, and their associates.
During the mid-1950s, KPRP factions, the "urban committee" (headed by Tou Samouth), and the "rural
committee" (headed by Sieu Heng), emerged. In very general terms, these groups espoused divergent
revolutionary lines. The prevalent "urban" line, endorsed by North Vietnam, recognized that Sihanouk,
by virtue of his success in winning independence from the French, was a genuine national leader
whose neutralism and deep distrust of the United States made him a valuable asset in Hanoi's struggle
to "liberate" South Vietnam. Advocates of this line hoped that the prince could be persuaded to
distance himself from the right wing and to adopt leftist policies. The other line, supported for the most
part by rural cadres who were familiar with the harsh realities of the countryside, advocated an
immediate struggle to overthrow the "feudalist" Sihanouk.
Paris student group
During the 1950s, Khmer students in Paris organized their own communist movement, which had little,
if any, connection to the hard-pressed party in their homeland. From their ranks came the men and
women who returned home and took command of the party apparatus during the 1960s, led an
effective insurgency against Lon Nol from 1968 until 1975, and established the regime of Democratic
Kampuchea.
Pol Pot, who rose to the leadership of the communist movement in the 1960s, was born in 1928 (some
sources say 1925) in Kampong Thum Province, northeast of Phnom Penh. He attended a technical high
school in the capital and then went to Paris in 1949 to study radio electronics (other sources say he
attended a school for printers and typesetters and also studied civil engineering). Described by one
source as a "determined, rather plodding organizer", he failed to obtain a degree, but, according to
the Jesuit priest, FatherFranois Ponchaud, he acquired a taste for the classics of French literature as
well as an interest in the writings of Karl Marx.
Another member of the Paris student group was Ieng Sary, a Chinese-Khmer born in 1925 in South
Vietnam. He attended the elite Lyce Sisowath in Phnom Penh before beginning courses in commerce
and politics at the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (more widely known as Sciences Po) in France.
Khieu Samphan, considered "one of the most brilliant intellects of his generation", was born in 1931
and specialized in economics and politics during his time in Paris. In talent he was rivalled by Hou
Yuon, born in 1930, who was described as being "of truly astounding physical and intellectual
strength", and who studied economics and law. Son Sen, born in 1930, studied education and
literature; Hu Nim, born in 1932, studied law.
Two members of the group, Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon, earned doctorates from the University of
Paris; Hu Nim obtained his degree from the University of Phnom Penh in 1965. Most came from
landowner or civil servant families. Pol Pot and Hou Yuon may have been related to the royal family.
An older sister of Pol Pot had been a concubine at the court of King Monivong. Pol Pot and Ieng Sary
married Khieu Ponnary and Khieu Thirith (also known as Ieng Thirith), purportedly relatives of Khieu
Samphan. These two well-educated women also played a central role in the regime of Democratic
Kampuchea.
A number turned to orthodox Marxism-Leninism. At some time between 1949 and 1951, Pol Pot and
Ieng Sary joined the French Communist Party. In 1951, the two men went to East Berlin to participate
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in a youth festival. This experience is considered to have been a turning point in their ideological
development. Meeting with Khmers who were fighting with the Viet Minh (and whom they
subsequently judged to be too subservient to the Vietnamese), they became convinced that only a
tightly disciplined party organization and a readiness for armed struggle could achieve revolution.
They transformed the Khmer Students Association (KSA), to which most of the 200 or so Khmer students
in Paris belonged, into an organization for nationalist and leftist ideas.
Inside the KSA and its successor organizations, there was a secret organization known as the Cercle
Marxiste (Marxist circle). The organization was composed of cells of three to six members with most
members knowing nothing about the overall structure of the organization. In 1952 Pol Pot, Hou Yuon,
Ieng Sary, and other leftists gained notoriety by sending an open letter to Sihanouk calling him the
"strangler of infant democracy." A year later, the French authorities closed down the KSA. In 1956,
however, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan helped to establish a new group, the Khmer Students Union.
Inside, the group was still run by the Cercle Marxiste.
The doctoral dissertations written by Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan express basic themes that were
later to become the cornerstones of the policy adopted by Democratic Kampuchea. The central role
of the peasants in national development was espoused by Hou Yuon in his 1955 thesis, The
Cambodian Peasants and Their Prospects for Modernization, which challenged the conventional view
that urbanization and industrialization are necessary precursors of development.
The major argument in Khieu Samphan's 1959 thesis, Cambodia's Economy and Industrial Development,
was that the country had to become self-reliant and end its economic dependency on the developed
world. In its general contours, Khieu's work reflected the influence of a branch of the "dependency
theory" school, which blamed lack of development in the Third World on the economic domination of
the industrialized nations.
Path to power and reign

KPRP Second Congress
After returning to Cambodia in 1953, Pol Pot threw himself into party work. At first he went to join
with forces allied to the Viet Minh operating in the rural areas of Kampong Cham Province (Kompong
Cham). After the end of the war, he moved to Phnom Penh under Tou Samouth's "urban committee"
where he became an important point of contact between above-ground parties of the left and the
underground secret communist movement.
His comrades, Ieng Sary and Hou Yuon, became teachers at a new private high school, the Lyce
Kambuboth, which Hou Yuon helped to establish. Khieu Samphan returned from Paris in 1959, taught
as a member of the law faculty of the University of Phnom Penh, and started a left-wing, Frenchlanguage publication, L'Observateur. The paper soon acquired a reputation in Phnom Penh's small
academic circle. The following year, the government closed the paper, and Sihanouk's police publicly
humiliated Khieu by beating, undressing and photographing him in publicas Shawcross notes, "not
the sort of humiliation that men forgive or forget".
Yet the experience did not prevent Khieu from advocating cooperation with Sihanouk in order to
promote a united front against United States activities in South Vietnam. As mentioned, Khieu
Samphan, Hou Yuon, and Hu Nim were forced to "work through the system" by joining the Sangkum
and by accepting posts in the prince's government.
In late September 1960, twenty-one leaders of the KPRP held a secret congress in a vacant room of
the Phnom Penh railroad station. This pivotal event remains shrouded in mystery because its outcome
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has become an object of contention (and considerable historical rewriting) between pro-Vietnamese
and anti-Vietnamese Khmer communist factions.
The question of cooperation with, or resistance to, Sihanouk was thoroughly discussed. Tou Samouth,
who advocated a policy of cooperation, was elected general secretary of the KPRP that was
renamed the Workers' Party of Kampuchea (WPK). His ally, Nuon Chea (also known as Long Reth),
became deputy general secretary; however, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary were named to the Political
Bureau to occupy the third and the fifth highest positions in the renamed party's hierarchy. The name
change is significant. By calling itself a workers' party, the Cambodian movement claimed equal status
with the Vietnam Workers' Party. The pro-Vietnamese regime of the People's Republic of
Kampuchea (PRK) implied in the 1980s that the September 1960 meeting was nothing more than the
second congress of the KPRP.
On July 20, 1962, Tou Samouth was murdered by the Cambodian government. In February 1963, at
the WPK's second congress, Pol Pot was chosen to succeed Tou Samouth as the party's general
secretary. Tou's allies, Nuon Chea and Keo Meas, were removed from the Central Committee and
replaced by Son Sen and Vorn Vet. From then on, Pol Pot and loyal comrades from his Paris student
days controlled the party centre, edging out older veterans whom they considered excessively proVietnamese.
In July 1963, Pol Pot and most of the central committee left Phnom Penh to establish an insurgent base
in Ratanakiri Province in the northeast. Pol Pot had shortly before been put on a list of 34 leftists who
were summoned by Sihanouk to join the government and sign statements saying Sihanouk was the only
possible leader for the country. Pol Pot and Chou Chet were the only people on the list who escaped.
All the others agreed to cooperate with the government and were afterward under 24-hour watch by
the police.
Sihanouk and the GRUNK
The region where Pol Pot and the others moved to was inhabited by tribal minorities, the Khmer Loeu,
whose rough treatment (including resettlement and forced assimilation) at the hands of the central
government made them willing recruits for a guerrilla struggle. In 1965, Pol Pot made a visit of
several months to North Vietnam and China.
Pol Pot received some training in China, which had enhanced his prestige when he returned to the
WPK's "liberated areas". Despite friendly relations between Norodom Sihanouk and the Chinese, the
latter kept Pol Pot's visit a secret from Sihanouk. In September 1966, the party changed its name to
the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). The change in the name of the party was a closely
guarded secret. Lower ranking members of the party and even the Vietnamese were not told of it
and neither was the membership until many years later. The party leadership endorsed armed
struggle against the government, then led by Sihanouk. In 1967, several small-scale attempts at
insurgency were made by the CPK but they had little success.
In 1968, the Khmer Rouge was officially formed and its forces launched a national insurgency across
Cambodia (see also Cambodian Civil War). Though North Vietnam had not been informed of the
decision, its forces provided shelter and weapons to the Khmer Rouge after the insurgency started.
Vietnamese support for the insurgency made it impossible for the Cambodian military to effectively
counter it. For the next two years the insurgency grew as Sihanouk did very little to stop it. As the
insurgency grew stronger, the party finally openly declared itself to be the Communist Party of
Kampuchea (CPK).
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The political appeal of the Khmer Rouge was increased as a result of the situation created by
the removal of Sihanouk as head of state in 1970. Premier Lon Nol, with the support of the National
Assembly, deposed Sihanouk. Sihanouk, in exile in Beijing, made an alliance with the Khmer Rouge
and became the nominal head of a Khmer Rougedominated government-in-exile (known by its
French acronym, GRUNK) backed by China. The Nixon administration, although thoroughly aware of
the weakness of Lon Nol's forces and loath to commit American military force to the new conflict in any
form other than air power, announced its support of the newly proclaimed Khmer Republic.
On 29 March 1970, the North Vietnamese launched an offensive against the Cambodian army.
Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealed that the invasion was launched at the explicit
request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea. A force of North Vietnamese
quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom
Penh before being pushed back. By June, three months after the removal of Sihanouk, they had swept
government forces from the entire northeastern third of the country. After defeating those forces, the
North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge also
established "liberated" areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country, where they
operated independently of the North Vietnamese.
After Sihanouk showed his support for the Khmer Rouge by visiting them in the field, their ranks
swelled from 6,000 to 50,000 fighters. Many of the new recruits for the Khmer Rouge were apolitical
peasants who fought in support of the King, not for communism, of which they had little
understanding.[30] Sihanouk's popular support in rural Cambodia allowed the Khmer Rouge to extend
its power and influence to the point that by 1973 it exercised de facto control over the majority of
Cambodian territory, although only a minority of its population. Many people in Cambodia who
helped the Khmer Rouge against the Lon Nol government thought they were fighting for the
restoration of Sihanouk. By 1975, with the Lon Nol government running out of ammunition, it was clear
that it was only a matter of time before the government would collapse. On April 17, 1975 the
Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh.
Foreign involvement
The relationship between the massive carpet bombing of Cambodia by the United States and the
growth of the Khmer Rouge, in terms of recruitment and popular support, has been a matter of
interest to historians. Some historians have cited the U.S. intervention and bombing campaign
(spanning 19651973) as a significant factor leading to increased support of the Khmer Rouge
among the Cambodian peasantry. However, Pol Pot biographer David P. Chandler argues that the
bombing "had the effect the Americans wanted it broke the Communist encirclement of Phnom Penh".
Peter Rodman and Michael Lind claimed that the US intervention saved the Lon Nol regime from
collapse in 1970 and 1973. Craig Etcheson agreed that it was "untenable" to assert that US
intervention caused the Khmer Rouge victory while acknowledging that it may have played a small
role in boosting recruitment for the insurgents. William Shawcross, however, wrote that the US
bombing and ground incursion plunged Cambodia into the chaos that Sihanouk had worked for years
to avoid.
The North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge, has also
been cited as a major factor in their eventual victory, including by Shawcross. Communist Vietnam
later admitted that it played "a decisive role" in their seizure of power. China "armed and trained"
the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward. The UN sided
with the CGDK, which included the Khmer Rouge, against the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of
Kampuchea.
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The regime
Rulers
The leadership of the Khmer Rouge remained largely unchanged from the 1960s to the mid-1990s.
The leaders were mostly from middle-class families and had been educated at French universities. The
Standing Committee of the Khmer Rouge's Central Committee during its period of power consisted of:
Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) (died 1998), "Brother number 1", General Secretary from 1963 until his
death, effectively the leader of the movement
Nuon Chea (Long Bunruot), "Brother number 2", Prime Minister, arrested in 2007, high status
made him Pol Pot's "righthand man", sentenced to life in prison on 7 Aug 2014
Ieng Sary (Pol Pot's brother-in-law) (died in custody awaiting trial for genocide, March 14,
2013), "Brother number 3", Deputy Prime Minister, arrested in 2007
Khieu Samphan, "Brother number 4", President of Democratic Kampuchea, arrested in 2007,
sentenced to life in prison on 7 Aug 2014
Ta Mok (Chhit Chhoeun) (died July 21, 2006), "Brother number 5", Southwest Regional
Secretary, final Khmer Rouge leader, died in custody awaiting trial for genocide
Son Sen (died 1997), "Brother number 89", Defense Minister, Superior of Kang Kek Iew.
Assassinated on Pol Pot's orders for treason.
Yun Yat (died 1997)
Ke Pauk (died 2002), "Brother number 13", former secretary of the Northern zone
Ieng Thirith, (died 2015) arrested in 2007, sister-in-law of Pol Pot, former Social Affairs
Minister, deemed unfit to stand trial due to dementia in 2012.
Life under the Khmer Rouge
In power, the Khmer Rouge carried out a radical program that included isolating the country from all
foreign influences, closing schools, hospitals, and factories, abolishing banking, finance, and currency,
outlawing all religions, confiscating all private property and relocating people from urban areas
to collective farms where forced labour was widespread. The purpose of this policy was to turn
Cambodians into "Old People" through agricultural labour.
In Phnom Penh and other cities, the Khmer Rouge told residents that they would be moved only about
"two or three kilometers" outside the city and would return in "two or three days". Some witnesses say
they were told that the evacuation was because of the "threat of American bombing" and that they
did not have to lock their houses since the Khmer Rouge would "take care of everything" until they
returned. People who refused to evacuate would have their homes burned to the ground and would
be killed immediately. The evacuees were sent on long marches to the countryside, which killed
thousands of children, elderly people, and sick people. These were not the first evacuations of civilian
populations by the Khmer Rouge; similar evacuations of populations without possessions had been
occurring on a smaller scale since the early 1970s.
The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and
forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was
forced to become farmers in labour camps. Cambodians were expected to produce three tons of rice
per hectare; before the Khmer Rouge era, the average was only one ton per hectare. The total lack
of agricultural knowledge by the former city dwellers made famine inevitable. Rural dwellers were
often unsympathetic or too frightened to assist them. Such acts as picking wild fruit or berries were
seen as "private enterprise" and punished by death. The Khmer Rouge forced people to work for 12
hours non-stop, without adequate rest or food. These actions resulted in massive deaths through
executions, work exhaustion, illness, and starvation. They did not believe in Western medicine but
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turned to traditional medicine instead; because of the famine, forced labour, and the lack of access to
appropriate services there was a high number of human losses.
Commercial fishing was banned by the Khmer Rouge in 1976, resulting in a loss of primary food
sources for millions of Cambodians, 80% of whom rely on fish as their only source of animal protein.
Money was abolished, books were burned, teachers, merchants, and almost the entire intellectual elite
of the country were murdered to make the agricultural communism, as Pol Pot envisioned it, a reality.
The planned relocation to the countryside resulted in the complete halting of almost all economic
activity: even schools and hospitals were closed, as well as banks, and even industrial and service
companies. Banks were raided and all currency and records were destroyed by fire thus eliminating
any claim to funds.
Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken
by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.
During their four years in power, the Khmer Rouge overworked and starved the population, at the
same time executing selected groups who they believed were enemies of the state or spies or had the
potential to undermine the new state. People who they perceived a sintellectuals or even those who
had stereotypical signs of learning, such as glasses, would also be killed. People would also be
executed for attempting to escape from the communes or for breaching minor rules. If caught,
offenders were taken quietly off to a distant forest or field after sunset and killed.
All religion was banned by the Khmer Rouge. Any people seen taking part in religious rituals or
services would be executed. Several thousand Buddhists, Muslims, and Christians were killed for
exercising their beliefs. The Khmer Rouge actively persecuted Buddhists during their reign from 1975
to 1979. The repression of adherents of Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism was extensive. And
according to Kiernan, the "fiercest extermination campaign was directed against the ethnic Cham
Muslim minority". The regime massacred nearly 25,000 Buddhist monks. Family relationships not
sanctioned by the state were also banned, and family members could be put to death for
communicating with each other. Married couples were only allowed to visit each other on a limited
basis. If people were seen being engaged in sexual activity, they would be killed immediately.
Almost all freedom to travel was abolished. Almost all privacy was eliminated during the Khmer
Rouge era. People were not allowed to eat in privacy; instead, they were required to eat with
everyone in the commune. All personal utensils were banned, and people were given only one spoon
to eat with. In many cases, family members were often relocated to different parts of the country with
all postal and telephone services abolished.
Language reforms
The Khmer language has a complex system of usages to define speakers' rank and social status.
During the rule of the Khmer Rouge, these usages were abolished. People were encouraged to call
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each other "friend" or "comrade" (; mitt), and to avoid traditional signs of deference such as
bowing or folding the hands in salutation, known as samphea.
Language was also transformed in other ways. The Khmer Rouge invented new terms. People were
told to "forge" (lot dam) a new revolutionary character, that they were the "instruments"
(; opokar) of the ruling body known as "Angkar" (, "The Organization"), and that
nostalgia for pre-revolutionary times (chheu satek arom, or "memory sickness") could result in
execution. Also, rural terms like Mae ( ; mother) replaced urban terms like Mak ( ; mother).
Many Cambodians crossed the border into Thailand to seek asylum. From there, they were
transported to refugee camps such as Sa Kaeo or Khao-I-Dang, the only camp allowing resettlement
in countries such as the United States, France, Canada, and Australia. In some refugee camps, such as
Site 8, Phnom Chat, or Ta Prik, the Khmer Rouge cadres controlled food distribution and restricted the
activities of international aid agencies.
Crimes against humanity
Skulls of Khmer Rouge victims.
Remains of victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Kampong Trach Cave,

Kiry Seila Hills, Rung Tik (Water Cave), or Rung Khmao (Dead Cave).
The Khmer Rouge government arrested, tortured, and eventually executed anyone suspected of
belonging to several categories of supposed "enemies", including:
Anyone with connections to the former Cambodian government or with foreign governments.
Professionals and intellectuals in practice this included almost everyone with an education, people
who understood a foreign language and even people who required glasses (which, according to the
regime, meant that they spent too much time reading books instead of working). Ironically, Pol Pot
himself was an educated man with a taste for French literature and spoke fluent French. Many artists,
including musicians, writers, and filmmakers were executed. Some like Ros Serey Sothea, Pan Ron,
and Sinn Sisamouth gained posthumous fame for their talents and are still popular with Khmers today.
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Ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, ethnic Thai, and other minorities in the Eastern Highlands,
Cambodian Christians (most of whom were Catholic, and the Catholic Church in general), Muslims, and
the Buddhist monks. The Roman Catholic cathedral of Phnom Penh was razed. The Khmer Rouge
forced Muslims to eat pork, which they regard as forbidden (arm). Many of those who refused
were killed. Christian clergy and Muslim imams were executed.
"Economic saboteurs" many former urban dwellers were deemed guilty of sabotage due to their
lack of agricultural ability.
Those who were convicted of treason were taken to a top-secret prison called S-21. The prisoners
were rarely given food, and as a result, many people died of starvation. Others died from the severe
physical mutilation that was caused by torture.
Examples of the Khmer Rouge torture methods can be seen at the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. The
museum occupies the former grounds of a high school turned prison camp that was operated
by Khang Khek Ieu, more commonly known as "Comrade Duch", together with his subordinatesMam
Nai and Tang Sin Hean. Some 17,000 people passed through this centre before they were taken to
sites (also known as The Killing Fields), outside Phnom Penh such as Choeung Ek where most were
executed (mainly with pickaxes to save bullets) and buried in mass graves. Of the thousands who
entered the Tuol Sleng Centre (also known as S-21), only twelve are known to have survived. These
survivors are thought to have been kept alive due to their skills, judged by their captors to be useful.
The buildings of Tuol Sleng have been preserved as they were left when the Khmer Rouge were
driven out in 1979. Several of the rooms are now lined with thousands of black-and-white
photographs of prisoners that were taken by the Khmer Rouge. In 7 August 2014, when announcing
convictions and handing down life sentences for two former Khmer Rouge leaders, Cambodian judge
Nil Nonn said there were evidences of "a widespread and systematic attack against the civilian
population of Cambodia." He said the leaders, Nuon Chea, the regime's chief ideologue and former
deputy to late leader Pol Pot, and Khieu Samphan, the former head of state, together in a "joint
criminal enterprise" were involved in murder, extermination, political persecution and other inhumane
acts related to the mass eviction of city-dwellers, and executions of enemy soldiers.
Number of deaths
Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia.
Various studies have estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly
between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and
the rest from starvation and disease.
The Cambodian Genocide Program at Yale University estimates the number of deaths at
approximately 1.7 million (21% of the population of the country). A UN investigation reported 23
million dead, while UNICEF estimates that 3 million had been killed. Demographic analysis by Patrick
Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed, while Marek
Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is a conservative figure. Researcher Craig Etcheson of the
Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with
a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After five years of researching grave sites, he concluded that
"these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution".
An additional 300,000 Cambodians starved to death between 1979 and 1980, largely as a result
of the after-effects of Khmer Rouge policy.
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Fall
Photo images of the Ba Chc massacre at a Vietnamese museum. The massacre was one of the events
that prompted the 1978 Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea.
On April 18, 1978, Pol Pot, fearing a Vietnamese attack, ordered a pre-emptive invasion of
Vietnam. His Cambodian forces crossed the border and looted nearby villages, mostly in the border
town of Ba Chc. Of the 3,157 civilians who had lived in Ba Chc, only two survived the massacre.
These Cambodian forces were repelled by the Vietnamese.
By December 1978, due to several years of border conflict and the flood
of refugees fleeing Kampuchea, relations between Cambodia and Vietnam collapsed. On December
25, 1978, the Vietnamese armed forces, along with the Kampuchean United Front for National
Salvation, an organization that included many dissatisfied former Khmer Rouge members, invaded
Cambodia and captured Phnom Penh on January 7, 1979. Despite a traditional Cambodian fear of
Vietnamese domination, defecting Khmer Rouge activists assisted the Vietnamese, and, with Vietnam's
approval, became the core of the new People's Republic of Kampuchea; the new government was
quickly dismissed by the Khmer Rouge and China as a "puppet government".
At the same time, the Khmer Rouge retreated west, and it continued to control certain areas near the
Thai border for the next decade.[65]These included Phnom Malai, the mountainous areas near Pailin in
the Cardamom Mountains, and Anlong Veng in the Dngrk Mountains.[66]
These Khmer Rouge bases were not self-sufficient and were funded by diamond and timber
smuggling, by military assistance from China channeled by means of the Thai military, and by food
smuggled from markets across the border in Thailand.
Place in the United Nations
Despite its deposal, the Khmer Rouge retained its United Nations seat, which was occupied by Thiounn
Prasith, an old compatriot of Pol Pot and Ieng Sary from their student days in Paris, and one of the
21 attendees at the 1960 KPRP Second Congress. The seat was retained under the name "Democratic
Kampuchea" until 1982, and then under the name "Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea".
Western governments voted in favor of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea retaining
Cambodia's seat in the organization over the newly installed Vietnamese-backed PRK, even though it
included the Khmer Rouge. Margaret Thatcher stated: "So, you'll find that the more reasonable ones
of the Khmer Rouge will have to play some part in the future government, but only a minority part. I
share your utter horror that these terrible things went on in Kampuchea." Sweden on the contrary
changed its vote in the U.N. and withdrew its support for the Khmer Rouge after a large number of
Swedish citizens wrote letters to their elected representatives demanding a policy change towards Pol
Pot's regime.
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Ramifications of Vietnamese victory
Vietnam's victory, supported by the Soviet Union, had significant ramifications for the region; the
People's Republic of China launched a punitive invasion of northern Vietnam and retreated (with both
sides claiming victory). China, the U.S. and the ASEAN countries sponsored the creation and the
military operations of a Cambodian government-in-exile known as the Coalition Government of
Democratic Kampuchea which included, besides the Khmer Rouge, republican KPNLF and
royalist ANS.
Eastern and central Cambodia were firmly under the control of Vietnam and its Cambodian allies by
1980, while the western part of the country continued to be a battlefield throughout the 1980s and
millions of landmines were sown across the countryside. The Khmer Rouge, still led by Pol Pot, was the
strongest of the three rebel groups in the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea which
received extensive military aid from China, Britain, and the United States and intelligence from the
Thai military. Britain and the United States in particular gave aid to the two non-Khmer Rouge
members of the coalition.
Photos of the victims of the Khmer Rouge.

In an attempt to broaden its support base, the Khmer Rouge formed the Patriotic and Democratic
Front of the Great National Union of Kampuchea in 1979. In 1981, the Khmer Rouge went as far as
to officially renounce Communism and somewhat moved their ideological emphasis to nationalism and
anti-Vietnamese rhetoric instead. However, some analysts argue that this change meant little in
practice, because, as historian Kelvin Rowley puts it: "CPK propaganda had always relied on
nationalist rather than revolutionary appeals."
Although Pol Pot relinquished the Khmer Rouge leadership to Khieu Samphan in 1985, he continued to
be the driving force behind the Khmer Rouge insurgency, giving speeches to his followers. Journalists
such as Nate Thayer who spent some time with the Khmer Rouge during that period commented that,
despite the international community's near-universal condemnation of the Khmer Rouge's brutal rule, a
considerable number of Cambodians in Khmer Rouge-controlled areas seemed genuinely to support
Pol Pot.
While Vietnam proposed to withdraw from Cambodia in return for a political settlement that would
exclude the Khmer Rouge from power, the rebel coalition government, as well as ASEAN, China, and
the US, insisted that such a condition was unacceptable. Nevertheless, in 1985 Vietnam declared that
it would complete the withdrawal of its forces from Cambodia by 1990, and it did so in 1989, having
allowed the government that it had installed there to consolidate its rule and gain sufficient military
strength.
After a decade of inconclusive conflict, the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian government and the rebel
coalition signed a treaty in 1991 calling for elections and disarmament. In 1992, however, the Khmer
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Rouge resumed fighting, boycotted the election and, in the following year, rejected its results. It now
fought the new Cambodian coalition government which included the former Vietnamese-backed
Communists (headed by Hun Sen) as well as the Khmer Rouge's former non-Communist and monarchist
allies (notably Prince Rannaridh). In July 1994 a "Provisional Government of National Union and
National Salvation of Cambodia" was established by Khmer Rouge authorities.
There was a mass defection from the Khmer Rouge in 1996, when around half of its remaining
soldiers (about 4,000) left. In 1997, a conflict between the two main participants in the ruling coalition
caused Prince Rannaridh to seek support from some of the Khmer Rouge leaders, while refusing to
have any dealings with Pol Pot. This resulted in bloody factional fighting among the Khmer Rouge
leaders, ultimately leading to Pol Pot's trial and imprisonment by the Khmer Rouge. Pol Pot died in
April 1998. Khieu Samphan surrendered in December.
On December 29, 1998, the remaining leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologized for the 1970s
genocide. By 1999, most members had surrendered or been captured. In December 1999, Ta
Mok and the remaining leaders surrendered, and the Khmer Rouge effectively ceased to exist. Most
of the surviving Khmer Rouge leaders live in the Pailin area or are hiding in Phnom Penh.
Memorialization
Cambodia has gradually recovered, demographically and economically, from the Khmer Rouge
regime, although the psychological scars affect many Cambodian families and migr communities. It
is noteworthy that Cambodia has a very young population and by 2003 three-quarters of
Cambodians were too young to remember the Khmer Rouge era. Nonetheless, their generation is
affected by the traumas of the past.
Members of this younger generation may know of the Khmer Rouge only through word of mouth from
parents and elders. In part, this is because the government does not require that educators teach
children about Khmer Rouge atrocities in the schools. However, Cambodia's Education Ministry started
to teach Khmer Rouge history in high schools beginning in 2009. China has defended its ties with the
Khmer Rouge. Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu said, "[T]he government of Democratic
Kampuchea had a legal seat at the United Nations, and had established broad foreign relations with
more than 70 countries".
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)
Kang Kek Iew before the Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on July 20, 2009.
The ECCC was established as a Cambodian court with international participation and assistance to
bring to trial senior leaders and those most responsible for crimes committed during the Khmer Rouge
regime. It has been handling four cases since 2007. ECCC's efforts for outreach toward both national
and international audience include public trial hearings, study tours, video screenings, school lectures,
and video archives on the web site.
At present, the Khmer Rouge Case trials are taking place, with the charges accusing the Khmer Rouge
regime of genocide and crimes against humanity. After claiming to feel great remorse for his part in
Khmer Rouge atrocities, Kaing Guek Eav (alias Duch), head of a torture centre from which 16,000
men, women and children were sent to their deaths, surprised the court in his genocide trial on
November 27, 2009 with a plea for his freedom. His Cambodian lawyer, Kar Savuth, stunned the
tribunal further by issuing the trial's first call for an acquittal of his client, even after his French lawyer
denied seeking such a verdict. On July 26, 2010, he was convicted and sentenced to thirty years.
Many condemned the sentence as too lenient. Theary Seng responded: "We hoped this tribunal would
strike hard at impunity, but if you can kill 14,000 people and serve only 19 years 11 hours per life
taken what is that? It's a joke." She also stated: "My gut feeling is this has made the situation far
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worse for Cambodia. It has taken a lot of faith out of the system and raised concerns of political
interference."
Duch appealed against his sentence, but the tactic backfired. In February 2012, Judge Kong Srim
dismissed the appeal, saying that Duch's crimes were "undoubtedly among the worst in recorded
human history" and deserved "the highest penalty available". He increased Duch's sentence to life
imprisonment.
Public trial hearings in Phnom Penh are open to the people of Cambodia over the age of 18 including
foreigners. In order to assist people's will to participate in the public hearings, the court provides free
bus transportation for groups of Cambodians who want to visit the court. Since the commencement of
Case 001 trial in 2009 through the end of 2011, 53,287 people have participated in the public
hearings. ECCC also has hosted Study Tour Program to help villagers in rural areas understand the
history of the Khmer Rouge regime. The court provides free transport for them to come to visit the
court and meet with court officials to learn about its work, in addition to visits to the genocide museum
and the killing fields. ECCC also has visited village to village to provide video screenings and school
lectures to promote their understanding of the trial proceedings. Furthermore, trials and transcripts are
partially available with English translation on the ECCC's website.
Museums
Skulls displayed in the memorial tower.

The Tuol Sleng Museum of Genocide and Choeng Ek Killing Fields are two major museums to learn the
history of the Khmer Rouge. The Tuol Sleng Museum of Genocide is a former high school building,
which was transformed into a torture, interrogation and execution center between 1976 and
1979. The Khmer Rouge called the center "S-21". Of the estimated 15,000 to 30,000 prisoners, only
seven prisoners survived. The Khmer Rouge photographed the vast majority of the inmates and left a
photographic archive, which enables visitors to see almost 6,000 S-21 portraits on the walls. Visitors
can also learn how the inmates were tortured from the equipment and facilities exhibited in the
buildings. In addition, one of the seven survivors shares his story with visitors at the museum.
The Choeng Ek killing fields are located about 15 kilometers outside of Phnom Penh. Most of the
prisoners who were held captive at S-21 were taken to the fields to be executed and deposited in
one of the approximately 129 mass graves. It is estimated that the graves contain the remains of over
20,000 victims. After the discovery of the site in 1979, the Vietnamese transformed the site into a
memorial and stored skulls and bones in an open-walled wooden memorial pavilion. Eventually, these
remains were showcased in the memorial's centerpiece stupa, or Buddhist shrine.
Publications
The Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam), an independent research institute, published A

History of Democratic Kampuchea 1975 - 1979, the national first textbook on the Khmer Rouge
history. The 74-page textbook was approved by the government as a supplementary text in 2007.
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The textbook is aiming at standardising and improving the information students receive about the
Khmer Rouge years because the government-issued social studies textbook devotes eight or nine
pages to the period. The publication was a part of their genocide education project that includes
leading the design of a national genocide studies curriculum with the Ministry of Education, training
thousands of teachers and 1700 high schools on how to teach about genocide, and working with
universities across Cambodia.
Youth for Peace, a Cambodian NGO that offers education in peace, leadership, conflict resolution,
and reconciliation to Cambodian's youth, published a book titled "Behind the Darkness: Taking
Responsibility or Acting Under Orders?" in 2011. The book is unique in that, instead of focusing on the
victims as most books do, it collects the stories of former Khmer Rouge, giving insights into the
functioning of the regime and approaching the question of how such a regime could take place.
Dialogues
While the tribunal contributes to the memorialization process at national level, some civil society
groups promote memorialization at community level. The International Center for Conciliation (ICfC)
began working in Cambodia in 2004 as a branch of the ICfC in Boston. ICfC launched the Justice and
History Outreach (JHO) project in 2007 and has worked in villages in rural Cambodia with the goal
of creating mutual understanding and empathy between victims and former members of the Khmer
Rouge. Following the dialogues, villagers identify their own ways of memorialization such as collecting
stories to be transmitted to the younger generations or building a memorial. Through the process,
some villagers are beginning to accept the possibility of an alternative viewpoint to the traditional
notions of evil associated with anyone who worked for the Khmer Rouge regime.
Media coverage
Radio National Kampuchea (RNK), as well as private and NGO radio stations, broadcast
programmes on the Khmer Rouge and trials. ECCC has its own weekly radio program on RNK, which
provides an opportunity for the public to interact with court officials and deepen their understanding
of Cases.
Youth for Peace, a Cambodian NGO that offers education in peace, leadership, conflict resolution,
and reconciliation to Cambodian's youth, has broadcast the weekly radio program "You also have a
chance" since 2009. Aiming at preventing the passing on of hatred and violence to future generations,
the program allows former Khmer Rouge to talk anonymously about their past experience.
All Cambodian television stations include regular coverage of the progress of the trials. The following
stations feature special programming:
Cambodian Television Network (CTN) (English/Khmer) maintains a special van at the court for live
transmission of the proceedings.
National Television Kampuchea (TVK) (Khmer)
Apsara TV (English/French/Khmer) targets viewers in Europe, Australia, and North America.
International television stations such as the BBC, Al Jazeera, CNN, NHK, and Channel News
Asia also cover the development of trials.
ECCC also uses various social media to update the development of the tribunal.
Historic legacy
After taking power, the Khmer Rouge leadership renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. The
Khmer Rouge subjected Cambodia to a radical social reform process that was aimed at creating a
purely agrarian-based Communist society. The Khmer Rouge forced around two million people from
the cities to the countryside to take up work in agriculture. They forced many people out of their
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homes and ignored many basic human freedoms; they controlled how Cambodians acted, what they
wore, to whom they could talk, and many other aspects of their lives. Over the next three years, the
Khmer Rouge killed many intellectuals, city-dwellers, minority people, and many of their own party
members and soldiers who were suspected of being traitors.
The Khmer Rouge wanted to eliminate anyone suspected of "involvement in free-market activities".
Suspected capitalists encompassed professionals and almost everyone with an education, many urban
dwellers, and people with connections to foreign governments.
The Khmer Rouge believed that parents were tainted with capitalism, so they separated children from
their parents, indoctrinated them in communism, and taught them torture methods with animals.
Children were a "dictatorial instrument of the party"and were given leadership in torture and
executions.
One of their mottos, in reference to the New People (usually urban civilians), was: "To keep you is no
benefit. To destroy you is no loss." The philosophy of the Khmer Rouge had developed over time. It
started as a communist party that was working together and searching for direction from the
Vietnamese guerrillas who were fighting their own civil war.
The movement gained strength and support in the northeastern jungles and established firm footing
when Cambodia's leader Prince Sihanouk was removed from office during a military coup in 1970.
The former prince then looked to the Khmer Rouge for backing, and with the threat of civil war
looming, the Khmer Rouge were able to supplant the Lon Nol led Khmer Republic in most of the
Cambodian countryside.
After four years of rule, the Khmer Rouge regime was removed from power in 1979 as a result of
an invasion by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and was replaced by moderate, pro-Vietnamese
Communists. The Khmer Rouge survived into the 1990s as a resistance movement operating in western
Cambodia from bases in Thailand. In 1996, following apeace agreement, their leader Pol Pot
formally dissolved the organization. Pol Pot died on 15 April 1998, having never been put on trial.
More about Genocide (Edition)

Genocide

Genocide is the intentional action to destroy a people (usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial,
or religious group) in whole or in part. The hybrid word is a combination of gnos ("race, people")
and -cide ("to kill").The United Nations Genocide Convention defines it as "acts committed with intent
to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".
The term genocide was coined in response to the the Holocaust and the Armenian Genocide; it has
subsequently been applied to many other mass killings, well-known examples including the Greek
genocide, the Assyrian genocide, Holodomor, the 1971 Bangladesh genocide, the Cambodian
genocide, and, more recently, the Guatemalan genocide, the Kurdish genocide, the Bosnian genocide,
and the Rwandan genocide.
Etymology
Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. Before 1944, various terms,
including "massacre" and "crimes against humanity" were used to describe intentional, systematic
killings (and in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian POWs and civilians by
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the German army as "a crime without a name.") In 1944, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael
Lemkin created the term genocide to describe policies of systematic murder, in particular those being
carried out by the Nazis, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community.
The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefixgeno- (meaning "tribe" or "race")
and caedere (the Latin word for "to kill"), and is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are
committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to
destroy them.
The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet
as a formal legal term. According to Lemkin, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to
destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as
strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and
economic infrastructure. He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and
community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history
and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to
describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members.
The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. Formally
recognizing the act of genocide as a crime involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not
only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint, but also may be a legal liability
within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the
deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and
prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of
a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was
established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th
century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of
the actions executed by the military.
Raphael Lemkin, in his work Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (1944), or possibly in 1943, coined the term
"genocide" by combining Greek genos (, 'race, people') and Latincaedere ('to kill').
Lemkin defined genocide as follows:
Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation,
except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify
a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of
national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan
would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national
feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal
security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.
The preamble to the Genocide Convention (CPPCG) notes that instances of genocide have taken
place throughout history,[11] but it was not until Lemkin coined the term and the prosecution of
perpetrators of the Holocaust at the Nuremberg trials that the United Nations defined the crime of
genocide under international law in the Genocide Convention.
During a video interview with Raphael Lemkin for the CBS, news commentator Quincy Howe asked him
about how he came to be interested in the crime of genocide. He replied: "I became interested in
genocide because it happened so many times. It happened to the Armenians, then after the
Armenians, Hitler took action".
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Lemkin was also a close relative of genocide victims, losing 49 relatives in the Holocaust. However, his
work on defining genocide as a crime dates to 1933, and it was prompted by the Simele massacre in
Iraq.
The Greek author Nikos Sarantakos claims that the first official use of the term "genocide" was made
not in relation to the Holocaust, but by an international committee in 1948 referring to the kidnapping
of children by the communists during the Greek Civil War.
As a crime
International law
Members of the Sonderkommando burn corpses of Jews

in pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, an extermination camp
After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and
during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international
laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General
Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but
did not provide a legal definition of the crime. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the
crime of genocide for the first time.
The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on
12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally recognized definition of genocide
which has been incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also
adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which established theInternational
Criminal Court (ICC). Article II of the Convention defines genocide as:
...any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part,
a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
a) Killing members of the group;
b) Causing serious bodily harm, or harm to mental health, to members of the group;
c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part;
d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
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The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a
political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a
permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow
the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great
Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international
intervention in domestic politics. However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: Rigorous
examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to
inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a
number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common
denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran,
Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a
non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkins
vision of the nature of the crime of genocide.
The convention's purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as
follows:
The Convention was manifestly adopted for humanitarian and civilizing purposes. Its objectives are to
safeguard the very existence of certain human groups and to affirm and emphasize the most
elementary principles of humanity and morality. In view of the rights involved, the legal obligations to
refrain from genocide are recognized as erga omnes.
When the Convention was drafted, it was already envisaged that it would apply not only to then
existing forms of genocide, but also "to any method that might be evolved in the future with a view to
destroying the physical existence of a group".As emphasized in the preamble to the Convention,
genocide has marred all periods of history, and it is this very tragic recognition that gives the concept
its historical evolutionary nature.
The Convention must be interpreted in good faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning of its
terms, in their context, and in the light of its object and purpose. Moreover, the text of the Convention
should be interpreted in such a way that a reason and a meaning can be attributed to every word.
No word or provision may be disregarded or treated as superfluous, unless this is absolutely
necessary to give effect to the terms read as a whole.
Genocide is a crime under international law regardless of "whether committed in time of peace or in
time of war" (art. I). Thus, irrespective of the context in which it occurs (for example, peace time,
internal strife, international armed conflict or whatever the general overall situation) genocide is a
punishable international crime.
UN Commission of Experts that examined violations of international humanitarian law committed in the
territory of the former Yugoslavia.
Specific provisions
"Intent to destroy"
In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case
that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG
meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the
majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider
biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or
ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide.
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In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal
courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and
the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical
destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of
its judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few
cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported
cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator
must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide".
"In part"
Armenian Genocide victims

The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international
humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v.
Radislav Krstic Trial Chamber I Judgment IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that
Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Appeals Chamber Judgment IT98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in
part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide
Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must
be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into
details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to
explain how they came to this conclusion.
The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial
enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the
targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the
ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in
absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric
size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a
specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may
support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the
Tribunal's Statute]."
In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical
examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators activity and control, as well as
the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a
perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor
alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it canin combination with other
factorsinform the analysis."
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CPPCG coming into force
The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20
countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN
Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union
ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having
replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988.
This long delay in support for the Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the
Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the
crime of genocide begin to be enforced.
UN Security Council on genocide
UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April
2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome
Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing and crimes against humanity". The resolution committed the Council to action to protect
civilians in armed conflict.
\
In 2008 the UN Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of
sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to
genocide".
Municipal law
Main article: Genocide under municipal laws

Since the Convention came into effect in January 1951 about 80 United Nations member states have
passed legislation that incorporates the provisions of CPPCG into their municipal law.
Criticisms of the CPPCG and other definitions of genocide
William Schabas has suggested that a permanent body as recommended by the Whitaker Report to
monitor the implementation of the Genocide Convention, and require States to issue reports on their
compliance with the convention (such as were incorporated into the United Nations Optional Protocol
to the Convention against Torture), would make the convention more effective.
Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Bjrnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument
resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a
definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international
legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Bjrnson
go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various
reasons.
Jonassohn and Bjrnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide
definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods
and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For
example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R.
J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff
and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Bjrnson are critical of some
of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that the academic discipline of
genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm.
The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has
been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The
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Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 19791982 argues that the international definition of
genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the
perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which
a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined
by the perpetrator."While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the
majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be
labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction
criterion.
Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state
or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized
groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or
nationality."Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the
characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized
groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or
nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position
or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr.
state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as
'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the
violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and
complicity collapses."
According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by
government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal
meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group,
such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A
generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government
killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what
meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.
Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for
example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian
Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses
its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the
perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'.[46] The definition
upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition
of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group
has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size).
A major criticism of the international community's response to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was
reactive, not proactive. The international community has developed a mechanism for prosecuting the
perpetrators of genocide but has not developed the will or the mechanisms for intervening in a
genocide as it happens.
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International prosecution of genocide

By ad hoc tribunals
Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouge's chief ideologist,

before the Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on 5 December 2011
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and
wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories
namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United
States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslaviasigned with the proviso that no claim of genocide
could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite
official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing
of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as
when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by
former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.
It is commonly accepted that, at least since World War II, genocide has been illegal under customary
international law as a peremptory norm, as well as under conventional international law. Acts of
genocide are generally difficult to establish for prosecution, because a chain of accountability must
be established. International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily because the states
involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this magnitude themselves.
Nuremberg Tribunal (19451946)
Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide
with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for
taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific
crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and
the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the
24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and
systematic genocidenamely, the extermination of racial and national groups..."
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993 to present)
The cemetery at the Srebrenica-Potoari Memorial

and Cemetery to Genocide Victims
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A boy at a grave during the 2006 funeral of genocide victims

The term Bosnian genocide is used to refer either to the genocide committed by Serb forces
in Srebrenica in 1995, or to ethnic cleansing that took place during the 19921995 Bosnian War.
In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the
1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide. On 26 February 2007, the International Court of
Justice (ICJ), in the Bosnian Genocide Case upheld the ICTY's earlier finding that the Srebrenica
massacre in Srebrenica and Zepa constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian government had
not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as
the Bosnian government had claimed.
On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola
Jorgi against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the
German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts
considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority
have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in
Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute
genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these
acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu,
of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in
spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of
genocide".
About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during
the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were
successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popovi and Ljubia Beara, have been found
guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and
conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krsti and Drago Nikoli, have been found
guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in
genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgi lost an appeal against his
conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian
Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).
Slobodan Miloevi, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political
figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of
genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was
returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan
Karadi and Ratko Mladi on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadi was
arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other
crimes. Ratko Mladi was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia.
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Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in
prison on March 24, 2016.
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present)
Rwandan Genocide Victims

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United
Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred
there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the
Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of
genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda,
or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.
So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty seven accused persons. On 14
December 2009 two more men were accused and convicted for their crimes. Another twenty five
persons are still on trial. Twenty-one are awaiting trial in detention, two more added on 14
December 2009. Ten are still at large.[61] The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. In
October 1998, Akayesu was sentenced to life imprisonment. Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister,
pleaded guilty.
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present)
Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain

thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.
Skulls in the Choeung Ek.

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The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok and other leaders, organized the mass killing of
ideologically suspect groups. The total number of victims is estimated at approximately 1.7
million Cambodians between 19751979, including deaths from slave labour.
On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) which would focus exclusively on
crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of Khmer Rouge rule of
19751979. The judges were sworn in early July 2006.
The genocide charges related to killings of Cambodia's Vietnamese and Cham minorities, which is
estimated to make up tens of thousand killings and possibly more. The investigating judges were
presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007.
Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crime and crimes against humanity and
detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on charges of war crimes and
crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008. His appeal against his conviction for war crimes
and crimes against humanity was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he is serving a sentence
of life imprisonment.
Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes,
crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September
2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial,
which is ongoing, started on 27 June 2011.
Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war
crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15
September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007.
His trial, which is ongoing, started on 27 June 2011.
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes,
crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September
2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial
started on 27 June 2011, and ended with his death on 14 March 2013. He was never
convicted.
Ieng Thirith, a former minister for social affairs and wife of Ieng Sary, who was indicted on
charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under
Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on
12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending a health
evaluation.
There has been disagreement between some of the international jurists and the Cambodian
government over whether any other people should be tried by the Tribunal.
By the International Criminal Court

Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling
or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary
responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states. Due to the United
States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened
international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions.[75]
Darfur, Sudan[edit]
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A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North Darfur
There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing
conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States
Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign
Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council
followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized
by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating
that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide."
Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been
pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias
under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes
perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes
that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."
In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the
International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any
specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China,
abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the
Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security
Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find
sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.
In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for
the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a MilitiaJanjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity
and war crimes. On 14 July 2008, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC), filed ten
charges of war crimes against Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir: three counts of genocide, five
ofcrimes against humanity and two of murder. The ICC's prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir
"masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur
because of their ethnicity.
On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant of arrest for Omar Al Bashir, President of Sudan as the
ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I concluded that his position as head of state does not grant him immunity
against prosecution before the ICC. The warrant was for war crimes and crimes against humanity. It
did not include the crime of genocide because the majority of the Chamber did not find that the
prosecutors had provided enough evidence to include such a charge.
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Genocide in history
Naked Soviet POWs held by the Nazis in Mauthausen concentration camp. "... the murder of at least
3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length
book on the subject in English." Adam Jones
The concept of genocide can be applied to historical events of the past. The preamble to
the CPPCG states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity."
Revisionist attempts to challenge or affirm claims of genocide are illegal in some countries. For
example, several European countries ban the denial of the Holocaust or the Armenian Genocide,
while in Turkey referring to the mass killings of Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians and Maronites as
genocides may be prosecuted under Article 301.
William Rubinstein argues that the origin of 20th century genocides can be traced back to the
collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government in parts of Europe following the First
World War:
The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern
history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the
Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the
Armenian genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse
of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern
Europe as a result of the First World War, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would
have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.
William Rubinstein, Genocide: a history
Stages of genocide, influences leading to genocide, and efforts to prevent it

For genocide to happen, there must be certain preconditions. Foremost among them is a national
culture that does not place a high value on human life. A totalitarian society, with its assumed superior
ideology, is also a precondition for genocidal acts. In addition, members of the dominant society must
perceive their potential victims as less than fully human: as "pagans," "savages," "uncouth barbarians,"
"unbelievers," "effete degenerates," "ritual outlaws," "racial inferiors," "class antagonists,"
"counterrevolutionaries," and so on. In themselves, these conditions are not enough for the perpetrators
to commit genocide. To do thatthat is, to commit genocidethe perpetrators need a strong,
centralized authority and bureaucratic organization as well as pathological individuals and criminals.
Also required is a campaign of vilification and dehumanization of the victims by the perpetrators, who
are usually new states or new regimes attempting to impose conformity to a new ideology and its
model of society.
M. Hassan Kakar
In 1996 Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, presented a briefing paper called "The
8 Stages of Genocide" at the United States Department of State. In it he suggested that genocide
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develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not inexorable". The Stanton paper was presented
to the State Department, shortly after the Rwandan Genocide and much of its analysis is based on
why that genocide occurred. The preventative measures suggested, given the briefing paper's original
target audience, were those that the United States could implement directly or indirectly by using its
influence on other governments.
Stage
Characteristics
Preventive measures
1.
Classification
"The main preventive measure at this early

People are divided into "us and
stage is to develop universalistic institutions
them".
that transcend... divisions."
2.
Symbolization
"When combined with hatred,

symbols may be forced upon
unwilling members of pariah
groups..."
"One group denies the

humanity of the other group.
3.
Members of it are equated with
Dehumanization
animals, vermin, insects, or
diseases."
"To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be

legally forbidden as can hate speech".
"Local and international leaders should
condemn the use of hate speech and make it
culturally unacceptable. Leaders who incite
genocide should be banned from international
travel and have their foreign finances frozen."
4.
Organization
"Genocide is always
organized... Special army units
or militias are often trained
and armed..."
"The U.N. should impose arms embargoes on

governments and citizens of countries involved
in genocidal massacres, and create commissions
to investigate violations"
5.
Polarization
"Hate groups broadcast

polarizing propaganda..."
"Prevention may mean security protection for

moderate leaders or assistance to human rights
groups...Coups dtat by extremists should be
opposed by international sanctions."
6.
Preparation
"Victims are identified and

separated out because of their
ethnic or religious identity..."
"At this stage, a Genocide Emergency must be

declared. ..."
7.
Extermination
"It is 'extermination' to the

killers because they do not
believe their victims to be fully
human".
"At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming

armed intervention can stop genocide. Real
safe areas or refugee escape corridors should
be established with heavily armed international
protection."
8.
Denial
"The perpetrators... deny that

they committed any crimes..."
"The response to denial is punishment by an

international tribunal or national courts"
In April 2012, it was reported that Stanton would soon be officially adding two new stages,
Discrimination and Persecution, to his original theory, which would make for a 10-stage theory of
genocide. In a paper for the Social Science Research Council Dirk Moses criticises the Stanton
approach concluding:
In view of this rather poor record of ending genocide, the question needs to be asked why the
"genocide studies" paradigm cannot predict and prevent genocides with any accuracy and reliability.
The paradigm of "genocide studies," as currently constituted in North America in particular, has both
strengths and limitations. While the moral fervor and public activism is admirable and salutary, the
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paradigm appears blind to its own implication in imperial projects that are themselves as much part
of the problem as they are part of the solution. The US government called Darfur a genocide to
appease domestic lobbies, and because the statement cost it nothing. Darfur will end when it suits the
great powers that have a stake in the region.
Dirk Moses
Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological
and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic
deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing
discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to
scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of
devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the
perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the
passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the
violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes
intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide
guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that
embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how
this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action.
Kjell Anderson uses a dichotomistic classification of genocides: "hot genocides, motivated by hate and
the victims threatening nature, with low-intensity cold genocides, rooted in victims supposed
inferiority."
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3
Meak Bochea
Meak Bochea
Bochea Festival, which is important in Buddhism, including: Bochea blast asath and bvearna
(chenhovossaa). Bochea held to commemorate the day the Buddha, he announced the establishment of
Buddhism in India in 588 BC, dated 15 Meak after his enlightenment only 9 months. The establishment
of Buddhism as a religious organization, conducted among monks 1250 as a member of the General
Assembly has invited from all walks of life. In his convention, Buddha declared in principle 11
Commandments for all members of the General Assembly to take a life and to preach to other
people to understand Buddhism. The 11 principles Bali This is called "counsel bademok" Buddhists
should learn to understand and implement the following:
Objective Bloomberg's purpose of Buddhism , or such purposes Buddhists Each is Find Nirvana which
means states immoral distress not in trouble do not have the solving of heart his words Nirvana This
means equal, and the word "peace" which means "serenity". We can say that the goal of Buddhism is
the establishment of peace in the heart, are the foundations of peace in the society where they
live. The Buddhists in efforts to establish peace and contribute to worldpeace and social obligations
that Buddhists must work hard to achieve.
The goal: peace rooting denounce not pray and pray will not happen by or given by divine love
mercy or peace any savings occur within 3 activity are:
Not bad defeat evil defeat evil and protect all kinds of evil not to happen in life, both
physical and mental quoted.
To do good works and keep good stable foundation-day lives, both good physical and
emotional speech.
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Strengthen the mind, which is the basis of anti-viral or defilements cling to clean up not being
bad.
Features of the Buddhists:

Condition 1: patience to do good and defeat evil.
Condition 2: do not use violence to live.
Condition 3: do not use the word harassment and Courses taunting others.
Condition 4: roksaaseil in law.
Condition 5: eat everyone on budgets and skalbraman.
Condition 6: prefer a calm and tranquil environment.
Condition 7: is trying to samaeatchet meditation.
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Lessons from Bochea: On this day the Buddha announced 11 this principle for the benefit of Catholics
to use Point 1: As Catholics, implementing Article 11 will lead to a real peace of mind.
Point 2: As citizens in society includes the same goals and objectives similar behavior would
bring about peace and sustainable development.
Point 3: workman factions in society or a nation trying to find an opportunity to maintain
peace and promote development in the country alone, the cows follow the principle of 11, this
will reduce the instability, conflict and violence that comes from tournament competition with
each other.
Point 4: As a missionary held principles will lead to mutual honor each other and live together
as humans, despite religious differences.
Point 5: As an international observance of this principle will lead to sustainable human
environment animal world climate and the long-term without the need to worry to grab each
other to survive.
Expect that each of us can take advantage of some of the day Bochea will invite doing charitable
roksaaseil and meditation samaeatchet its day to worship and remind About the Buddha, which are
made Buddhism for a road to us all. Bochea Festival, which is important in Buddhism, including:
Bochea blast asath and bvearna (chenhovossaa). Bochea held to commemorate the day the Buddha,
he announced the establishment of Buddhism in India in 588 BC, dated 15 Meak after his
enlightenment only 9 months. The establishment of Buddhism as a religious organization, conducted
among monks 1250 as a member of the General Assembly has invited from all walks of life. In his
convention, Buddha declared in principle 11 Commandments for all members of the General
Assembly to take a life and to preach to other people to understand Buddhism. The 11 principles Bali
This is called "counsel bademok" Buddhists should learn to understand and implement the following:
Objective Bloomberg's purpose of Buddhism , or such purposes Buddhists Each is Find Nirvana which
means states immoral distress not in trouble do not have the solving of heart his words Nirvana This
means equal, and the word "peace" which means "serenity". We can say that the goal of Buddhism is
the establishment of peace in the heart, are the foundations of peace in the society where they
live. The Buddhists in efforts to establish peace and contribute to world peace and social obligations
that Buddhists must work hard to achieve. The goal: peace rooting denounce not pray and pray will
not happen by or given by divine love mercy or peace any savings occur within 3 activity are:
Not bad defeat evil defeat evil and protect all kinds of evil not to happen in life, both
physical and mental quoted.
To do good works and keep good stable foundation-day lives, both good physical and
emotional speech.
Strengthen the mind, which is the basis of anti-viral or defilements cling to clean up not being
bad.
Features of the Buddhists:

Condition 1: patience to do good and defeat evil.
Condition 2: do not use violence to live.
Condition 3: do not use the word harassment and Courses taunting others.
Condition 4: roksaaseil in law.
Condition 5: eat everyone on budgets and skalbraman.
Condition 6: prefer a calm and tranquil environment.
Condition 7: is trying to samaeatchet meditation.
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4
Women's rights
Women's rights Day
Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurstcampaigning for women's suffrage

Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls of many societies
worldwide, and formed the basis to the women's rights movement in the nineteenth century
and feminist movement during the 20th century. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or
supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed.
They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and
traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favour of men and boys.
Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include, though are not limited to, the right:
to bodily integrity and autonomy; to be free from sexual violence; to vote; to hold public office; to
enter into legal contracts; to have equal rights infamily law; to work; to fair wages or equal pay; to
have reproductive rights; to own property; to education.
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History
See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting)
Ancient cultures
Bust believed to be of Cleopatra, in Altes Museum, Berlin

Although males seem to have dominated in many ancient cultures, there are some exceptions. For
instance in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution
of resources. Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra.
China
Main articles: Women in ancient and imperial China and Women in China
Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal
status based on the Confucian law. In Imperial China, the "Three Obediences" promoted daughters to
obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands and widows to obey their sons. Women could not
inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law
also features seven different types of divorces. A wife could be ousted if she failed to birth a son,
committed adultery, disobeyed her parent's in law, spoke excessively, stole, was given bouts of
jealousy or suffered from an incurable or loathsome disease or disorder. But there were also limits for
the husband like for example he could not divorce if she observed her parent's in law's mourning sites,
if she had no family to return to or if the husband's family used to be poor and since then have
become richer.
The status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of
Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In
1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding involved alteration
of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty
of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women.
Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, the women of China
were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous
need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H.
Fulton (18541927) was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to
found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for
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Women (), this College was located in Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a
large donation from Mr. Edward A.K. Hackett (18511916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed
at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social
status.
During the Republic of China (191249) and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally
bought and sold into slavery under the guise of domestic servants. These women were known as Mui
Tsai. The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits
of Chinese Women in Revolution.
However, in 1949 the Republic of China had been overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao
Zedong, and the people's republic of china was founded in the same year. In May 1950 the Peoples
Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This
outlawed marriage by proxy and made marriage legal so long as both partners consent. The New
Marriage Law raised the legal age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women. This was an
essential part of countryside land reform as women could no longer legally be sold to landlords. The
official slogan was "Men and women are equal; everyone is worth his (or her) salt".
Greece
Main article: Women in Greece
Ancient Greek women

Although most women lacked political and equal rights in ancient Greece, they enjoyed a certain
freedom of movement until the Archaic age. Records also exist of women in
ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of
private property at the time. However, after the Archaic age, women's status had gotten worse and
introduction of legal laws such as gender segregation were implemented. Women in Classical
Athens had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the
male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male
relative. Once married, the husband became a woman's kyrios. As women were barred from
conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. Athenian women had
limitedright to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the
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entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life.
However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her
kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property. Athenian women could enter into a contract
worth less than the value of a "medimnos of barley" (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage
in petty trading. Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship in ancient Athens, though in
rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and
hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender. No women ever acquired citizenship
in ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded in principle and practice from ancient
Athenian democracy.[
Athens was also the cradle of philosophy at the time and anyone could become a poet, scholar,
politician, artist except if you were a woman. Historian Don Nardo stated throughout antiquity most
Greek women had few or no civil rights and many enjoyed little freedom of choice or mobility. During
the Hellenistic period in Athens, the famous philosopher Aristotle thought that women would bring
disorder, evil, and were utterly useless and caused more confusion than the enemy. Because of this,
Aristotle thought keeping women separate from the rest of the society was the best idea. This
separation would entail living in homes called a gynaeceum while looking after the duties in the home
and having very little exposure with the male world. This was also to protect women's fertility from
men other than her husband so her fertility can ensure their legitimacy of their born linage. Athenian
women were also educated very little except home tutorship for basic skills such as spin, weave, cook
and some knowledge of money.
By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the
classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they
enjoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity,
women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted warfare in the 4th century BC
Spartan women owned approximately between 35% and 40% of all Spartan land and property. By
the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women. They controlled their own
properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. Spartan women
rarely married before the age of 20, and unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes
and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they
pleased. Girls as well as boys received an education, and young women as well as young men may
have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths").Despite relatively greater mobility
for Spartan women, their role in politics was just as the same as Athenian women, they could no take
part in it. Men forbade them from speaking at assemblies and segregated them from any political
activities. Aristotle also thought Spartan women's influence was mischievous and highlighted the
greater legal freedom of women in Sparta were its ruins.
Plato acknowledged that extending civil and political rights to women would substantively alter the
nature of the household and the state. Aristotle, who had been taught by Plato, denied that women
were slaves or subject to property, arguing that "nature has distinguished between the female and
the slave", but he considered wives to be "bought". He argued that women's main economic activity is
that of safeguarding the household property created by men. According to Aristotle the labour of
women added no value because "the art of household management is not identical with the art of
getting wealth, for the one uses the material which the other provides".
Contrary to these views, the Stoic philosophers argued for equality of the sexes, sexual inequality
being in their view contrary to the laws of nature. In doing so, they followed the Cynics, who argued
that men and women should wear the same clothing and receive the same kind of education. They
also saw marriage as a moral companionship between equals rather than a biological or social
necessity, and practiced these views in their lives as well as their teachings. The Stoics adopted the
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views of the Cynics and added them to their own theories of human nature, thus putting their sexual
egalitarianism on a strong philosophical basis.
Ancient Rome
For more details on this topic, see Women in ancient Rome.

Roman law similar to Athenian law, was created by men in favor of men. Women had no public voice,
and no public role which only improved after the 1st century to the 6th century BCE. Freeborn women
of ancient Rome were citizens who enjoyed legal privileges and protections that did not extend
to non-citizens or slaves. Roman society, however, was patriarchal, and women could not vote,
hold public office, or serve in the military. Women of the upper classes exercised political influence
through marriage and motherhood. During the Roman Republic, the mother of the Gracchus
brothers and of Julius Caesar were noted as exemplary women who advanced the career of their
sons. During the Imperial period, women of the emperor's family could acquire considerable political
power, and were regularly depicted in official art and on coinage. Plotina exercised influence on
both her husband, the emperor Trajan, and his successor Hadrian. Her letters and petitions on official
matters were made available to the public an indication that her views were considered important
to popular opinion.
The central core of the Roman society was the pater families or the male head of the household who
exercised his authority over all his children, servants, and wife. Similar to Athenian women, Roman
women had a guardian or as it was called "tutor" who managed and oversaw all her activity. This
tutelage had limited female activity but by first century to sixth century BCE, tutelage became very
relaxed and women were accepted to participate in more public roles such as owning or managing
property and or acting as municipal patrons for gladiator games and other entertainment activities
A child's citizen status was determined by that of its mother. Both daughters and sons were subject
to patria potestas, the power wielded by their father as head of household (paterfamilias). At the
height of the Empire (1st2nd centuries), the legal standing of daughters differs little if at all from
that of sons. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.
In the earliest period of the Roman Republic, a bride passed from her father's control into the
"hand" (manus) of her husband. She then became subject to her husband'spotestas, though to a lesser
degree than their children. This archaic form of manus marriage was largely abandoned by the time
of Julius Caesar, when a woman remained under her father's authority by law even when she moved
into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the independence Roman women
enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period: although she
had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life, and
her husband had no legal power over her. When her father died, she became legally
emancipated (sui iuris). A married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the
marriage. Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only
once, there was little stigma attached todivorce, nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband
through death or divorce. Under classical Roman law, a husband had no right to abuse his wife
physically or compel her to have sex. Wife beating was sufficient grounds for divorce or other legal
action against the husband.
Because she remained legally a part of her birth family, a Roman woman kept her own family
name for life. Children most often took the father's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made
their mother's name part of theirs, or even used it instead. A Roman mother's right to own property
and to dispose of it as she saw fit, including setting the terms of her own will, enhanced her influence
over her sons even when they were adults. Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to
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which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in
business. Some acquired and disposed of sizable fortunes, and are recorded in inscriptions as
benefactors in funding major public works.
By 27-14 BCE, new Julian law permitted women to be free from tutelage if she gave birth to 3 or
more children. But in other aspects of law, women were still disadvantaged like for instance not being
able to make wills in inheritance without their tutor or poor justice for rape crimes. Rape against
women were considered an attack on her family and father's honour in which was later used as a
mean to force the daughter to marry her rapist. Rape victims were also shamed for allowing the bad
name in her father's honour.
Roman women could appear in court and argue cases, though it was customary for them to be
represented by a man. They were simultaneously disparaged as too ignorant and weak-minded to
practice law, and as too active and influential in legal mattersresulting in an edict that limited
women to conducting cases on their own behalf instead of others'. Even after this restriction was put in
place, there are numerous examples of women taking informed actions in legal matters, including
dictating legal strategy to their male advocates.
Bronze statuette of a young woman reading (latter 1st century)

The first Roman emperor, Augustus, framed his ascent to sole power as a return to traditional morality,
and attempted to regulate the conduct of women through moral legislation. Adultery, which had been
a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex
act (stuprum) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married
woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a double standard was in place: a married
woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery when he
had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status(infamis). Childbearing was
encouraged by the state: the ius trium liberorum ("legal right of three children") granted symbolic
honors and legal privileges to a woman who had given birth to three children, and freed her from
any male guardianship.
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Stoic philosophies influenced the development of Roman law. Stoics of the Imperial era such
as Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of just relationships. While not advocating equality
in society or under the law, they held that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and
equal obligations to act virtuously, and that therefore men and women had an equal need for
philosophical education. These philosophical trends among the ruling elite are thought to have helped
improve the status of women under the Empire.
Rome had no system of state-supported schooling, and education was available only to those who
could pay for it. The daughters ofsenators and knights seem to have regularly received a primary
education (for ages 7 to 12). Regardless of gender, few people were educated beyond that level.
Girls from a modest background might be schooled in order to help with the family business or to
acquire literacy skills that enabled them to work as scribes and secretaries.[52] The woman who
achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria,
who taught advanced courses to young men and advised the Roman prefect of Egypton politics. Her
influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria, Cyril, who may have been implicated in
her violent death in the year 415 at the hands of a Christian mob.
Roman law recognized rape as a crime in which the victim bore no guilt. Rape was a capital crime.
The right to physical integrity was fundamental to the Roman concept of citizenship, as indicated
in Roman legend by the rape of Lucretia by the king's son. After speaking out against the tyranny of
the royal family, Lucretia killed herself as a political and moral protest. Roman authors saw her selfsacrifice as the catalyst for overthrowing the monarchy and establishing the republic. As a matter of
law, rape could be committed only against a citizen in good standing. The rape of a slave could be
prosecuted only as damage to her owner's property.
Most prostitutes in ancient Rome were slaves, though some slaves were protected from forced
prostitution by a clause in their sales contract. A free woman who worked as a prostitute or
entertainer lost her social standing and became infamis, "disreputable"; by making her body publicly
available, she had in effect surrendered her right to be protected from sexual abuse or physical
violence. Attitudes toward rape changed as the empire came under Christian rule. St. Augustine and
other Church Fathers interpreted Lucretia's suicide as perhaps an admission that she had encouraged
the rapist and experienced pleasure. Under Constantine, the first Christian emperor, if a father
accused a man of abducting his daughter, but the daughter had given her consent to an elopement,
the couple were both subject to being burnt alive. If she had been raped or abducted against her
will, she was still subject to lesser penalties as an accomplice, "on the grounds that she could have
saved herself by screaming for help."
Byzantine Empire
Since Byzantine law was essentially based on Roman law, the legal status of women did not change
significantly from the practices of the 6th century. But the traditional restriction of women in the public
life as well as the hostility against independent women still continued. Greater influence of Greek
culture contributed to strict attitudes about women'roles being domestic instead of being public. There
was also a growing tend of women who were not prostitutes, slaves or entertainers to be entirely
veiled. Like previous Roman law, women could not be legal witnesses, hold administrations or run
banking but they could still inherit properties and own land.
As a rule the influence of the church was exercised in favor of the abolition of the disabilities imposed
by the older law upon celibacy and childlessness, of increased facilities for entering a professed
religious life, and of due provision for the wife. The church also supported the political power of those
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who were friendly toward the clergy. The appointment of mothers and grandmothers as tutors was
sanctioned by Justinian.
The restrictions on the marriage of senators and other men of high rank with women of low rank were
extended by Constantine, but it was almost entirely removed by Justinian. Second marriages were
discouraged, especially by making it legal to impose a condition that a widow's right to property
should cease on remarriage, and the Leonine Constitutions at the end of the 9th century made third
marriages punishable. The same constitutions made the benediction of a priest a necessary part of the
ceremony of marriage.
Couple clasping hands in marriage, idealized by Romans as the building block of society
and as a partnership of companions who work together to produce and rear children,
manage everyday affairs, lead exemplary lives, and enjoy affection
Religious scriptures
Bible
Main article: Women in the Bible

"If he marries another wife, he is not to reduce her food, clothing or marital rights." (Exodus 21:10)
from the Complete Jewish Bible (CJB) So from ancient times women have had a right to sex with their
husbands, in addition to being fed and clothed by them. As Frank L. Caw, Jr. points out breach of
these Old Testament rights by the polygamous man gave the woman grounds for divorce (Exodus
21:11). Slave wives may have been abolished but the general moral principles covering activities such
as divorce still apply today. However, before and during biblical times, the roles of women were
almost always severely restricted.
Qur'an
The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provided guidance to the Islamic
community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early
reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and introduced
rights for women in marriage, divorce, and inheritance. By providing that the wife, not her family,
would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the
Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contract.
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While in customary law, inheritance was limited to male descendants, the Qur'an introduced rules on
inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female
relatives and then the nearest male relatives. According to Annemarie Schimmel "compared to the
pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the
right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the
family or has earned by her own work."
The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and
recognizing women's full personhood. Women generally gained greater rights than women in preIslamic Arabia and medieval Europe. Women were not accorded with such legal status in other
cultures until centuries later. According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in such
historical context, Muhammad "can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women's rights."
Medieval Europe
Women performing tasks during the Middle Ages

The English Church and culture in the Middle Ages regarded women as weak, irrational and
vulnerable to temptation who was constantly needed to be kept in check. This was reflected on the
Christian culture in England through the story of Adam and Eve where Eve fell to Satan's temptations
and led Adam to eat the apple. It was belief based on St. Paul, that the pain of childbirth was a
punishment for this deed that led mankind to be banished from the Garden of Eden. Women's
inferiority also appears in many medieval writing for example the 1200 AD theologian Jacques de
Vitry (who was rather sympathetic to women over others) emphasized for female obedience towards
their men and expressed women as being slippery, weak, untrustworthy, devious, deceitful and
stubborn. The church also promoted the Virgin Mary as a role model for women to emulate by being
innocent in her sexuality, being married to a husband and eventually becoming a mother. That was
the core purpose set out both culturally and religiously across Medieval Europe. Rape was also seen
in medieval England as a crime against the father or husband and violation of their protection and
guardianship of the women whom they look after in the household. Women's identity in the Middle
Ages was also referred through her relations with men she was associated with for example "His
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daughter" or "So and so's wife". Despite all this, the Church still emphasized on the importance of love
and mutual counselling within a marriage and prohibited any form of divorce so the wife have
someone to look after her.
Royal women's activities in the Middle Ages

In overall Europe during the Middle Ages, women were inferior to that of a man in legal status.
Throughout medieval Europe, women were pressured to not attend courts and leave all legal business
affairs to their husbands. In the legal system, women were regarded as the properties of men so any
threat or injury to them was in the duty of their male guardians.
In Irish law, women were forbidden to act as witnesses in courts. In Welsh law, women's testimony can
be accepted towards other women but not against another man. In France, women's testimony must
corroborate with other accounts or would not be accepted. Although women were expected to not
attend courts, this however was not always true. Sometimes regardless of expectation, women did
participate and attend court cases and court meetings. But women could not act as justices in courts,
be attorneys, they could not be members of a jury and they could not accuse another person of a
felony unless it's the murder of her husband. For most part, the best thing a woman could do in
medieval courts is observe the legal proceedings taking place.
The Swedish law protected women from the authority of their husbands by transferring the authority
to their male relatives. A wife's property and land also could not be taken by the husband without her
family's consent but neither could the wife. This mean a woman could not transfer her property to her
husband without her family or kinsman's consent either. In Swedish law, women would also only get
half that of her brother in inheritance. Despite these legal issues, Sweden was largely ahead and
much superior in their treatment towards women than most European countries.
Medieval marriages among the elites were arranged in a way that would meet the interests of the
family as a whole. Theoretically a woman needed to consent before a marriage took place and the
Church encouraged this consent to be expressed in present tense and not future. Marriage could also
take place anywhere and minimum age for girls would have to be 12 while 14 for boys.
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Medieval Germanic, Baltic and Scandinavian Europe

The rate of Wergild suggested that women in these societies were valued mostly for their breeding
purposes. The Wergild of woman was double that of a man with same status in
the Aleman and Bavarian legal codes. The Wergild of a woman meanwhile was triple that of a man
with same status in Salic and Repuarian legal codes for women of child bearing age, which constituted
from 1240 years old. One of the most Germanic codes from the Lombard tradition, legislated that
women be under the control of a male mundoald which constituted her father, husband, older son or
eventually the king as a last resort if she had no male relatives. A woman needed her mundold's
permission to manage property but still could own her own lands and goods. Certain areas
with Visgothic inheritance laws until the 7th century were favorable to women while all the other laws
were not Before Christianization of Europe, there was little space for women's consent for marriage
and marriage through purchase (or Kaufehe) was actually the civil norm as opposed to the alternative
marriage through capture (or Raubehe). However Christianity was slow to reach other Baltic and
Scandinavian areas with it only reaching King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark in the year 950 AD.
Those living under Norwegian and Icelandiclaws used marriages to forge alliances or create peace
usually without the women's say or consent. However divorce rights were permitted to women who
suffered physical abuse but protections from harm were not given to those termed "wretched" women
such as beggars, servants and slave girls. Having sex with them through force or without consent
usually had zero legal consequence or punishment.
During the Viking Age, women had a relatively free status in the Nordic countries of Sweden,
Denmark and Norway, illustrated in the Icelandic Grgs and the Norwegian Frostating laws
and Gulating laws. The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to
as odalkvinna, all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man. In the absence of male
relatives, an unmarried woman with no son could, further more, inherit not only property, but also the
position as head of the family from a deceased father or brother: a woman with such status was
referred to as ringkvinna, and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family clan, such
as for example the right to demand and receive fines for the slaughter of a family member, unless
she married, by which her rights were transferred to her husband. After the age of 20, an unmarried
woman, referred to as maer and mey, reached legal majority and had the right to decide of her
place of residence and was regarded as her own person before the law.
An exception to her independence was the right to choose a marriage partner, as marriages was
normally arranged by the clan. Widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women.
Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses (gydja) and oracles (sejdkvinna); they
were active within art as poets (skalder) and rune masters, and as merchants and medicine women. A
married woman could divorce her husband and remarry. It was also socially acceptable for a free
woman to cohabit with a man and have children with him without marrying him, even if that man was
married: a woman in such a position was called frilla. There was no distinction made between children
born inside or outside of marriage: both had the right to inherit property after their parents, and
there was no "legitimate" or "illegitimate" children. These liberties gradually disappeared from the
changed after the introductions of Christianity, and from the late 13th-century, they are no longer
mentioned. During the Christian Middle Ages, the Medieval Scandinavian law applied different laws
depending of the local county law, signifying that the status of women could vary depending of which
county she was living in.
Renaissance Europe
By the 16th and 17th century, there was the Great Witch trials orchestrated by the Roman Church,
which saw thousands across Europe burned alive, of whom 75-95% were women (depending on time
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and place). The burnings mostly took place in German speaking lands, and during the 15th century
the terminology "witchcraft" was definitely viewed as something feminine as opposed to prior years.
Famous witchcraft manuals such as the Malleus Maleficarum and Summis Desiderantes depicted witches
as diabolical conspirators who worshipped Satan and were primarily women. Culture and art at the
time depicted these witches as seductive and evil further fuelling moral panic in fusion with rhetoric
from the Church. The origin of the female "witch" myth traces back to Roman mythical night creatures
known as Strix, who were thought to appear and disappear mysteriously in the night. They were also
believed by many to be of transformed women by their own supernatural powers. This Roman myth
itself is believed to originate from the Jewish Sabbath which described non-supernatural women who
would suspiciously leave and return home swiftly during the night. Authors of the Malleus
Maleficarumstrongly established the link between witchcraft and women by proclaiming greater
likelihood for women to be addicted to "evil". The authors and inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob
Sprengerh justified these beliefs by claiming women had greater credulity, impressionability, feeble
minds, feeble bodies, impulsivity and carnal natures which were flaws susceptible to "evil" behavior
and witchcraft. These sort of beliefs at the time could send female hermits or beggars to trials just for
offering remedies or herbal medicine. These set of developed myths eventually lead to the 16-17th
century witch trials which found thousands of women burned at stake.
By 1500, Europe was divided into two types of secular law. One was customary law which was
predominant in northern France, England and Scandinavia, and the other was Roman based written
laws which was predominant in southern France, Italy, Spain and Portugal.
Customary laws favoured men more than women. For example, inheritance among the elites in Italy,
England, Scandinavia and France was passed on to the eldest male heir. In all of the regions, the laws
also gave men substantial powers over lives, property and bodies of their wives. However, there
were some improvements for women as opposed to ancient custom for example they could inherit in
the absence of their brothers, do certain trades without their husbands and widows to receive dower.
In areas governed by Roman-based written laws women were under male guardianship in matters
involving property and law, fathers overseeing daughters, husbands overseeing wives and uncles or
male relatives overseeing widows.
Throughout Europe, women's legal status centered around her marital status while marriage itself was
the biggest factor in restricting women's autonomy. Custom, statue and practice not only reduced
women's rights and freedoms but prevented single or widowed women from holding public office on
the justification that they might one day marry.
According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which
a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts
forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the
right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. French married women suffered from
restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. In the 16th century,
the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane
Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed
that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. Despite relatively greater
freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that
a patriarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. This perception was not seriously
challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North
American peoples.
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The philosopher John Locke opposed marital inequality and the mistreatment of women during this
time. He was well known for advocating for marital equality among the sexes in his work during the
17th century. According to a study published in the American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities, the
condition for women during Locke's time were as quote:
English women had fewer grounds for divorce than men until 1923 Husbands controlled most of their
wives' personal property until the Married Women's Property Act 1870 and Married Women's
Property Act 1882 Children were the husband's property Rape was legally impossible within a
marriage Wives lacked crucial features of legal personhood, since the husband was taken as the
representative of the family (thereby eliminating the need for women's suffrage). These legal features
of marriage suggest that the idea of a marriage between equals appeared unlikely to most
Victorians. (Quoted from Gender and Good Governance in John Locke, American Journal of Social Issues
& Humanities Vol 2
Other philosophers have also made the statements regarding women's rights during this time. For
example, Thomas Paine wrote in An Occasional Letter on the Female Sex 1775where he states (as
quote) :
"If we take a survey of ages and of countries, we shall find the women, almost without exception...
adored and oppressed... they are ... robbed of freedom of will by the laws...Yet such, I am sorry to
say, is the lot of women over the whole earth. Man with regard to them, has been either an insensible
husband or an oppressor."
18th and 19th century Europe
The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the
wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792.
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Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim,
gained increasing political, social, and philosophical importance in Europe. Movements emerged which
demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not
own property, and universal suffrage. In the late 18th century the question of women's rights became
central to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of
the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a
privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles
should be applied only to their own gender and their own race. The philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, for example, thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote
"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws" and claimed that "when she tries
to usurp our rights, she is our inferior".
The efforts of Dorothea von Velenmistress of Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatineled to the abolition
of couverture in the Electoral Palatinate in 1707, making it an early beacon of women's rights. The
Palatinate was the first German state to abolish couverture, but it was briefly re-instated by Karl III
Philipp, Johann Wilhelm's successor. Dorothea protested from exile in Amsterdam. She published her
memoirs,A Life for Reform, which were highly critical of Karl III Philipp's government. To avoid a
scandal, Karl III Philipp yielded to Dorothea's demands, and couverture was once again abolished. in
1754, Dorothea Erxleben became the first German woman receiving a M.D. (University of Halle)
Mary Wollstonecraft by John Opie (c. 1797)
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First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen
In 1791 the French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of
the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen of 1789. The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French
Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: "This revolution will only take effect
when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in
society". The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen follows the seventeen
articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been
described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody...of the original document". The first article of the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free
and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility." The first article of
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied:
"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on
common utility". De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to:
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Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon:
A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker
"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments,
according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents".
De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet
denied equal rights. Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of
the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that
created limited expectations. Wollstonecraft attacked gender oppression, pressing for equal
educational opportunities, and demanded "justice!" and "rights to humanity" for all. Wollstonecraft,
along with her British contemporaries Damaris Cudworth and Catharine Macaulay started to use the
language of rights in relation to women, arguing that women should have greater opportunity
because like men, they were moral and rational beings.
A Punch cartoon from 1867 mocking John Stuart Mill's attempt to replace the term 'man' with 'person',
i.e. give women the right to vote. Caption: Mill's Logic: Or, Franchise for Females. "Pray clear the way,
there, for these a persons."
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In his 1869 essay "The Subjection of Women" the English philosopher and political theorist John Stuart
Mill described the situation for women in Britain as follows:
"We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the woman her just rights.
Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband; no less so, as far as the legal obligation
goes, than slaves commonly so called."
Then a member of parliament, Mill argued that women deserve the right to vote, though his proposal
to replace the term "man" with "person" in the second Reform Bill of 1867 was greeted with laughter
in the House of Commons and defeated by 76 to 196 votes. His arguments won little support amongst
contemporaries but his attempt to amend the reform bill generated greater attention for the issue of
women's suffrage in Britain. Initially only one of several women's rights campaigns, suffrage became
the primary cause of the British women's movement at the beginning of the 20th century. At the time,
the ability to vote was restricted to wealthy property owners within British jurisdictions. This
arrangement implicitly excluded women as property law and marriage law gave men ownership
rights at marriage or inheritance until the 19th century. Although male suffrage broadened during the
century, women were explicitly prohibited from voting nationally and locally in the 1830s by
the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Millicent Fawcett and Emmeline
Pankhurst led the public campaign on women's suffrage and in 1918 a bill was passed allowing
women over the age of 30 to vote.
By the 1860s, the economic sexual politics of middle class women in Britain and its neighboring
Western European countries was guided by factors such as the evolution of 19th
century consumer culture, including the emergence of the department store, and Separate spheres.
In Come Buy, Come Buy: Shopping and the Culture of Consumption in Victorian Women's Writing, Krista
Lysack's literary analysis of 19th century contemporary literature claims through her resources'
reflection of common contemporary norms, "Victorian femininity as characterized by self-renunciation
and the regulation of appetite." And while women, particularly those in the middle class, obtained
modest control of daily household expenses and had the ability to leave the house, attend social
events, and shop for personal and household items in the various department stores developing in late
19th century Europe, Europe's socioeconomic climate pervaded the ideology that women were not in
complete control over their urges to spend (assuming) their husband or father's wages. As a result,
many advertisements for socially 'feminine' goods revolved around upward social
progression, exoticisms from the Orient, and added efficiency for household roles women were
deemed responsible for, such as cleaning, childcare, and cooking.
Russia
By law and custom, Muscovite Russia was a patriarchal society that subordinated women to men, and
the young to their elders. Peter the great relaxed the second custom, but not the subordination of
women. A decree of 1722 explicitly forbade any forced marriages by requiring both bride and
groom to consent, while parental permission still remained a requirement. But during Peter's reign,
only the man could get rid of his wife by putting her in a nunnery.
In terms of laws, there were double standards to women. Adulterous wives were sentenced to forced
labor, while men who murdered their wives were merely flogged. After the death Peter the Great,
laws and customs pertaining to men's marital authority over their wives increased. In 1782, civil law
reinforced women's responsibility to obey her husband. By 1832, the Digest of laws changed this
obligation into "unlimited obedience". In the 18th century, Russian orthodox church further got its
authority over marriage and banned priests from granting divorce, even for severely abused wives.
By 1818, Russian senate had also forbade separation of married couples.
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During World War 1, caring for children was increasingly difficult for women, many of whom could
not support themselves, and whose husbands had died or were fighting in the war. Many women had
to give up their children to children's homes infamous for abuse and neglect. These children's homes
were unofficially dubbed as "angel factories". After the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks shut down
an infamous angel factory known as the 'Nikolaev Institute' situated near the Moika Canal. The
Bolsheviks then replaced the Nikolaev Institute with a modern maternity home called the 'Palace for
Mothers and Babies'. This maternity home was used by the Bolsheviks as a model for future maternity
hospitals. The countess who ran the old Institute was moved to a side wing, however she spread
rumours that the Bolsheviks had removed sacred pictures, and that the nurses were promiscuous with
sailors. The maternity hospital was burnt down hours before it was scheduled to open, and the
countess was suspected of being responsible.
Russian women had restrictions in owning property until the mid-18th century. Women's rights had
improved after the rise of the Soviet Union under the Bolsheviks. Under the Bolsheviks, Russia became
the first country in human history to provide free abortions to women in state run hospitals.
Canada
Statue in downtown Calgary of theFamous Five.

An identical statue exists on Parliament Hill, Ottawa
Women's rights activism in Canada during the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on increasing
womens role in public life, with goals including womens suffrage, increased property rights,
increased access to education, and recognition of women as "persons" under the law. The Famous
Five were five Canadian women - Emily Murphy, Irene Marryat Parlby, Nellie Mooney
McClung, Louise Crummy McKinney and Henrietta Muir Edwards - who, in 1927, asked the Supreme
Court of Canada to answer the question, "Does the word 'Persons' in Section 24 of the British North
America Act, 1867, include female persons?" in the case Edwards v. Canada (Attorney General). After
Canada's Supreme Court summarized its unanimous decision that women are not such "persons", the
judgment was appealed and overturned in 1929 by the British Judicial Committee of the Imperial
Privy Council, at that time the court of last resort for Canada within the British Empire and
Commonwealth.
Natural rights
17th century natural law philosophers in Britain and America, such as Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and John Locke, developed the theory of natural rights in reference to ancient philosophers
such as Aristotle and the Christian theologist Aquinas. Like the ancient philosophers, 17th century
natural law philosophers defended slavery and an inferior status of women in law. Relying on ancient
Greek philosophers, natural law philosophers argued that natural rights were not derived from god,
but were "universal, self-evident, and intuitive", a law that could be found in nature. They believed
that natural rights were self-evident to "civilised man" who lives "in the highest form of society".
Natural rights derived from human nature, a concept first established by the ancient Greek
philosopher Zeno of Citium in Concerning Human Nature. Zenon argued that each rational and
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civilized male Greek citizen had a "divine spark" or "soul" within him that existed independent of the
body.
Zeno founded the Stoic philosophy and the idea of a human nature was adopted by other Greek
philosophers, and later natural law philosophers and western humanists. Aristotle developed the
widely adopted idea of rationality, arguing that man was a "rational animal" and as such a natural
power of reason. Concepts of human nature in ancient Greece depended on gender, ethnic, and other
qualifications[122] and 17th century natural law philosophers came to regard women along with
children, slaves and non-whites, as neither "rational" nor "civilised". Natural law philosophers claimed
the inferior status of women was "common sense" and a matter of "nature". They believed that women
could not be treated as equal due to their "inner nature". The views of 17th century natural law
philosophers were opposed in the 18th and 19th century by evangelical natural
theology philosophers such as William Wilberforce and Charles Spurgeon, who argued for the
abolition of slavery and advocated for women to have rights equal to that of men. Modern natural
law theorists, and advocates of natural rights, claim that all people have a human nature, regardless
of gender, ethnicity or other qualifications, therefore all people have natural rights. Equal
employment rights for women and men
Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States, as well as
the first woman on the UK Medical Register
Employment rights for women include non-discriminatory access of women to jobs and equal pay. The
rights of women and men to have equal pay and equal benefits for equal work were openly denied
by the British Hong Kong Government up to the early 1970s. Leslie Wah-Leung Chung (,
19172009), President of the Hong Kong Chinese Civil Servants' Association
(196568), contributed to the establishment of equal pay for men and women, including the right for
married women to be permanent employees. Before this, the job status of a woman changed from
permanent employee to temporary employee once she was married, thus losing the pension benefit.
Some of them even lost their jobs. Since nurses were mostly women, this improvement of the rights of
married women meant much to the nursing profession. In some European countries, married women
could not work without the consent of their husbands until a few decades ago, for example
in France until 1965[130][131] and in Spain until 1975. In addition, marriage bars, a practice adopted
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from the late 19th century to the 1970s across many countries, including Austria, Australia, Ireland,
Canada, and Switzerland, restricted married women from employment in many professions.
A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of maternity
rights and reproductive rights of women. Maternity leave (and paternity leave in some countries)
and parental leave are temporary periods of absence from employment granted immediately before
and after childbirth in order to support the mother's full recovery and grant time to care for the baby.
Different countries have different rules regarding maternity leave, paternity leave and parental
leave. In the European Union (EU) the policies vary significantly by country, but the EU members must
abide by the minimum standards of the Pregnant Workers Directive and Parental Leave Directive.
Right to vote
Strategist and activist Alice Paul guided and ran much of the Suffrage movement
in the U.S. in the 1910s.
1919 election poster, German social democrats.

"Frauen! Gleiche Rechte, Gleiche Pflichten" ("Women! The same rights, the same duties")
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Women standing in line to vote in Bangladesh.

During the 19th century some women began to ask for, demand, and then agitate and demonstrate
for the right to vote - the right to participate in their government and its law making. Other women
opposed suffrage, like Helen Kendrick Johnson, whose prescient 1897 work, Woman and the Republic,
contains perhaps the best arguments against women's suffrage of the time. The ideals of women's
suffrage developed alongside that of universal suffrage and today women's suffrage is considered a
right (under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women). During
the 19th century the right to vote was gradually extended in many countries, and women started to
campaign for their right to vote. In 1893 New Zealand became the first country to give women the
right to vote on a national level. Australia gave women the right to vote in 1902.
A number of Nordic countries gave women the right to vote in the early 20th century Finland
(1906), Norway (1913), Denmark and Iceland (1915). With the end of the First World War many
other countries followed the Netherlands (1917), Austria, Azerbaijan
Canada, Czechoslovakia, Georgia, Poland and Sweden (1918), Germany and Luxembourg (1919),
Turkey (1934), and the United States (1920). Late adopters in Europe were Greece in
1952, Switzerland (1971 at federal level; 1959-1991 on local issues at canton
level), Portugal (1976 on equal terms with men, with restrictions since 1931) as well as
the microstates of San Marino in 1959, Monaco in 1962, Andorra in 1970, and Liechtenstein in 1984.
In Canada, most provinces enacted women's suffrage between 19171919, late adopters
being Prince Edward Island in 1922,Newfoundland in 1925 and Quebec in 1940.
In Latin America some countries gave women the right to vote in the first half of the 20th century
Ecuador (1929), Brazil (1932), El Salvador (1939), Dominican Republic (1942), Guatemala (1956)
and Argentina (1946). In India, under colonial rule, universal suffrage was granted in 1935. Other
Asian countries gave women the right to vote in the mid 20th century Japan (1945), China (1947)
and Indonesia (1955). In Africa, women generally got the right to vote along with men through
universal suffrage Liberia (1947), Uganda(1958) and Nigeria (1960). In many countries in the
Middle East universal suffrage was acquired after the Second World War, although in others, such
as Kuwait, suffrage is very limited. On 16 May 2005, the Parliament of Kuwait extended suffrage to
women by a 3523 vote.
Property rights (US and Britain)
During the 19th century some women in the United States and Britain began to challenge laws that
denied them the right to their property once they married. Under the common law doctrine
of coverture husbands gained control of their wives' real estate and wages. Beginning in the 1840s,
state legislatures in the United States and the British Parliament began passing statutes that protected
women's property from their husbands and their husbands' creditors. These laws were known as
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the Married Women's Property Acts. Courts in the 19th-century United States also continued to
require privy examinations of married women who sold their property. A privy examination was a
practice in which a married woman who wished to sell her property had to be separately examined
by a judge or justice of the peace outside of the presence of her husband and asked if her husband
was pressuring her into signing the document.
Modern movements
Iraqi-American writer and activist Zainab Salbi, the founder of Women for Women International.
In the subsequent decades women's rights again became an important issue in the English speaking
world. By the 1960s the movement was called "feminism" or "women's liberation." Reformers wanted
the same pay as men, equal rights in law, and the freedom to plan their families or not have children
at all. Their efforts were met with mixed results.
The International Council of Women (ICW) was the first women's organization to work across national
boundaries for the common cause of advocating human rights for women. In March and April 1888,
women leaders came together in Washington D.C. with 80 speakers and 49 delegates representing
53 women's organizations from 9 countries: Canada, the United States, Ireland, India, England,
Finland, Denmark, France and Norway. Women from professional organizations, trade unions, arts
groups and benevolent societies participate. National Councils are affiliated to the ICW and thus
make themselves heard at international level. In 1904, the ICW met in Berlin, Germany. The ICW
worked with the League of Nations during the 1920s and the United Nations post-World War II.
Today the ICW holds Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, the
highest accreditation an NGO can achieve at the United Nations. Currently, it is composed of 70
countries and has a headquarters in Lasaunne, Switzerland. International meetings are held every
three years.
In the UK, a public groundswell of opinion in favour of legal equality had gained pace, partly
through the extensive employment of women in what were traditional male roles during both world
wars. By the 1960s the legislative process was being readied, tracing through MP Willie
Hamilton's select committee report, his equal pay for equal work bill, the creation of a Sex
Discrimination Board, Lady Sear's draft sex anti-discrimination bill, a government Green Paper of
1973, until 1975 when the first British Sex Discrimination Act, an Equal Pay Act, and an Equal
Opportunities Commission came into force. With encouragement from the UK government, the other
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countries of the EEC soon followed suit with an agreement to ensure that discrimination laws would be
phased out across the European Community.
In the USA, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was created in 1966 with the purpose of
bringing about equality for all women. NOW was one important group that fought for the Equal
Rights Amendment (ERA). This amendment stated that "equality of rights under the law shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex." But there was disagreement
on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee
women equal treatment. But critics feared it might deny women the right be financially supported by
their husbands. The amendment died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it. ERAs have
been included in subsequent Congresses, but have still failed to be ratified.
Women for Women International (WfWI) is a nonprofit humanitarian organization that provides
practical and moral support to women survivors of war. WfWI helps such women rebuild their lives
after wars devastation through a year-long tiered program that begins with direct financial aid and
emotional counseling and includes life skills (e.g., literacy, numeracy) training if necessary, rights
awareness education, health education, job skills training and small business development. The
organization was co-founded in 1993 by Zainab Salbi, an Iraqi American who is herself a survivor of
the IranIraq War and Salbis then-husband Amjad Atallah. Since June 2012, WfWI has been led by
Afshan Khan, a long-time former executive with UNICEF who became WfWIs first new CEO since
founder Zainab Salbi stepped down to devote more time to her writing and lecturing.
The National Council of Women of Canada (Conseil national des femmes du Canada), is
a Canadian advocacy organization based in Ottawa aimed at improving conditions for women,
families, and communities. A federation of nationally organized societies of men and women and local
and provincial councils of women, it is the Canadian member of the International Council of
Women (ICW). The Council has concerned itself in areas including women's suffrage,
immigration, health care, education, mass media, the environment, and many others. Formed on
October 27, 1857 in Toronto, Ontario, it is one of the oldest advocacy organizations in the country.
The Association for the Protection and Defense of Women's Rights in Saudi Arabia is a Saudi Nongovernmental organization founded to provide activism for women's rights. It was founded
by Wajeha al-Huwaider and Fawzia Al-Uyyouni, and grew out of a 2007 movement to gain women
the right to drive. The association is not officially licensed by the government of Saudi Arabia, and
has been warned not to mount demonstrations. In a 2007 interview, al-Huwaider described the goals:
"The association will consist of a number of leagues, with each league pursuing a different issue or
right... representation for women in shari'a courts; setting a [minimum] age for girls' marriages;
allowing women to take care of their own affairs in government agencies and allowing them to enter
government buildings; protecting women from domestic violence, such as physical or verbal violence,
or keeping her from studies, work, or marriage, or forcing her to divorce..."
In Ukraine, FEMEN was founded in 2008. The organisation is internationally known for its topless
protests against sex tourists, international marriage agencies, sexism and other social, national and
international social illnesses. FEMEN has sympathisers groups in many European countries through
social media.
United Nations and World Conferences on Women
In 1946 the United Nations established a Commission on the Status of Women. Originally as the
Section on the Status of Women, Human Rights Division, Department of Social Affairs, and now part of
the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Since 1975 the UN has held a series of world conferences
on women's issues, starting with the World Conference of the International Women's Year in Mexico
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City. These conferences created an international forum for women's rights, but also illustrated divisions
between women of different cultures and the difficulties of attempting to apply principles universally.
Four World Conferences have been held, the first in Mexico City (International Women's Year, 1975),
the second in Copenhagen (1980) and the third in Nairobi (1985). At the Fourth World Conference
on Women in Beijing (1995), The Platform for Action was signed. This included a commitment to
achieve "gender equality and the empowerment of women".[165][166] In 2010, UN Women is founded
by merging of Division for the Advancement of Women, International Research and Training Institute
for the Advancement of Women, Office of the Special Adviser or Gender Issues Advancement of
Women and United Nations Development Fund for Women by General Assembly Resolution 63/311.
Field organisations
Regions where women's rights are less developed have produced interesting local organisations, such
as:
IIDA Women's Development Organisation, a Somali non-governmental organisation, created by
women in order to work for peacebuilding and womens rights defence in Somalia, a country
deprived of state structures and security since 1991,
the All Pakistan Women's Association, a civil society organisation founded in 1949, which develops a
range of programmes in the field of health, nutrition, education, birth control and legal aid.
Right to education
First group of women who entered university in Iran

The right to education is a universal entitlement to education. The Convention against Discrimination in
Education prohibits discrimination in education, with discrimination being defined as "any distinction,
exclusion, limitation or preference which, being based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political
or other opinion, national or social origin, economic condition or birth, has the purpose or effect of
nullifying or impairing equality of treatment in education".
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states at Article 3 that "The States
Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the
enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant", with Article 13
recognizing "the right of everyone to education". While women's right to access to academic
education is recognized as very important, it is increasingly recognized that academic education must
be supplemented with education on human rights, non-discrimination, ethics and gender equality, in
order for social advancement to be possible. This was pointed out by Zeid Raad Al Hussein, the
current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, who stressed the importance of human
rights education for all children: "What good was it to humanity that Josef Mengele had advanced
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degrees in medicine and anthropology, given that he was capable of committing the most inhuman
crimes? Eight of the 15 people who planned the Holocaust at Wannsee in 1942 held PhDs. They shone
academically, and yet they were profoundly toxic to the world. Radovan Karadi was a trained
psychiatrist. Pol Pot studied radio electronics in Paris. Does this matter, when neither of them showed
the smallest shred of ethics and understanding?" There has been increased attention given in recent
decades to the raising of student awareness to the importance of gender equality.
Reproductive rights
"And the villain still pursues her." Satirical Victorian era postcard.
Legal rights
Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health.
Reproductive rights were endorsed by the twenty-year Cairo Programme of Action which was
adopted in 1994 at the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo,
and by the Beijing Declaration and Beijing Platform for Action in 1995. In the 1870s feminists
advanced the concept of voluntary motherhood as a political critique of involuntary motherhood and
expressing a desire for women's emancipation. Advocates for voluntary motherhood disapproved
of contraception, arguing that women should only engage in sex for the purpose of procreation and
advocated for periodic or permanent abstinence.
Birth control
Cover of the 1919 Birth Control Review, published by Margaret Sanger.

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In relation to "How shall we change the law?" Sanger wrote "...women appeal in vain for instruction
concerning contraceptives. Physicians are willing to perform abortions where they are pronounced
necessary, but they refuse to direct the use of preventives which would make the abortions
unnecessary... "I can't do it the law does not permit it."
In the early 20th century birth control was advanced as alternative to the then fashionable
terms family limitation and voluntary motherhood. The phrase "birth control" entered the English
language in 1914 and was popularised by Margaret Sanger, who was mainly active in the US but
had gained an international reputation by the 1930s. The British birth control campaigner Marie
Stopes made contraception acceptable in Britain during the 1920s by framing it in scientific terms.
Stopes assisted emerging birth control movements in a number of British colonies. The birth control
movement advocated for contraception so as to permit sexual intercourse as desired without the risk
of pregnancy.
By emphasizing control, the birth control movement argued that women should have control over their
reproduction, an idea that aligned closely to the theme of the feminist movement. Slogans such as
"control over our own bodies" criticised male domination and demanded women's liberation, a
connotation that is absent from the family planning,population control and eugenics movements. In the
1960s and 1970s the birth control movement advocated for the legalisation of abortion and largescale education campaigns about contraception by governments. In the 1980s birth control and
population control organisations co-operated in demanding rights to contraception and abortion, with
an increasing emphasis on "choice".
Birth control has become a major theme in United States politics. Reproductive issues are cited as
examples of women's powerlessness to exercise their rights. The societal acceptance of birth control
required the separation of sex from procreation, making birth control a highly controversial subject in
the 20th century. In the United States birth control has become an arena for conflict between liberal
and conservative values, raising questions about family, personal freedom, state intervention, religion
in politics, sexual morality and social welfare. Reproductive rights, that is rights relating to sexual
reproduction and reproductive health, were first discussed as a subset of human rights at the United
Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights.
Reproductive rights represents a broad concept, that may include some or all of the following rights:
the right to legal or safe abortion, the right to control one's reproductive functions, the right to access
quality reproductive healthcare, and the right to education and access in order to make reproductive
choices free from coercion, discrimination, and violence. Reproductive rights may also be understood
to include education about contraception and sexually transmitted infections. Reproductive rights are
often defined to include freedom from female genital mutilation (FGM), and forced
abortion and forced sterilization.[183][184][185][186] The Istanbul Convention recognizes these two rights at
Article 38 Female genital mutilation and Article 39 Forced abortion and forced sterilisation.
Reproductive rights are understood as rights of both men and women, but are most frequently
advanced as women's rights.
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Abortion
A vacuum aspiration abortion at 8 weeks gestational age.

1: Amniotic sac
2: Embryo
3: Uterine lining
4: Speculum
5: Vacurette
6: Suction pump
Women's reproductive rights may be understood as including the right to easy access to a safe and
legal abortion. Women's access to legal abortion is restricted by law in most countries in the world.
Where abortion is permitted by law, women may only have limited access to safe abortion services.
Some countries still prohibit abortion in all cases, but in many countries and jurisdictions, abortion is
permitted to save the pregnant woman's life, or if the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest.
According to Human Rights Watch, "Abortion is a highly emotional subject and one that excites deeply
held opinions. However, equitable access to safe abortion services is first and foremost a human right.
Where abortion is safe and legal, no one is forced to have one. Where abortion is illegal and unsafe,
women are forced to carry unwanted pregnancies to term or suffer serious health consequences and
even death. Approximately 13% of maternal deaths worldwide are attributable to unsafe
abortionbetween 68,000 and 78,000 deaths annually." According to Human Rights Watch, "the
denial of a pregnant woman's right to make an independent decision regarding abortion violates or
poses a threat to a wide range of human rights."
The Catholic Church and many other Christian faiths, particularly those considered the Christian right,
and most Orthodox Jews, however, regard abortion not as a right, but as a moral evil and a Mortal
sin.
Russia was the first country to legalise abortions and offer free medical care in state hospitals to do
so. After the October Revolution, the Women's wing of the Bolshevik Party (the Zhenotdel) persuaded
the Bolsheviks to legalise abortion (as a 'temporary measure'). The Bolsheviks legalised abortion in
November 1920. This was the first time in world history that women had won the right to free
abortions in state hospitals.
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Human rights
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
Participation in the CEDAW

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, enshrines "the equal rights of men and
women", and addressed both the equality and equity issues. In 1979, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) for legal implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September
1981. The UN member states that have not ratified the convention are Iran, Palau, Somalia, Sudan,
Tonga, and the United States. Niue and the Vatican City, which are non-member states, have also not
ratified it. The latest state to become a party to the convention is South Sudan, on 30 April 2015.
The Convention defines discrimination against women in the following terms:
Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of
impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital
status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.
It also establishes an agenda of action for putting an end to sex-based discrimination for which states
ratifying the Convention are required to enshrine gender equality into their domestic legislation,
repeal all discriminatory provisions in their laws, and enact new provisions to guard against
discrimination against women. They must also establish tribunals and public institutions to guarantee
women effective protection against discrimination, and take steps to eliminate all forms of
discrimination practiced against women by individuals, organizations, and enterprises.
Women's rights in marriage, divorce and family law
Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights enshrines the right of consenting men and
women to marry and found a family.
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have
the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage,
during marriage and at its dissolution.
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by
society and the State."
Article 16 of CEDAW stipulates that, "1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to
eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations [...]".
Among the rights included are a woman's right to freely and consensually choose her spouse; to have
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parental rights to her children irrespective of her marital status; the right of a married woman to
choose a profession or an occupation, and to have property rights within marriage. In addition to
these, "The betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect".
Polygamous marriage is a controversial practice, prevalent in some parts of the world. The General
recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, state
at General Recommendation No. 21, Equality in marriage and family relations "14.[...] Polygamous
marriage contravenes a woman's right to equality with men, and can have such serious emotional and
financial consequences for her and her dependents that such marriages ought to be discouraged and
prohibited."
Cohabitation of unmarried couples as well as single mothers are common in some parts the world.
The Human Rights Committee has stated:
"27. In giving effect to recognition of the family in the context of article 23, it is important to accept
the concept of the various forms of family, including unmarried couples and their children and single
parents and their children and to ensure the equal treatment of women in these contexts (General
Comment 19 paragraph 2 last sentence). Single parent families frequently consist of a single woman
caring for one or more children, and States parties should describe what measures of support are in
place to enable her to discharge her parental functions on the basis of equality with a man in a
similar position."
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, also known as VDPA, is a human rights declaration
adopted by consensus at the World Conference on Human Rights on 25 June 1993 in Vienna, Austria.
This declaration recognizes women's rights as being protected human rights. Paragraph 18 reads:
"The human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of
universal human rights. The full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social
and cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of
discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community".
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325
On 31 October 2000, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted United Nations
Security Council Resolution 1325, the first formal and legal document from the United Nations Security
Council that requires all states to respect fully international humanitarian law and international human
rights law applicable to the rights and protection of women and girls during and after the armed
conflicts.
Maputo Protocol
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa,
better known as the Maputo Protocol, was adopted by the African Union on 11 July 2003 at its
second summit in Maputo, Mozambique. On 25 November 2005, having been ratified by the
required 15 member nations of the African Union, the protocol entered into force. The protocol
guarantees comprehensive rights to women including the right to take part in the political process, to
social and political equality with men, and to control of their reproductive health, and an end
to female genital mutilation.
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Violence against women
United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women was adopted by the United Nations in
1993. It defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely
to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life." This resolution
established that women have a right to be free from violence. As a consequence of the resolution, in
1999, the General Assembly declared the day of 25 November to be the International Day for the
Elimination of Violence against Women.
Article 2 of the The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women outlines several forms
of violence against women:
Article Two:
Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following:
a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual
abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female
genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and
violence related to exploitation;
b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community,
including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational
institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution;
c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever
it occurs.
Istanbul Convention
The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic
violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the
field of domestic violence and violence against women, and came into force in 2014. Countries which
ratify it must ensure that the forms of violence defined in its text are outlawed. In its Preamble, the
Convention states that "the realisation of de jure and de facto equality between women and men is a
key element in the prevention of violence against women". The Convention also provides a definition
of domestic violence as "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur
within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the
perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim". Although it is a Convention of
the Council of Europe, it is open to accession by any country.
Rape and sexual violence
A young ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the Imperial Japanese Army's
"comfort battalions" is interviewed by an Allied officer (see Comfort women).
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Rape, sometimes called sexual assault, is an assault by a person involving sexual intercourse with
or sexual penetration of another person without that person's consent. Rape is generally considered a
serious sex crime as well as a civil assault. When part of a widespread and systematic practice, rape
and sexual slavery are now recognised as a crime against humanity as well as a war crime. Rape is
also now recognised as a form of genocide when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in
part, a targeted group.
Rape as an element of the crime of genocide
In 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda established by the United Nations made
landmark decisions that rape is a crime of genocide under international law. The trial of Jean-Paul
Akayesu, the mayor of Taba Commune in Rwanda, established precedents that rape is an element of
the crime of genocide. The Akayesu judgement includes the first interpretation and application by an
international court of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. The Trial Chamber held that rape, which it defined as "a physical invasion of a sexual
nature committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive", and sexual assault constitute
acts of genocide insofar as they were committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a
targeted group. It found that sexual assault formed an integral part of the process of destroying
the Tutsi ethnic group and that the rape was systematic and had been perpetrated against Tutsi
women only, manifesting the specific intent required for those acts to constitute genocide.
Judge Navanethem Pillay said in a statement after the verdict: "From time immemorial, rape has been
regarded as one of the spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a
strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war." An estimated 500,000 women were raped
during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide.
Rape and sexual enslavement as crime against humanity
The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum, which defines the jurisdiction of the International
Criminal Court, recognises rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced
sterilization, "or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" as a crime against
humanity if the action is part of a widespread or systematic practice. The Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action also condemn systematic rape as well as murder, sexual slavery, and forced
pregnancy, as the "violations of the fundamental principles of international human rights and
humanitarian law." and require a particularly effective response.
Rape was first recognised as a crime against humanity when the International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia issued arrest warrants based on the Geneva Conventions and Violations of the
Laws or Customs of War. Specifically, it was recognised that Muslim women in Foca (southeastern
Bosnia and Herzegovina) were subjected to systematic and widespread gang rape, torture,
and sexual enslavement by Bosnian Serb soldiers, policemen, and members of paramilitary groups
after the takeover of the city in April 1992. The indictment was of major legal significance and was
the first time that sexual assaults were investigated for the purpose of prosecution under the rubric
of torture and enslavement as a crime against humanity.[214] The indictment was confirmed by a 2001
verdict by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia that rape and sexual
enslavement are crimes against humanity. This ruling challenged the widespread acceptance of rape
and sexual enslavement of women as intrinsic part of war.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia found three Bosnian Serb men guilty of
rape of Bosniac (Bosnian Muslim) women and girls (some as young as 12 and 15 years of age),
in Foca, eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Furthermore, two of the men were found guilty of the crime
against humanity of sexual enslavement for holding women and girls captive in a number of de facto
detention centres. Many of the women subsequently disappeared.
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Recognition of forced marriage as a practice similar to slavery
The 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions
and Practices Similar to Slavery defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include:
Any institution or practice whereby:
i.
A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a
consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or
group; or
ii.
The husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person
for value received or otherwise; or
iii.
A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person;
iv.
The Istanbul Convention requires countries which ratify it to prohibit forced marriage (Article
37) and to ensure that forced marriages can be easily voided without further victimization
(Article 32).
The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,

especially Women and Children
The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and
Children (also referred to as the Trafficking Protocol or UN TIP Protocol) is a protocol to
the Convention against Transnational Organised Crime. It is one of the three Palermo protocols.
Its purpose is defined at Article 2. Statement of purpose as:
a) To prevent and combat trafficking in persons, paying particular attention to women and
children;
b) To protect and assist the victims of such trafficking, with full respect for their human rights; and
c) To promote cooperation among States Parties in order to meet those objectives."
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5
Khmer New Year
Cambodian New Year/Khmer New Year
Cambodian New Year (Khmer: ) or Choul Chnam Thmey in the Khmer language,
literally "Enter New Year", is the name of the Cambodian holiday that celebrates the New Year. The
holiday lasts for three days beginning on New Year's Day, which usually falls on April 13th or 14th,
which is the end of the harvesting season, when farmers enjoy the fruits of their labor before the rainy
season begins. Khmers living abroad may choose to celebrate during a weekend rather than just
specifically April 13th through 16th. The Khmer New Year coincides with the traditional solar New
Year in several parts of India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Puthandu, Myanmar and Thailand.
Cambodians also use Buddhist Era to count the year based on the Buddhist calendar. For 2016, it is
2560 BE (Buddhist Era).
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The three days of the new year
Elders cleanse statues of the Buddha with perfumed water.
Maha Sangkran ()
Maha Sangkran, derived from Sanskrit Maha Sangkranta, is the name of the first day of the New Year
celebration. It is the end of the year and the beginning of a new one. People dress up and light
candles and burn incense sticks at shrines, where the members of each family pay homage to offer
thanks for the Buddha's teachings by bowing, kneeling and prostrating themselves three times before
his image. For good luck people wash their face with holy water in the morning, their chests at noon,
and their feet in the evening before they go to bed.
Virak Vanabat ( : )
Vireak Vanabat is the name of the second day of the New Year celebration. People contribute charity
to the less fortunate by helping the poor, servants, homeless, and low-income families. Families attend
a dedication ceremony to their ancestors at monasteries.
Vearak Loeng Sak ()
T'ngai Loeng Sak in Khmer is the name of the third day of the new year celebration. Buddhists wash
the Buddha statues and their elders with perfumed water. Bathing the Buddha images is a symbolic
practice to wash bad actions away like water clean dirt from household items. It is also thought to be
a kind deed that will bring longevity, good luck, happiness and prosperity in life. By washing their
grandparents and parents, the children can obtain from them best wishes and good pieces of advice
to live the life for the rest of the year.
New Year's customs
In temple
In temples, people erect a sand hillock on temple grounds. They mound up a big pointed hill of sand
or dome in the center which represents Valuka Chaitya, the stupa at Tavatimsa where the Buddha's
hair and diadem are buried. The big stupa is surrounded by four small ones, which represent the
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stupas of the Buddha's favorite disciples: Sariputta, Moggallana, Ananda, and Maha Kassapa. There
is another tradition called Sraung Preah () : pouring water or liquid plaster (a mixture of
water with some chalk powder) on elder relative, or people (mostly the younger generation is
responsible for pouring the water).
The Khmer New Year is also a time to prepare special dishes. One of these is a "kralan": a cake
made from steamed rice mixed with beans or peas, grated coconut and coconut milk. The mixture is
stuffed inside a bamboo stick and slowly roasted.
Traditional games ()
Cambodia is home to a variety of games played to transform the dull days into memorable occasions.
These games are similar to those played at Manipur, a north-eastern state in India.[3] Throughout the
Khmer New Year, street corners often are crowded with friends and families enjoying a break from
routine, filling their free time with dancing and games. Typically, Khmer games help maintain one's
mental and physical dexterity
"Chol Chhoung ()"

A game played especially on the first nightfall of the Khmer New Year by two groups of boys and
girls. Ten or 20 people comprise each group, standing in two rows opposite each other. One group
throws the "chhoung" to the other group. When it is caught, it will be rapidly thrown back to the first
group. If someone is hit by the "chhoung," the whole group must dance to get the "chhoung" back
while the other group sings to the dance.
"Chab Kon Kleng ()"

A game played by imitating a hen as she protects her chicks from a crow. Adults typically play this
game on the night of the first New Year's Day. Participants usually appoint a strong player to play
the hen who protects "her" chicks, while another person is picked to be the "crow". While both sides
sing a song of bargaining, the crow tries to catch as many chicks as possible as they hide behind the
hen.
"Bos Angkunh (
)"
The simple style consists of just throwing the Ongkunhs to hit the target Ongkunhs. The extended style
adds five more stages in addition to the throwing stage. Both styles end with a penalty called Joursactivity that the winning team members get to perform on the losing team members. The Jours-activity
is performed by using the Onkunghs the hit the knees of the losing team.
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"Leak Kanseng ()"

A game played by a group of children sitting in a circle. Someone holding a "kanseng" (Cambodian
towel) that is twisted into a round shape walks around the circle while singing a song. The person
walking secretly tries to place the "kanseng" behind one of the children. If that chosen child realizes
what is happening, he or she must pick up the "kanseng" and beat the person sitting next to him or
her.
"Bay Khom(
)"
A game played by two children in rural or urban areas during their leisure time. Ten holes are dug in
the shape of an oval into a board in the ground. The game is played with 42 small beads, stones or
fruit seeds. Before starting the game, five beads are put into each of the two holes located at the tip
of the board. Four beads are placed in each of the remaining eight holes. The first player takes all
the beads from any hole and drops them one by one in the other holes. He or she must repeat this
process until they have dropped the last bead into a hole that lies besides any empty one. Then they
must take all the beads in the hole that follows the empty one. At this point, the second player may
have his turn. The game ends when all the holes are empty. The player with the greatest number of
beads wins the game. It is possibly similar to congkak.
Angkor Sangkran ()
Sanskrit (Angkor Sangkranta) is an event of Khmer New Year organized by the Union of Youth
Federations of Cambodia (UYFC) which is held in Siem Reap province from 1416 April. Culture event
action-packed Angkor Sangkran is an opportunity for all Cambodians as a united Khmer Family and
for foreign friends to receive unforgettable and exquisite experiences during Khmer New Year in
Cambodia.
Choul Chhnam Khmer - New Year

http://www.tourismcambodia.com
People in the world always say New Year celebrate their happy festival. They usually schedule and
prepare it differently, depend on their belief and tradition. For Cambodian have hold it since past till
the present. The reason that cause to finish the old year for the are that: There have been some
people believe that there is a story as following one time there were a person "KABEL
MORHAPROHM" who asked three questions to "THORM BAL KOMA, the millionaire's on, who had
known the three percepts of "TRAI VITH" and ail kinds of the animal's languages. They all had
promised to cut the head of the person who failed the exam "THORM BAL" have no way to find the
solution, he felled very hopeless, fortunately, there were two eagles which had spoken about these
questions to make "THORM BAL" could find the way to settle the problems. The time of gambling
arrived "THORM BAL " had spoken that:
1. In the morning, the happiness is on the face that is why all people have to wash their face.
2. In the afternoon, the happiness is on the breath to make the people take water to wash the
breath.
3. In the evening, the happiness is on the foot to make the people wash their food in the
evening.
The result had broken out "KABEL MORHAPROHM" had to cut his head to give to the oldest had take
it go around PRAS SOMERU mountain about 60 minutes after they all bring it to put in the center of
KUHA KUNTH MALAY of KAILA mountain. In the end of the year the 7 females angles had changed
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their turn to take the head and go around the mountain every year till the present. This is the reason
to cause "SANG KRAN" or changing the old year into the New Year.
Some people have believed that for a period of one year the people always face the problems like
diseases or serious obstacles to make them unhappy. When the one of the year they all had
celebrated a great festival called "HAPPY NEW YEAR" and the people always prepare them-self,
clean the house, and take food to offer the monks. They wear new clothes and play popular games.
The festival usually is in 3 days period. The first day is "MOHA SANGKRAN" the second day is
"VORNBORTH" and the third day is "THNGAI LIENG SAK". For that time they start to change the old
year when the angle comes to get the duties from the former angle were schedule clearly.
WHEN IS THE KHMER NEW YEAR'S DAY CELEBRATED?
Since the period of Norkor Thom, the Khmer people used the Lunar calendar (The revolution of the
moon), that why they dated Mekseh (name of the first lunar month, from mid-November to midDecember) as the Khmer New Year's month, and is the first month of the year. And Kadek (name of
the last Lunar month) is the second one.
After that, they turned to use the Solar calendar (The revolution of the sun) as the most, and they
dated the Chetr (5th Lunar month) is the New Year's month, when the sun gets to the Mes Reasey. The
Khmer New Year's day is often celebrated on the 13th April (Chetr), but sometime it is celebrated on
the 14th April, because of the Solar calendar. The almanac which is base on the Solar calendar is
called "Simple arrival or Sangkran Thormada. And the almanac which is based on the Lunar calendar,
because the Lunar calendar is relevant to the Buddha's speeches.
Buddhist devotees pour water over the statue of a revered

Buddhist monk during the New Year Celebrations.
Beside, the Khmer New Year's day that is base on the Lunar calendar isn't regular, because we
sometimes celebrate it in the night of the waxing moon (Khneut), or in the night of the waning moon.
However, we usually celebrate it around one month. It means that we don't do it before
4th Keut of Khe Pisak (name of the Solar day) of Khe Chetr and not after 4th Keut of Khe Pisak (name
of the 6th Lunar month), so that some of the Khmer people celebrate their New Year's day in Khe
Chetr, such as the documents written by Mr. Chio-Takran, Khmer people celebrate this celebration with
playing the hand-scarf-throwing game and they gather the statues of Buddha from everywhere to
bath. In the other hand, the inscription in stone at Preah Khan is also stated this. Talking about there
celebrations in this New Year's Day. The Khmer people celebrate them traditionally as below.
A few days before the Khmer New Year's day, they prepared some food, clean their house, bought
some news and so on. When the New Year's Day comes, they prepare something such as 5 candles, 5
incenses, a pair of 5 Baysey, a pair of Baysey Baklam, a pair of Slathor (a ceremonial ornament made
with a banana tree trunk bake), a tray of cigarettes, some flowers and some fruits to sacrifice to the
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new heaven. When every is ready, they sit together near that place and light the candles to pray for
happiness from the new heaven and start to pray before breaking each other. On the other hand, we
have different celebrations during these 3 days of New Year's Day.
On the first day, they take some food to offer the monks at the monastery in the evening, they gather
the sand to build up a sandal mountain around the pagoda or around the bany tree in the early
evening, and they some drink to the monks and invite them to bany. On the second day, children give
some new clothes and money to their parents and grandparents. They also give some gift to their
maids and poor people. In the evening, they go to build up the sandal mountain and start to bany
that they consider it a Cholamony Chedey and ask the monks to bony and offer them the food to
dedicate this sin to the spirit of the ancestor.
In the morning of the third day, they also invite the monks to bany for the sandal mountain. And in the
evening, they bath the monks and statue of Buddha. During this third day, the people also play some
traditional games such as the hand-scarf-throwing game, they kick the nuts game, the tug of war
game, trot dancing (Battambang, Siem Reap). They also dance some traditional dancing such as Rorm
Vong, Rorm Khbach. etc.
Khmer New Year Celebrations

http://www.camboguide.com
The Khmer New Year is one of the most important holidays in

Cambodia. Also celebrated in Thailand and other Buddhist countries,
these days are filled with water throwing at passers-by and other
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games. Many people confuse this with the Water Festival, but then there is no water throwing. For the
best atmosphere in Phnom Penh, go to the area around Wat Phnom. There are free concerts at
night.
Khmer New Year is celebrated for three days.
Dates in 2016: 13-14-15 April
The Khmer New Year festival originated from Bramhmanism, a part of Hinduism, which was a religion
that Khmer believed in before Buddhism. Later on Buddhism became associated with the festival and
then took all the important roles in the festivity.
Showers and Games
The third day is called Leung Sakk, the day the year really starts. In the evening, to complete the New
Year festival, the Khmer need to perform the last ceremony, called Pithi Srang Preah, which means
giving a special bath or a special shower to Buddha statues, the monks, elders, parents, and
grandparents to apologize for any mistake we have done to them and to gratify them. Nowadays,
during all of Khmer New Year the Khmer have much fun by spreading out water to each other.
Khmer New Year Games
Throughout Khmer New Year, street corners often are crowded with friends and families enjoying a
break from routine, filling their free time dancing and play. Typically Khmer games help maintain
ones mental and physical dexterity. The bodys blood pressure, muscle system and brain all are
challenged and strengthened in the name of Why not try them for yourself?
Chol Chhoung
A game played especially on the first nightfall of the Khmer New Year by two groups of boys and
girls. Ten or 20 people comprise each group, standing in two rows opposite each other. One group
throws the chhoung to the other group. When it is caught, it will be rapidly thrown back to the first
group. If someone is hit by the chhoung, the whole group must dance to get the chhoung back
while the other group sings.
Chab Kon Kleng
A game played by imitating a hen as she protects her chicks from a crow. Adults typically play this
game on the night of the first New Years day. Participants usually appoint a person with a strong
build to play the hen leading many chicks. Another person is picked to be the crow. While both sides
sing a song of bargaining, the crow tries to catch as many chicks as possible as they hide behind the
hen.
Boy meets girl
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A game played by two groups of boys and girls. Each group throws their own angkunh to hit the
master angkunhs, which belong to the other group and are placed on the ground. The winners must
knock the knee of the losers with the angkunh. Angkunh is the name of an inedible fruit seed, which
looks like the knee bone.
Leak Kanseng
A game played by a group of children sitting in circle. Someone holding a kanseng (Cambodian
towel) twisted into a round shape walks around the circle while singing a song. The person walking
secretly tries to place the kanseng behind one of the children. If that chosen child realizes what is
happening, he or she must pick up the kanseng and beat the person sitting next to him or her.
Tres
A game played by throwing and catching a ball with one hand while trying to catch an increasing
number of sticks with the other hand. Usually, pens or chopsticks are used as the sticks to be caught.
Bay Khom
A game played by two children in rural or urban areas during their free time. Ten holes are dug in
the shape of an oval into a board in the ground. The game is played with 42 small beads, stones or
fruit seeds. Before starting the game, five beads are put into each of the two holes located at the tip
of the board. Four beads are placed in each of the remaining eight holes.
The first player takes all the beads from any hole and drops them one by one in the other holes. He
or she must repeat this process until they have dropped the last bead into a hole lying beside an
empty one. Then they must take all the beads in the hole that follows the empty one. At this point, the
second player begins to play. The game ends when all the holes are empty. The player with the
greatest number of beads wins the game.
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6
International Labour' Day
International Labour' Day

This article is about International Workers' Day on 1 May, a holiday sometimes called May Day.
See May Day for the traditional spring holiday. See Labour Day for other labour-related holidays.
International Workers' Day, also known as Labour Day in some countries, is a celebration
of labourers and the working classesthat is promoted by the international labour
movement, socialists, communists and anarchists and occurs every year on May Day (1 May), an
ancient European spring festival. The date was chosen for International Workers' Day by the Second
International, a pan-national organization of socialist and communist political parties, to commemorate
the Haymarket affair, which occurred inChicago on 4 May 1886.[2] The 1904 International Socialist
Conference in Amsterdam, the Sixth Conference of the Second International, called on "all Social
Democratic Party organisations and trade unions of all countries to demonstrate energetically on the
First of May for the legal establishment of the 8-hour day, for the class demands of the proletariat,
and for universal peace."
Being a traditional European spring celebration, May Day is a national public holiday in several
European countries. The date is currently celebrated specifically as "Labour Day" or "International
Workers' Day" in the majority of countries, including those which didn't traditionally celebrate May
Day. Some countries celebrate a Labour Day on other dates significant to them, such as the United
States, which celebrates Labor Day on the first Monday of September.
History
Nikita Khrushchev and Politburo members atop

Lenin's Mausoleum, May Day, 1957
States and dependencies coloured by observance of International Workers' Day

or a different variant of May Day orLabour Day:
Labor holiday on or near 1 May

Another public holiday on 1 May, such as May Day
No public holiday on 1 May, but Labour Day on a different date
No public holiday on 1 May and no Labour Day
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Beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labour movements grew, a variety of days
were chosen by trade unionists as a day to celebrate labour. In the United States and Canada, a
September holiday, called Labor or Labour Day, was first proposed in the 1880s. In 1882, Matthew
Maguire, a machinist, first proposed a Labor Day holiday on the first Monday of Septemberwhile
serving as secretary of the Central Labor Union (CLU) of New York. Others argue that it was first
proposed by Peter J. McGuire of the American Federation of Labor in May 1882, after witnessing
the annual labour festival held in Toronto, Canada. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United
States to make it an official public holiday. By the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894,
thirty U.S. states officially celebrated Labor Day.[5] Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was
an established, official holiday but in September,[7] not on 1 May.
1 May was chosen to be International Workers' Day in order to commemorate the 4 May
1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago. The police were trying to disperse a public assembly during a
general strike for the eight-hour workday, when an unidentified person threw a bomb at the police.
The police responded by firing on the workers, killing four demonstrators. The following day on 5
May in Milwaukee Wisconsin, the state militia fired on a crowd of strikers killing seven, including a
schoolboy and a man feeding chickens in his yard.
In 1889, a meeting in Paris was held by the first congress of the Second International, following a
proposal by Raymond Lavigne which called for international demonstrations on the 1890 anniversary
of the Chicago protests. May Day was formally recognised as an annual event at the International's
second congress in 1891. Subsequently, the May Day riots of 1894 occurred. TheInternational
Socialist Congress, Amsterdam 1904 called on "all Social Democratic Party organisations and trade
unions of all countries to demonstrate energetically on the First of May for the legal establishment of
the 8-hour day, for the class demands of the proletariat, and for universal peace." The congress
made it "mandatory upon the proletarian organisations of all countries to stop work on 1 May,
wherever it is possible without injury to the workers."
A 1 May rally in Bucharest in 1967

May Day has long been a focal point for demonstrations by various socialist, communist and anarchist
groups. May Day is one of the most important holidays in communist countries such as the People's
Republic of China, North Korea, Cuba and the former Soviet Union. May Day celebrations in these
countries typically feature elaborate military parades. In 1955, the Catholic Church dedicated 1 May
to "Saint Joseph the Worker". Saint Joseph is the patron saint of workers and craftsmen, among
others.
During the Cold War, May Day became the occasion for large military parades in Red Squareby
the Soviet Union and attended by the top leaders of the Kremlin, especially the Politburo, atop Lenin's
Mausoleum. It became an enduring symbol of that period.
Today, the majority of countries around the world celebrate a workers' day on May 1st.
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Canada
A notice about an anti-capitalist rally on Worker's Day in Montreal, 2011
In Canada, Labour Day is celebrated in September. In 1894, the government of Prime Minister John
Sparrow David Thompson declared the first Monday in September as Canada's official Labour Day.
Labor Day in the United States is on the same day.
May Day is however marked by unions and leftists. May Day is an important day of trade union and
community group protest in the province of Quebec (though not a provincial state holiday).
Celebration of the International Labour Day (or "International Workers' Day"; French
translation: Journe internationale des travailleurs) in Montreal goes back to 1906, organised by the
Mutual Aid circle. The tradition had a renaissance at the time of a mass strike in 1972. On the 1973
May Day, the first contemporary demonstration was organised by the major trade union
confederations; over 30 000 trade unionists took part in this demonstration. Further, it is the customary
date on which the minimum wage rises.
United States
Main article: Labor Day
Socialists in Union Square, N.Y.C. on 1 May 1912

In the United States, efforts to switch Labor Day from September to 1 May have not been successful.
In 1921, following the Russian Revolution of 1917, 1 May was promoted as "Americanization Day"
by the Veterans of Foreign Wars and other groups in opposition to communism. It became an annual
event, sometimes featuring large rallies. In 1949, Americanization Day was renamed to Loyalty Day.
In 1958, the U.S. Congress declared Loyalty Day, the U.S. recognition of 1 May, a national holiday;
that same year, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower proclaimed 1 May Law Day as well.
Music, theatre and giant puppets mark

the Milwaukee May Day commemoration.
Unions and union locals in the United States especially in urban areas with strong support for
organised labour have maintained a connection with labour traditions through their own unofficial
observances on 1 May. Some of the largest examples of this occurred during the Great Depression of
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the 1930s, when hundreds of thousands of workers marched in May Day parades in New York's Union
Square.Radical organisations including anarchist groups and socialist and communist parties have kept
the May Day tradition alive with rallies and demonstrations in such cities as New York, Chicago and
Seattle, often with major union backing. In Milwaukee, an annual commemoration takes place at the
site of the killing of seven workers during an 8 hour march.
San Jose, California, May Day March, 1 May 2006

In 2006, 1 May was chosen by mostly Latino immigrant groups in the United States as the day for
the Great American Boycott, a general strike of undocumented immigrant workers and supporters to
protest H.R. 4437, immigration reform legislation which they felt was draconian. From 10 April to 1
May of that year, millions of immigrant families in the U.S. called for immigrant rights, workers' rights
and amnesty for undocumented workers. They were joined by socialist and other leftist organisations
on 1 May. On 1 May 2007, a mostly peaceful demonstration in Los Angeles in support of
undocumented immigrant workers ended with a widely televised dispersal by police officers. In March
2008, the International Longshore and Warehouse Union announced that dockworkers will move
no cargo at any West Coast ports on 1 May 2008, as a protest against the continuation of the Iraq
War and the diversion of resources from domestic needs. For May Day 2010, marches were being
planned in many cities uniting immigrant and native workers including New York, San Francisco,
Boston, AlbanyChicago and Los Angeles most of whom protested against the Arizona Senate Bill
1070. On 1 May 2012, members of Occupy Wall Street and labour unions held protests together in
a number of cities in the United States and Canada to commemorate May Day and to protest the
state of the economy and economic inequality.
Cambodia
In Cambodia, it is known as International Labour Day and is a public holiday.
India
Triumph of Labour at the Marina Beach in Chennai

In India, Labour Day is a public holiday held on every 1 May. It is celebrated as Antarrashtriya
Shramik Diwas. The holiday is tied to labour movements for communist and socialist political parties.
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Labour Day is known as "Kamgar Din" in Hindi, "Kamgar Divas" in Marathi and "Uzhaipalar dhinam"
in Tamil. In North India, Labour Day is mostly not given its previous importance as a holiday now.
The first May Day celebration in India was organised in Madras (now Chennai) by the Labour Kisan
Party of Hindustan on 1 May 1923. This was also the first time the red flag was used in India. The
party leader Singaravelu Chettiar made arrangements to celebrate May Day in two places in 1923.
One meeting was held at the beach opposite to the Madras High Court; the other meeting was held
at theTriplicane beach. The Hindu newspaper, published from Madras reported,
The Labour Kisan party has introduced May Day celebrations in Madras. Comrade Singaravelar
presided over the meeting. A resolution was passed stating that the government should declare May
Day as a holiday. The president of the party explained the non-violent principles of the party. There
was a request for financial aid. It was emphasised that workers of the world must unite to achieve
independence.
1 May is also celebrated as "Maharashtra Day"and "Gujarat Day" to mark the date in 1960, when
the two western states attained statehood after the erstwhile Bombay State was divided on linguistic
lines. Maharashtra Day is held at Shivaji Park in central Mumbai. Schools and offices in Maharashtra
remain closed on 1 May. A similar parade is held to celebrate Gujarat Day in Gandhinagar.
Japan
2011 National Trade Union Council (Zenrokyo) May Day march, Tokyo.
May Day is not officially designated by the Japanese government as a national holiday, but as it lies
between other national holidays, it is a day off work for the vast majority of Japanese workers.
Many employers give it as a day off, and otherwise workers take it as "paid leave". 1 May occurs
during "Golden Week", together with 29 April ("Shwa Day"), 3 May ("Constitution Memorial Day"),
4 May ("Greenery Day") and 5 May ("Children's Day"). Workers generally take the day off work not
so much to join street rallies or labour union gatherings, but more to go on holiday for several
consecutive days (in Japanese corporate culture, taking weekdays off for personal pleasure is widely
frowned upon).
Some major labour unions organise rallies and demonstrations in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. Japan
has a long history of labour activism and since 1945, has had a communist and socialist party in
the Diet. In 2008, the National Confederation of Trade Unions (Zenrren) held a rally in Yoyogi
Park attended by 44,000 participants, while the National Trade Unions Council (Zenrky) held its
May Day rally at Hibiya Park. Reng, the largest Japanese trade union, held its May Day rally on
the following Saturday (3 May), allegedly to distance itself from the more radical labour unions.
Philippines
1 May is known as Labor Day (Araw ng mga Manggaggawa) and is a public holiday in the
Philippines. On this day, labour organisations and unions hold protests in major cities. On 1 May
1903, during the American colonial period the Union Obrera Democratica Filipina (Filipino Democratic
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Labor Union) held a 100,000-person rally in front of the Malacaan Palace demanding workers'
economic rights and Philippine independence. Ten years later, the first official celebration was held on
1 May 1913 when 36 labour unions convened for a congress in Manila. On 1 May 2001, a mass
demonstration occurred near Malacaang Palace known as EDSA 3 or 1 May Riots.
During the Presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, a policy was adopted called holiday
economics policy that moved holidays to either a Monday or a Friday to create a long weekend of
three days. In 2002, Labor Day was moved to the Monday nearest to 1 May. Labour groups
protested, as they accused the Arroyo administration of belittling the holiday. By 2008, Labor Day
was excluded in the holiday economics policy, returning the commemorations to 1 May, no matter
what day of the week it falls on.
Germany
In April 1933, the recently installed Nazi government declared 1 May the "Day of National Work,"
an official state holiday, and announced that all celebrations were to be organised by the
government. Any separate celebrations by communists, social democrats or labour unionswere
banned. After World War II, 1 May remained a state holiday in both East and West Germany. In
communist East Germany, workers were de facto required to participate in large state-organised
parades on May Day. Today in Germany it is simply called "Labour Day" (Tag der Arbeit), and there
are numerous demonstrations and celebrations by independent workers' organisations.
Today, Berlin witnesses yearly demonstrations on May Day, the largest organised by labour unions,
political parties and others by the far left and Autonomen.
May Day rally in Hanover, Germany, 1 May 2013
Since 1987, May Day has also become known for riots in some districts of Berlin. After police actions
against radical leftists in that year's annual demonstrations, the Autonome scattered and sought cover
at the ongoing annual street fair in Kreuzberg. Three years prior to thereunification of Germany,
violent protests would only take place in the former West Berlin. The protesters began tipping over
police cars, violently resisting arrest, and began building barricades after the police withdrew due to
the unforeseen resistance. Cars were set on fire, shops plundered and burned to the ground. The
police eventually ended the riots the following night. These violent forms of protests by the radical
left, later increasingly involved participants without political motivation. (Read more: May Day in
Kreuzberg)
Annual street fairs have proven an effective way to prevent riots, and May Day in 2005 and 2006
have been among the most peaceful known to Berlin in nearly 25 years. In recent years, neoNazis and other groups on the far right, such as the National Democratic Party of Germany, have
used the day to schedule public demonstrations, often leading to clashes with left-wing protesters,
which turned especially violent in Leipzig in 1998 and 2005.
May Day violence flared again in 2010. After an approved far right demonstration was blocked by
leftists, a parade by an estimated 10,000 leftists and anarchists turned violent and resulted in an
active response by Berlin police.
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Poland
1st May Coal Mine in Wodzisaw lski, Poland

In Poland, since the fall of communism, 1 May is officially celebrated as May Day, but is commonly
called Labour Day. It is currently celebrated without a specific connotation, and as such it is May Day.
However, due to historical connotations, most of the celebrations are focused around Labour Day
festivities. It is customary for labour activists to organize parades in cities and towns across Poland.
The holiday is also commonly referred to as "Labour Day" ("wito Pracy").
In Poland, May Day is closely followed by May 3rd Constitution Day. These two dates combined
often result in a long weekend called "Majwka". People often travel, and "Majwka" is unofficially
considered the start of barbecuing season in Poland. Between these two, on 2 May, there is a
patriotic holiday, the Day of Polish Flag (Dzie Flagi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej), introduced by a
Parliamentary Act of 20 February 2004.
In Poland some streets, places, squares, parks and also factories were popular named in honour of
International Workers' Day, such as 1 Maja Coal Mine in Wodzisaw lski.
Portugal
In Portugal, the 1 May celebration ("Primeiro de Maio") was harshly repressed during the long right
wing dictatorship of Antnio de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano. Since the Carnation
Revolution on 25 April 1974, the Worker's Day is celebrated by unions but as well by several leftist
political parties with parades and demonstrations. The first demonstration after the Carnation
Revolution, only one week after the coup, stays until today as the biggest demonstration in the history
of Portugal. It is an opportunity for workers, including non-permanent workers' groups, to show their
discontent for existing working conditions in parades all over the country but mainly in the capital,
where the two main national union federations (communist CGTP-IN and centre-left UGT) organise two
different rallies (in Alameda D. Afonso Henriques and Torre de Belm). It is an official public holiday.
Romania
In Romania, 1 May, known as the International Labour Day (Ziua internaional a muncii),
the International Workers' Day (Ziua internaional a oamenilor muncii), or simply1/First of
May (1/nti Mai), is an official public holiday. During the communist regime, like in all former Eastern
Bloc countries, the day was marked by large state-organised parades in most towns and cities, to
which many workers were de facto required to participate. After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, 1
May continues to be an official public holiday, but without any state organised events or parades.
Most people celebrate together with friends and family, organising picnics and barbecues. It is also
the first day of the year when people, especially those from the southeastern part of the country
including the capital Bucharest, go to spend the day in one of the Romanian Black Sea resorts.
Russia
Russian Communist Workers' Party demonstration on 1 May 2008 in Izhevsk

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May Day was celebrated illegally in Russia until the February Revolution enabled the first legal
celebration in 1917. The following year, after the Bolshevik seizure of power, the May Day
celebrations were boycotted by Mensheviks, Left Socialist Revolutionaries andanarchists. It became an
important official holiday of the Soviet Union, celebrated with elaborate popular parade in the
centre of the major cities. The biggest celebration was traditionally organised in Red Square, where
the General Secretary of the CPSU and other party and government leaders stood atop Lenin's
Mausoleum and waved to the crowds. In 1991, which preceded the last year that demonstrations
were held in Red Square, May Day grew into high-spirited political action. Around 50,000 people
participated in a rally in Red Square in 1991 after which the tradition was interrupted for 13 years.
In the early post-Soviet period the holiday turned into massive political gatherings of supporters of
radically minded politicians. For instance, an action dubbed as "a rally of communist-oriented
organisations" was held in Red Square in 1992. The rally began with performance of the Soviet Union
anthem and raising the Red Flag and ended with appeals from the leader of opposition movement
Working Moscow, Viktor Anpilov, "for early dismissal of President Boris Yeltsin, oustingMoscow
Mayor Gavriil Popov from power and putting the latter on trial". Since 1992, May Day is officially
called "The Day of Spring and Labour", and remains a major holiday in present-day Russia.
Sweden
Swedish Social Democratic Party at May Day demonstration in Stockholm,Sweden in 2006. The party
has dominated Swedish politics for nearly a century. The trade union palace in Stockholm is seen at
the end of the picture.
1 May has been an important part of Swedish history since the late 19th century. The day was made
a public holiday in 1938 but had been celebrated by the Swedish Social Democratic Party and
the left since 1890. The first May Day celebration gathered more than 50,000 people in central
Stockholm. The crowd went to hear speeches by the leading figures in the Swedish labour
movement such as Hjalmar Branting (later prime minister), August Palm and Hinke Bergegren.
During World War I the demonstrations mainly had a peace message and the Liberal Party also
joined the demonstrations. The 8-hour working day and women's suffrage were the principal themes
during the troubled times after World War I.
The May Day demonstrations are still an important part of Swedish politics for the social democrats,
left-wing parties and unions who use May Day to discuss their politics. In Stockholm the Social
Democratic Party always marches towards Norra Bantorget, the centre of the Swedish labour
movement, to hold speeches in front of the headquarters of the Swedish Trade Union Confederation,
while the smaller Left Party marches in larger numberstowards Kungstrdgrden.
Switzerland
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In Switzerland, the status of 1 May differs depending on the canton and sometimes on the
municipality. Labour Day is known as Tag der Arbeit in German-speaking cantons, as Fte du Travail in
the French-speaking cantons, and as Festa del lavoro in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino.
In the cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Basel-Stadt, Jura, Neuchtel, and Zrich, Labour Day is an official
public holiday equal to Sundays, based on federal law (Bundesgesetz ber die Arbeit in Industrie,
Gewerbe und Handel, article 20a).
In the cantons of Schaffhausen, Thurgau, and Ticino, Labour Day is an official "day off" (Ruhetag). This
is equal in practice to an official public holiday, but is not based on federal law and cantonal
regulations may differ in details.
In the canton of Solothurn it is an official half-day holiday (starting at 12 noon).
In the canton of Fribourg, public servants get the afternoon off, many companies follow this practice.
In the canton of Aargau it is not an official holiday, but most employees get the afternoon off.
In the municipalities of Hildisrieden and Schpfheim (both in the canton of Lucerne) as well as
in Muotathal (canton of Schwyz), 1 May is an official public holiday, but as commemoration day of
the local patron saint, not as Labour Day. In the other parts of the cantons of Lucerne and Schwyz, 1
May is a regular work day.
In all other cantons, 1 May is a regular work day.
The largest Labour Day celebrations in Switzerland are held in the city of Zrich. Each year, Zrich's 1
May committee, together with the Swiss Federation of Trade Unions, organises a festival and 1 May
rally. It is the largest rally held on a regular basis in Switzerland.
Turkey
Istanbul May Day clashes in 2013
Workers marching to Taksim Square, 1 May 2012

1 May is an official holiday celebrated in Turkey. It was a holiday until 1981 when it was cancelled
after the 1980 coup d'tat. In 2010, the Turkish government restored the holiday after some
casualties and demonstrations. Taksim Square is the centre of the celebrations due to the Taksim
Square massacre.
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Workers' Day was first celebrated in 1912 in stanbul, in 1911 in Selnik and in 1899 in zmir. After
the establishment of the Turkish Republic, it became an official holiday. In 1924, it was forbidden by
a decree and in both 1924 and 1925, demonstrations were intervened by arm floats. In 1935, The
National Assembly declared Workers' Day to be a holiday again.[58]
During the events leading to the 1980 Turkish coup d'etat, a massacre occurred on 1 May 1977
(Taksim Square massacre), in which unknown people (provocateurs) opened fire on the crowd. The
crowd was the biggest in Turkish workers' history with the number of people approximating 500,000.
In the next two years, provocations and confusion continued and peaked before the 1980 coup
d'etat. The Workers' Day holiday was cancelled once again. Still, demonstrations continued with small
crowds, and in 1996, three people were killed by police bullets, and a plain-clothes man who spied
in the crowd was revealed and lynched by workers. On the same evening, a video broadcast on TV
showed that two participants in the demonstration were lynched by far right-wing nationalist groups
and this lynching occurred in front of police forces who were watching the scene with happy faces.
Thus, 1 May 1996 has been remembered by workers' movements.
[
In 2007, the 30th anniversary of the Taksim square massacre, leftist workers' unions wanted to
commemorate the massacre in Taksim square. Since the government would not let them into the
square, 580700 people were stopped and 1 person died under police control. After these events,
the government declared 1 May as "Work and Solidarity Day" but not as a holiday. In the next year,
the day was declared as a holiday, but people were still not allowed to gather in Taksim Square. The
year 2008 was remembered with police violence in Istanbul. Police fired tear gas grenades among
the crowds, and into hospitals and a primary school. Workers pushed forward so that in 2010,
140,000 people gathered in Taksim, and in 2011 there were more than half a million demonstrators.
After 3 years of peaceful meetings in 2013, meetings in Taksim Square were forbidden by the
government. Clashes occurred between police and workers; water cannon and tear gas have been
widely used.
Ukraine
It is a public holiday in Ukraine, inherited from the Soviet era. Ukrainian communists and socialists
celebrate the holiday with demonstrations, while other people go to picnics and spring vacations.
In 2015, May Day rallies were banned in Kiev and Kharkiv.
Late May 2015 laws that ban communist symbols came into effect in Ukraine, thus banning communist
symbols, singing the Soviet national hymn or the Internationale.
According to Interior Minister Arsen Avakov during the 2016 May Day rallies in some major cities the
number of police officers far outnumbered the number of rally participants. With
in Dnipropetrovsk 193 policemen protecting 25 rally participants.
United Kingdom
The Stalin banner belonging to theCPGB-ML, featured in every

London International Workers' Day rally since 2008
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May Day activities (from 1978) are on the first Monday of the month. In the United Kingdom in recent
years, the anti-capitalist movement has organised a number of large protests
in London, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Doncaster. In London, these have resulted in clashes with the
police. In 2000, the clashes ended with a branch of McDonald's being smashed, and a statue
of Winston Churchill being given a grassMohawk hairstyle. The Cenotaph was also defaced
with graffiti. In the last few years, demonstrations have been more peaceful, with marches and
gatherings, particularly in central London. The Conservative-led coalition government in March 2011
announced plans to move the May Day bank holiday to October in order to lengthen the tourist
season. A London rally on May Day is organised by the London May Day Organising Committee
(LMDOC).
Australia
The Labour Day March in Brisbane,

Queensland is the largest rally in Australia.
While unofficial activities and commemorations associated with International Workers' Day occur on
May Day in Australia, Labour Day in the various states and territories generally falls on other days.
Only in the Northern Territory and Queensland is Labour Day celebrated on the first Monday in May,
which is a public holiday under the name of "May Day". Queensland holds the biggest rallies in
Australia, with the rally in Brisbane averaging 30,000 people. There are also rallies held
in Cairns, Rockhampton, Townsville, Barcaldine , Ipswich, Toowoombaand other regional centres.
The Brief Origins of May Day

By Eric Chase - 1993.
https://iww.org
Most people living in the United States know little about the International Workers' Day of May Day.
For many others there is an assumption that it is a holiday celebrated in state communist countries like
Cuba or the former Soviet Union. Most Americans don't realize that May Day has its origins here in
this country and is as "American" as baseball and apple pie, and stemmed from the pre-Christian
holiday of Beltane, a celebration of rebirth and fertility.
In the late nineteenth century, the working class was in constant struggle to gain the 8-hour work day.
Working conditions were severe and it was quite common to work 10 to 16 hour days in unsafe
conditions. Death and injury were commonplace at many work places and inspired such books as
Upton Sinclair's The Jungle and Jack London's The Iron Heel. As early as the 1860's, working people
agitated to shorten the workday without a cut in pay, but it wasn't until the late 1880's that organized
labor was able to garner enough strength to declare the 8-hour workday. This proclamation was
without consent of employers, yet demanded by many of the working class.
At this time, socialism was a new and attractive idea to working people, many of whom were drawn
to its ideology of working class control over the production and distribution of all goods and services.
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Workers had seen first-hand that Capitalism benefited only their bosses, trading workers' lives for
profit. Thousands of men, women and children were dying needlessly every year in the workplace,
with life expectancy as low as their early twenties in some industries, and little hope but death of
rising out of their destitution. Socialism offered another option.
A variety of socialist organizations sprung up throughout the later half of the 19th century, ranging
from political parties to choir groups. In fact, many socialists were elected into governmental office by
their constituency. But again, many of these socialists were ham-strung by the political process which
was so evidently controlled by big business and the bi-partisan political machine. Tens of thousands of
socialists broke ranks from their parties, rebuffed the entire political process, which was seen as
nothing more than protection for the wealthy, and created anarchist groups throughout the country.
Literally thousands of working people embraced the ideals of anarchism, which sought to put an end
to all hierarchical structures (including government), emphasized worker controlled industry, and
valued direct action over the bureaucratic political process. It is inaccurate to say that labor unions
were "taken over" by anarchists and socialists, but rather anarchists and socialist made up the labor
unions.
At its national convention in Chicago, held in 1884, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor
Unions (which later became the American Federation of Labor), proclaimed that "eight hours shall
constitute a legal day's labor from and after May 1, 1886." The following year, the FOTLU, backed
by many Knights of Labor locals, reiterated their proclamation stating that it would be supported by
strikes and demonstrations. At first, most radicals and anarchists regarded this demand as too
reformist, failing to strike "at the root of the evil." A year before the Haymarket Massacre, Samuel
Fielden pointed out in the anarchist newspaper, The Alarm, that "whether a man works eight hours a
day or ten hours a day, he is still a slave."
Despite the misgivings of many of the anarchists, an estimated quarter million workers in the Chicago
area became directly involved in the crusade to implement the eight hour work day, including the
Trades and Labor Assembly, the Socialistic Labor Party and local Knights of Labor. As more and more
of the workforce mobilized against the employers, these radicals conceded to fight for the 8-hour
day, realizing that "the tide of opinion and determination of most wage-workers was set in this
direction." With the involvement of the anarchists, there seemed to be an infusion of greater issues
than the 8-hour day. There grew a sense of a greater social revolution beyond the more immediate
gains of shortened hours, but a drastic change in the economic structure of capitalism.
In a proclamation printed just before May 1, 1886, one publisher appealed to working people with
this plea:
Workingmen to Arms!
War to the Palace, Peace to the Cottage, and Death to LUXURIOUS IDLENESS.
The wage system is the only cause of the World's misery. It is supported by the rich classes, and to
destroy it, they must be either made to work or DIE.
One pound of DYNAMITE is better than a bushel of BALLOTS!
MAKE YOUR DEMAND FOR EIGHT HOURS with weapons in your hands to meet the capitalistic
bloodhounds, police, and militia in proper manner.
Not surprisingly the entire city was prepared for mass bloodshed, reminiscent of the railroad strike a
decade earlier when police and soldiers gunned down hundreds of striking workers. On May 1,
1886, more than 300,000 workers in 13,000 businesses across the United States walked off their
jobs in the first May Day celebration in history. In Chicago, the epicenter for the 8-hour day agitators,
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40,000 went out on strike with the anarchists in the forefront of the public's eye. With their fiery
speeches and revolutionary ideology of direct action, anarchists and anarchism became respected
and embraced by the working people and despised by the capitalists.
The names of many - Albert Parsons, Johann Most, August Spies and Louis Lingg - became household
words in Chicago and throughout the country. Parades, bands and tens of thousands of demonstrators
in the streets exemplified the workers' strength and unity, yet didn't become violent as the
newspapers and authorities predicted.
More and more workers continued to walk off their jobs until the numbers swelled to nearly 100,000,
yet peace prevailed. It was not until two days later, May 3, 1886, that violence broke out at the
McCormick Reaper Works between police and strikers. For six months, armed Pinkerton agents and
the police harassed and beat locked-out steelworkers as they picketed. Most of these workers
belonged to the "anarchist-dominated" Metal Workers' Union. During a speech near the McCormick
plant, some two hundred demonstrators joined the steelworkers on the picket line. Beatings with police
clubs escalated into rock throwing by the strikers which the police responded to with gunfire. At least
two strikers were killed and an unknown number were wounded.
Full of rage, a public meeting was called by some of the anarchists for the following day in
Haymarket Square to discuss the police brutality. Due to bad weather and short notice, only about
3000 of the tens of thousands of people showed up from the day before. This affair included families
with children and the mayor of Chicago himself. Later, the mayor would testify that the crowd
remained calm and orderly and that speaker August Spies made "no suggestion... for immediate use
of force or violence toward any person..."
As the speech wound down, two detectives rushed to the main body of police, reporting that a
speaker was using inflammatory language, inciting the police to march on the speakers' wagon. As the
police began to disperse the already thinning crowd, a bomb was thrown into the police ranks. No
one knows who threw the bomb, but speculations varied from blaming any one of the anarchists, to an
agent provocateur working for the police. Enraged, the police fired into the crowd. The exact number
of civilians killed or wounded was never determined, but an estimated seven or eight civilians died,
and up to forty were wounded. One officer died immediately and another seven died in the
following weeks. Later evidence indicated that only one of the police deaths could be attributed to
the bomb and that all the other police fatalities had or could have had been due to their own
indiscriminate gun fire. Aside from the bomb thrower, who was never identified, it was the police, not
the anarchists, who perpetrated the violence.
Eight anarchists - Albert Parsons, August Spies, Samuel Fielden, Oscar Neebe, Michael Schwab,
George Engel, Adolph Fischer and Louis Lingg - were arrested and convicted of murder, though only
three were even present at Haymarket and those three were in full view of all when the bombing
occurred. The jury in their trial was comprised of business leaders in a gross mockery of justice similar
to the Sacco-Vanzetti case thirty years later, or the trials of AIM and Black Panther members in the
seventies. The entire world watched as these eight organizers were convicted, not for their actions, of
which all of were innocent, but for their political and social beliefs. On November 11, 1887, after
many failed appeals, Parsons, Spies, Engel and Fisher were hung to death. Louis Lingg, in his final
protest of the state's claim of authority and punishment, took his own life the night before with an
explosive device in his mouth.
The remaining organizers, Fielden, Neebe and Schwab, were pardoned six years later by Governor
Altgeld, who publicly lambasted the judge on a travesty of justice. Immediately after the Haymarket
Massacre, big business and government conducted what some say was the very first "Red Scare" in
this country. Spun by mainstream media, anarchism became synonymous with bomb throwing and
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socialism became un-American. The common image of an anarchist became a bearded, eastern
European immigrant with a bomb in one hand and a dagger in the other.
Today we see tens of thousands of activists embracing the ideals of the Haymarket Martyrs and those
who established May Day as an International Workers' Day. Ironically, May Day is an official holiday
in 66 countries and unofficially celebrated in many more, but rarely is it recognized in this country
where it began.
Over one hundred years have passed since that first May Day. In the earlier part of the 20th century,
the US government tried to curb the celebration and further wipe it from the public's memory by
establishing "Law and Order Day" on May 1. We can draw many parallels between the events of
1886 and today. We still have locked out steelworkers struggling for justice. We still have voices of
freedom behind bars as in the cases of Mumia Abu Jamal and Leonard Peltier. We still had the
ability to mobilize tens of thousands of people in the streets of a major city to proclaim "THIS IS
WHAT DEMOCRACY LOOKS LIKE!" at the WTO and FTAA demonstrations.
Words stronger than any I could write are engraved on the Haymarket Monument:
THE DAY WILL COME WHEN OUR SILENCE WILL BE MORE POWERFUL THAN THE VOICES YOU ARE
THROTTLING TODAY.
Truly, history has a lot to teach us about the roots of our radicalism. When we remember that people
were shot so we could have the 8-hour day; if we acknowledge that homes with families in them were
burned to the ground so we could have Saturday as part of the weekend; when we recall 8-year old
victims of industrial accidents who marched in the streets protesting working conditions and child labor
only to be beat down by the police and company thugs, we understand that our current condition
cannot be taken for granted - people fought for the rights and dignities we enjoy today, and there is
still a lot more to fight for. The sacrifices of so many people cannot be forgotten or we'll end up
fighting for those same gains all over again. This is why we celebrate May Day.
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7
His Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni is the son of His Majesty the King Father Norodom
Sihanouk and Her Majesty the Queen Mother Norodom Monineath Sihanouk of Cambodia.
The king was born on 14 May 1953, in Phnom Penh. Norodom Sihamoni became the King of
Cambodia on 14 October 2004. He was Cambodia's ambassador to UNESCO and named by a ninemember throne council to become the next king after his father Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in
2004. Before ascending the throne, Sihamoni was best known for his work as a cultural ambassador in
Europe and as a classical dance instructor.
10 Years Into Sihamonis Reign, a Changed Palace

BY ALEX WILLEMYNS | OCTOBER 29, 2014
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBODIADAILY.COM
With a sprig of leaves behind his ear in place of a crown, King Norodom Sihamoni ascended
Cambodias throne 10 years ago Wednesday in a ceremony at the Royal Palace dominated by the
competing sounds of xylophones and military drums. Replacing his recently abdicated father, King
Norodom Sihanouk, the man who had been the face of the country since his original coronation in
1941, the new king pledged to discharge his duties as head of state in service of the nation.
King Norodom Sihamoni makes his way to the Throne Hall at the Royal Palace to take his oath during
his coronation in October 2004. (John Vink)
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Today, it has been bestowed upon me the immense honor of assuming the throne of Cambodia, King
Sihamoni said. As from this happy and solemn day, I shall devote my body and soul to the service of
the people and the nation. Coming a decade after the mercurial King Sihanouk restored the
monarchy; it was the beginning of a very different reign.
The monarchy is more symbolic now. Its not powerful like it was before, political analyst Lao Mong
Hay said Tuesday. It is just there to legitimize the regime through its functions.
At the beginning, I thought, Let him have five years to get a hand on royal authority, but since then,
hes mostly been at the mercy of our prime minister, Mr. Mong Hay said. It is a bit disappointing.
In comparison to his father, who ruled with an iron fist before 1970 and led an armed resistance
against Prime Minister Hun Sen in the 1980s, King Sihamoni acceded to the throne in 2004 after a life
spent mostly in Prague and Paris and dedicated to dance.
The publicly taciturn younger king has, since his coronation, carried out his duties without the
flamboyance of his father, who used his lasting personal authority to openly criticize Mr. Hun Sen and
other government leaders.
King Sihanouk even refused to preside over the opening of the National Assembly in 2003 until the
three political parties sorted out that years disputed election, a decision that contrasted starkly with
King Sihamonis convening of the CPP-only assembly amid the CNRPs claims of election fraud last
year.
My lovely king right now is the king under the Constitution and it says what the king should do and
should not do, Council of Ministers spokesman Phay Siphan said Tuesday. He is the figurehead of
the nation and does not just follow what anyone says.
Thats why you dont see much of his involvement in politics. Hes concerned with unity and peace.
Thats what a figurehead of national unity and peace does. He follows the Constitution.
This perspective is also shared by some within the royal family, including Prince Sisowath Sirirath, who
said King Sihamonis refusal to stoop to sensationalist acts of politicking, such as King Sihanouks
strategic escape to Beijing during the 2003 post-election dispute, has kept the monarchy elevated
above politics.
On the political front, there are different issues, but as far as members of the royal family like
myself are concerned, King Sihamoni has done a great job of maintaining peace and stability, Prince
Sirirath said. The monarchy commands a very strong sense of unity and stability among the
Cambodian people.
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Monks take part in a procession in front of the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh on Tuesday on the first
day of a three-day ceremony to mark 10 years since King Norodom Sihamoni ascended the throne.
(Siv Channa/The Cambodia Daily)
Efforts to protect the monarchy through cohabitation with the CPPa regime with socialist republican
roots and its own historical antagonism toward the royal familyhave been a success, according to
Astrid Noren-Nilsson, a Swedish academic who has studied Cambodias monarchy.
Sihamonis strict constitutional stance has, by not delivering any challenge to the CPP, secured the
survival of the monarchy, Ms. Noren-Nilsson said in an email, noting that the outpouring of grief after
King Sihanouks death in 2012 had also helped strengthen the monarchy.
Before, occasional CPP allusions that the monarchy could be done away with had to be considered
seriously. Today, such a scenario is no longer possiblethe monarchy is here to stay for the
foreseeable future, she said. What is perplexing is that the monarchy itself does not seem to
acknowledge this new position of strength.
In front of the Royal Palace on Tuesday, preparations were underway for a ceremony this morning to
mark the decade King Sihamoni has spent as the countrys head of state, with about 500 people
turning out to make offerings to monks. I used to live under King Father Norodom Sihanouk and I was
very happy in my heart, said Keo Saroeun, 70, who came out to watch some 1,000 monks pray
during the ceremony. He came to Ratanakkiri province and he brought us rice, he gave food to the
people and everyone loved him. I plead to the royal family to stay with the Cambodian people
forever.
For John Ciorciari, a Cambodia expert at the University of Michigan, the Cambodian monarchys
enduring need to draw on the late king father 10 years after his son ascended the throne speaks to
the institutions weakened position in the countrys political order. King Sihanouks personal stature
elongated the monarchys role as a significant factor in Cambodian politics, but that role has been
reduced to a largely ceremonial one since 2004, when King Sihamoni took over the throne, Mr.
Ciorciari said by email.
This reflects the political constraints the current king faces in a political order dominated by the prime
minister and his party. It also appears to reflect his less assertive political temperament, he said.
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Barring the accession of a monarch with special political gifts and inclinations, there is little reason to
expect that the monarchy will regain a major political role in the future.
Cambodia historian David Chandler was more blunt, saying King Sihamonis passive use of the throne
and the political environment around him may foretell of the end of the monarchy.
I dont think he has been allowed (nor is there evidence that he has sought) any freedom of
maneuver. Theres also no evidence that I know of to indicate that he gains any pleasure from being
king, a role that was forced on him by his parents, Mr. Chandler said.
His reign will have no impact at all because all the indications I can see suggest that he will be the
last king of Cambodia.
(Additional reporting by Khuon Narim)
willemyns@cambodiadaily.com
2014, The Cambodia Daily. All rights reserved. No part of this article may be reproduced in print,
electronically, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without written permission.
The King of Cambodia

His Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni is the son of His Majesty Norodom Sihanouk, former King of
Cambodia and of Her Majesty Queen Norodom Monineath Sihanouk of Cambodia.
King Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker
Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the new king's brother), both members of the throne council.
He was crowned in Phnom Penh on October 29. Born on Thursday 14 May 1953, in Phnom Penh, His
Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni is the son of His Majesty Norodom Sihanouk, King of Cambodia and
of Her Majesty Queen Norodom Monineath Sihanouk of Cambodia. Sihamoni remains a bachelor and
has no children, which means he does not have a direct successor if one were to be required.
However, this should not be a problem as the King in Cambodia is selected by the throne council.
Norodom Sihamoni speaks Khmer, French, Czech, English and Russian. He is the first Czech speaking
monarch after Ferdinand I of Austria.
Education Background
1959-1962: Primary schooling at the Norodom school and then at the Descartes high school in
Phnom Penh (Cambodia)
1962-1967: Primary and Secondary schooling at Prague's high school (Czechoslovakia)
1967-1971: Dance, music and theatre courses at the National Conservatory of Prague
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1970: High school certificate -Prague (with "very good" marks)

1971: First prize course of classical dance of the National Conservatory of Prague
1971-1975: Higher dance, music and theatre courses, Academy of Musical Art of Prague
1975: Graduated from the Academy of Musical Art of Prague
1975: Author of a thesis on the conception and administration of artistic schools in Cambodia
1975-1976: Higher studies of Cinematography in the D.P.R. of Korea
1976-1979: Prisoner of the Khmer Rouge along with his parents and his younger brother,
H.R.H Prince Norodom NarinDrapong
1979-1980: Served his father in exile abroad as his Private Secretary
1981-2000: Professor of classical dance and artistic pedagogy at the Marius Petipa
conservatory, the Gabriel Faure conservatory and the W.A. Mozart conservatory of the city
of Paris
1984-1988: President of the Khmer dance association in France and director general and
artistic director of the ballet group "Deva"
1988-1993: Director general and artistic director of the Khmer cinematographic corporation
"Khemara Pictures". H.M. Norodom Sihamoni, then Prince, has produced two creations (BalletFilms): Dream and the 4 Elements
1992-1993: Chosen unanimously by the members of the Supreme National Council of
Cambodia to be permanent representative of Cambodia to the United Nations
1993-2004: Ambassador of the Kingdom of Cambodia to Unesco
2004: Member of the High Council of French-Speaking Countries (Francophonie)
1st Feb 1994: Elevated by H.M. the King to the rank of Sdech Krom Khun (Great Prince)
17 Oct 2003: Appointed high privy Councillor to His Majesty the King
31 Aug 2004: Elevated by H.M the King to the Rank of SAMDECH PREAH BAROMNEATH
14 Oct 2004: Elected unanimously by the members of the throne council as King of Cambodia
to succeed his august father who has decided to retired
Languages: Khmer, fluent in French and Czech, good English and Russian
Awards & Achievements
The King of Cambodia has been felicitated with the title of Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor by
the French government, in 2004.
In 2006, he was declared an honorary citizen of Prague, the city where he spent his
childhood.
In 2010, the Japanese government honoured him with the title of Grand Cordon of the Order
of the Chrysanthemum.
The same year, he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor and Silver Medal of the
City of Paris from the government of France.
The popular king has also been awarded the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia
and the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Monisaraphon, both awarded by the
government of his homeland.
Read more at http://www.thefamouspeople.com
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8
Vesak Bochea
Vesak

Veskha (Pali; Sanskrit: Vaikha), also known as Buddha Purnima and Buddha Day, is a holiday
observed traditionally byBuddhists on different days in India, Sri
Lanka, Nepal, Tibet, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam,Thailand, Cambo
dia, Laos, Malaysia and Myanmar and in other places all over the world. Sometimes informally called
"Buddha's Birthday", it actually commemorates the birth, enlightenment (nirvna), and death
(Parinirvna) of Gautama Buddha in the Theravada or southern tradition.
History
Queen Maya holds onto a branch of a tree while giving birth to the Buddha,
who is received by akra as other gods look on.
The decision to agree to celebrate Veskha as the Buddhas birthday was formalized at the first
conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists held in Sri Lanka in 1950, although festivals at this
time in the Buddhist world are a centuries-old tradition. The resolution that was adopted at the World
Conference reads as follows:
That this Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists, while recording its appreciation of the
gracious act of His Majesty, the Maharaja of Nepal in making the full-moon day of Vesak a Public
Holiday in Nepal, earnestly requests the Heads of Governments of all countries in which large or
small number of Buddhists are to be found, to take steps to make the full-moon day in the month of
May a Public Holiday in honour of the Buddha, who is universally acclaimed as one of the greatest
benefactors of Humanity.
On Veskha Day, Buddhists all over the world commemorate events of significance to Buddhists of all
traditions: The birth, enlightenment and the passing away of Gautama Buddha. As Buddhism spread
from India it was assimilated into many foreign cultures, and consequently Veskha is celebrated in
many different ways all over the world. In India, Vaishakh Purnima day is also known as Buddha
Jayanti day and has been traditionally accepted as Buddha's birth day.
In 1999, the United Nations resolved to internationally observe the day of Vesak at its headquarters
and offices.
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The name of the observance is derived from the Pali term veskha or Sanskrit vaikha, which is the
name of the lunar month in the Hindu calendar falling in AprilMay (see Vaisakha).
In Mahayana Buddhist traditions, the holiday is known by its Sanskrit name (Vaikha) and derived
variants of it.
The celebration of Veskha

May 2007 just had two full moon days the 1st and the 31st. Some countries (including Sri Lanka,
Cambodia and Malaysia) celebrated Veskha on the 1st, while others (Thailand, Singapore)
celebrated the holiday on the 31st due to different local lunar observance. This difference also
manifests in the observance of other Buddhist holidays, which are traditionally observed at the local
full moon.
Likewise, in 2012, Vesak or the birth anniversary of the Buddha was observed on 28 April in Hong
Kong and Taiwan, on 5 May in Sri Lanka, on 6 May in India, on 28 May in South Korea and on 4
June in Thailand. (In 1999 the Taiwanese government set Buddha's birthday as the second Sunday of
May, the same date as Mother's Day.). In 2014, Vesak is celebrated on 13 May in Myanmar,
Singapore and Thailand while it is observed on 15 May in Indonesia.
On Veskha day, devout Buddhists and followers alike are expected and requested to assemble in
their various temples before dawn for the ceremonial, and honorable, hoisting of the Buddhist
flag and the singing of hymns in praise of the holy triple gem: The Buddha, The Dharma (his
teachings), and The Sangha (his disciples). Devotees may bring simple offerings of flowers, candles
and joss-sticks to lay at the feet of their teacher. These symbolic offerings are to remind followers that
just as the beautiful flowers would wither away after a short while and the candles and joss-sticks
would soon burn out, so too is life subject to decay and destruction. Devotees are enjoined to make a
special effort to refrain from killing of any kind. They are encouraged to partake of vegetarian food
for the day. In some countries, notably Sri Lanka, two days are set aside for the celebration of
Veskha and all liquor shops and slaughter houses are closed by government decree during the two
days.
Also birds, insects and animals are released by the thousands in what is known as a 'symbolic act of
liberation'; of giving freedom to those who are in captivity, imprisoned, or tortured against their will.
(This practice, however, is banned in some countries such as Singapore, as it is believed that the
released animals are unable to survive long-term, and may adversely impact the local ecosystem if
they do.) Some devout Buddhists will wear a simple white dress and spend the whole day in temples
with renewed determination to observe the eight Precepts.
Young novice on Veskha Day Parade

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Devout Buddhists undertake to lead a noble life according to the teaching by making daily
affirmations to observe the Five Precepts. However, on special days, notably new moon and full moon
days, they observe the eight Precepts to train themselves to practice morality, simplicity and humility.
Some temples also display a small statue of the Buddha in front of the altar in a small basin filled
with water and decorated with flowers, allowing devotees to pour water over the statue; it is
symbolic of the cleansing of a practitioner's bad karma, and to reenact the events following the
Buddha's birth, when devas and spirits made heavenly offerings to him.
Devotees are expected to listen to talks given by monks. On this day monks will recite verses uttered
by the Buddha twenty-five centuries ago, to invoke peace and happiness for the government and the
people. Buddhists are reminded to live in harmony with people of other faiths and to respect the
beliefs of other people as the Buddha taught.
Bringing happiness to others
Video Korean Buddhist monks perform ritual dances and music on Buddha's Birthday.
Celebrating Veskha also means making special efforts to bring happiness to the unfortunate like the
aged, the handicapped and the sick. To this day, Buddhists will distribute gifts in cash and kind to
various charitable homes throughout the country. Veskha is also a time for great joy and happiness,
expressed not by pandering to ones appetites but by concentrating on useful activities such as
decorating and illuminating temples, painting and creating exquisite scenes from the life of the
Buddha for public dissemination. Devout Buddhists also vie with one another to provide refreshments
and vegetarian food to followers who visit the temple to pay homage to the Enlightened One.
Paying homage to the Buddha

Tradition ascribes to the Buddha himself instruction on how to pay him homage. Just before he died,
he saw his faithful attendant Ananda, weeping. The Buddha advised him not to weep, but to
understand the universal law that all compounded things (including even his own body) must
disintegrate. He advised everyone not to cry over the disintegration of the physical body but to
regard his teachings (The Dhamma) as their teacher from then on, because only the Dhamma truth is
eternal and not subject to the law of change. He also stressed that the way to pay homage to him
was not merely by offering flowers, incense, and lights, but by truly and sincerely striving to follow his
teachings. This is how Buddhists are expected to celebrate Vesak: to use the opportunity to reiterate
their determination to lead noble lives, to develop their minds, to practise loving-kindness and to bring
peace and harmony to humanity.
Dates of observance
The exact date of Vesak is based on the Asian lunisolar calendars and is primarily celebrated
in Vaisakha month of the Buddhist calendar and the Hindu calendar, and hence the name Vesak. In
Nepal, which is considered the birth-country of Buddha, it is celebrated on the full moon day of
the Vaisakha month of the Hindu calendar, and is traditionally called Buddha Purnima, Purnima
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meaning the full moon day in Sanskrit. In Theravada countries following the Buddhist calendar, it falls
on a full moon Uposatha day, typically in the 5th or 6th lunar month. Nowadays, in Sri Lanka, Nepal,
India, Vesak/Buddha Purnima is celebrated on the day of the full moon in May in the Gregorian
calendar. In Thailand, Laos, Indonesia, Vesak is celebrated on the fourteenth or fifteenth day of the
fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar. In China, and Korea, Vietnam, Buddha's Birthday is
celebrated on the eighth day of the fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar, in Japan the same
day but in the Gregorian calendar. The date varies from year to year in the Western Gregorian
calendar, but usually falls in April or May. In leap years it may be celebrated in June.
Vesak is celebrated in Jetavana, India, 2011
In Japan
In Japan, Veskha or hanamatsuri (?) is also known
as Kanbutsue (?), Goutan'e (?)), Busshoue (?), Yokubutsue(?), Ryuge'e (
?) and Hanaeshiki (?). It is not a public holiday. It is based on a legend that a dragon
appeared in the sky on the Buddha's birthday and poured soma over him.
It used to be celebrated on the 8th day of the fourth month in the Chinese calendar based on one of
the legends that proclaims the day as Buddha's birthday. At present, the celebration is observed on 8
April of the Solar Calendar since the government of Meiji Japan adopted the western solar calendar
as the official calendar. Since the 8th day of the fourth month in the lunar calendar commonly falls in
May of the current solar calendar, it is now celebrated about a month earlier.
In Japan, Vesak celebrations include pouring (amacha?), a sweet tea made from Hydrangea
macrophylla, on statues. In Buddhist religious sites such as temples and viharas, more involved
ceremonies are conducted for lay Buddhists, priests, and monks and nuns.
Vesak In Nepal
Vesak, commonly known in Nepal as "Buddha Jayanti" is widely celebrated all across the country,
predominantly, Lumbini the birthplace of Buddha, and Swayambhu the holy temple for Buddhists,
also known as "the Monkey Temple". The main door of Swayambhu is opened only on this very day,
therefore, people from all over Kathmandu valley are stimulated by the event. Thousands of pilgrims
from various parts of the world come together to celebrate Buddha's birthday at his
birthplace, Lumbini. In Nepal, Buddha is worshipped by all religious groups, therefore "Buddha
Jayanti" is marked by a public holiday. People donate foods and clothes to the needy and also
provide financial aid to monasteries and schools where Buddhism is taught and practised.
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Vesak in Sri Lanka
A Vesak pandal or thorana in Colombo, Sri Lanka
Vesak Thorana in Piliyandala, Sri Lanka

Vesak is celebrated as a religious and a cultural festival in Sri Lanka on the full moon of the lunar
month of Vesak (usually in the Gregorian month of May), for about one week. During this week, the
selling of alcohol and fresh meat is usually prohibited, with abattoirs also being closed. Celebrations
include religious and alms-giving activities. Electrically-lit pandals called thoranas are erected in
locations mainly in Colombo, Kandy, Galle and elsewhere, most sponsored by donors, religious
societies and welfare groups. Each pandal illustrates a story from the Jataka tales.
In addition, colourful lanterns called Vesak kuudu are hung along streets and in front of homes. They
signify the light of the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha. Food stalls set up by Buddhist devotees
called danslas provide free food and drinks to passersby. Groups of people from community
organisations, businesses and government departments sing bhakti gee (Buddhist devotional songs).
Colombo experiences a massive influx of people from all parts of the country during this week.
In Korea
Lotus Lantern Festival (, Yeon Deung Hoe) in Seoul
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In South Korea the birthday of Buddha is celebrated on the 8th day of the 4th month in the Korean
lunar calendar (as well as in Hong Kong,Macau, Vietnam) and is an official holiday. This day is
called (Seokga tansinil), meaning "Buddha's birthday" or (Bucheonim
osin nal) meaning "the day when the Buddha came". It has now grown into one of the nations biggest
cultural festivals. Lotus lanterns cover the entire temple throughout the month which are often flooded
down the street. On the day of Buddha's birth, many temples provide free meals and tea to all
visitors. The breakfast and lunch provided are often sanchae bibimbap.
In Laos
The Vixakha Bouxa festival is the Lao version of the Thai Visakha Puja, which it closely resembles. It
commemorates the birth,enlightenment, and death of the Buddha, which are all said to have
happened on the same date. It is held around the month of May orVesak, based on the lunar
calendar. Celebrations include dances, poems, parades, processions, deep meditation, theatrical
performances, and puppet shows.
Boun Bang Fay
One part of the Vixakha Bouxa festival is called Boun Bang Fay, or Rocket Festival. As this occurs
during the hottest and driest season of the year, large homemade rockets are launched into the sky in
an attempt to convince the celestial beings to send down rain. Traditionally, Buddhist monks made the
rockets out of hollow bamboo tubes filled with gunpowder (among other things). Nowadays, lay
people make thebang fai more like fireworks and hold competitions for the highest, fastest and most
colorful rockets. The event takes place on both sides of the Mekhong River border between Thailand
and the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and sometimes teams from the neighbouring countries will
compete against each other. Tourists travel long distances to witness this now popular event.
In Vietnam
Main article: Hu Pht n shootings
Before 1975, the birthday of Buddha was a national public holiday in South Vietnam[17] It was a
public festival with float and lantern parades on the streets. However, after the Fall of Saigon, the
day was no longer a public holiday.
Wesak In Malaysia
Celebrated by Buddhists to mark three momentous events in Buddha's life his birth, enlightenment,
and his departure from the human world, the Wesak celebration in Malaysia begins at dawn when
devotees gather at Buddhist temples nationwide to meditate on the Eight Precepts. Donations - giving
food to the needy and offerings of incense and joss sticks - and prayers are carried out. The sutras
are chanted in unison by monks in saffron robes. The celebration is highlighted by a candle
procession. Wesak Day in Malaysia is a national public holiday.
Waisak In Indonesia
Vesak Day celebration in Borobudur temple, Indonesia

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This significant and traditional holy day is observed throughout Indonesia where it is known as Waisak
Day. At Borobudur, thousands of Buddhist monks will join together to repeat mantras and meditate as
they circuit the temple in a ritual called "Pradaksina". This is a form of tribute to the temple. Monks
celebrate the special day by bottling holy water (which symbolises humility) and transporting flames
(which symbolize light and enlightenment) from location to location. The monks also took part in the
"Pindapata" ritual, where they received charity from the people of Indonesia. Waisak Day in
Indonesia has been celebrated as a national public holiday every year since 1983.
Vesak In Singapore
In Singapore, Vesak Day was made a public holiday only in 1955 after many public petitions. In the
early decades of the 20th century, Vesak Day was associated with the Ceylonese community which
then celebrated it along with their National Day in a two-day event. After World War II, there was a
movement to make Vesak Day a public holiday, with the Singapore Buddhist Association leading the
petitions.
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9
Date: 06 May 2015
Although there are various other scientific methods to forecast the weather and to determine harvests,
Cambodians have their methods to foretell the future. Through traditional rituals that are often
ceremoniously celebrated nationwide, Cambodians are warned of calamities, assured of good
harvest and so forth.
The Royal Ploughing ceremony, or Pithi Chrat Preah Neanng Korl in Khmer, and the Festival of Water
and full Moon Salutation, know as Pithi Bonn Om Touk and Ak Ambok Sampeah preah Kher in Khmer,
are such ceremonies. Predictions gleaned from these traditional ceremonies for the coming year are
taken very seriously.
The Festival of Water and Full Moon Salutation is celebrated usually in late October. Drippings from
burning candles predict rainfall distribution to provinces across the country. The Royal Ploughing
Ceremony predicts the weather, epidemics and farming conditions. By observing what feed the royal
oxen choose after the Royal Ploughing Ceremony, Cambodians believe they can predict a range of
events including epidemics, floods, good harvests and excessive rainfall.
This year, the Royal Ploughing Ceremony will be held on May 28 at the Veal Preahmein Square,
situated across the road from the northern perimeter of the Royal Palace.
At the end of a symbolic Ploughing procession before His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk, the royal
oxen were relieved of their harnesses and led to seven golden trays containing rice, corn, sesame
seeds, beans, grass, water and wine to feed. The royal oxen chose to eat out of only three trays this
year and because their feast consisted of varying percentages of rice and corn while they largely
ignored the trays of sesame seeds, grass, water and wine, prognostications were as follows: Farmers
would enjoy a moderate output for their rice harvest but good yields in secondary crop production,
especially corn and beans. Because the royal oxen only sniffed on the tray of water and turned away
from the wine, the prediction was made that farmers would not suffer any serious floods.
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Every year, Cambodian farmers anxiously await the predictions at the end of this ritualistic ceremony,
which they observe with strong faith and belief. Most Cambodians today still consult traditional
manuals before making any major decisions regarding business matters or meeting important persons,
etc.
The Royal Ploughing Ceremony has been observed for many centuries at the initiative of an earlier
Khmer king who had paid great attention to farming conditions of the people. Traditionally, the Pithi
Chrat Pheah Neang Korl is performed in the month of the Khmer calendar and marks the beginning of
the rainy season in Cambodia.
When asked, most Cambodians stand staunchly by these traditional methods of predicting the future
and vouch for their accuracy. It is comforting to believe that the angels are still watching over us. As
they say in Cambodia, long live the Khmer traditions. Long Live Cambodia.
The ritual ceremony is held to predict a range of events related to agricultural harvest in each year,
and also to pray for a good harvest. There is a deep astrological belief that royal oxen known in
Khmer as Usapheak Reach, have an instrumental role in determining the fate of the agricultural
harvest each year. The ceremony is rooted in Brahmans believe of a five-day feast. On the 1st day
of the waning moon, the Brahmans conduct feasting at the five decorated canopies positioned at five
compass points: East, Southeast, Southwest, Northwest, and Northeast. After the five days of the
Brahman feast, the King initiates the ploughing to ensure success in farming for all his people.
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(Photo) cam-photo-front3
The King assumes a role of Sdach Meak and the Queen assumes a role of Preah Mehour. If the
King and Queen are not able to attend, a representative and his wife assume roles of Sdach Meak
and Preah Mehour to do the duty. As representative of the King and Queen, a couple can be
selected either from royal family or within the high-ranking officials of the government. Sdech Meak
sits on Preah Salieng and Preah Mehour sits on a hammock like litter followed by about 40
dignitaries. Before ploughing, Sdech Meak and Preah Mehour pay their respects at the decorated
canopy located to the Southwest.
In the ceremony, Sdach Meak guides the wooden plough after the royal oxen while his wife, Preah
Mehour sows the rice seeds to the ground after her husband. Two royal oxen are hitched to a wooden
plough, and they plough for three rounds on the ceremonial ground. After that, the royal oxen will be
released from the plough. The royal astrologers chant prayers according to the Brahmanism tradition
and spread the holy water on the oxen. And then, the royal oxen are led to the prediction ground
where they are offered to eat seven kinds of food: rice seed, green bean, corn, sesame, fresh-cut
grass, water and rice wine arranged in the seven golden trays. The royal astrologers interpret what
the oxen eat and predict a series of events including epidemics, floods, good harvests, and excessive
rainfall. The prediction result depends on what the royal oxen ate and how much they ate. If they eat
most of the rice seed, beans, corn or sesame, then the harvest will be bountiful in this season. If the
royal oxen drink moderate of water, then this year of rainfall will be pretty enough for growing. But
if they drink too much water, then this year could be flooded. If they drink rice wine, then the
prediction says there would be more gangsters and robbery in the year. If they eat grass, it is
believed that disease will prevail over the nation.
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10
Children's Day
Children's Day

Children's day is recognized on various days in many places around the world. children globally.
Children's Day began the second Sunday of June in 1856 by the Reverend Dr. Charles Leonard,
pastor of the Universalist Church of the Redeemer in Chelsea, Mass. That Sunday of June Dr. Leonard
held a special service just for children to Dedicate them. Dr. Leonard christened the day, Rose Day.
Later it was named Flower Sunday. Still later the second Sunday of the month of July was named
Children's Day.
The International Day for Protection of Children is observed in many countries as Children's Day on 1
June since 1950. It was established by the Women's International Democratic Federation on its
congress in Moscow (4 November 1949). Major global variants include a Universal Children's
Day on 20 November, by United Nations recommendation.
Universal Children's Day

Universal Children's Day takes place annually on 20 November. First proclaimed by the United
Kingdom in 1954, it was established to encourage all countries to institute a day, firstly to promote
mutual exchange and understanding among children and secondly to initiate action to benefit and
promote the welfare of the world's children.
That is observed to promote the objectives outlined in the Charter and for the welfare of children. On
20 November 1959 the United Nations adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. The United
Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child on 20 November 1989 and can be found
on the Council of Europe website.
In 2000, the Millennium Development Goals outlined by world leaders in order to stop the spread of
HIV/AIDS by 2015. Albeit this applies to all people, the main objective is with regard to children.
UNICEF is dedicated to meeting the six of eight goals that apply to the needs of children so that they
are all entitled to basic rights written in the 1989 international human rights treaty. UNICEF delivers
vaccines, works with policymakers for good health care and education and works exclusively to help
children and protect their rights.
In September 2012, the Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon of the United Nations led the initiative for
the education of children. He firstly wants every child to be able to attend school, a goal by 2015.
Secondly, to improve the skillset acquired in these schools. Finally, implementing policies regarding
education to promote peace, respect and environmental concern.
Universal Children's Day is not simply a day to celebrate children for who they are, but to bring
awareness to children around the globe that have succumbed to violence in forms of abuse,
exploitation and discrimination. Children are used as labourers in some countries, immersed in armed
conflict, living on the streets, suffering by differences be it religion, minority issues, or disabilities.
Children feeling the effects of war can be displaced because of the armed conflict and/or suffer
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physical and psychological trauma. The following violations are described in the term "children and
armed conflict": recruitment and child soldiers, killing/maiming of children, abduction of children,
attacks on schools/hospitals and not allowing humanitarian access to children. Currently there are
about 153 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 who are forced into child labour. The
International Labour Organization in 1999 adopted the Prohibition and Elimination of the Worst
Forms of Child Labour including slavery, child prostitution and child pornography.
A summary of the rights under the Convention on the Rights of the Child can be found on
the UNICEF website.
Canada co-chaired the World Summit for children in 1990 and in 2002 the United Nations
reaffirmed the commitment to complete the agenda of the 1990 World Summit. This added to the UN
Secretary-General's report We the Children: End-of Decade review of the follow-up to the World
Summit for Children.
The United Nations children's agency released a study referencing the population increase of children
will make up 90 per cent of the next billion people.
China
In the People's Republic of China, Children's Day is celebrated on 1 June and is formally known as
"the June 1 International Children's Day" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Li Y Guj rtng Ji).
When the People's Republic of China was first established in 1949, the State Council (Cabinet)
designated a half-day holiday for all primary schools on 1 June. This was later made into a full day's
break in 1956 with The Announcement by the State Council to make 1 June Children's Day a One-Day
Holiday. Schools usually hold activities such as children's performances, camping trips, or free movies
on Children's Day or the day before to allow students to have fun. Children of civil servants might also
receive small gifts from the government until they are fourteen, and Civil servants who have children
sometimes have a half-day holiday on 1 June to spend more time with their children. Entrance and set
out ceremonies of the Young Pioneers of China are usually held on 1 June as well. Entrance of children
under 14 into the Forbidden City is free on 1 June, while each accompanying adult gets 100% off,
i.e. CNY30.
Germany
Burning of "trash and filth" literature by students and "Young Pioneers" at the
18th Elementary school in Berlin-Pankow (Buchholz), East Berlin,
on the evening of International Children's Day, 1 June 1955
In Germany, during the Cold War, Children's Day (Kindertag) was handled quite differently in West
Germany and East Germany. While East Germany (GDR) celebrated International Children's
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Day (Internationaler Kindertag) on 1 June, West Germany (FRG) celebratedUniversal Children's

Day (Weltkindertag) on 20 September.
The customs of Children's Day were also significantly different in West and East Germany. In East
Germany, the holiday was introduced in 1950, and was from then held on a yearly basis for the
children. On this day of the year, children would typically be congratulated and would receive
presents from their parents and did special activities in school, such as field trips and the like.
In West Germany, Children's Day Universal Children's Day laid its emphasis not on games and
presents, but more on political efforts to strengthen children's rights. (See Jugendamt.)
After the reunification of East and West Germany occurred in 1990, Universal Children's Day has
become official for whole Germany. This, however, was not accepted by large parts of the East
German population. Most parents still celebrate Children's Day on the former date of 1 June, and
public events pertaining to Children's Day take place on 20 September (Weltkindertag).[22][23]
India
Main article: Bal Diwas
Nehru distributes sweets among children at Nongpoh, Meghalaya

India, Children's Day is celebrated on 14 November, on the birthday of the first Prime Minister of
independent India, who was fondly called Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru) or Chachaji (Uncle), and who
emphasized the importance of giving love and affection to children, whom he saw as the bright future
of India. He wanted to enhance the progress of Indian youth for which he established education
institutes likeAIIMS, Indian Institute of Technology, IIM. To give him tribute, India celebrates this festival
on 14 November, the day of his birthday.
Many functions are organized in schools, offices and other organizations. Most schools hold cultural
performances on this day, run by the children themselves. Teachers also get involved, and may
perform songs and dances for their students. On this day, the State and the Central Government also
make it a point to showcase children's films as part of Film festivals organized in many parts of the
country. All of the country, various cultural and social institutions conduct competitions for children.
Children's Day is seen as a day for the kids to engage in fun. Children take part in many activities
organized for them. children's day is celebrated widely in almost all the schools. Nehru was very much
fond of children, it was his love for children that made Indians to celebrate Children's Day
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South Korea
Children's day in Seoul, South Korea, 5 May 1954
President Park Geun-hye (center) smiles and shows a self-portrait

drawn by a girl in Cheong Wa Dae, Seoul, 5 May 2013
In South Korea, 5 May is officially recognized as Children's Day (). Parents often give
presents to their children, as well as spend time with them. The children are taken on excursions to
zoos, museums, and various venues of children-oriented entertainment.
Children's Day was first conceived by innovative Korean students and social leaders on the basis of
the March 1st Movement to achieve Korean independence from Japanese colonialism. From Jinju,
many people gathered to promote and improve the social status of children and encourage adults to
teach awareness of their deprived sovereignty. In 1923, several groups of students studying in Tokyo
agreed to designate 1 May as Children's Day. A predominant intellectual figure, Bang Jeong-hwan,
greatly contributed to the popularization of the holiday. Because it overlapped with Laborer's Day,
Children's Day was moved to 5 May. Bang Jeon Hwan first coined the modern Korean word for
children, eorini (), replacing the previous words aenom () and esaekki (). Until
1939, Japanese authorities based in Seoul oppressed the movement to stop Korean social activists
congregating for the festival. After independence in 1945, the movement to respect children was
revived. The children's welfare law written in the constitution officially designated 5 May as Children's
Day in 1961. And by 'the law of holiday of government office', Children's day became a holiday in
Korea in 1970.
Thailand
Children's Day 2012 at the Chiang Mai Royal Thai Air Force base
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Thailand National Children's Day (Thai: ) is celebrated on the second Saturday in January.
Known as "Wan Dek" in Thailand, Childrens Day is celebrated to give children the opportunity to
have fun and to create awareness about their significant role towards the development of the country.
Usually, His Majesty the King gives advice addressing the children while the Supreme Monarch
Patriarch of Thailand gives a moral teaching. The Prime Minister also usually gives each Children's
Day a theme and a slogan.
Many Government offices are open to children and their family; this includes the Government House,
the Parliament House Complex and various Military installations. These events may include a guided
tour and an exhibition. A notable example is the guided tour at the Government House, where
children have an opportunity to view the Prime Minister's office and sit at the bureau. The Royal Thai
Air Force usually invites children to go and explore the aircraft and the Bangkok Bank distributes
stationery, such as pens, pencils and books to every child that enters the bank as a community service.
Many organizations from both government and commercial sectors have celebration activities for
children. Children can enter zoos or ride buses for free.
There is a Thai saying that states, "Children are the future of the nation, if the children are intelligent,
the country will be prosperous."
United States of America
Children's Day observations in the United States predate both Mother's and Father's Day, though a
permanent annual single Children's Day observation is not made at the national level.
In 1856, Rev. Charles H. Leonard, D.D., then pastor of the First Universalist Church of Chelsea, Mass.,
set apart a Sunday for the dedication of children to the Christian life, and for the re-dedication of
parents and guardians to bringing-up their children in Christian nurture. This service was first observed
the second Sunday in June.
The Universalist Convention at Baltimore in September 1867, passed a resolution commending
churches to set apart one Sunday in each year as Children's Day. The Methodist Episcopal Church at
the Methodist Conference of 1868 recommended that second Sunday in June be annually observed
as Children's Day. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1883 designated "the second
Sabbath in June as Children's Day."
Also in 1883, the National Council of Congregational Churches and nearly all the state bodies of that
denomination in the United States passed resolutions commending the observance of the day. About
this time many other denominations adopted similar recommendations. Chase's Calendar of Events cites
Children's Sunday and notes that The Commonwealth of Massachusetts issues an annual proclamation
for the second Sunday in June. Numerous churches and denominations currently observe the second
Sunday in June including the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church, and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church.
Children & Youth Day in Hawaii started in 1994 when the Hawaii Legislature became the first to pass
a law to recognize the first Sunday in October as "Children's Day". In 1997, the Legislature passed
another landmark law designating the entire month of October as "Children and Youth Month".
In 1996, author Pat Mora, after learning about the annual Mexican tradition of celebrating 30 April
as El da del nio, the Day of the Child, proposed an annual celebration in the U.S. of El da de los
nios, El da de los libros/Children's Day, Book Day, thus honoring children and connecting them to
literacy, essential in a democracy. Assistance starting this community-based, family literacy initiative
was provided by REFORMA, the National Association to Promote Library & Information Services to
Latinos and the Spanish Speaking. Often known as Da, because it is both a daily commitment and an
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annual April celebration, Children's Day, Book Day, has grown to link all children to books, languages
and cultures. A major partner is the Association for Library Services to Children (ALSC), a division of
the American Library Association (ALA). Every year, across the country, hundreds of libraries, schools,
and community organizations, etc. hold culminating April Children's Day, Book Day celebrations that
unite communities, creating an annual tradition much like Mother's Day and Father's Day.
Children's Day was proclaimed by President Bill Clinton to be held on 11 October 1998, in response
to a letter written by an eight year old girl, Kierstin Gonzales inquiring if he would make a Children's
Day to celebrate youth. "National Child's Day" was proclaimed by President George W. Bush as 3
June 2001, and in subsequent years on the first Sunday in June.
Since 2009, Illinois Governor Pat Quinn has issued proclamations proclaiming the second Sunday in
June as Children's Day as had the previous governor in 2007 and 2008. The mayors of Aurora and
Batavia, Illinois, also have issued proclamations. On 23 April 2011, Executive of King County WA
declared 23 April as the International Children's Day. Children's Day celebrations of Turkish
Community in California lead to State of California recognizing the last Saturday of April as the
Children's Day.
CAMBODIAN CHILDREN CELEBRATED THE INTERNATIONAL

CHILDRENS DAY
By Bieng Raiya, Advocacy and Communications Group Leader of Child Support Team, NGO Coalition on
the Rights of the Child (NGO CRC)
Cambodia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992. Several child rights
organizations, including children and young people, have made several efforts to promote and
protect the rights mentioned in the CRC. One way to promote the implementation of the CRC is by
celebrating the International Childrens Day that take place every 1st of June.
In Cambodia, the Ministry of Social Affairs, Cambodian National Council for Children (CNCC) and
NGO Coalition on the Rights of the Child (NGO CRC) organized the 63rd anniversary of the
International Childrens Day last 29 May 2012.
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The theme of the celebration was Promote equity social service and take more action to take care of
children in family and community. The celebration took place in advance of the original date due to
preparations for the commune council election. The event took place at KoshPich Entertainment and
Fair Center.
More than 3,000 children and young people from different organizations joined. Government
representatives from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport and other institutions attended.
Representatives from various civil society organizations were also present.
Children representatives presented to the participants and government representatives
recommendations to improve social services for children.
A group of children from SovanKoma Organization presented a

traditional Khmer dance called RobamChounpor.
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A speech was given by Her Excellency Men Sam Orn, the Deputy and High Representative of the
Prime Minister. In her speech, she said that she is very happy and proud of the new generation who
are active and working together. She also promised that she will report to the Prime Minister all the
recommendations made by.
During the activity, children had a good opportunity to meet each other and share good experiences
to promote child rights. There were also games and creative performances for the participants to
enjoy. The organizers also provided children with souvenirs such as study materials, toys, and personal
hygiene materials.
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11
Norodom Monineath
Norodom Monineath
Norodom Monineath Sihanouk (Khmer: ; born Paule Monique Izzi, 18 June

1936) is the queen mother ofCambodia. She was queen consort of Cambodia from 1952 to 1955
and again from 1993 to 2004, as the wife of King Norodom Sihanouk. She is the widow of KingFather Norodom Sihanouk, whom she married in 1952. Queen Monineath and King Sihanouk
parented two children: Norodom Sihamoni (b. 1953) and Norodom Narindrapong (1954-2003). Her
official, full title is "Preah Karuna Preah Bat Samdech Preah Mahaksatreyani Norodom Monineath
Sihanouk" (Khmer: ). The Queen
is also called "Preah Voreakreach Meada Cheat Khmer" (Khmer: ). Her
birthday on 18 June is an official public holiday in Cambodia.
Biography
Norodom Monineath was born on 18 June 1936, in Saigon, French Indochina. She was born PauleMonique Izzi, and is sometimes referred to as Queen Monique. Her father, Jean-Franois Izzi, was
a French banker of Corsican, French and Italian descent, who was killed in World War II. Her mother,
Pomme Peang, was from Phnom Penh.
She studied at the Primary School Norodom, Sisowath High School, and the Lyce Ren Descartes.
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Norodom Monineath Sihanouk in 1972, during a visit to the Socialist Republic of Romania.
She met Norodom Sihanouk in 1951, when he awarded her first prize in a beauty pageant. They
married privately in 1952 and a second time, officially, in 1955. She has been described as the close
confidant of Sihanouk.
In 1955, her spouse abdicated, but remained in charge of the rule of the country: in 1960, he became
head of state again, but known as premier and with the title prince. Princess Monique, as she was
called during this period, was exposed to some criticism from both the Khmer Republic as well as the
Khmer Rouge for her life during the reign of Sihanouk in the 1960s. The propaganda of the Khmer
Republic was later to accuse her of having caused the strained relationship between Sihanouk and his
mother, the popular queen mother Sisowath Kossamak; they claimed that she had advised Sihanouk to
introduce the unpopular state casino, which was at the time viewed as a symbol of national
decadence, and alleged that she, her mother and her brother contributed to corruption by promoting
protegees to lucrative offices. The Khmer Rouge reportedly once burned her image in effigy for
corruption. Princess Monique served as President of the Cambodian Red Cross (CRC) in 1967-1970.
After the Cambodian coup of 1970, she joined her spouse in exile in first Beijing in China and then
North Korea. As guests of the North Korean dictator, a palace with 60 rooms was given them as their
residence during their stay. In 1973, Norodom Sihanouk allied himself with the Khmer Rouge against
their common enemy, Lon Nol. The royal couple also made a visit to Khmer Rouge territory in
Cambodia before returning to China.
After the fall of Phnom Penh to the Khmer Rouge in April 1975, she returned to the royal palace in
Phnom Penh in Cambodia with her spouse, who was appointed nominal head of state by the Khmer
Rouge. From 1976 onward, however, they were both kept in house arrest by the Khmer Rouge. They
were reportedly subjected to a political re-educated program during these years, and at least 18
members of the extended royal house was killed. Reportedly, the regime suggested to have them
executed, but this was prevented by intervention by China and North Korea. In January 1979, Pol
Pot allowed for her and her spouse to be evacuated from Cambodia by the Chinese. The original
plan was to evacuate only the Sihanouk and Monineath, but Pol Pot himself insisted that all members
of the royal house should be given a place on the Chinese plane.
Norodom Monineath spent the following years with her spouse as state guests of China and North
Korea. She is credited to have played some part in the peace negotiations arranged between
Sihanouk and Hun Sen by Tong Siv Eng in 1987 and 1988, and she is known to have been present
during the negotiations.
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In 1991, she returned to Cambodia with Sihanouk. On 22 February 1992, she was elevated by the
King to the rank of Samdech Preah Cheayea. On 24 September 1993, she was raised to the rank
of Samdech Preah Mohsey Norodom Monineath of Cambodia. On 2 January 1996, the King elevated
her to the rank of Samdech Preah Reach Akka Mohsey Norodom Monineath.
Sihanouk reportedly suggested to change the constitution to make it possible for her to be a regent
and succeed him on the throne, but ultimately, this did not come about, and he chose to abdicate in
favor of their son instead.
Monineath speaks Khmer, French and English.
She is currently the Cambodian Red Cross Honorary President.
Children
The King Father and the Queen Mother have two sons:
1. Norodom Sihamoni (born 14 May 1953); was given the title of Somdech Krom Khun by HM
the King in 1994 and was Ambassador of Cambodia to UNESCO in Paris. He is the
current King of Cambodia.
2. Norodom Narindrapong (18 September 1954 - 7 October 2003)[18] has two daughters.
Patronages
President of Honour of the Cambodian Red Cross Society (President from 1967 until 1970).
Co-President of the Funcinpec Party (from 1989 until 1992).
Honours
National Honours
Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia.

Foreign Honours[edit]
Malaya : Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (1963)
Ethiopia : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Queen of Sheba (Ethiopian Empire,
04/05/1968).
Mali : Dame Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali (Republic of Mali, 1973).
Cambodias Queen Mother Monique celebrates 75th birthday
This guest article has been kindly provided by Pictures from History - a comprehensive database of high
quality images covering Asian culture and historical events.
Queen Mother Norodom Monineath
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On Saturday, June 18, 2011, one of Southeast Asias greatest survivors will celebrate her 75th
birthday, as well as almost 60 years as a member of Cambodias royal family, the House of
Norodom.
Queen Mother Norodom Monineath, as she is now formally known, was born Paule-Monique Izzi on
June 18, 1936, in Saigon, then the capital of French Cochinchina, today Ho Chi Minh City. She was
born into a distinctly middle-class colonial family. Her father, Jean-Franois Izzi, was a banker of
French, Corsican and Italian descent, while her Khmer mother, Pomme Peang, was from Phnom Penh.
The young Monique studied at some of the best schools in Phnom PenhNorodom Primary, Sisowath
High School and the Lyce Ren Descartesand looked set to live a normal middle-class life in
colonial Phnom Penh, generally considered to have been the most attractive city in French Indochina at
that time.
All this changed in 1951, however, when King Norodom Sihanouk, at the time 29 years old, with 10
years on the throne and an established reputation as a ladys man, first cast eyes upon 16-year-old
Monique while awarding her first prize at a beauty contest. They married in 1952 and again, more
formally, in 1955, and have been togetherfor richer and for poorerever since.
Sihanoukand therefore, by extension, Moniquelived through some seriously troubled times before
reaching old age and a comfortable retirement. Following independence from France in 1953,
Sihanouk ruled over a notionally neutral Cambodia trapped between communist North Vietnam and
pro-American rightist regimes in South Vietnam and Thailand. He gradually became convinced of the
inevitability of US defeat, however, and began to tilt towards Hanoi and away from Washington.
In 1965, Sihanouk made an agreement with the Peoples Republic of China and North Vietnam to
allow North Vietnamese bases in eastern Cambodia, and to permit Chinese military supplies to reach
these forces via a maritime Ho Chi Minh Trail using the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville, thus
alienating South Vietnam and its all-important US patrons. At the same time, Sihanouk became
increasingly ruthless in his suppression of home-grown Cambodian communists, who he personally
labeled Khmers Rouges.
This balancing act was to prove impossible to sustain. He alienated the Cambodian left, leading to the
outbreak of civil war in 1967, and he alienated the right, leading to his ouster in a military coup led
by General Lon Nol and backed by the CIA in 1970. Sihanouk was in Beijing at the time of the coup,
and was quick to accept Chinas offer of help at the price of openly backing the communist insurgency
not just in Vietnam, but also in Cambodia.
The Khmer Rouge Years
Norodom Sihanouk embraces Khieu Samphan

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Monique, who by this time had been at Sihanouks side for almost 20 years, soon joined him in Beijing,
and then in North Korea, where Kim Il Sung built the deposed royals a 60-room palace complete with
its own movie theatre. Sihanouk was bitterly angered by the coup, but at least the life he and
Monique now led was still comfortableafter all, the indulgent monarch once said of the French: I
am anti-colonialist, but if one has to be colonized, it is better to be colonized by gourmets.
Despite this, injured pride and fury towards Lon Nol drove Sihanouk and Monique into the arms of his
old enemies, the ruthless Khmer Rouge. In 1973, with Chinese encouragement, the former royal couple
made a difficult and dangerous trip down the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Vietnam, before entering Khmer
Rouge territory to show their support for the communist insurgency. Khmer Rouge pictures of the time
show Sihanouk and Monique clad in black pajamas and Ho Chi Minh sandals, embracing Khmer
Rouge leader Khieu Samphan, eating in communal kitchens and sitting on the steps of their wooden
white house in the Khmer Rouge liberated zone.
What Monique thought of all this must remain a matter for speculation, but we know that Sihanouk
hated it, and we can guess she did too. Then, on April 17, 1975, the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom
Penh and established the living hell that was Democratic Kampuchea, emptying the cities, abolishing
commerce, money, religion and the family. Over the course of the next three-and-a-half years, an
estimated two million people, or more than 20 per cent of the Cambodian people, were to die of
starvation, disease and murder, amounting to state-sponsored genocide.
Soon after the Khmer Rouge victory in April 1975, Sihanouk and Monique returned to Cambodia by
air from Beijing. Sihanouk was to become symbolic Head of State for the new regime, and imagined
himself living in comfort, acting as a public relations man for Cambodia having some jazz parties
and doing some filming.
Instead, he and Monique found themselves terrified prisoners in the Grand Palace for the duration of
the Khmer Rouge regime, cut off from the outside world while the Khmer Rouge murdered at least 18
of Sihanouks relatives. Indeed, there is clear evidence that Pol Pot intended to order the execution of
the royal couple, their lives only being spared because of the intervention of Mao Zedong and Kim Il
Sung on Sihanouks behalf.
A Life in Exile
Norodom Sihanouk and Princess Monique at Angkor

Sihanouks imprisonment only ended with the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in December 1979,
when he was whisked away to New York with the assistance of the Chinese to represent the deposed
Khmer Rouge regime at the United Nations. This Sihanouk refused to do, defecting to the US and
announcing that the UN seat should remain empty, as he also refused to recognize the Vietnamese
puppet regime installed after the Khmer Rouge defeat. More on the Khmer Rouge.
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For the next 10 or so years, until the Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia in 1989, Sihanouk and
Monique led a comfortable but bitter life of exile in both Beijing and Pyongyang. The former PauleMonique Izzi must have wondered what had become of her fairy-tale life as a princess in the Royal
Palace in Phnom Penh while her husband descended into a cycle of declining health and her country
remained racked by a vicious war between Vietnamese occupiers and Khmer Rouge fanatics.
There was eventually to be a happy ending, however. Two years after the Vietnamese withdrawal,
Sihanouk returned to Phnom Penh in 1991 after 13 years in exile and almost four years as a prisoner.
Monique also returned to Phnom Penh, and was at her husbands side in 1993 when the Cambodian
monarchy was restored and Sihanouk again became king.
King Father and Queen Mother

No doubt to show his love and gratitude, Sihanoukwho was by now seriously ill and spending long
periods of time receiving treatment in Beijingennobled his long-suffering, former beauty queen
wife, making her Samdech Preah Cheayea in 1992, raising her again to Samdech Preah Mohesey
Norodom Monineath in 1993, and finally to the elevated rank of Samdech Preah Reach Akka
Mohesey Norodom Monineath in 1996though she is still often popularly referred to as Queen
Monique.
Sihanouks health continued to decline, and on 7 October, 2004, he stepped down from the throne for
reasons of poor health. A chapter had ended for Monique, but a new and perhaps happier one was
about to begin. On 14 October, 2004, the Throne Council appointed the eldest of her two sons,
H.R.H. King Norodom Sihamoni, successor as constitutional monarch, and Monique became Cambodias
Queen Mother.
Today Sihamoni remains King of Cambodia, though strongman President Hun Sen retains real power.
There is genuine affection for the royal family across the country, and an ailing but still active King
Father Sihanouk, together with Queen Mother Monique, are quite probably as content and secure as
they have ever been throughout their long years of royal power, imprisonment and exile.
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12
The Constitution of Cambodia
This national holiday was established to celebrate the signing of the Cambodian constitution by King
Sihanouk. Constitution Day is a Cambodian public holiday that celebrates the Cambodian
government's transformation to a constitutional monarchy in 1993. Constitution Day is observed on
September 24 each year. Banks and government offices in Cambodia are closed on Constitution Day.
Due to the tragic events that occurred in Cambodia during the 20th century, Constitution Day is a time
of historical reflection and optimism for the future. This holiday also celebrates the protection of
human rights and limits on the power of the Cambodian government.
Preamble
We, the people of Cambodia
Accustomed to having been an outstanding civilization, a prosperous, large, flourishing and glorious
nation, with high prestige radiating line a diamond
Having declined grievously during the past two decades, having gone through suffering and
destruction, and having been weakened terribly,
Having awakened and resolutely rallied and determined to unite for the consolidation of national
unity, the preservation and defense of Cambodia's territory and precious sovereignty and the fine
Angkor civilization, and the restoration of Cambodia into an " Island of Peace" based on multi-party
liberal democratic responsibility for the nation's future destiny of moving toward perpetual progress,
development, prosperity, and glory,
WITH THIS RESOLUTE WILL
We inscribe the following as the Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia:
CHAPTER 1
Sovereignty
Article 1Cambodia is a Kingdom with a King who shall rule according to the Constitution and to the principles
of liberal democracy and pluralism.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall be an independent, sovereign, peaceful, permanently neutral and
non-aligned country
Article 2The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall absolutely not be violated within its
borders as defined in the 1/100,000 scale map made between the years 1933-1953 and
internationally recognized between the years 1963-1969
Article 3The Kingdom of Cambodia is an indivisible State
Article 4The motto of the Kingdom of Cambodia is: " Nation, Religion, King ".
Article 5The official language and script are Khmer.
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Article 6Phnom Penh is the capital of the Kingdom of Cambodia.

The national flag, anthem and coat-of arms shall be defined in Annexes 1, II and III.
Chapter II
The King
Article 7The King of Cambodia shall reign but shall not govern.
The King shall be the Head of State for life.
The King shall be inviolable.
Article 8The King of Cambodia shall be a symbol of unity and eternity of the nation.
The King shall be the guarantor of the national independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of
the Kingdom of Cambodia, the protector of rights and freedom for all citizens and the guarantor of
international treaties
Article 9The King shall assume the august role of arbitrator to ensure the faithful execution of public powers.
Article 10The Cambodian monarchy shall be an appointed regime.
The King shall not have the power to appoint a heir to the throne.
Article 11If the King cannot perform His normal duties as Head of State due to His serious illness as certified by
doctors chosen by the President of the Assembly and the Prime Minister, the President of the Assembly
shall perform the duties of Head of State as "Regent".
Article 12In case of the death of the King, the president of the Assembly shall take over the responsibility as
Acting head of State in the capacity of Regent of the Kingdom of Cambodia.
Article 13Within a period of not more than seven days, the new King of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall be
chosen by the Royal Council of the Throne.
The Royal Council of The Throne shall consist of:
The president of the National Assembly
The Prime Minister
Samdech the Chiefs of the orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut.
The First and Second Vice- President of the Assembly.
The organization and functioning of the council Throne shall be determined by law.
Article 14The King of Cambodia shall be a member of t he Royal family, of at least 30 years, descending from
the blood line of King Ang Duong, King Norodom or King Sisowath.
Upon enthronement, the King shall take the oath of allegiance as stipulated in Annex IV.
Article 15The wife of the reigning King shall have the royal title of QUEEN of Cambodia
Article 16Compiled By Thearith EAT
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The Queen of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall not have the right to engage in politics, to assume the
role of Head of State or head of Government, or to assume other administrative or political roles.
The Queen of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall exercise activities that serves the social, humanitarian ,
religious interests, and shall assist the King with protocol and diplomatic functions.
Article 17The provision as stated in the first clause of Article 7, " the King shall reign but shall not govern",
absolutely not be amended.
Article 18The King shall communicate with the Assembly by royal messages. These royal messages shall not be
subjected to discussion by the National Assembly.
Article 19The King shall appoint the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers according to the procedure
stipulated in Article 100.
Article 20The King shall grant an audience twice a month to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers to
hear their reports on the State of the Nation.
Article 21Upon proposals by the Council of Ministers, the King shall sign decrees (Ret) appointing, transferring
or ending the mission of high civil and military officials, ambassadors and Envoys Extraordinary and
plenipotentiary.
Upon proposal by the Supreme Council of the Magistracy, the King shall sign decrees (Ret)
appointing, transferring or removing judges.
Article 22When the nation faces danger, the King shall make a proclamation to the people putting the country
in a state of emergency after agreement with the Prime Minister and the President of the Assembly.
Article 23The King is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Khmer Armed Forces. The Commander -in -Chief of
the Royal Khmer Armed Forces shall be appointed to command the Royal Khmer Armed Forces.
Article 24The King is serve as Chairman of the Supreme council of national Defense to be established by law.
The King shall declare war after approval of the National Assembly.
Article 25The King shall receive letters of credentials from ambassadors or envoys extraordinary and
plenipotentiary of foreign countries accredited to the Kingdom of Cambodia.
The King shall declare war after approval of the National Assembly
Article 26The King shall sign and ratify international treaties and conventions after a vote of approval by the
National Assembly.
Article 27The King shall have the right to grant partial or complete amnesty.
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Article 28The King shall sign the law promulgating the Constitution, laws (Kram) adopted by the National
Assembly, and sign decrees (Kret) presented by the council of Ministers
Article 29The King shall establish and confer national medals proposed by the Council of Ministers.
The King shall confer civil and military ranks as determined by law.
Article 30In the absence of the King, the President of the Assembly shall assume the duties of Acting head of
State.
Chapter III
The Rights and Obligations Of Khmer Citizens
Article 31The Kingdom of Cambodia shall recognize and respect human rights as stipulated in the United
Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of human Rights, the covenants and conventions related to
human rights, women's and children's rights.
Every Khmer citizen shall be equal before the law, enjoying the same rights, freedom and fulfilling the
same obligations regardless of race, colour, sex, language, religious belief, political tendency, birth
origin, social status, wealth or other status.
The exercise of personal rights and freedom by any individual shall not adversely affect the rights
and freedom of others. The exercise of such rights and freedom shall be in accordance with law.
Article 32Every Khmer citizen shall have the right to life, personal freedom and security.
Article 33Khmer citizens shall not be deprived of their nationality, exiled or arrested and deported go any
foreign country unless there is a mutual agreement on extradition.
Khmer citizens residing abroad enjoy the protection of the State.
Khmer nationality shall be determined by a law.
Article 34Khmer citizens of either sex shall enjoy the right to vote and to stand as candidates for the election.
Citizens of either sex of at least eighteen years old, have the right to vote.
Citizens of either sex of at least 25 years old, have the right to stand as candidates for the election.
Provisions restricting the right to vote and to stand for the election shall be defined in the electoral for
the election.
Article 35Khmer citizens of either sex shall be given the right to participated actively in the political , economic,
social and cultural life of the nation.
Any suggestions from the people shall be given full consideration by the organs of the State
Article 36Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to choose any employment according to their ability
and to the needs of the society.
Khmer citizen of either sex shall receive equal pay for equal work.
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The work by housewives in the home shall have the same value as what they can receive when
working outside the home.
Every Khmer citizens shall have the right to obtain social security and other social benefits as
determined by law.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to form and to be members of trade unions.
The organization and conduct of trade unions shall be determined by law.
Article 37The right to strike and to non-violent demonstration shall be implemented in the framework of a law.
Article 38The law guarantees shall be no physical abuse against any individual.
The law shall protect the life, honor and dignity of the citizens.
The prosecution, arrest, or detention of any person shall not be done except in accordance with the
law.
Coercion, physical ill- treatment or any other mistreatment that imposes additional punishment on a
detainee or prisoner shall be prohibited. Persons who commit, participate or conspire in such acts shall
be punished according to the law.
Confession obtained by physical mental force shall not be admissible as evidence of guilt.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall respect public and legally acquired private properties.
Any case of doubt shall be resolved in favor of the accused.
The accused shall be considered innocent until the court has judged finally on the case.
Every citizen shall enjoy the right to defense through judicial recourse.
Article 39Khmer citizens shall have the right to denounce, make complaints or file claims against any breach of
the law by the State and social organs or by members of such organs committed during the course of
their duties. The settlement of complaints and claims shall reside under the competence of the courts.
Article 40Citizens' freedom to travel, far and near, and legal settlement shall be respected.
Khmer citizens shall have the right to travel and settle abroad and return to the country.
The right to privacy of residence and to the secrecy of correspondence by mail, telegram, fax, telex,
and telephone shall be guaranteed.
Any search of the house, material and body shall be in accordance with the law.
Article 41Khmer citizens shall have freedom of expression, press, publication and assembly. No one shall
exercise this right to infringe upon the rights of others, to affect the good traditions of the society, to
violate public law and order and national security.
The regime of the media shall be determined by law.
Article 42Khmer citizens shall have the right to establish associations and political parties. These rights shall be
determined by law.
Khmer citizens may take part in mass organizations for mutual benefit to protect national
achievements and social order.
Article 43Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to freedom of belief.
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Freedom of religious belief and worship shall be guaranteed by the State on the condition that such
freedom does not affect other religious beliefs or violate public order and security.
Buddhism shall be the State religion.
Article 44All persons, individually or collectively, shall have the right to ownership. Only Khmer legal entities
and citizens of Khmer nationality shall the right to own land.
Legal private ownership shall be protected by the law.
The right to confiscate possessions from any person shall be exercised only in the public interest as
provided for under law and shall required fair and just compensation in advance.
Article 45All forms of discrimination against woman shall be abolished.
The exploitation of women in employment shall be prohibited in marriages and matters of the family.
Marriage shall be conducted according to conditions determined by law based on the principle of
mutual consent between one husband and one wife
Article 46The commerce of human beings, exploitation by prostitution and obscenity which affect the reputation
of women shall be prohibited.
A woman shall not lose her job because of pregnancy. Women shall have the right to take maternity
leave with full pay and with no loss of seniority or other social benefits.
The State and society shall provide opportunities to women, especially to those living in rural areas
without adequate social support, so they can get employment, , medical care, and send their children
to school, and to have decent living conditions
Article 47Parents shall have the right to take care of and educate their children to become good citizens.
Children shall have the right to take good care of their elderly mother and father according to Khmer
traditions.
Article 48The State shall protect the rights of the children as stipulated in the Convention on Children, particular,
the right to life, education, protection during wartime, and from economic or sexual exploitation.
The State shall protect children from acts that are injurious to their education opportunities, health and
welfare.
Article 49Every Khmer citizens shall respect the Constitution and laws.
All Khmer citizens shall have the duty to take part in the national reconstruction and to defend the
homeland. The duty to defend the country shall be determined by law.
Article 50Khmer citizens of either sex shall respect the principles of national sovereign, liberal multi-party
democracy.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall respect public and legally acquired private properties.
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Chapter IV
On Policy
Article 51The Kingdom of Cambodia adopts a policy of Liberal democracy and Pluralism.
The Cambodian people are the masters of their country.
All powers belong to the people. the people exercise these powers through the National Assembly,
the Royal Government and the Judiciary.
The Legislative, Executive, and the Judicial powers shall be separated
Article 52The Royal Government of Cambodia shall protect the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity
of the Kingdom of Cambodia, adopt the policy of national reconciliation to insure national unity, and
preserve the good national traditions of the country. The Royal Government of Cambodia shall
preserve and protect the law and ensure public order and security. The State shall give priority to
endeavors which improve welfare and standard of living of citizens.
Article 53The Kingdom of Cambodia adopts a policy of permanent neutrality and non- alignment. The Kingdom
of Cambodia follows a policy of peaceful co- existence with its neighbors and with all other countries
throughout the world.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not invade any country, nor interfere in any other country's internal
affairs, directly or indirectly, and shall solve any problem peacefully with due respect for mutual
interests.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not join in any military alliance or military pact which is incompatible
with its policy of neutrality.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not permit any foreign military base on its territory and shall not
have its own military base abroad, except within the framework of a United Nations request.
The Kingdom of Cambodia reserves the right to receive foreign assistance in military equipment,
armaments, ammunition, in training of its armed forces, and other assistance for self-defense and to
maintain public order and security within its territory.
Article 54The manufacturing, use, storage of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons shall be absolutely
prohibited.
Article 55Any treaty and agreement incompatible with the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity,
neutrality and national unity of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall be annulled.
Chapter V
Economy
Article 56The Kingdom of Cambodia shall adopt market economy system. The preparation and process of this
economic system shall be determined by law.
Article 57Tax collection shall be in accordance with the law. The national budget by law. The national budget
shall be determined by law
The management of the monetary and financial system shall be defined by law.
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Article 58State property notably comprises land, mineral resources, mountains, sea, underwater, continental
shelf, coastline, airspace, islands, rivers, canals, streams, lakes, forests, natural resources, economic
and cultural centers, bases for national defense and other facilities determined as State property.
The control, use and management of State properties shall be determined by law.
Article 59The State shall protect the environment and balance of abundant natural resources and establish a
precise plan of management of land, water, air, wind geology, ecologic system, mines, energy, petrol,
and gas, rocks and sand, gems, forests and forestrial products, wildlife, fish and aquatic resources.
Article 60Khmer citizens shall have the right to sell l their own products. The obligation to sell products to the
State, or the temporary use of State or properties shall be prohibited unless authorized by law under
special circumstances.
Article 61The State shall promote economic development in all sectors and remote areas, especially in
agriculture, handicrafts industry, with attention to policies of water, electricity, roads, and means of
transport, modern technology and a system of credit.
Article 62The State shall pay attention and help solve production matters, protect the price of products for
farmers and crafters, and find marketplace for them to sell their products.
Article 63The State shall respect market management in order to guarantee a better standard of living for the
people
Chapter VI
Education, Culture, Social Affairs
Article 64The State shall ban and severely punishes those who import, manufacture, sell illicit drugs, counterfeit
and expired goods which affect health and life of the consumers.
Article 65The State shall protect and upgrade citizens' rights to quality education at all levels and shall take
necessary steps for quality education to reach all citizens.
The State shall respect physical education and sports for the welfare of all Khmer citizens
Article 66The State shall establish a comprehensive and standardized education system throughout the country
that shall guarantee the principles of educational freedom and equality to ensure that all citizens
have equal opportunity to earn a living.
Article 67The State shall adopt and educational program according to the principle of modern pedagogy
including technology and foreign languages.
The State shall control public and private schools and classrooms at all levels.
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Article 68The State shall provide primary and secondary education to all citizens in public schools
The State shall disseminate and develop the Pali schools and the Buddhist Institutes
Article 69The State shall protect and promote the Khmer language as required.
The State shall preserve ancient monuments, artifacts and restore historic sites.
Article 70Any offense affecting cultural and artistic heritage shall carry a severe punishment.
Article 71The perimeter of the national heritage sites as well as heritage that has been classified as world
heritage, shall be considered neutral zones where there shall be no military activity.
Article 72The health of the people shall be guaranteed. The State shall give full consideration to disease
prevention and medical treatment. Poor citizens shall receive free medical consultation in public
hospitals, infirmaries and maternities.
The State shall establish infirmaries in rural areas.
Article 73The State shall give full consideration to children and mothers. The State shall establish nurseries, and
help support women and children who have inadequate support.
Article 74The State shall assist the disabled and the families of combatants who sacrificed their lives for the
nation.
Article 75The State shall establish a social security system for workers and employees.
Chapter VII
The Assembly
Article 76The assembly consists of at least 120 members.
The deputies shall be elected by a free, universal, equal, direct and secret ballot. The deputies may
be re-elected
Khmer citizens able to stand for election shall be the Khmer citizens of either sex who have the right to
vote, at least 25 years of age, and who have Khmer nationalities at birth
Preparation for the election, procedure and electoral process shall be determined by an Electoral
Law.
Article 77The deputies of the Assembly shall represent the entire Khmer people, not only Khmers from their
constituencies.
Any imperative mandate shall be nullified.
Article 78-
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The legislative term of the Assembly shall be 5 years and terminates on the day when the new
assembly convenes.
The assembly shall not be dissolved before the end of its term except when the Royal government is
twice deposed within a period of twelve months. In this case, following a proposal from the Prime
Minister and the approval of the Assembly President, the King shall dissolve the Assembly.
The election of a new assembly shall be held no later than 60 days from the date of dissolution.
During this period, the Royal government shall only be empowered to conduct routine business.
In times of war or other special circumstances an election cannot be held, the Assembly may extend its
term for one year at a time, upon the request of the King.
Such an extension shall require at least a two- third vote of the entire assembly.
Article 79The assembly mandate shall be incompatible with the holding of any active public function and of any
membership in other institutions provided for in the constitution, except when the assembly member(s)
is (are) required to serve in the Royal Government.
In these circumstances, the said Assembly members shall retain the usual assembly membership but
shall not hold any position in the Permanent Standing Committee and in other assembly commissions.
Article 80The deputies shall have parliamentary.
No assembly member shall be prosecuted, detained or arrested because of opinions expressed
during the exercise of his or her duties.
The decision made by the Standing Committee of the assembly shall be made only with the permission
of the assembly or by the Standing Committee of the Assembly between sessions, except in case of
flagrante delicto. In that case, the competent authority shall immediately report to the assembly or to
the Standing Committee for decision.
The decision made by the Standing Committee of the assembly shall be submitted to the assembly at
its next session for approval by a 2/3 majority vote of the assembly members.
In any case, detention or prosecution of a deputy shall be suspended by a 3/4 majority vote of the
Assembly members.
Article 81The assembly shall have the autonomous budget to conduct its function.
The deputies shall receive a remuneration.
Article 82The assembly shall hold its first session no later than sixty days after the election upon notice by the
King.
Before taking office, the assembly shall decide on the validity of each member's mandate and vote
separately to choose a President, Vice- Presidents and members of each Commission by a 2/3
majority vote
All assembly members must take the oath before taking office according to the text contained in
Annex 5.
Article 83The assembly shall hold its ordinary sessions twice a year.
Each session shall last at least 3 months. If there is a proposal from the King or the Prime Minister, or
at least 1/3 of the assembly members, the Assembly Standing Committee shall call an extraordinary
session of the assembly.
In this case, the agenda with the conditions of the extraordinary, shall be disseminated to the
population as well as the date of the meeting.
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Article 84Between the assembly sessions, the assembly Standing Committee shall manage the work of the
assembly.
The Permanent Standing Committee of the assembly consists of the President of the Assembly, the
Vice-Presidents , and the presidents of assembly commissions.
Article 85The assembly sessions shall be held in the royal capital of Cambodia in the Assembly Hall, unless
stipulated otherwise in the summons, due to special circumstances.
Except where so stipulated and unless held at the place and date as stipulated, any meeting of the
assembly shall be considered as illegal and void.
Article 86If the country is in a state of emergency the assembly shall beet every day continuously. The assembly
has the right to terminate this state of emergency whenever the situation permits.
If the Assembly is not able to meet because of circumstances such as the occupation by foreign forces
the declaration of the state of emergency must be automatically extended.
During the state of emergency, the assembly shall not be dissolved.
Article 87The President of the assembly shall chair the assembly sessions, receive draft bills and resolutions
adopted by the assembly, ensure the implementation of the Internal Rules of procedure and manage
the assembly relations with foreign countries.
If the President is unable to perform his/ her duties due to illness or to fulfill the functions of Head of
State ad interim or as a Regent, or is on a mission aborad, a Vice- President shall replace him.
In case of resignation or death of the President or the Vice- President(s), the Assembly shall elect a
new President or Vice- President(s).
Article 88The assembly sessions shall be held in public.
The assembly shall meet in closed session at the request of the President or of at least 1/10 of its
members, of the King or of the Prime Minister.
The assembly meeting shall be considered as valid provided there is a quorum of 7/10 of all
members.
Article 89Upon the request by at least 1/10 of its members, the assembly shall invite a high ranking official to
clarify important special individual
Article 90The assembly shall be the only organ to hold legislative power, This power shall not be transferable
to any other organ or any individual.
The assembly shall approve Administrative Accounts.
The assembly shall approve the law on amnesty.
The assembly shall approve or annul treaties or international conventions.
The assembly shall approve law on the declaration of war.
The adoption of the above-mentioned clauses shall be decided by a simply majority of the entire
assembly membership.
The assembly shall pass a vote of confidence in the Royal Government by a 2/3 majority of all
members
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Article 91The deputies and the Prime Minister shall have the right to initiate legislation.
The deputies shall have the right to propose any amendments to the laws, but, the proposals shall be
unacceptable if they aim at reducing public income or increasing the burden on the people.
Article 92Laws adopted by the Assembly which run counter to the principles of preserving national
independence, sovereignty, administration of the nation shall be annulled. The Constitutional Council is
the only organ which shall decide upon this annulment.
Article 93Any law approved by the Assembly and signed by the King for its promulgation, shall go into effect
in Phnom Penh 10 days after signing and throughout the country 20 days after its signing.
Laws that are stipulated as urgent shall take effect immediately throughout the country after
promulgation.
All laws promulgated by the King shall be published in the Journal Official and published throughout
the country in accordance with the above schedule.
Article 94The Assembly shall establish various necessary commissions. The organization and functioning of the
assembly shall be determined by the assembly Internal Rules of Procedure.
Article 95In case of death, resignation, or dismissal of an assembly deputy at least 6 months before the end of
the mandate, a replacement shall be appointed in accordance with the Internal Rules of Procedure of
the National Assembly and the Electoral Law.
Article 96The deputies have the right to put a motion against the Royal Government. The motion shall be
submitted in writing through the President of the assembly.
The replies shall be given by one or several ministers depending on the matters to the accountability
of one or several ministers. If the case concerns the overall policy of the Royal Government, the Prime
Minister shall reply in person.
The explanations by the ministers or by the Prime Minister shall be given verbally or in witting.
The explanations shall be provided within 7 days after the day when the question is received.
In case of verbal reply, the President of the assembly shall decide whether to hold an open debate or
not. If there is no debate, the answer of the minister or the Prime Minister shall be considered final. If
there is a debate, the questioner, other speakers, the ministers, or the Prime Minister may exchange
views within the time frame not exceeding one session.
The assembly shall establish one day each week for questions and answers. There shall be no vote
during any sessions reserved for this purpose.
Article 97The assembly commissions may invite any minister to clarify certain issue under his/her field of
responsibility.
Article 98The Assembly shall dismiss a member or members of the Royal Government or the whole Cabinet by
the adoption of a motion of censure by 2/3 majority of the entire Assembly.
The motion of censure shall be proposed to the Assembly by at least 30 assembly members in order
for the entire Assembly to decide.
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Chapter VIII
The Royal Government
Article 99The Council of Ministers is the Royal Government of Cambodia.
The Council of Ministers shall be led by one Prime Minister assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers, and by
State Ministers, Ministers, and State Secretaries as members.
Article 100At the recommendation of the President and with the agreement of both Vice- Presidents of the
Assembly, the King shall designate a dignitary from among the representatives of the winning party
to form the Royal Government. This designated Assembly or members of the political parties
represented in the from the Assembly.
After the Assembly has given its vote of confidence, the King shall issue a Royal decree (Kret)
appointing the entire Council of Ministers.
Before taking office, the Council of Ministers shall take an oath as stipulated an Annex 6.
Article 101The functions of members of the Royal Government shall be incompatible with professional activities in
trade or industry and with the holding of any position in the public service.
Article 102Members of the Royal Government shall be collectively responsible to the Assembly for the overall
policy of the Royal Government.
Each member of the Royal Government shall be individually responsible to the Prime Minster and the
Assembly for his/her own conduct.
Article 103Members of the Royal Government shall not use the orders, written or verbal, of anyone as grounds
to exonerate themselves form their responsibility
Article 104The Council of Minister shall meet every week inn plenary session or in a working session.
The Prime Minister shall chair the plenary sessions.
The Prime Minister may assign a Deputy Prime Minister to preside over the working sessions.
Minutes of the Council of Ministers' meeting shall be forwarded to the King for His information.
Article 105The Prime Minister shall have the right to delegate his power to a Deputy Prime Minister or to any
member of the Royal Government.
Article 106If the post of Prime Minister is permanently vacant, a new Council of Ministers shall be appointed
under the procedure stipulated in this Constitution. If the vacancy is temporary, an acting Prime
Minister shall be provisionally appointed.
Article 107Each member of the Royal Government shall be punished for any crimes or misdemeanors that he/she
has committed in the course of his/her duty.
In such cases and when his/her duty, the Assembly shall decide to file charges against him/her with
competent.
The Assembly shall decide on such matters though a secret vote by a simple majority thereof.
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Article 108The organization and functioning of the Council of Ministers shall be determined by law.
Chapter IX
the judiciary
Article 109The Judicial power shall be an independent power.
The Judiciary shall guarantee and uphold impartiality and protect the rights and freedoms of the
citizens.
The Judiciary shall cover all lawsuits including administrative ones.
The authority of the Judiciary shall be granted to the Supreme Court and to lower courts of all sectors
and levels.
Article 110Trials shall be conducted in the name of the Khmer citizens in accordance with the legal procedures
and laws in force.
Only judges shall have the right to adjudicate. A judge shall fulfill this duty with strict respect for the
laws. Wholeheartedly and conscientiously.
Article 111Judicial power shall not be granted to the legislative or executive branches.
Article 112Only the Department of Public Prosecution shall have the right to file criminal suits.
Article 113The King shall be the guarantor of the independence of the Judiciary. The Supreme Council of the
Magistracy shall assist the King in this matter.
Article 114Judges shall not be dismissed. The supreme Council of the Magistracy shall take disciplinary actions
against any delinquent judges.
Article 115The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall be established by an organic law which shall determine
its composition and functions.
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall be chaired by the King. The King may appoint a
representative to chair the Supreme Council of the Magistracy.
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall make proposals to the King on the appointment of
judges and prosecutors to all courts.
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall meet under the chairmanship of the President of the
Supreme Court or the General Prosecutor of the Supreme Court to decide on disciplinary actions
against the judges or prosecutors.
Article 116The statuses of judges, and prosecutors and the functioning of the judiciary shall be defined in
separate laws.
Chapter X
The Constitutional Council
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Article 117The Constitutional council shall have the duty to safeguard respect for the Constitution, to interpret the
Constitution, and the laws passed by the Assembly.
The Constitutional Council shall have the right to examine and decide on contested cases involving the
election of assembly members.
Article 118The Constitutional Council shall consist of nine members with a nine-year mandate. One third of the
members of the Council shall be replaced every three years. Three members shall be appointed by
the King, three members by the Assembly and three others by the Supreme Council of the Magistracy.
The Chairman shall be elected by the members of the Constitutional Council. He/she shall have a
deciding vote in cases of equal vote.
Article 119Members of the Constitutional Council shall be selected among the dignitaries with a higher-education
degree in law, administration, diplomacy or economics and who have considerable work experience.
Article 120The function of a Constitutional Council member shall be incompatible with that of a member of the
Royal Government, member of the assembly, President or Vice-President of a political party,
President or Vice- President of trade-union or in-post judges.
Article 121The King, the Prime Minister, the President of the Assembly, or 1/10 of the assembly members shall
forward draft bills to the Constitutional Council for examination before their promulgation.
The Constitutional Council shall decide within no more than thirty days whether the laws and the
Internal Rules of Procedure are constitutional.
Article 122After the law is promulgated, the King, the prime Minister, the President of the Assembly, 1/10 of the
assembly members or the courts, may ask the Constitutional Council to examine the Constitutionality of
that law.
Citizens shall have the right to appeal against the Constitutionality of the laws as through their
representatives or the President of the Assembly as stipulated in the above paragraph.
Article 123Provisions i any article ruled by the Council as unconstitutional shall not be promulgated or
implemented.
The decision of the Council is final.
Article 124The King shall consult with the Constitutional Council on all proposals to amend the Constitution.
Article 125An organic law shall specify the organization and operation of the Constitutional Council.
Chapter XI
The Administration
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The territory of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall be divided into provinces and municipalities.
Provinces shall be divided into districts (srok) and district into commune (khum).
Municipalities shall be divided into Khan into Sangkat.
Article 127Provinces, municipalities, districts, khan, khum, and sangkat shall be governed in accordance with
organic law.
Chapter XII
The National Congress
Article 128The National Congress shall enable the people to be directly informed on various matters of national
interests and to raise issues and requests for the State authority to solve.
Khmer citizens of both sexes shall have the right to participate in the National Congress.
Article 129The National Congress shall meet once a year in early December at the convocation of the Prime
Minister.
It shall proceed under the chairmanship of the King.
Article 130The National Congress shall adopt recommendations for consideration by State authorities and the
Assembly.
The organization and operation of the National Congress shall be defined by a law.
Chapter XIII
effects, revision and amendments of the constitution
Article 131This Constitution shall be the Supreme law of the Kingdom of Cambodia.
Laws and decisions by the State institutions shall have to be in strict conformity with the Constitution
Article 132The initiative to review or to amend the Constitution shall be the prerogative of the King, the Prime
Minister, the President of the Assembly at the suggestion of 1/4 of all the assembly members.
Revision or amendments shall enacted by a Constitutional law passed by the Assembly with a 2/3
majority vote
Article 133Revision or amendment shall be prohibited when the country is in the State of emergency, as outlined
in Article 86.
CHAPTER XIV
Transitional Provision
Article 134Revision or amendment affecting the system of liberal and pluralistic democracy and the regime of
Constitutional Monarchy shall prohibited.
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This Constitution, after its adoption, shall be declared in force immediately by the Head of State of
Cambodia.
Article 136After the entry into force of this Constitution, the Constituent Assembly shall become the National
Assembly.
The Internal Rules of Procedure of the assembly shall come into force after adoption by the assembly.
In the case where the assembly is not yet functional, the President, the First and Second VicePresidents of the Constituent Assembly shall participated in the discharge of t duties in the Throne
Council if so required by the situation in the country.
Article 137After this Constitution takes effect, the King shall be selected in accordance with conditions stipulated
in Article 13 and 14.
Article 138After this Constitution take effects, and during the first legislature, the King of the Kingdom of
Cambodia shall appoint a First Prime Minister and a Second Prime Minister to forma Royal
Government after securing the consent of the President and the two Vice-Presidents of the assembly.
The Co-President existing before the adoption of this Constitution shall participate as members of the
Committee and in the Throne Council as stipulated in Articles 11 and 13 above.
Article 139Laws and standard documents in Cambodia that safeguard State properties, rights, freedom and
legal private properties and in conformity with the national interests, shall continue to be effective
until altered or abrogated by next texts, except those provisions that are contrary to the spirit of this
Constitution.
this constitution was adopted by the Constitutional assembly in Phnom Penh on 21 September 1993 at
its second plenary session.
Phnom Penh, 21 September, 1993
The President,
Son Sann
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13
Pchum Ben
Pchum Ben
Ben is one of the other major festivals of the royal doors gold country . In the reign of King Ang
Duong Him to encourage the army that conquered back, he began to create afestive Ben up
depending on the story in Buddhism . Cambodian people came to celebrate the Festival is not without
witness, since Day 1 Roach months photrobat until datedRoach , 15, within 15 days we call Ben 1, 2
Ben ... and the day ended the day "Ben." Ben was taken from Buddhist . Every year when the day is
celebrated Ben all the children ofrelatives, all class However, in the near or far always travel to the
rally, especially parents, to prepare rice soup food to a monk who lived in the monastery .
Ben
The word "Ben" from the word "laity", together with the words " Ben ", which means: laity is a
gathering or meeting Ben (from Bali ) "piece rice ," so we can mark this term ways easier that is
"meeting or gathering piece rice" (a wrung piece rice pieces we called "Ben").
According to the standards outlined in the history of our country shows that Pchum Ben was consistently
since long ago. But against that in the previous session were not called laity at the ceremony are
divided into two classes. The first class starts from day 1 until Roach Roach 14 it phot (phot)
subsequently. The class was held on 15 Roch-called laity. Both festivals this class is currently combined
and called Ben festival laity.
Related Stories Ben

In the Bible, God and trybedak AthakathaThamabot have said with regard to the brunches are:
1. Betavottho : explain Pret Ben Priest speaks of Passover
2. Pityeathor or vichcheathor proclaimed traditional Khmer associated to this day
3. Vimeanovottho Keatha ....
According to the Bible, "pityeathor or vichcheathor" have ears that then, God fixed a certain name
Appendix Pearl Pratt Nagasena powers to influence a lot, he also invited to visit Turkmenistan hell ,
full of fire, The menacing hot But, with his influence, there are also appearing to have a shower the
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News section, a big fleet chariot and he was seated on a lotus flower, the pink and also fly through
the hell that make him cool not cause harm fire heat hell .
And hell , just know that the deputy provincial Pearl signature homage to immediately make the hell
were very surprised. Fiend of hell had a fear of this great strongly went down coming to congratulate
and ask about or the rights of God, he also speaks for actual droning to animals hell those listening
later, he also resigned return to the situation of men and animals hell those has appealed: "tell me all
these days woe difficult kamtowphleung hell hunger not with flesh and blood taken aharphochon or
bachchybuon sponsor me again, I am hungry that very frailty, illness are many Therefore, he invited to
the situation the world now, if spread out, brothers nepotism mother grandparents, my celebrated
invited monks to dakben or Kan also already media blessed today sathoukear Phala students
subversive festive dakben to ask God worshiped all, that is the fruit of support to Cher clean satisfied
to lose misery. "
Deputy provincial cubic no cohesion and bring those Meissner krababangkoumtoul King at the
time. Just praising only the king will be my words to advertise to people everyone in the Kingdom of
Cambodia to allow people all celebrating put Ben or Ben in the rainy season, with warm regards that
to work at day 1 Roach Elul until day 15 Roach Elul or the end of this, which led to the ceremony Kan
is a tradition since then Until today, this day.
Ben originated in the Angkor era, when people follow Buddhism or Brahma. According to the Bible, if
related to Ben ceremony is complicated, but the first Bible related monks 5 negotiated with ghosts. 2
In the Bible, many officers and soldiers had received his orders to go to war. On the ship at night,
they met with hungry ghosts price. Military officials and asked, "How can we allow food to you?" The
ghost replied, "You can give food to people betting among all moral or ethical 8 and call
us." According to the venerable Oum said a long time ago, Buddhist monks walked everywhere to Ben
baht encounter bad weather. Later, during the reign of Jayavarman VII, a strong advocate of
Buddhism Pro will give Buddhist monks 4 of necessary food, clothing, shelter and medicine. He knows
that when the monks walked Ben baht rain in the rainy season, we faced strong thunderstorms. King
sympathetic tone to the monks, so requested the monks walked Ben baht 3 months every rainy
season. Therefore, he also appealed to the people to provide food and other basic needs for the
monks in the past now. Buddhist followers will get kosalophal. As a result, more people have been
offering 4 need to monks. This trend has created a book about Ben. The Bible says there is a last
name of Pearl derivatives province signature strong power can descend into hell. He can fly in hell
without suffering risk. Those who die in hell is noteworthy visit him and make him get a warm welcome
when he preaches to the hell they heard. Before he returned, they hell they had asked him to bring
the message to their relatives thanomnous that their suffering in hell, starvation and disease. So
relatives who live should celebrate the monks and donated 4 suffixes to release them from
suffering.When last return to God, the King ordered all celebrations brunches, which lasted 15 days
to express solidarity to the relatives caring for those who died. So Ben has happened since then.
Why celebrate Ben

Cambodian People will always remember and understand all that, "Pchum dream therapy" is
celebrated dakben dedicated to Beth individual's parents, siblings and relatives who already know to
be born in the world to be anything. But according to the text of the Song Siv Ben do not mean only
his interpretation of persuading the meaning of 3:
1. To wallpaper merit for the individual or the individual Ghosts ( "Beth" is a Pali word "Ghosts"
is a Sanskrit word)
2. To be at rest Happy progress arising from its effects.
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3. To create a national solidarity are reconciled these deadlines nomkom ansaom all across the
country, we can also note another word, "singing", a word for some people, because both
words mean the same thing.
In ancient festival is to be held sangkhophot subsidize rainy monk who lives in the present period 3,
since the rainy day to a rainy day. In ancient bater wrote that in the wet season rains saturated blink
showers make it difficult for the monks during curfew alms. Therefore Buddhist monks held a ceremony
to supply daily until the day time. On the other hand, in the festival are made to broadcast dedicated
to a variety Beth relatives and relatives of the 7 kind and related links that character also through the
influence of the monks tokkhenatan who suffer born Ghosts retribution criminals and abusive tarry,
burning all those hungry exempt from grief.
and Ben Khmer people celebrate because they strongly believe that old word, introduce and
implement every consecutive year. It is believed that relatives of the deceased and the parents,
grandparents bangobaaunkaunchaw nheateka 7 class that some evil to be punished in Hell Ghosts
woe realms. Hell, deep away from the house, people could not see the sun, no clothes, no food to
eat. When the season was released to Phala kinsmen priests celebrating the liturgy. Khmer people
believe that the souls of those will come to the monastery and received an offer from relatives or their
children through prayer by monks. Moreover, they fear grandparents put a curse to be devastated if
all 7 invisible presence and relatives celebrated the liturgy. And they hope the ceremony will make
them gain peace until the next boom.
Contact Ben and bonyachaulovossaa

According pitting leadership of King mongkol_tepeachear um frame, said that early, after
which Buddhism has been streaming into the country Khmers, and that a monk was invited to alms
every good every time, regardless of a rainy summer is summer or winter yet.
When the reigning King of the house "Jayavarman" he feels conscience will also
sponsored Buddhist monks Buddhist monk in the budget of four blocks Ben baht Senacheert, while
drinks and defrocked. Later he was to foresee that in the rainy season, Buddhist monks to Ben baht
faced very difficult Thunderstorms winds cause some monk fall on the mire that also led to him
happens heart white erred BC also conscience also have been a pageant where the monks in the
Kingdom of Cambodia to invite the pagoda, and do not leave Ben baht Where 3 months only so he
has also become a prosecutor announced to the people, all in the Kingdom of Cambodia sponsored
suffix four to monks in the rainy season from Buddhist monks Ben baht outside.
Practices such oft becomes gradually people did the king so far is that to the rainy period of 3
months from starting day 1 Roach kheasath to a day full moon month Ethanim monks not to go (that is,
at that time they dakben within 3 months later also left less and less until today On this factor
depends on the standard of living in society has changed).
Ben season
Since ancient times up to the present, Ben festival is always held in the rainy season because this
Ghosts variety can have more opportunities to find food than other seasons. Moreover, in the summer
of Ghosts like the mire sles sputum bodies and waste asaoch rich in rain, thunder blink. in Ben 15 days
There are a variety of Beth (Ghosts) seven relatives kindness, as well as many related links that
character hungry for a many months ago, has been released from custody allowed to find their
relatives in various monasteries bring Other foods to their prayers. On the other hand, according to
the old classic circuit say that within 15 days All variety Beth pagoda 7 relatives still do not see a
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variety of ghosts will cry stomp only disappointing scorch and hunger in mind. Especially variety Beth
vulgar curse relatives Chao's favor.
Ben
Celebrations Ben laity

Ben laity boranachar Royal Khmer we organized a 15-day period, starting from the date 01 days
Roach Roach 15 months photrobat a ceremony dedicated to Beth relatives who have died.
Within 14 days of Ben or Ben Buddhist pagoda capacity of each particular group organized by
Archbishop Management is divided into 3 or 4 small groups to prepare yeakou or phottahar 3
equivalent to 4 years 3 to 4 dishes. Saber rainy note in each innings start Old food and grandparents
in turn choose any house to collect snacks prepared rice Ben kitchen implements. pagoda and went to
hear him recite worship County justice and fair parliamentary defeat silk. whereas children at home
together endeavor stoked porridge or slaslok tapas each separately. when the morning draft
Arunnotey prepare laptop shoulder to carry food to the monastery.
In the present Archbishop of Roap on Appendix school. He then President Archbishop Buddhist eyelids
food monks soul kitchen implements.. when the monks tetanus proud spells the end of the innings, each
team is prepared fodder salute to Mr. Archbishop presence and proceeded to dinner guests who are
invited to the festival, in its turn, too.
The trigger donated to the monks were made to scratch direction, grandparents, siblings, and
relatives of the 7 who died became Ghosts and has been kept in hell. In If the gates of hell Ghosts
sometimes have the chance Survivors trapped torture in hell, while others were released opportunities
outside hell temporarily in order to get the food and faculties merit that children, ie orientation O and
will have to return to get the misery in hell continued after Ben was completed. For relatives who did
whatever the hell he was considered able to get a scratch from protocol direction in the festival, too.
Thereby Buddhists busy to honor Mermaid annual day and to ensure that the monks are supplied
regularly, they will be divided into groups and turns take teyyotean to monks for 14 days starting
from Day 1 Roach to day 14 Roach Elul and called Website sense 1. Website sense 14. past 14 days
this called brunches or dakben portion 15 Roach, who was the last day that Buddhists from all
Website mandate all gathered alms to monks together to end brunches 15th was the date 15 Roach
Elul, which is the last day this named Ben or the day Ben.
Please note that a holiday package laity chtobbachchy (sang) donated all the monks samner. Wat
proceeded cake ansaom Bake community and implements policies to students Commission donated
Ven samner for food in the morning the next day. On the other hand Pchum Ben in ancient horse
racing gambling buffalo 2-3 to their respective areas to celebrate the holidays finish. In addition to
cattle, horses and to be decorated studded with oil painted sleek wearing collars bell padlock or
observation. There is some room for illegal gambling this. but until today this tradition always runs
more gradually by long lead to adhere to almost lose a lot.
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Silk parliamentary defeat

Silk parliamentary defeat (fringe Amida Shiva) has always been the monks chant in church every day
at dawn during Ben. In the parliamentary defeat chant often heard a phrase that leads to
destruction. This phrase is a reason for some people feel that they do not dare listen silk
parliamentary defeat for fear of destruction.
Actually silk parliamentary defeat means that Article, naturally without progress or unfair, leading to
destruction .This silk in Suttanta khottoknikeay sottanibeat national Volume 54, page 36. Justice, we
can confirm that not make you listen to perish, but do you listen know exactly why that leads to
destruction, and to be avoided in order to avoid destruction, and if they do not listen, they may not
know the reasons that led to destruction could be done wrong reasons lead to mutual destruction. The
Buddha taught the simple and obvious reason that individuals with older people too young wife
husband individual cases reawakened grateful parents gamers game 3 This game is all kinds of
gambling and betting the lazy why bring destruction.
The rice Ben

In the early morning hours of 4 am, people always went to the presence in the village or near their
home with snacks, which already placed in vials or bags to the present. The policy, Ben is also an
abstract belief that citizens regardless every morning to relay or dedicated to Blood relatives who
have gone before age.
The rice Ben (wholesale policy) is an action that does not yet have a consensus in society Buddhists
some have considered Ben's major action cannot be missed in Ramadan Ben while some claims and
criticized the policies Ben incorrect act as a waste not respect. those who believe that throwing rice
Ben useful kitchen think Ben is throw Ghosts (this is why in some areas do not call Ben policy but policy
called Ghosts). Buddhist while others claimed that the rice Ben do not follow the teachings of the
Buddha.
Meanwhile, they began to pray to the dead relatives and Ben around the temple. They believe the
optic nerve in particular those who have no relatives were released from hell to the monastery to
receive food from their relatives at night. Their nerve was returned to hell before sunrise. Nerve, they
are the main form and they can step on the ruins. However, they did not dare to do so, for fear that
they have sinned. They just stood and wept. These nerve to 7 out to look for relatives and receive
food from them. If these nerves see their relatives come out, they will curse their relatives. This is why
the relatives should take food to the monastery, although more or less, during Ben.
Sand Mountain Jam festival Ben

In regard to the Buddhist faith mention PunPhnom during Ben it's a common belief that Mee
understand it well and have the advantage that they do. PunPhnom and put money into each shoulder
and incense ass mistake some sins which it was built, was not interested in the past. SUBSCRIBE Sand
Mountain is also dedicated to the benefactor of those who died as well. [3]
Ghosts
Detailed article: Ghosts
In Buddhist scriptures Tripitaka in the Theravada Buddhist scriptures says people who died to their
karma. Bad people who hurt other after death often occurs Ghosts 4 Ghosts feed on blood, pus
Ghosts hungry Ghosts fire and Ghosts who live by other persons dedicated to. They always chose the
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same day rornoch Elul Since that time, the moon less light to dark and always, because the occasion
and yomreach release of Ghosts assimilate with fruits, relatives of relatives dedicated to light
because they fear Ghosts. If within 15 days Ghosts presence without seeing your relatives send their
merit to be drunk any water hungry and suffered immensely denounced curse you nheateka ruined
possessions childless parents, husbands, wives, children, relatives Manpower seven class.
Similar festivals
Ben's festival. But there are also festivals, for the direction of all merit that are similar, such as in Sri
Lanka (ie. Eg direction to those who died) and it is similar to the Ghost Festival in Taiwan as well
(which is related to the opening of the gates of hell yomreach etc.).
During this time everybody prepares their body and mind, and sacrifice both materials and time to
join this day. All villagers and all different stratification of people prepare their food and sweet, four
necessities, offerings, special clothes dressing; and they obligate to undertake the five commandments
during this auspicious occasion.
For the food comprises of:
- Ordinary meal such as rice, soups, salted grilled fish, fresh grilled fish with mango sauce, spring
roles, salad and fermented fish etc. - Some seasonal snacks or baked such as Num Onsam and Num
Korm (steamed cakes wrapped in banana leaves). Num Onsam is a kind of cylindrical cake of
glutinous rice wrapped around a mixture of pork, salt and other ingredients. Num Korm and Nom
Thmey is shaped like a pyramid and made of rice-flour and filled with a coconut and palm sugar
mixture. Some other distinctive fruits and snacks.
For the four necessities include:
1. Saffron robes
2. Other storable food
3. Umbrella, raincoats or other shelters
4. Medicine, shampoo, toothpaste and tooth brash etc. These four necessities always pack with
brightly, pyramid wrap
Some other Offerings include:
Candles
Incense sticks
Flowers
Water
Perfume
Garland or leis
Clothing is very colorful and delicate which include Sompot Hol or Sompot Phamoung which is the silk
skirt of Cambodian women. It is dressed for national important day and Buddhist ceremonies. These
delicate skirts always dress with short sleeve blouse (Aov Pak) made in Cambodia and put with tiny
scarf. Men wear neat dresses and polite.
Five commandments or prepts
The five precepts in which every Cambodian Buddhist is aware about it and practice them in their
daily life. Importantly, in this occasion they have to observe it to re-affirm their obligation and
purification.
1. Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami
I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures.
2. Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami
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I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not given.
3. Kamesu micchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami
I undertake the precept to refrain from sexual misconduct.
4. Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami
I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech such as lying, malicious words,
harsh words and talk in vain.
5. Suramerayamajja pamadatthana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami
I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicating drinks and drugs which lead to
carelessness.
Overview
The appropriate practices during the cession When food, dressing and other necessities are already
prepared; individuals have to be aware when they are stepping into the monasteries compound or
ceremonial places. They should keep quiet, modesty and polite. Wearing hats are not allowed. They
should take off shoes before stepping into the hall or ceremonial space. People will go in front of the
Buddha statues and sit with a right position, bow down three times, lit the candles and incense sticks,
offer flowers and perfume. After listening attentively to the monk's preaching, chanting or other
blessing; they should prepare food which is ready to offer to the monks. Most of the time, all
participants will put their rice into the rice bowl collecting by the long process of monks. During
offering food into alms bowl, they have to take off shoe and concentrate on merits and dedicate to
their dead ancestors or the family. All of these good deed activities must be attentive, silent, peaceful,
mindful and compassionate. When our mind is peaceful during the cession; we can feel the great
merits growing in our heart and the blissful sense we should receive from this paying gratitude to our
ancestors. More than this, when the application of our mind access deeply, subtle and insightful to the
Dhamma; we can get into the Dhamma stream which is the stream of Enlightenment.
Conclusion
There are many other things symbolizing Cambodian culture and identity, but P'chum Ben Day is
considered as the most important one. In this day, people will not only attend because of their faith,
their generosity or habit, but to survive their daily life and strengthen the "family society tradition of
Cambodia". Distinctively, to develop their individuality of right thought and right understanding; and
walk persistently toward individual's goal follows the eightfold path of ethnic awareness, peaceful
meditation and insightful wisdom. This is rigorous for everybody to come, participate and enjoy with
this auspicious day.
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14
Commemoration Norodom Sihanouk
Commemoration Norodom Sihanouk

Commemoration Day of HRM King Norodom Sihanouk
15 October is a national holiday to commemorate the memory of His Majesty Preah Bat Samdech
Preah Norodom Sihanouk - also known as 'The King-Father of Cambodia'.
HRM Norodom Sihanouk (31 October 1922 15 October 2012) was the King of Cambodia from
1941 to 1955 and later from 1993 to 2004. He was the effective ruler of Cambodia from 9
November 1953, when Cambodia gained its independence from France, until 18 March 1970. After
his second abdication in 2004, he was known as 'The King-Father of Cambodia'.
After a number of health problems, Sihanouk had been receiving medical treatment and passed
away after a heart attack in Beijing on 15 October 2012 - 16 days before his 90th birthday.
State flags flew at half-mast, and King Norodom Sihamoni and Cambodian Prime Minister Samdech
Hun Sen went to Beijing to bring home Sihanouk's body for a funeral at the Royal Palace in Phnom
Penh.
After Sihanouk's passing, national TV channels screened documentaries about his life on repeat and
hundreds of thousands of people went to Phnom Penh to show their last respect. It's estimated that
more than one million people lined the route from the airport to the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh for
the return of Sihanouk's body.
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On November 28, 2012, King Father Norodom Sihanouk was anointed by Royal Decree of HM King
Norodom Sihamoni with the title Preah Karuna Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preah Borom
Ratanakkot meaning The King who lies in the Diamond Urn.
Preah Karuna Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preah Borom Ratanakkot
Norodom Sihanouk (Khmer: ; 31 October 1922 15 October 2012) was the King
of Cambodia from 1941 to 1955 and again from 1993 to 2004. Affectionately known to the
Cambodian people as Samdech Euv (Khmer: , father prince), Sihanouk became king in
1941. After the Second World War, he campaigned for Cambodia's independence from French rule,
which took place in 1953. In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated the throne in favour of his father Norodom
Suramarit, and went on to form the political organisation Sangkum. Sihanouk led the Sangkum to
victory in the 1955 general elections, and became the Prime Minister of Cambodia. After his father's
death in 1960, Sihanouk introduced a constitutional amendment which made him the Head of State of
Cambodia, a position which he held until 1970. Between 1955 and 1970, Sihanouk governed
Cambodia under one-party rule, and cracked down on political dissent from the Democrat
party and Pracheachon. While he was officially neutral in foreign relations, in practice he was
friendlier toward communist countries, particularly China, than to the United States and its antiCommunist allies.
In March 1970 Sihanouk was overthrown by Lon Nol and Sisowath Sirik Matak, paving the way for
the formation of Khmer Republic. He fled to China and North Korea and went on to form a
government-in-exile and resistance movement known as the Royal Government of the National Union
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of Kampuchea (GRUNK) and National United Front of Kampuchea, respectively. As GRUNK's leader,
Sihanouk lent support to the Khmer Rouge, which fought against the Khmer Republic in the Cambodian
Civil War. After the Khmer Rouge won, a new government, Democratic Kampuchea, was formed.
Subsequently, Sihanouk returned to Cambodia and became its figurehead head of state. In 1976
Sihanouk resigned from his position, leading to his house arrest. He was incarcerated until 1979,
whenVietnamese forces overthrew the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk went into exile again, and in 1981 he
formed FUNCINPEC, a resistance party. The following year, Sihanouk was appointed as the President
of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK), consisting of the three antiVietnamese resistance factions FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge and the Khmer People's National
Liberation Front (KPNLF). As this coalition retained Cambodia's seat at the United Nations, this made
him Cambodia's internationally recognized head of state.
In the late 1980s, informal talks were carried out to end hostilities between the People's Republic of
Kampuchea (PRK) and resistance factions under the CGDK. In 1990 the Supreme National Council of
Cambodia (SNC) was formed as a transitional body to oversee Cambodia's sovereign matters, with
Sihanouk as its president. In 1991 peace accords were signed, and the United Nations Transitional
Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was established the following year. The UNTAC organised general
elections in 1993, and a coalition government, jointly led by his son Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen,
was subsequently formed. In June 1993 Sihanouk was reinstated as Cambodia's Head of State, and
in September 1993 was appointed king. In 2004 Sihanouk abdicated again in favour of another
son, Norodom Sihamoni, who succeeded him as king. He was known as the King father until his death
in 2012. Sihanouk pursued an artistic career during his lifetime, and wrote several musical
compositions. He produced 50 films between 1966 and 2006, at times directing and acting in them.
Early life and first reign

Norodom Sihanouk was the only child born of the union between Norodom Suramarit and Sisowath
Kossamak. His parents, who heeded the royal court astrologer's advice that he risked dying at a
young age if he was raised under parental care, placed him under the care of Kossamak's
grandmother, Pat. When Pat died, Kossamak brought Sihanouk to live with his paternal grandfather,
Norodom Sutharot. Sutharot delegated parenting responsibilities to his daughter, Norodom Ket
Kanyamom. Sihanouk received his primary education at the Francois Baudoin school and Nuon
Moniram school in Phnom Penh. During this time, he received financial support from his maternal
grandfather, Sisowath Monivong, to head an amateur performance troupe and soccer team.[1] In
1936 Sihanouk was sent to Saigon, where he pursued his secondary education at Lyce Chasseloup
Laubat, a boarding school.
When the reigning king Monivong died on 23 April 1941, the Governor-General of French
Indochina, Jean Decoux chose Sihanouk to succeed him. Sihanouk's appointment as king was
formalised the following day by the Cambodian crown council, and his coronation ceremony took
place on 3 May 1941. During the Japanese occupation of Cambodia, he dedicated most of his time
to sports, filming, and the occasional tour to the countryside. In March 1945 the Japanese military,
which had occupied Cambodia since August 1941, dissolved the nominal French colonial
administration. Under pressure from the Japanese, Sihanouk proclaimed Cambodia's independence
and assumed the position of prime minister while serving as king at the same time.
As prime minister, Sihanouk revoked a decree issued by the last resident superior of Cambodia,
Georges Gautier, to romanise the Khmer alphabet. Following the Surrender of Japan in August 1945,
nationalist forces loyal to Son Ngoc Thanh launched a coup, which led to Thanh becoming prime
minister. When the French returned to Cambodia in October 1945, Thanh was dismissed and replaced
by Sihanouk's uncle Sisowath Monireth. Monireth negotiated for greater autonomy in managing
Cambodia's internal affairs. A Modus Vivendi was signed in January 1946 whereby Cambodia was
granted full autonomy within the French Union. A joint French-Cambodian commission was set up after
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that to draft Cambodia's constitution, and in April 1946, Sihanouk introduced clauses which provided
for an elected parliament on the basis of universal male suffrage as well as press freedom. The first
constitution was signed into effect by Sihanouk in May 1947. Around this time, Sihanouk made two
trips to Saumur, France where he attended military training at the Armoured Cavalry Branch Training
School in 1946, and again in 1948. He was made a reserve captain for the French army.
Sihanouk in his coronation regalia, November 1941

In early 1949 Sihanouk traveled to Paris with his parents to negotiate with the French government for
more autonomy over Cambodia. The Modus Vivendi was replaced by a new Franco-Khmer treaty,
which recognised Cambodia as "independent" within the French Union. In practice, the treaty granted
only limited self-rule to Cambodia. While Cambodia was given free rein in managing its foreign
ministry and to a lesser extent, its defence, most of the other ministries remained under French control.
Meanwhile, dissenting legislators from thenational assembly started attacking the government led by
prime minister Penn Nouth over its failure to resolve deepening financial and corruption problems
plaguing the country. The dissenting legislators, led by Yem Sambaur, who had defected from the
Democrat party in November 1948, deposed Penn Nouth. Yem Sambaur replaced him, but his
appointment did not sit well with the Democrats, who in turn pressured Sihanouk to dissolve the
national assembly and hold elections.
Sihanouk, who by now had tired of the political squabbling, dissolved the assembly in September
1949, but opted to rule by decree for the next two years before general elections were held, which
the Democrats won. In October 1951 Thanh returned to Cambodia and was received by 100,000
supporters, a spectacle which Sihanouk saw as an affront to his regal authority. Thanh disappeared
six months later, presumably to join the Khmer Issarak. Sihanouk ordered the Democrat-led
government to arrest Thanh but was ignored. Subsequently, civil demonstrations rallying against the
monarchy and the French broke out in the countryside, alarming Sihanouk, who began to suspect that
the Democrats had played a complicit role in them. In June 1952 Sihanouk dismissed the Democrat
nominee Huy Kanthoul and made himself prime minister. A few days later, Sihanouk privately
confided in exasperation to the US charg d'affaires,Thomas Gardiner Corcoran, that parliamentary
democracy was unsuitable for Cambodia.
In January 1952 Sihanouk re-appointed Penn Nouth as prime minister before leaving for France.
Once there, Sihanouk wrote to French president Vincent Auriol requesting that he grant Cambodia full
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independence, citing widespread anti-French sentiment among the Cambodian populace. Auriol
deferred Sihanouk's request to the French commissioner for overseas territories, Jean Letourneau, who
promptly rejected it. Subsequently, Sihanouk traveled to Canada and the United States, where he
gave radio interviews to present his case. He took advantage of the prevailing anticommunist sentiment in those countries, arguing that Cambodia faced a Communist threat similar to
that of the Viet Minh in Vietnam, and that the solution was to grant full independence to Cambodia.
Sihanouk returned to Cambodia in June 1953, taking up residence in Siem Reap. He organised public
rallies calling for Cambodians to fight for independence, and formed a citizenry militia which
attracted about 130,000 recruits.
In August 1953 France agreed to cede control over judicial and interior affairs to Cambodia, and
subsequently the defense ministry as well in October 1953. At the end of the month, Sihanouk went to
Phnom Penh, where he declared Cambodia's independence from France on 9 November 1953. In
May 1954 Sihanouk sent two of his cabinet ministers, Nhiek Tioulong and Tep Phan, to represent
Cambodia at the Geneva Conference. The agreements signed for Cambodia affirmed the country's
independence and allowed it to seek military aid from any country without restrictions. At the same
time, Sihanouk's relations with the governing Democrat party remained strained, as they were wary of
his growing influence in politics. To counter Democrat opposition, Sihanouk held a national
referendum to gauge public approval for his efforts to seek national independence. While the results
showed 99.8 percent approval, Australian historian Milton Osborne noted that open balloting was
carried out and voters were cowed into casting an approval vote under police surveillance.
Sangkum era
Main article: Kingdom of Cambodia (195370)
Abdication and entry into politics

On 2 March 1955 Sihanouk abdicated the throne, and was in turn succeeded by his father,
Suramarit. In his abdication speech, Sihanouk explained that he was abdicating in order to extricate
himself from the "intrigues" of palace life and allow easier access to common folk as an "ordinary
citizen". According to Osborne, Sihanouk's abdication earned him the freedom to pursue politics while
continuing to enjoy the deference that he had received from his subjects when he was king. In April
1955 Sihanouk formed his own political party, the Sangkum, and expressed interest in competing in
the general elections slated to be held in September 1955. While the Sangkum was, in effect, a
political party, Sihanouk argued that the Sangkum should be seen as a political "organisation", and
explained that he could accommodate people with differing political orientations on the sole condition
that they pledged fealty to the monarchy.
Soon after, the Sangkum absorbed several political parties with different political orientations such as
the Khmer Renovation Party, People's Party, and Liberal Party. At the same time, Sihanouk was
running out of patience with the Democrat party and the left-wing Pracheachon, as both had refused
to merge into his party and had campaigned against him. He appointed as director of national
security Dap Chhuon, who ordered the national police to jail their leaders and break up their election
rallies. When elections were held, the Sangkum received 83 percent of all valid votes. They took up
all seats in the National Assembly, replacing the Democrats, which had until then been the majority
party. The following month, Sihanouk was appointed prime minister.[48]
Premiership (195560)
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Meeting in Beijing in 1956: (from left) Mao Zedong, Peng Zhen, Sihanouk, Liu Shaoqi
Once in office, Sihanouk introduced several constitutional changes, including extending suffrage to
women, adopting Khmer as the sole official language of the country and making Cambodia
a constitutional monarchy by vesting policy-making powers in the prime minister rather than the king.
He viewed socialism as an ideal concept for establishing social equality and fostering national
cohesion within newly independent Cambodia. In March 1956 he embarked on a national programme
of "Buddhist socialism", promoting socialist principles on the one hand while maintaining the kingdom's
Buddhist culture on the other. Between 1955 and 1960, Sihanouk resigned and retook the post of
prime minister several times, citing fatigue caused by overwork. The National Assembly nominated
experienced politicians such as Sim Var and San Yun to become prime minister whenever Sihanouk
took leave, but they similarly relinquished their posts each time, several months into their term, as
cabinet ministers repeatedly disagreed over public policy matters.
In May 1955 Sihanouk accepted military aid from the US. The following January, when he was in
the Philippines on a state visit, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operatives attempted to sway him
into placing Cambodia under Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) protection. Subsequently,
Sihanouk began to suspect that the US was attempting to undermine his government and that it was
lending covert support to the Democrat party, now without parliamentary representation, for that
purpose. On the other hand, Sihanouk developed a good impression of China, whose premier Zhou
Enlai, gave him a warm reception on his first visit there in February 1956. They signed a friendship
treaty, in which China promised US$40 million in economic aid to Cambodia. When Sihanouk returned
from China, Sarit Thanarat and Ngo Dinh Diem, leaders of Thailand and South Vietnam, respectively,
both with pro-American sympathies, started to accuse him as pro-Communist. South Vietnam briefly
imposed a trade embargo on Cambodia, preventing trading ships from travelling up
the Mekong river to reach Phnom Penh, via Saigon. While Sihanouk professed that he was pursuing a
policy of neutrality, Sarit and Diem remained distrustful of him, more so after he established formal
diplomatic relations with China in 1958.
The Democrat party continued to criticize the Sangkum and Sihanouk in their newspaper, much to
Sihanouk's consternation. In August 1957 Sihanouk finally lost patience, calling out Democrat leaders
for a debate. Five of them attended. At the debate, held at the royal palace, Sihanouk spoke in a
belligerent tone, challenging the Democrat leaders to present evidence of malfeasance in his
government and inviting them to join the Sangkum. The Democrat leaders gave hesitant responses,
and according to American historian David P. Chandler, it gave the audience the impression that they
were disloyal to the monarchy. The debate led to the effective demise of the Democrat party, as its
leaders were subsequently beaten up by government soldiers, with Sihanouk's tacit approval. With
the Democrats vanquished, Sihanouk focused on preparing for general elections, slated to be held in
March 1958. He drafted left-wing politicians, including Hou Yuon, Hu Nim, and Chau Seng, to stand
as Sangkum candidates, with a view to winning left-wing support from the Pracheachon. The
Pracheachon on their part fielded five candidates for the elections. However, four of them withdrew,
as they were prevented by the national police from holding any election rallies. When voting took
place, the Sangkum won all seats in the national assembly.
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In December 1958 Ngo Dinh Nhu Diem's younger brother and chief adviser broached the idea
of orchestrating a coup to overthrow Sihanouk. Nhu contacted Dap Chhuon, Sihanouk's Interior
Minister, who was known for his pro-American sympathies, to prepare for the coup against his boss.
Chhuon received covert financial and military assistance from Thailand, South Vietnam, and the CIA. In
January 1959 Sihanouk learned of the coup plans through intermediaries who were in contact with
Chhuon. The following month, Sihanouk sent the army to capture Chhuon, who was summarily executed
as soon as he was captured, effectively ending the coup attempt. Sihanouk then accused South
Vietnam and the United States of orchestrating the coup attempt. Six months later, on 31 August
1959, a small packaged lacquer gift, which was fitted with a parcel bomb, was delivered to the
royal palace. Norodom Vakrivan, the chief of protocol, was killed instantly when he opened the
package. Sihanouk's parents, Suramarit and Kossamak, who were sitting in another room not far from
Vakrivan, narrowly escaping unscathed. An investigation traced the origin of the parcel bomb to an
American military base in Saigon. While Sihanouk publicly accused Ngo Dinh Nhu of masterminding
the bomb attack, he secretly suspected that the US was also involved. The incident deepened his
distrust of the US.
Initial years as Head of State (196065)

After several months of poor health, Suramarit, Sihanouk's father, died on 3 April 1960which
Sihanouk blamed upon the shock that his father had received from the parcel bomb attack. The
following day, the royal throne council met to choose Monireth as regent. Over the next two months,
Sihanouk introduced constitutional amendments to create the new post of Head of State of Cambodia,
which provided ceremonial powers equivalent to that of the king. A referendum held on 5 June 1960
approved Sihanouk's proposals, and Sihanouk was formally appointed Head of State on 14 June
1960. As the head of state, Sihanouk took over various ceremonial responsibilities of the king, such as
holding public audiencesand leading the Royal Ploughing Ceremony. At the same time, he continued
to play an active role in politics as Sangkum's leader.
Sihanouk with US President John F. Kennedy in New York City on 25 September 1961
In 1961 Pracheachon's spokesperson, Non Suon, criticized Sihanouk for failing to tackle inflation,
unemployment, and corruption in the country. Non Suon's criticisms gave Sihanouk the impetus to arrest
Pracheachon leaders, and according to him, he had discovered plans by their party to monitor local
political developments on behalf of foreign powers. In May 1962 Tou Samouth, Pracheachon's
secretary-general, disappeared, and its ideological ally, the Communist Party of Kampuchea,
suspected that Samouth had been secretly captured and killed by police. However, Sihanouk allowed
Sangkum's left-wing politicians to run again in the 1962 general elections, which they all won. He
even appointed two left-wing politicians, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan, as secretaries for planning
and commerce, respectively, after the election.
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In November 1962 Sihanouk called on the US to stop supporting the Khmer Serei, which he believed
they had been secretly doing through the CIA. He threatened to reject all economic aid from the US if
they failed to respond to his demands, a threat he later carried out on 19 November 1963. At the
same time, Sihanouk also nationalised the country's entrepot trade, banking sector, and distillery
industries. To oversee policy and regulatory matters on the country's entrepot trade, he set up the
National Export-Import Corporation and Statutory Board, better known as "SONEXIM".When Sarit,
Diem, and US president John F. Kennedy died in November and December 1963, Sihanouk rejoiced
over their deaths, as he accused them of attempting to destabilise Cambodia. He organised concerts
and granted civil servants extra leave time to celebrate the occasion. When the US government
protested Sihanouk's celebrations, he responded by recalling the Cambodian ambassador to the US,
Nong Kimny.
In early 1964 Sihanouk signed a secret agreement with North Vietnam and the Viet Cong, allowing
Chinese military aid meant for them to be delivered through Sihanoukville's port. In turn,
the Cambodian army would be paid for delivering food supplies to the Viet Cong, and at the same
time skim off 10 percent of all military hardware supplies. In addition, he also allowed the Viet Cong
to build a trail through eastern Cambodia, so that their troops could receive war supplies from North
Vietnam. The trail later became known as theSihanouk Trail. When the US learned of Viet Cong
presence in eastern Cambodia, they started a bombing campaign over it, spurring Sihanouk to sever
diplomatic ties with the US in May 1965. As a result of this secret agreement, Communist countries,
including China, the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia, provided military aid to Cambodia.
Continued leadership as Head of State (196670)
Sihanouk in 1967
In September 1966 general elections were held, and Sangkum legislators with conservative and rightwing sympathies dominated the national assembly. In turn, they nominated Lon Nol, a military general
who shared their political sympathies, as prime minister. However, their choice did not sit well with
Sihanouk. To counterbalance conservative and right-wing influence, in October 1966 Sihanouk set up
ashadow government made up of Sangkum legislators with left-wing sympathies. At the end of the
month, Lon Nol offered to resign from his position, but was ironically stopped from doing so by
Sihanouk. In April 1967 the Samlaut Uprising occurred, with local peasants fighting against
government troops in Samlaut, Battambang. As soon as government troops managed to quell the
fighting, Sihanouk began to suspect that three left-wing Sangkum legislators Khieu Samphan, Hou
Yuon and Hu Nim had incited the rebellion. When Sihanouk threatened to charge Khieu Samphan
and Hou Yuon before a military tribunal, they fled into the jungle to join the Khmer Rouge, leaving Hu
Nim behind.
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Lon Nol resigned as prime minister in early May 1967, and Sihanouk appointed Son Sann in his
place. At the same time, Sihanouk replaced conservative-leaning ministers appointed by Lon Nol
with technocrats and left-leaning politicians. In the later part of the month, after receiving news that
the Chinese embassy in Cambodia had published and distributed Communist propaganda to the
Cambodian populace praising the Cultural Revolution, Sihanouk accused China of supporting
local Chinese Cambodians in engaging in "contraband" and "subversive" activities. In August 1967
Sihanouk sent to China his Foreign Minister, Norodom Phurissara, who unsuccessfully urged Zhou to
stop the Chinese embassy from disseminating Communist propaganda. In response, Sihanouk closed
the CambodiaChinese Friendship Association in September 1967. When the Chinese government
protested, Sihanouk threatened to close the Chinese embassy in Cambodia. Zhou stepped in to
placate Sihanouk, and compromised by instructing its embassy to send its publications to
Cambodia's information ministry for vetting prior to distribution.
As relations with China worsened, Sihanouk pursued rapprochement with the US. He learned that
Kennedy's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, had expressed a desire to see Angkor Wat. Seeing this as an
opportunity to restore relations with the US, Sihanouk invited her to visit Cambodia and personally
hosted her visit in October 1967. Jacqueline Kennedy's visit paved the way for Sihanouk to meet
with Chester Bowles, the US ambassador to India. To Bowles, Sihanouk expressed his willingness to
restore bilateral relations with the US, hinted at the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia, and
suggested he would turn a blind eye should US forces enter Cambodia to attack the Viet Cong.
Bowles relayed Sihanouk's message to the US government, and in March 1969, they
launched Operation Menu, a bombing campaign covering parts of eastern Cambodia. The bombing
forced the Viet Cong to flee from their jungle sanctuaries and seek refuge in populated towns and
villages. As a result, Sihanouk became concerned that Cambodia might get drawn into fighting in
the Vietnam War. In June 1969 he extended diplomatic recognition to the Provisional Revolutionary
Government of the Republic of South Vietnam(PRGSV), hoping that he could get the Viet Cong troops
under its charge to leave Cambodia should they win the war. At the same time, he also openly
admitted the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia for the first time, prompting the US to restore
formal diplomatic relations with Cambodia three months later.
As the Cambodian economy was stagnating due to systemic corruption, Sihanouk opened two
casinos in Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville in January 1969. While the casinos satisfied his aim of
generating state revenues of up to 700 million riels in that year, it also caused a sharp increase in the
number of bankruptcies and suicides. In August 1969 Lon Nol was reappointed as Prime Minister,
with Sisowath Sirik Matak as his deputy. Two months later, Lon Nol left Cambodia to seek medical
treatment, leaving Sirik Matak to run the government. Between October and December 1969, Sirik
Matak instituted several policy changes that ran contrary to Sihanouk's wishes, such as allowing
private banks to re-open in the country and devaluing the riel. He also encouraged ambassadors to
write to Lon Nol directly, instead of going through Sihanouk, angering the latter. In early January
1970 Sihanouk left Cambodia for medical treatment in France. Shortly after he left, Sirik Matak took
the opportunity to close down the casinos.[116]
Deposition, GRUNK and Khmer Rouge years

On 11 March 1970 a large protest took place outside the North Vietnamese and PRGSV embassies,
as protesters demanded Viet Cong troops withdraw from Cambodia. The protests turned chaotic, as
protesters looted both embassies and set them on fire, alarming Sihanouk. Sihanouk, who was in Paris
at the time, contemplated between returning to quell the situation, and visiting Moscow, Beijing, and
Hanoi. He opted for the latter, thinking that he could persuade its leaders to recall Viet Cong troops
to their jungle sanctuaries, where they had originally established themselves between 1964 and
1969. Five days later, Oum Mannorine, the half-brother of Sihanouk's wife Monique, was summoned
to the National Assembly to answer corruption charges. On that night after the hearing, Mannorine
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ordered troops under his command to arrest Lon Nol and Sirik Matak, but ended up getting arrested
by Lon Nol's troops instead. On 18 March 1970 the National Assembly voted to depose Sihanouk,
allowing Lon Nol to assume emergency powers.
Sihanouk (left) visiting Romania in 1972, with Romanian President Nicolae Ceauescu
On that day, Sihanouk was in Moscow meeting Soviet foreign minister Alexei Kosygin, who broke the
news to him. From Moscow, Sihanouk flew to Beijing, where he was received by Zhou. Zhou arranged
for the North Vietnamese Prime Minister, Pham Van Dong to fly to Beijing from Hanoi and meet with
Sihanouk. Both Zhou and Dong encouraged Sihanouk to rebel against Lon Nol and promised him
military and financial support. On 23 March 1970, Sihanouk announced the formation of his
resistance movement, the National United Front of Kampuchea (FUNK). He encouraged the
Cambodian populace to join him and fight against Lon Nol's government. Khmer Rouge soldiers
broadcast Sihanouk's message in the Cambodian countryside, which roused demonstrations rooting for
his cause that were brutally suppressed by Lon Nol's troops. Sometime later, on 5 May 1970,
Sihanouk announced the formation of a government-in-exile known as the Royal Government of the
National Union of Kampuchea (GRUNK), leading Communist countries including China, North Vietnam,
and North Korea to break relations with the Lon Nol regime. In Phnom Penh, a military trial convened
on 2 July 1970, whereby Sihanouk was charged with treason and corruption in his capacity as Head
of State. After a three-day trial, the judges ruled Sihanouk guilty of both charges and sentenced to
him death in absentia on 5 July 1970.
Between 1970 and 1975, Sihanouk took up residence in state guesthouses at Beijing and Pyongyang,
courtesy of the Chinese and North Korean governments, respectively. In February 1973 Sihanouk
traveled to Hanoi, where he started on a long journey with Khieu Samphan and other Khmer Rouge
leaders. The convoy proceeded along the Ho Chi Minh trail and reached the Cambodian border
at Stung Treng Province the following month. From there, they traveled across the provinces of Stung
Treng, Preah Vihear, andSiem Reap. Throughout this entire leg of the journey, Sihanouk faced
constant bombardment from American planes participating in Operation Freedom Deal. At Siem
Reap, Sihanouk visited the temples of Angkor Wat, Banteay Srei, and Bayon. In August 1973 Sirik
Matak wrote an open letter calling on Sihanouk to bring the Cambodian Civil War to an end and
suggesting the possibility of his return to the country. When the letter reached Sihanouk, he angrily
rejected Sirik Matak's advances.
After the Khmer Republic fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, a new regime under its charge,
Democratic Kampuchea, was formed. Sihanouk was appointed as its Head of State, a ceremonial
position. In September 1975, Sihanouk briefly returned to Cambodia to inter the ashes of his mother,
before going abroad again to lobby for diplomatic recognition of Democratic Kampuchea. He
returned on 31 December 1975 and presided over a meeting to endorse the constitution of
Democratic Kampuchea. In February 1976 Khieu Samphan took him on a tour across the Cambodian
countryside. Sihanouk was shocked to see the use of forced labour and population displacement
carried out by the Khmer Rouge government, known as the Angkar. Following the tour, Sihanouk
decided to resign as the Head of State. The Angkar initially rejected his resignation request, though
they subsequently accepted it in mid-April 1976, retroactively backdating it to 2 April 1976.
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From this point onwards Sihanouk was kept under house arrest at the royal palace. In September
1978 he was removed to another apartment in Phnom Penh's suburbs, where he lived until the end of
the year. Throughout his confinement, Sihanouk made several unsuccessful requests to the Angkar to
travel overseas. On New Year's Day of 1979, Sihanouk was taken from Phnom Penh to Sisophon,
where they stayed for three days until 5 January, when they were taken back to Phnom Penh.
Sihanouk was taken to meetPol Pot, who briefed him on the Angkar's plans to repulse Vietnamese
troops, which had since invaded parts of eastern Cambodia in December 1978. On 6 January 1979,
Sihanouk flew to Beijing from Phnom Penh, where he was greeted by Zhou Enlai's successor, Deng
Xiaoping. Three days later, Sihanouk flew from Beijing to New York to attend the UN Security
Council, where he simultaneously condemned the Khmer Rouge for orchestrating the Cambodian
genocide as well as the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia. Sihanouk subsequently sought asylum in
China after making two unsuccessful asylum applications with the US and France.
FUNCINPEC and CGDK years
Sihanouk (right) with his son, Norodom Ranariddh, on an ANS inspection tour during the 1980s
After the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown, a new Cambodian government supported
by Vietnam, the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), was established. The Chinese leader, Deng
Xiaoping, was unhappy with Vietnam's influence over the PRK government. Deng proposed to
Sihanouk that he co-operate with the Khmer Rouge to overthrow the PRK government, but rejected it,
as he opposed the genocidal policies pursued by the Khmer Rouge while they were in power. In
March 1981 Sihanouk established a resistance movement, FUNCINPEC which was complemented by a
small resistance army known as Arme Nationale Sihanoukiste (ANS). He appointed In Tam, who had
briefly served as Prime Minister in the Khmer Republic, as the commander-in-chief of ANS. The ANS
needed military aid from China, and Deng seized the opportunity to sway Sihanouk into collaborating
with the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk reluctantly agreed, and started talks in March 1981 with the Khmer
Rouge and the Son Sann-led Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) on a unified anti-PRK
resistance movement.
After several rounds of negotiations mediated by Deng and Singapore's prime minister Lee Kuan
Yew, FUNCINPEC, KPNLF, and the Khmer Rouge agreed to form the Coalition Government of
Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) in June 1982. The CGDK was headed by Sihanouk, and functioned
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as a government-in-exile. The UN defeated a resolution to expel Democratic Kampuchea and admit

the PRK, effectively confirming Sihanouk as Cambodia's internationally recognized head of state.
As CGDK chairperson, Sihanouk unsuccessfully negotiated, over the next five years, with the Chinese
government to broker a political settlement to end the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia. During
this period, Sihanouk appointed two of his sons, Norodom Chakrapong and Norodom Ranariddh, to
lead the ANS. Chakrapong was appointed as the deputy chief-of-staff for the ANS in March 1985,
while Ranariddh was minted to the twin positions of commander-in-chief and the chief-of-staff of the
ANS in January 1986, replacing Tam. In December 1987 the Prime Minister of the PRK
government, Hun Sen, first met with Sihanouk to discuss ending the protracted CambodianVietnamese
War. The following July, the then-foreign minister of Indonesia, Ali Alatas, brokered the first round of
meetings between the four warring Cambodian factions consisting of FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge,
KPNLF, and the PRK government over the future of Cambodia. Two more rounds of meetings were
held in February and May 1989; since all were held near Jakarta, they became known as the
Jakarta Informal Meetings (JIM).
In July 1989 Ali Alatas joined French foreign minister Roland Dumas in opening the Paris Peace
Conference, where discussions took place regarding plans for Vietnamese troop withdrawal and
power-sharing arrangements in a hypothetical future Cambodian government. The following month,
Sihanouk resigned as president of FUNCINPEC but remained in the party as an ordinary member. In
September 1990 the United Nations (UN) sponsored the establishment of the Supreme National
Council of Cambodia (SNC), an administrative body responsible for overseeing the sovereign affairs
of Cambodia for an interim period until UN-sponsored elections were held. The creation of the SNC
was subsequently ratified with United Nations Security Council Resolution 668. In July 1991 Sihanouk
left FUNCINPEC altogether and was elected as the chairperson of the SNC.
UNTAC administration era

On 23 October 1991 Sihanouk led the FUNCINPEC, Khmer Rouge, KPNLF, and PRK into signing the
Paris Peace Accords. The accords recognised the SNC as a "legitimate representative of Cambodian
sovereignty" and created the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) to serve as
a transitional government between 1992 and 1993. In turn, UNTAC was given the mandate to station
peacekeeping troops in Cambodia to supervise the disarmament of troops from the four warring
Cambodian factions and to carry out national elections by 1993. Sihanouk subsequently returned to
Phnom Penh on 14 November 1991. Together with Hun Sen, Sihanouk rode in an open top limousine
from Pochentong Airport all the way to the royal palace, greeting city residents who lined the streets
to welcome his return. The UNTAC administration was set up in February 1992, but stumbled in its
peacekeeping operations as the Khmer Rouge refused to cooperate in disarmament. In response,
Sihanouk urged UNTAC to abandon the Khmer Rouge from the peacekeeping process on two
occasions, in July and September 1992. During this period, Sihanouk mostly resided in Siem Reap and
occasionally traveled by helicopter to supervise election preparations in KPNLF, FUNCINPEC, and
Khmer Rouge resistance bases.
Sihanouk left in November 1992 to seek medical treatment in Beijing, where he stayed for the next
six months until his return to Cambodia in May 1993, on the eve of elections. While in Beijing,
Sihanouk proposed a Presidential system government for Cambodia to then-UN secretarygeneral Boutros Boutros-Ghali, but soon dropped the idea after facing opposition from the Khmer
Rouge. When general elections were held, FUNCINPEC, now headed by Sihanouk's son Norodom
Ranariddh, won, while the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) headed by Hun Sen came in second. The
CPP was unhappy with the election results, and on 3 June 1993 Hun Sen and Chea Sim called on
Sihanouk to lead the government. Sihanouk complied, and announced the formation of a Provisional
National Government (PRG) headed by him, with Hun Sen and Ranariddh as his deputies. Ranariddh
was surprised at Sihanouk's announcement, as he had not been informed of his father's plans, and
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joined Australia, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States in opposing the plan. The following
day, Sihanouk rescinded his announcement through a national radio broadcast.
On 14 June 1993 Sihanouk was reinstated as the head of state in a constituent assembly session
presided over by Ranariddh, who took the opportunity to declare the 1970 coup d'tat which
overthrew Sihanouk as "illegal".As Head of State, Sihanouk renamed the Cambodian military to its
pre-1970 namesake, the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces. He also issued orders to officially rename
the country from the State of Cambodia to simply "Cambodia", reinstating Nokor Reach as the
National Anthem of Cambodia with some minor modifications to its lyrics, and the Cambodian flag to
its pre-1970 design. At the same time, Sihanouk appointed Ranariddh and Hun Sen co-prime
ministers, with equal powers. This arrangement, which was provisional, was ratified by the Constituent
Assembly on 2 July 1993. On 30 August 1993Ranariddh and Hun Sen met with Sihanouk and
presented two draft constitutions, one of them stipulating a constitutional monarchy headed by a king,
and another a republic led by a head of state. Sihanouk opted for the draft stipulating Cambodia a
constitutional monarchy, which was ratified by the constituent assembly on 21 September 1993.
Second reign
The new constitution came into force on 24 September 1993, and Sihanouk was reinstated as the King
of Cambodia. A permanent coalition government was formed between FUNCINPEC, CPP and a third
political party, the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP). In turn, Sihanouk made Ranariddh and
Hun Sen First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively. Shortly after that, Sihanouk left for Beijing,
where he spent several months for cancer treatment. In April 1994 Sihanouk returned, and the
following month called the government to hold new elections so that the Khmer Rouge could be coopted into the government. Both Ranariddh and Hun Sen rejected his suggestion, but Sihanouk pressed
on, and further proposed a national unity government consisting of FUNCINPEC, CPP, and the Khmer
Rouge headed by him. Again, both prime ministers rejected Sihanouk's proposal, arguing that Khmer
Rouge's past intransigent attitude made the proposal unrealistic. Sihanouk backed down, and
expressed frustration that Hun Sen and Ranariddh had been ignoring him. As both Norodom
Sirivudhand Julio Jeldres, his younger half-brother and official biographer, respectively, saw it, this
was a clear sign that the monarchy's ability to exert control over national affairs had diminished, at
least vis-a-vis the prime ministers.
Sihanouk meeting with US Ambassador Kenneth M. Quinn in March 1996

In July 1994 one of his sons, Norodom Chakrapong, led a failed coup attempt to topple the
government. Following the coup attempt, Chakrapong took refuge in a hotel in Phnom Penh, but
government troops soon discovered his hideout and surrounded the hotel. Chakrapong called
Sihanouk, who negotiated with government representatives to allow him to go into exile in
Malaysia. The following November, Sirivudh was accused of plotting to assassinate Hun Sen and
imprisoned. Sihanouk intervened to have Sirivudh detained at the interior ministry's headquarters,
convinced that there was a secret plan to kill the latter if he were to remain in prison. After Sirivudh
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was relocated to the safer location, Sihanouk appealed to Hun Sen that Sirivudh be allowed to go
into exile in France together with his family. Subsequently, Hun Sen accepted his offer.
Relations between the two co-prime ministers, Ranariddh and Hun Sen, deteriorated from March
1996, when the former accused the CPP of repeatedly delaying the allocation process of low-level
government posts to FUNCINPECs. Ranariddh threatened to pull out of the coalition governmentand
hold national elections in the same year if his demands were not met, stoking unease among Hun Sen
and other CPP officials. The following month, Sihanouk presided over a meeting between several
royal family members and senior FUNCINPEC officials in Paris. Sihanouk attempted to reduce tensions
between FUNCINPEC and the CPP by assuring that FUNCINPEC would not leave the coalition
government and that there were no reactionary elements planning to bring down Hun Sen or the CPP.
In March 1997 Sihanouk expressed his willingness to abdicate the throne, claiming that rising antiroyalist sentiment among the populace was threatening the monarchy's existence. In response, Hun Sen
tersely warned Sihanouk that he would introduce constitutional amendments to prohibit members of
the royal family from participating in politics if he followed through on his suggestion. As Widyono
saw it, Sihanouk remained popular with the Cambodian electorate, and Hun Sen feared that, should
he abdicate and enter politics, he would win in any future elections, thereby undercutting CPP's
political clout.
In July 1997, violent clashes erupted in Phnom Penh between infantry forces separately allied to the
CPP and FUNCINPEC, which effectively led to Ranariddh's ousting after FUNCINPEC forces were
defeated. Sihanouk voiced displeasure with Hun Sen for orchestrating the clashes, but refrained from
calling Ranariddh's ouster a "coup d'etat", a term which FUNCINPEC members used. When the
National Assembly elected Ung Huot as the First Prime Minister to replace Ranariddh on 6 August
1997, Sihanouk charged that Ranariddh's ouster was illegal and renewed his offer to abdicate the
throne, a plan which did not materialize. In September 1998 Sihanouk meditated political talks
in Siem Reap after the FUNCINPEC and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) staged protests against the CPPled government for irregularities over the 1998 general elections. The talks broke down at the end of
the month after Hun Sen narrowly escaped an assassination attempt, which he accused Sam Rainsy of
masterminding. Two months later, in November 1998, Sihanouk brokered a second round of political
talks between the CPP and FUNCINPEC whereby an agreement was reached for another coalition
government between the CPP and FUNCINPEC.
Sihanouk maintained a monthly bulletin in which he wrote commentaries on political issues and posted
old photos of Cambodia in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1997 a character known by the name of "Ruom
Rith" first appeared in his monthly bulletin, expressing critical comments on Hun Sen and the
government. Hun Sen became offended by Ruom Rith's criticisms, and on at least two occasions in
1998 and 2003 persuaded Sihanouk to stop publishing his comments. According to Ranariddh, Ruom
Rith was an alter ego of Sihanouk, a claim which the latter vehemently denied. In July 2002 Sihanouk
expressed concern over the absence of detailed constitutional provisions over the organization and
functioning of the Cambodian throne council. When Hun Sen rejected Sihanouk's concern, the latter
followed up in September 2002 by threatening to abdicate, so as to force the throne council to
convene and elect a new monarch.
In July 2003 general elections were held again, and the CPP won. However, they failed to
secure two-thirds of all parliamentary seats, as required by the constitution to form a new
government. The two runner-up parties of the election, FUNCINPEC and SRP, blocked the CPP from
doing so. Instead, in August 2003 they filed complaints with the Constitutional Council over alleged
electoral irregularities. After their complaints were rejected, FUNCINPEC and SRP threatened to
boycott the swearing-in ceremony of parliamentarians. Sihanouk coaxed both parties to change their
decision, stating that he would abstain from presiding over the ceremony as well if they did not
comply with his wishes. Both parties eventually backed off from their threats, and the swearing-in
ceremony was held in October 2003, with Sihanouk in attendance. The CPP, FUNCINPEC, and SRP
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held additional talks into 2004 to break the political stalemate, but to no avail. At the same time,
Sihanouk proposed a unity government jointly led by politicians from all three political parties, which
Hun Sen and Ranariddh both rebuffed.
Abdication and final years

On 6 July 2004 in an open letter, Sihanouk announced his plans to abdicate. At the same time, he
criticised Hun Sen and Ranariddh for ignoring his suggestions on how to resolve the political stalemate
of the past year. Meanwhile, Hun Sen and Ranariddh had agreed to introduce a constitutional
amendment that provided for an open voting system, requiring parliamentarians to select cabinet
ministers and the president of the National Assembly by a show of hands. Sihanouk disapproved of
the open voting system, calling upon Senate President Chea Sim not to sign the amendment. When
Chea Sim heeded Sihanouk's advice, he was ferried out of the country shortly before the National
Assembly convened to vote on the amendment on 15 July. On 17 July 2004, the CPP and FUNCINPEC
agreed to form a coalition government, leaving SRP out as an opposition party. On 6 October 2004,
Sihanouk wrote a letter calling for the throne council to convene and select a successor. The National
Assembly and Senate both held emergency meetings to pass laws allowing for the abdication of the
monarch. On 14 October 2004 the throne council unanimously voted to select Norodom Sihamoni as
Sihanouk's successor. Sihamoni was crowned as the King of Cambodia on 29 October 2004.
In March 2005 Sihanouk accused Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian
territory, through unilateral border demarcation exercises without Cambodian participation. Two
months later, Sihanouk formed the Supreme National Council on Border Affairs (SNCBA), which he
headed, to address these concerns. While the SRP and Chea Sim expressed support for Sihanouk for
the formation of the SNCBA, Hun Sen decided to form a separate body, National Authority on Border
Affairs (NABA), to deal with border concerns, with SNCBA to serve only as an advisory body. After
Hun Sen signed a border treaty with Vietnam in October 2005, Sihanouk dissolved the SNCBA. In
August 2007 the Cambodian Action Committee for Justice and Equity, a US-based human
rights NGO, called for Sihanouk's State immunity to be lifted, so as to allow him to testify in
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC). Sihanouk responded to the call by
inviting the ECCC public affairs officer, Peter Foster, for a discussion session on his personal
experience under the Khmer Rouge regime. Both Hun Sen and FUNCINPEC criticized the suggestion,
with the latter accusing the NGO of being disrespectful. The ECCC subsequently rejected Sihanouk's
invitation.
The following year, bilateral relations between Thailand and Cambodia became strained due
to overlapping claims on the land area surrounding Preah Vihear Temple. Sihanouk issued a
communique in July 2008 emphasizing the Khmer architecture of the temple as well as ICJ's 1962
ruling of the temple in favour of Cambodia. In August 2009 Sihanouk stated that he would stop
posting messages on his personal website as he was getting old, making it difficult for him to keep up
with his personal duties. Between 2009 and 2011, Sihanouk spent most of his time in Beijing for
medical care. He made a final public appearance in Phnom Penh on his 89th birthday and 20th
anniversary of the Paris Peace Accords on 30 October 2011. Thereafter, Sihanouk expressed his
intent to stay in Cambodia indefinitely, but returned to Beijing in January 2012 for further medical
treatment at the advice of his Chinese doctors.
Death and funeral

Main article: Death and state funeral of Norodom Sihanouk
In January 2012 Sihanouk issued a letter to express his wish to be cremated after his death, and for
his ashes to be interred in a golden urn. A few months later, in September 2012, Sihanouk said that
he would not return to Cambodia from Beijing for his 90th birthday, citing fatigue. On 15 October
2012 Sihanouk died of a heart attack at 1:20 am, Phnom Penh time. When the news broke, Sihamoni,
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Hun Sen, and other government officials flew to Beijing to pay their last respects. The Cambodian
government announced an official mourning period of seven days between 17 October and
24 October 2012, and state flags were ordered to fly at one-third height. Two days later, Sihanouk's
body was brought back from Beijing on an Air China flight, and about 1.2 million people lined the
streets from the airport to the royal palace to witness the return of Sihanouk's cortege.
In late November 2012, Hun Sen said that Sihanouk's funeral and cremation were to be carried out in
February 2013. Sihanouk's body lay in state at the royal palace for the next three months until the
funeral was held on 1 February 2013. A 6,000-metre (20,000 ft) street procession was held, and
Sihanouk's body was subsequently kept at the royal crematorium until 4 February 2013 when his
body was cremated. The following day, the royal family scattered some of Sihanouk's ashes into
the Tonle Sap river, while the rest were kept in the palace's throne hall for about a year. In October
2013 a stupa featuring a bronze statue of Sihanouk was inaugurated next to the Independence
Monument. In July 2014 Sihanouk's ashes were interred at the silver pagoda next to those of one of
his daughters, Kantha Bopha.
Film-making
Main article: Norodom Sihanouk filmography

Sihanouk produced about 50 films throughout his lifetime. He developed an interest in the cinema at a
young age, which he attributed to frequent trips to the cinema with his parents. Shortly after
becoming king in 1941, Sihanouk made a few amateur films, and sent Cambodian students to study
film-making in France. When the film Lord Jimwas released in 1965, Sihanouk was vexed with the
negative portrayal it gave of Cambodia. In response, Sihanouk produced his first feature
film, Apsara, in 1966. He went on to produce, direct, and act in eight more films between 1966 and
1969, roping in members of the royal family and military generals to star in his films. Sihanouk
expressed that his films were created with the intent of portraying Cambodia in a positive light;
Milton Osborne also noted that the films were filled with Cold Warand nationalist propaganda
themes. Sihanouk's former adviser, Charles Meyer, said that his films created from the 1960s were of
amateur standard, while the director of Reyum Institute, Ly Daravuth, similarly commented in 2006
that his films lacked artistic qualities.
In 1967 one of his films, The Enchanted Forest, was nominated at the 5th Moscow International Film
Festival. In 1968 Sihanouk launched the Phnom Penh International Film Festival, which was held for a
second time in 1969. In both years, a special award category was designated, the Golden Apsara
Prize, of which Sihanouk was its only nominee and winner. After Sihanouk was ousted in 1970, he
ceased producing films for the next seventeen years until 1987. In 1997 Sihanouk received a special
jury prize from theInternational Film Festival of Moscow, where he revealed that he had received a
budget ranging from US$20,000 to US$70,000 for each of his film productions from the Cambodian
government. Six years later, Sihanouk donated his film archives to the cole franaise d'ExtrmeOrient in France and Monash University in Australia. In 2006 he produced his last film, Miss Asina, and
then declared his retirement from film-making in May 2010.
Music
Sihanouk wrote at least 48 musical compositions between the late 1940s and the early 1970s,
combining both traditional Khmer and Western themes into his works. From the 1940s until the 1960s,
Sihanouk's compositions were mostly based on sentimental, romantic and patriotic themes. Sihanouk's
romantic songs reflected his numerous romantic liaisons, particularly his relationship with his wife
Monique, and compositions such as "My Darling" and "Monica" were dedicated to her. He also wrote
nationalistic songs, meant to showcase the beauty of provincial towns and at the same time foster a
sense of patriotism and national unity among Cambodians. Notable compositions, such as "Flower of
Battambang", "Beauty of Kep City", "Phnom Kulen", and "Phnom Penh", are examples of these. A few
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of his other compositions, including "Luang Prabang", "Nostalgia of China", and "Goodbye Bogor"
were sentimental songsabout neighbouring countries including Laos, Indonesia, and China.
After he was ousted as head of state in 1970, Sihanouk wrote several revolutionary-style songsthat
praised the leaders of Communist countries, including "Hommage Khmer au Marchal Kim Il Sung" and
"Merci, Piste Ho Chi Minh". They were intended to show his gratitude toward the Communist leaders,
which had supported GRUNK between 1970 and 1975. From a young age, Sihanouk learned to play
several musical instruments including the clarinet, saxophone, piano, and accordion. In the 1960s
Sihanouk led a musical band made up of his relatives, who would perform French songs and his own
personal compositions for diplomats at the royal palace. In his tours across Cambodian provinces,
Sihanouk was accompanied by the royal military orchestra and Cambodian pop singers. Later, while
Sihanouk was living in exile during the 1980s, he hosted concerts to entertain diplomats whenever he
visited the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. After he was reinstated as king in 1993,
Sihanouk continued to perform in concerts held at the royal palace on an occasional basis.
Titles and styles

See also: List of honours received by Norodom Sihanouk
Sihanouk was known by many formal and informal titles throughout his lifetime, and the Guinness Book
of World Recordsidentifies Sihanouk as the royal who had served the greatest variety of state and
political offices. When Sihanouk became king in 1941, he was bestowed with the official title of
"Preah Bat Samdech Preah Norodom Sihanouk Varman", which he used for both reigns between 1941
and 1955 and again from 1993 to 2004.[7] He reverted to the title of Prince after he abdicated
1955, and in that year was given by his father and successor the title of "Samdech Preah
Upayuvareach",[33] which translates in English as "The Prince who has been King".[268] Starting from the
early 1960s when he became the Head of State,[269] Sihanouk was affectionately known to most
Cambodians as "Samdech Euv",[270] which translates as the "Prince Father" in English.[267]
In 2004, after his second abdication, Sihanouk became known as the King Father of
Cambodia,[271] with the official title of "Preah Karuna Preah Bat Smdach Preah Norodom Sihanouk
Preahmhaviraksat" (Khmer:
).[267] He was also referred to by another honorific, "His Majesty King Norodom
Sihanouk The Great Heroic King King-Father of Khmer independence, territorial integrity and national
unity" (
).[272] At the same time, he issued a royal decree requesting to
be called "Samdech Ta" or "Samdech Ta-tuot",[273] which translates as "Grandfather" and "Greatgrandfather", respectively, in English.[274] When Sihanouk died in October 2012, he was bestowed by
his son Sihamoni with the posthumous title of "Preah Karuna Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preah Borom
Ratanakkot" (Khmer: ), which literally translates
as "The King who lies in the Diamond Urn" in English.
Personal life
Sihanouk's name is derived from two Sanskrit words "Siha" and "Manu", which translates as "Lion" and
"Jaws", respectively, in English. He was fluent in Khmer, French, and English, and also
learned Greek and Latin in high school. In his high school days, Sihanouk played soccer, basketball,
volleyball, and also took up horse riding. He suffered from diabetes and depression in the 1960s,
which flared up again in the late 1970s while living in captivity under the Khmer Rouge. In November
1992 Sihanouk suffered a strokecaused by the thickening of the coronary arteries and blood
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vessels. In 1993 he was diagnosed with B cell lymphoma in the prostateand was treated with
chemotherapy and surgery. Sihanouk's lymphoma went into remission in 1995, but returned again in
2005 in the gastric region. He suffered a third bout of lymphoma in 2008, and after prolonged
treatment it went into remission the following year.
In 1960 Sihanouk built a personal residence at Chamkarmon District where he lived over the next ten
years as the Head of State. Following his overthrow in 1970, Sihanouk took up residence in Beijing,
where he lived at the Diaoyutai State Guesthouse in the first year of his stay. In 1971 Sihanouk
moved to a larger residence in the city that once housed the French embassy. The residence was
equipped with a temperature-adjustable swimming pool, cinemaand seven chefs to cook his meals. In
1974 North Korean leader Kim Il-sung built Changsuwon, a 40-room mansion, for Sihanouk.
Changsuwon was built near an artificial lake, and Sihanouk spent time taking boat trips there and
also shot a few films within the compound. In August 2008 Sihanouk declared his assets on his website,
which according to him consisted of a small house in Siem Reap and 30,000 Euros of cash savings
stored in a French bank. He also stated that his residences in Beijing and Pyongyang were
guesthouses owned by the governments of China and North Korea, respectively, and that they did not
belong to him.
Family
Sihanouk's spouse, Norodom Monineath, and their son Norodom Sihamoni photographed at Sihanouk's
funeral. To the extreme left is Sihanouk's half-brother, Norodom Sirivudh.
In April 1952 Sihanouk married Paule Monique Izzi, the daughter of Pomme Peang a Cambodian
lady, and Jean-Franois Izzi, a French banker of Italian ancestry. Monique became Sihanouk's lifelong
partner, and in the 1990s she changed her name to Monineath. Before his marriage to Monique,
Sihanouk had married five other women including Phat Kanhol, Sisowath Pongsanmoni, Sisowath
Monikessan, Mam Manivan Phanivong, and Thavet Norleak. Monikessan died of childbirth in 1946,
and his marriages to the other women all ended in divorce. Sihanouk sired fourteen children with five
different wives except for Thavet Norleak, who bore him no children. During the Khmer Rouge years,
five children and fourteen grandchildren disappeared; Sihanouk believed they were killed by the
Khmer Rouge.
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Sihanouk had the following issue:

Name
Year
of
birth
Year
of
death
Mother
Cause of death
Norodom Buppha Devi
1943
Phat Kanhol
Norodom Yuvaneath
1943
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni
Norodom Ranariddh
1944
Phat Kanhol
Norodom Ravivong
1944
Norodom Chakrapong
1945
Norodom Naradipo
1946
1976
Sisowath Monikessan
Disappeared under Khmer

Rouge
Norodom Sorya Roeungsi
1947
1976
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni

Rouge
Norodom Kantha Bopha
1948
1952
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni
Leukemia
Norodom Khemanourak
1949
1975
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni

Rouge
Norodom Botum Bopha
1951
1975
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni

Rouge
Norodom Sujata
1953
1975
Mam Manivan

Rouge
Norodom Sihamoni
1953
Norodom Narindrapong
1954
Norodom Arunrasmy
1955
1973
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni
Malaria
Sisowath
Pongsanmoni
Monique Izzi
(Monineath)
2003
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Monique Izzi
(Monineath)
Heart attack
Mam Manivan
& 2016
15
Paris Peace Agreement
Paris Peace Agreement

The Paris Peace Accords (Khmer: ) were signed on October 23,
1991 and marked the official end of the CambodianVietnamese War. The agreement led to the
deployment of the first post-Cold War peace keeping mission (UNTAC) and the first ever occasion in
which the UN took over as the government of a state. Nineteen governments signed the agreement.
23 October is a public holiday in Cambodia to commemorate the anniversary of the Paris Peace
Agreement. It was announced by the government in late 2012.
On this day 24 years ago, 19 governments came together to sign the Paris Peace Agreements, which
finally provided a comprehensive political settlement to end the tragic conflict and continuing
bloodshed that tore Cambodia apart for decades. Fri, 23 October 2015
Since 1970, Cambodia was respectively ravaged by an intensive bombing campaign by foreign
militaries, a coup dtat, the inconceivable horror of the Khmer Rouge regime, and a bloody civil war.
As some of the worst victims of the brutality of Cold War realpolitick, it is truly a testament to the
spirit of the Cambodian people that the nation has been able to move on from such a history.
Today, it is appropriate for all of us to reflect and appreciate our relative fortune, compared with
the extreme suffering of previous generations. There are now no bombs devastating our countryside,
no forced labour camps imprisoning our people, and no fresh mass graves filled with our best and
brightest.
Yes, peace has come to Cambodia but todays peace is an imperfect, fragile, peace-for-some.
While political leaders use this anniversary to loudly declare their achievements in bringing peace to
Cambodia, we must remember that widespread and ongoing violations of human rights, the stifling of
democratic space, and crackdowns on dissenting voices have become dark features of peacetime
Cambodia.
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Peace should not be described as merely the absence of war or violence, which is negative peace.
It should also include communal harmony, socioeconomic cooperation and equal political
representation in government for all citizens. These, along with good governance, which respects the
rights of the people, constitute the positive peace, or rather peace building.
OPINION: The 1991 Paris Peace Agreement Had Been the Starting Point in the Quest
for Peace, Independence, Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
AKP Phnom Penh, October 23, 2014
From left: Khmer Rouge factions leaders Im Chuun Lin, Cambodian Premier Hun Sen, Dith Munty,
Cambodian Prince Norodom Sihanouk, Ieng Mouly and Khieu Samphan applaud after signing
the treaty that ended decades of civil war in Cambodia on October 23, 1991, in Paris. AFP
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The Council of Ministers of the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) announced on October 22,
2012 that October 23, the anniversary of the signing of the Paris Peace Agreement in 1991, has
been reinstated as a national holiday, eight years after it was dropped as a day of celebration.
October 23, 2014 is the third anniversary after the re-instatement. It is also the 23rd year after the
signing of the Agreement. It took the United Nations 12 years to secure the Agreement, since the
United Nations Security Council (The Five) first considered the situation in Cambodia early in 1979. At
the inaugural portion of the final meeting of the Paris Conference, on October 23, 1991, the
Conference was addressed by H.E. Mr. Francois Mitterrand, President of French Republic, H.R.H.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk, President of the Supreme National Council (SNC) of Cambodia, and H.E.
Mr. Javier Perez de Cuellar, Secretary-General of the United Nations.
The situation in Cambodia was first considered by the United Nations Security early in 1979. Later in
the same year, the General Assembly considered the question at its regular session and adopted the
first in a long series of resolutions on the subject. One of the provisions of that and succeeding
resolutions requested the Secretary-General to follow the situation closely and to exercise his good
offices in order to contribute to a peaceful solution to the problem. Another provision welcomed the
efforts begun by the Secretary-General to coordinate relief assistance to the Cambodia people,
assistance which, over the years, has now amounted to more than a billion dollars. Six years later in
1985, the Secretary-General was able to identify a number of objectives on which there seemed to
be a degree of convergence. This writing, on this anniversary is not concerned with the why, as to why
The Five considered the situation in Cambodia early in 1979? Why not during the Khmer Rouge
genocidal regime, known also as the Pol Pot regime? Pressures of different nature from the West
have been brought to bear upon the Peoples Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) and the weakening of the
Eastern bloc was detrimental to the strengthening of the PRK, thus creating opportunities for The Five
to bring the best restitution for past neglects and mistakes. The Paris Peace Agreement should and
must be history. Peace reigns over this land. It is a rational if not good reason to celebrate this
anniversary.
The mandate of the 1991 Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia
Conflict, also known as the 1991 Paris Peace Agreement, in its Article 12 which deals with the
fundamental institutional order for Cambodia, had been fully and successfully implemented: A free
and fair election took place in 1993. The Constituent Assembly was elected. A constitution was
drafted and adopted. The Constituent Assembly transformed itself into the National Assembly, and
finally a new Cambodian government was created. The United Nations Transitional Authority in
Cambodia (UNTAC) mandate became irrelevant and invalid, and the 1991 Paris Peace Agreement
slowly and steadily went into oblivion and became part of the dormant archives of the history of
human conflicts and the success of diplomacy of the United Nations. It was an enormous undertaking of
the United Nations Security, characterized by a twelve years of grueling diplomacy that involves the
warring Cambodian factions, the neighboring countries, the five permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council (The Five), and more than a dozen of concerned countries, including
unimaginable logistics and amount money.
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Going through the timeline of the historical facts concerning Cambodia, two monumental personalities
emerged as indispensible players in the successful achievement of the United Nations Securitys
diplomacy: Former King Norodom Sihanouk and Prime Minister Hun Sen. Their illustrious names will
remain glued to the United Nations annals forever. In a vulgar term, Mr. Hun Sen controlled 90
percent of the land and people and Former King Norodom Sihanouk was venerated as the father and
grandfather of the majority of the Cambodian people, especially the peasants and the most
vulnerable people. Both hold the key to the peaceful settlement of the Cambodian problem.
The meeting between Mr. Hun Sen and Former King Norodom Sihanouk in France on December 1987
was not a coincidence. They were titans on their own rights, but they have in common their love of the
country and the people. A month later they held a second round of talks which led to the first face-toface talk under Jakarta Informal Meeting (JIM) in July 1988 in Jakarta, Indonesia between all four
Cambodian parties, namely the Peoples Republic of Kampuchea led by Mr. Hun Sen, the royalist
FUNCINPEC led by Former King Norodom Sihanouk, the Khmer Peoples National Liberation Front
(KPNLF), created and led by former Prime Minister Son Sann, and Democratic Kampuchea, with Khieu
Samphan as head of state. It is worth mentioning that during JIM talk and up to the signing of the
Paris Peace Agreement, the three parties excluding the Peoples Republic of Kampuchea have set up
a tri-party, anti-Vietnamese coalition along the Cambodian-Thai border under the name of the
Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK). This government-in-exile was officially
recognized by the United Nations and it occupied the Cambodian seat at the United Nations until the
signing of the Paris Peace Agreement in 1991. A second JIM was held in February 1989. And then all
four Cambodian parties again participated in talks held in Paris in July 1989, on the eve of the Paris
Conference of Cambodia. The Informal Meeting on Cambodia where the four Cambodian parties
also participated was held in Tokyo in June 1990. Historical records had shown that the meetings, the
talks, the negotiations for the peaceful settlement of the Cambodian conflicts had picked up steam
notably after June 1990. On August 27-28, 1990, The Five announced that they had reached
agreement on a framework for a comprehensive political settlement of the Cambodia conflict. On the
basis of this framework, the co-Presidents of the Paris Conference convened an informal meeting of
the Cambodian parties in Jakarta.
On September 10, 1990, a joint statement announced that the four Cambodian parties accepted the
framework, in its entirety, as the basis for settling the conflict and they were committed to elaborating
this framework into a comprehensive political settlement through the processes of the Paris
Conference. The joint statement further stipulated that the Cambodian parties agreed to form the
Supreme National Council (SNC) which represents the unique legitimate body and source of authority
in which, throughout the transitional period, the sovereignty, independence and unity of Cambodia
are enshrined. Once created the SNC was to represent Cambodia at the United Nations and
delegate power to the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) during the
transitional period until the establishment of the new government. It is quite clear that the
establishment of the first constitutionally elected government of Cambodia ceases the mandate of
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UNTAC immediately. On November 26, 1990, the co-Presidents and the Five agreed on a text
containing three main parts, namely:1) a general agreement with detailed annexes covering the
proposed mandate for the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia( UNTAC); the military
arrangements during the transitional period; elections; the repatriation of Cambodian refugees and
displaced persons; and principles for a new constitution; 2) an agreement covering international
guarantees; and 3) a declaration regarding the rehabilitation and reconstruction of Cambodia.
From December 21 to 23, 1990, the co-Presidents convened a meeting with the SNC in order to
present formally to the SNC members the 26 November text. The meeting resulted in concurrence on
most of the fundamental points. On April 22, 1991, the Secretary-General and the co-Presidents
issued a joint appeal for a temporary cessation of hostilities, as a gesture of good faith, to create a
favorable environment for the meeting at Jakarta of the co-Presidents and the members of the SNC.
From June 4 to 6, 1991 at the Jakarta meeting and at subsequent meetings in which the
representative of the Secretary-General also participated, discussions in the remaining differences on
the draft text were pursued. In mid-June 1991, Former King Norodom Sihanouk joined the SNC, and
subsequently chaired its 24 to 26 June meeting in Pattaya, Thailand. He transferred the leadership of
FUNCINPEC to his son Prince Norodom Ranariddh. In July 1991, at an informal meeting of the SNC in
Beijing, it was agreed to elect Former King Norodom Sihanouk president. After the 1993 election
organized by UNTAC Cambodia has successfully organized the next four national elections. The fifth
mandate of the Cambodian National Assembly resulting from the July 2013 election and the Royal
Government of Cambodia under the fifth mandate of the National Assembly are functioning normally
and healthily in a democratic environment.
Cambodia has grown on its own for 23 years since the signing of the Paris Peace Agreement. We are
mature enough to solve our own problems without looking for benefactors and pushers. On this
anniversary, lets celebrate the closing of the chapter on our reliance on outsiders than on our own
ability. It is observable that the 1991 Paris Peace Agreement had been a starting point for
Cambodia leadership to pursue lasting peace, security, independence, sovereignty and territorial
integrity conducive to development, progress, living improvements and hope for a brighter future.
Tangible proofs of the achievement of the RGC are undeniable, unless pretending to be dead blind.
Once again, lets celebrate this anniversary.
October 23, 2014
Professor Pen Ngoeun,
Advisor,
University of Puthisastra, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Pngoeun@puthisastra.edu.kh
(The comments are solely the opinion of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the
Royal Government of Cambodia.)
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16
Norodom Sihamoni Coronation Day
Norodom Sihamoni Coronation Day
Norodom Sihamoni (Khmer: ; born 14 May 1953) became the King of

Cambodia on 14 October 2004. He is the eldest son of Norodom Sihanouk and his second
wife Norodom Monineath. He was Cambodia's ambassador to UNESCO and named by a ninemember throne council to become the next king after his father Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in
2004. Before ascending the throne, Sihamoni was best known for his work as a cultural ambassador in
Europe and as a classical dance instructor.
Kings Coronation Day of October 29

2014-10-09
Coronation Day is a public holiday in Cambodia to commemorate the coronation of HM King

Norodom Sihamoni. HM King Sihamoni ascended the throne to succeed his father, Father King
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Norodom Sihanouk, on October 29, 2004. People in Cambodia celebrate the Day on 29 October
every year.
During Cambodia Coronation Day, the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap are decorated
with different colorful lamps and beautiful garnishes. A formal ceremony is organized and
Cambodian lawmakers, monks, family members and diplomats pay a visit to King Sihamoni.
The celebration of Coronation Day in Cambodia is always combined with Former Kings Birthday on
October 31. Since both Coronation Day and Former Kings Birthday are public holidays in Cambodia,
people usually enjoy three days celebration from 29-31 October. Festivals, parades, street events,
and firework displays are being held on that day. Many Cambodian people also use the holiday to
have a trip and vacation or take a rest at home and gather with family.
Sihamoni crowned Cambodian king

Friday, 29 October, 2004, 10:46 GMT 11:46 UK
Norodom Sihamoni has been formally crowned as
Cambodia's new monarch.
In a ceremony broadcast on national television, the 51-year-old
former ballet dancer officially took over from his father,
Norodom Sihanouk.
"I swear to follow the constitution and other laws of the kingdom
of Cambodia so as to serve the interests of the nation and the
people," he said.
Friday's glittering coronation ceremony is the centre point of
three days of celebrations to usher in the new king.
The streets in Phnom Penh have been adorned with Cambodian
flags and portraits, and Friday declared a national holiday.
King Sihamoni's coronation

began with a Buddhist
ceremony
In the first act of his coronation day, King Sihamoni walked through the Royal Palace
accompanied by Buddhist monks in saffron robes and bodyguards in black suits.
He took his place on a throne beneath a gilded pagoda, where
he offered Buddhist prayers to the rising sun.
His father anointed his head with nine jars of holy water, in a
symbolic gesture to bless his reign.
Then, in front of an audience of top government figures, monks,
royalty and diplomats, King Sihamoni took the oath marking the
official start of his reign.
As is traditional, he repeated the sentence three times, and
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Muted ceremony
Pictures of coronation
bowed after he had completed each other.

Smooth succession
The succession process began earlier this month, when former King Sihanouk abdicated due to ill
health.
There was no legal provision in the event of a monarch's abdication, and laws had to be rushed
through parliament to enable a throne council to convene and choose a successor.
One of his potential strengths is that he is seen as apolitical.
While Cambodian kings used to have great authority, the position is now largely symbolic and
wields no real power.
But it remains an important post because of the reverence
Cambodian people give to the royal family.
Former King Sihanouk is widely revered after 60 years on the
throne, and although little was known about his son and
successor before he was chosen as the new monarch,
Cambodians are already warming to their new king.
Sihamoni has spent much of his life outside Cambodia - as a
ballet dancer and teacher, as well as Cambodia's ambassador
to the UN cultural agency, Unesco.
Profile of King Sihamoni
He is much less known than his half-brother Prince Ranariddh, who heads the royalist political
party Funcinpec.
Sihanouk is still likely to remain influential even after his son is officially inaugurated.
The government has already declared that he will be now known as The Great Heroic King
Sihanouk.
For more biography, please see King Norodom Sihamoni Birthday page 102
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17
Independence Day in Cambodia
Independence Day in Cambodia
Date in the current year: November 9, 2016
Independence Day is a national holiday in Cambodia. The holiday is annually celebrated on

November 9 to mark the anniversary of declaration of independence from France in 1953.
Until the 14th century the present-day territory of Cambodia was ruled by the Khmer Empire, that
was a powerful state. After a long serious of wars with neighboring countries the capital of Khmer
Empire was sacked by the Ayutthaya Kingdom and soon it was abandoned. The civil wars and rivals
with other countries led to the fall of the Kingdom and the Cambodian monarchs had to seek for
European help.
King Norodom signed a treaty with France renouncing suzerainty over Cambodia in exchange for the
control of two provinces, that became a part of Siam (present-day Thailand). The treaty was signed
in 1867, thus Cambodia became a French colony and it was administered as a part of French
Indochina.
France started manipulating the choice of the king, installing the leaders, who were weak enough to
manipulate. After the death of Norodom it installed his brother, Sisowath, who ruled Cambodia till
1941. When the throne became vacant, France chose to install young Sisowath's maternal grandson
Norodom Sihanouk, thinking he would be easy to control. However, Sihanouk led Cambodia to its
independence, that the country officially declared on November 9, 1953.
Main celebrations of Independence Day take place in the capital of Cambodia. King of Cambodia
attends the morning ceremony, that is organized at Independence Monument. Later a gala parade is
held in front of the Royal Palace. A large firework display marks the end of the festive events.
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THE ROAD TO KHMER INDEPENDENCE

By
Kenneth T. So
(In collaboration with Monireak Keo)
The revolution of Cambodian flag

Cambodia will be celebrating the anniversary of its independence from France on every November 9
since 1953. This essay will examine the history of Cambodia from the period of Prince Norodom
Sihanouk ascension to the throne until the time France granted independence to Cambodia. This essay
will examine the roles of important Khmer politicians, princes, and king who helped shape the events
in Cambodia during this important period of Khmer history. I am not a historian nor a scholar, but I
have a lot of interest in Khmer history. My essay will not please everybody, but it is my duty as a
Khmer to interpret, discuss, and analyze the events during the above period in an honest and
objective manner.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk was crowned king of Cambodia on 25th April 1941 by the French who had
ruled and occupied Cambodia for almost 80 years. The French saw in the young 19 years old king a
person they could manipulate to fit their colonial rule.
When Prince Sihanouk became king, the world event was in turmoils. World War II had started,
France fell to Nazi Germany and the German army had already entered Paris (June 14, 1940). Even
though the French was no longer powerful, they somehow still managed to rule the Khmer nation.
Taking advantage on the French weakness, the Japanese government of Emperor Hiro Hito took turn
to replace the French, and on 9 March 1945 decided to dissolve the French colonial administration.
Ironically, Germany was on the verge of collapse and the French were gaining control of their own
country. On 13 March 1945 Norodom Sihanouk, as king of Cambodia, declared independence from
France. It was a bold move on the part of the young king because the French could replace him with
another Khmer prince if they could regain their colonial rule over Cambodia again. Either King
Sihanouk was gambling on this move or he was pressured by the Japanese government to do so. Son
Ngoc Thanh who opposed the French and fled to Japan previously, returned to Cambodia and was
appointed Foreign Minister.
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Japan surrendered to the Allied on 15 August 1945 after the US

dropped two atomic bombs on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Soon after the
surrender of the Japanese, a new Cambodian government was
established with Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister. The French returned
to occupy Cambodia in October 1945 and Son Ngoc Thanh was
arrested for collaborating with the Japanese and sent into exile in
France. He was put under house arrest. Because of the French action, Son
Ngoc Thanh's supporters regrouped in the northwestern part of
Cambodia, an area that was still under the control of the Thai
government, and formed a new movement called the Khmer Issarak. This
movement was formed with the Thai encouragement and support.
Khmer citizens got their taste of brief independence from France during
the above period, from March to October 1945. Most Khmer people did
not realize that the Khmer Issarak was not a homogenous guerilla
movement. The movement was composed of people from different
backgrounds, political philosophies, agendas, and ethnicities.
The movement included people from the leftist factions, Vietnamese leftists, true Khmer nationalists,
Khmers that were anti monarchy, Khmer Serei people that were loyal to Son Ngoc Thanh,
opportunists, and just bandits who had no political affiliation but joined the movement just to take
advantage of the chaotic situation in Cambodia by terrorizing people in the countryside.
It is erroneous to call the movement Khmer Issarak. The word Khmer in the movement should not be
used here because foreign powers were exploiting the Khmer situation for their own political benefits.
The Khmer Issarak movement was analogous to the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP)
of Heng Samrin after it had been split from Pol Pot that had foreign agents infiltrated into the party.
As a matter of fact, some Khmer Issaraks who were members of the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP)
helped found the KPRP in 1951 (The Cambodia Communist Party was founded in 1951. KPRP of
Heng Samrin was founded in 1979).
Therefore, it is not correct to call the Khmer Issarak movement a nationalist movement that some
historians or scholars contended. Due to the threat of the Khmer Issarak movement, King Norodom
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Sihanouk negotiated with the French for full independence to neutralize the movement that was
gaining in popularity. Khmer people in general did not know that they were exploited by foreign
powers under the umbrella of Khmer Issarak movement. It was estimated that the Khmer Issarak with
the Viet Minh operating alongside the movement was controlling approximately 50 percent of the
Khmer territory. In the meantime, the leftist government in Bangkok was overthrown in 1947.
Due to pressure from the Khmer Issarak, the French agreed to let Khmers form political parties in
1946. Two major parties were formed and both were headed by Khmer princes. Prince Sisowath
Yutevong [1], at the age of 33 headed the Democratic Party while his rival, Prince Norodom
Norindeth at the age of 40 headed the Liberal Party. The two parties were politically and
philosophically different in their approach to solving the Khmer problems.
The Democratic Party was a party that believed in civil liberties and parliamentary democracy
modeled after the French Fourth Republic. The party advocated a constitutional monarchical system of
government with a popularly elected assembly having legislative and deliberative powers. The party
was strongly anti-French in sentiment. The Democratic Party platform was demanding the immediate
independence from France and wanted a parliamentary form of government. Their members were
composed of intellectuals with such luminary personalities like Prince Yutevong, Son Sann, Chhean
Vam, Sim Var, Ieu Koeuss, Huy Kanthoul, just to name a few. Penn Nouth was the counselor to the
Democratic Party.
In contrast, the Liberal Party that was founded by Prince Norindeth and Sonn Voeunsai did not attract
the professional elite bodies like those of the Democratic Party. The party members were composed
of landowners, businessmen, top ranking officials, and Buddhist monks. The party advocated respect
for human rights, person and property, and better understanding between Khmers and French. The
Liberal Party preferred to retain some form of partnership with France and favored a gradual
democratic reform instead of a sudden breakup espoused by the Democratic Party. The French
actively supported the Liberal Party of Prince Nodindeth and very much opposed the Democratic
Party of prince Yutevong.
Why did the Democrats choose Prince Yutevong of royal blood to head the Democratic Party instead
of a commoner? Before answering the above question, it is perhaps necessary to understand the
background of the prince first. The prince was an intellectual and well educated. He graduated from
the Faculty of Sciences in Montpellier, France in 1941 with a doctorate degree in Physical Sciences
with high honor (mention trs honorable). Before returning to Cambodia after he finished his study,
Prince Yutevong had represented the French Union as its Delegate at the Conference in Hot Springs,
USA. He also worked for the French Ministry of Outre-Mer. Not only was the prince a French official,
but he was also an active member of the French Socialist Party (SFIO[2]). Since Cambodia was still
controlled by the French, it was believed the Democratic Party members felt it would be to their
advantage to choose Prince Yutevong to head the party for the above reasons. As to the French, they
probably felt and hoped that Prince Yutevong would still be friendly to France because he went to
French school, worked for French government, and served as a Delegate for the French Union. In this
fashion the French could still control both parties.
Prince Yutevong and the Democrats were fighting the French, considered at the time to be enemy of
the Khmer people. But it was acceptable to the democrats that their leader was married to a French
woman. Why wasn't this a case of sleeping with the enemy?
The first election in 1946 provided the Democrats with a majority in the assembly. Prince Yutevong
was the main architect who drafted the Khmer Constitution modeled after the French Fourth Republic.
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It was ironic that the Democrats wanted to divorce from France but at the same time they wanted to
create a Khmer Constitution modeled after the French. Did the Democrats design it this way as not to
antagonize the French? How can France object to this constitution since it was modeled after her
country? After the Constitution had been completed, the power was now in the hand of the National
Assembly. Prince Yutevong, who had been until now a minor prince, suddenly realized that he would
become more powerful than the king. On 6 May 1947 the king proclaimed the birth of the new
Khmer Constitution. The king realized that his role as a monarch was greatly reduced, stripped much
of his power.
With the Democratic Party victory, Prince Yutevong became President of the Council of Ministers,
meaning he was Prime Minister of Cambodia. In addition to his position as Prime Minister, he also kept
the post of Minister of Interior to himself. Why would someone who espoused democracy want to
retain the two most important positions for himself? Why didn't the prince appoint somebody else to
the post of Minister of Interior? What was the reason behind Prince Yutevongs thinking? Did he not
trust some of the people who worked around him?
It seemed that with their success, the Democratic Party would be strong and happy. On the contrary,
the success spoiled the Democrats and clashes within the party were occurring constantly. Were there
jealousies among the Democrats fighting for important positions within the newly formed government?
Prince Yutevong did not live long enough to enjoy the Democrats' victory because he died on 17 July
1947. Speculations on the death of the prince at such an early age and on the height of his success
ran rampant. How did he die so young? Was there any sign of him being sick or contracting some
kind of illness? Did the French poison him or did the Democrats themselves have anything to do with his
death? Who would benefit the most about Prince Yutevong's death? The mystery surrounding his
death had not been satisfactorily resolved.
After the death of Prince Yutevong, the Democratic Party elected the grandson of King Sisowath,
Prince Sisowath Vachhayavong, to be Prime Minister from 25 July 1947 to 20 February 1948.
Afterward, the party elected Chhean Vam to succeed Prince Sisowath Vachhayavong. However, due
to some infightings, the Prime Minister found his power insufficient and could not get things done. He
asked for more power but it was turned down. Immediately, Chhean Vam was overthrown on that
issue in 14 August 1948. Penn Nouth was elected as the next Prime Minister. He did not remain long
at the head of his cabinet because Yem Sambaur, a former member of the Democratic Party, accused
Penn Nouth of corruption. Yem Sambaur had left the Democratic Party to form his own minority
grouping. Inexplicably, Yem Sambaur was chosen as the next Prime Minister on 12 February 1949 to
replace Penn Nouth. How could this happen since the Democratic Party had the majority of the vote?
The only reason this curious event could be explained was that the members of the Democratic Party
became jealous of each other and preferred to see somebody from the outside instead of one of
their own becoming Prime Minister.
After Yem Sambaur became Prime Minister, the Democrats started to have second thought and they
finally passed a motion of censure against the Prime Minister. The nature of the censure was not clear.
Because of this action, on 18 September 1949 King Norodom Sihanouk dissolved the National
Assembly and signed a treaty with France granting some independence for Cambodia.
The treaty granted Khmer people most of administrative functions within Cambodia. In addition, the
provinces of Battambang and Siemreap that the French recovered from the Thai were given to the
Cambodian government for self-governing rule with its own armed forces without any French
interference. This was called the autonomous zone, similar to the autonomous zone of Pailin that Hun
Sen granted to the remnants of Khmer Rouge. However, on matters of foreign policy, the Cambodian
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government had to coordinate its actions and decision making with the French Union. The French
retained most of the judicial systems, finances, and customs. Outside Battambang and Siemreap,
France retained military operations. The reason the French wanted to retain military operations on
other parts of Cambodia was because they felt more of a threat coming from Vietnam than Thailand,
a threat that could break the French Union.
According to the Constitution at the time, in the event of the dissolution of the National Assembly, the
President of the Assembly would become the chief executive pending the holding of new elections. At
the time, Ieu Koeuss [3] was President of the Assembly. Unfortunately, he was assassinated in January
1950. Theories abounded on who assassinated Ieu Koeuss. Some claimed it was Yem Sambaur himself
who had a hand behind the whole affair while some pointed the fingers at Prince Norindeth.
However, this case had never been resolved and still remains a mystery to this day.
Because of the death of the President of the National Assembly, the king reappointed Yem Sambaur
to succeed himself as Prime Minister. This action had made the Democrats very upset since the
elections would now be postponed. Because of this turn of event that sent Cambodia into turmoil, the
king began to consider the possibility of modifying the Constitution. He wanted the Assembly to be a
consultative body and shifting the power of ratification to the king. According to the Constitution, any
amendments would require a three-fourth vote of the Assembly. Since the body had been dissolved,
on October 1951 the king appealed to the heads of political parties to amend the Constitution. Both
Democrats and Liberals opposed any constitutional changes that would decrease the power of the
Assembly.
What saved the Democratic Party was its unity opposing King Norodom Sihanouk's legislations as well
as his appointments of new cabinet members. The Democrats continued to oppose all policies made
by the king, making his life miserable. No matter what the king did, the Democrats would contest and
oppose him. A new election was held in September 1951 and again, the Democrats won the majority
with fifty-four out of seventy-eight seats. The Liberal Party obtained eighteen seats while the rest
went to the remaining parties. On October 1951, Huy Kanthoul became Prime Minister, and
immediately a serious deadlock developed in Khmer-French relations as the Democrats went into
almost absolute opposition to the French authorities. Two more Prime Ministers succeeded Yem
Sambaur prior to Huy Kanthoul becoming Prime Ministers. Prince Sisowath Monipong, the son of King
Monivong, became Prime Minister from 1 June 1950 to 3 march 1951 and Oum Chheang Sun
succeeded Prince Monipong until 12 October 1951.
To counter balance the popularity of the Democrats, the king asked the French to release Son Ngoc
Thanh from his house arrest in France. Son Ngoc Thanh returned to Cambodia with great triumph on
29 October 1951. Huy Kanthoul, who was Prime Minister, offered Son Ngoc Thanh a position in his
cabinet but this latter turned down the offer because he expected the position of Prime Minister to be
handed to him. Son Ngoc Thanh founded a weekly newspaper called Khmer Krauk (Khmer Awake),
incessantly attacking the French Union. Pending rumor of an imminent arrest, Son Ngoc Thanh fled
Phnom Penh and joined the Khmer Issarak.
There were people who accused King Norodom Sihanouk of dictatorship or of being an
unconstitutional monarch. The people who made those accusations did not study the facts properly.
The king had properly exercised his power as the Constitution had demanded. The reason he wanted
to change the Constitution may be in part for self-interest, but also to prevent the same type of
chaotic situation that happened during this tumultuous time. He followed the Constitution by going
through the motion of Assembly vote to make amendment to the Constitution. He was exercising his
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democratic right and obeying the Constitution. We must not be quick to judge the king's action without
properly understanding the events in Khmer politics.
The government of Huy Kanthoul found itself confronting with the problem of arresting people
involving in flyers' distribution. The Dap Chhuon's party of Eysan Mean Chey (Dap Chhuon remained in
Siemreap) with Mao Chhoy representing the party in Phnom Penh started to distribute flyers and
created a chaotic situation in Phnom Penh. Prime Minister Huy Kanthoul issued an arrest warrant for
people like Lon Nol and Yem Sambaur. Sim Var was the Chief of police at the time. Lon Nol was later
released but Yem Sambaur was put in a house arrest at Banteay Cheung Khmao located near the
Cine Lux movie theater. The arrest of Lon Nol and the semi-incarceration of a former Prime Minister of
Cambodia made the situation in Cambodia dangerously explosive. Sensing the situation in Cambodia
getting out of control, the king dismissed the government of Huy Kanthoul and on 13 January 1953 he
dissolved the National Assembly and declared martial law.
The king was very in tune to the wish of the Khmer population, which was to obtain full independence
from France. To avoid the situation in Cambodia from deteriorating further, King Sihanouk decided in
March 1953 to go to France and asked the French President to grant complete independence to
Cambodia. The French government turned a deaf ear to King Sihanouk's demand and accused the
king of being too alarmist. Additionally, the French were threatening to replace the king if he
continued to be in an uncooperative mood.
Khmer Democrats and Khmer Issarak had made the Khmer independence a national issue, but King
Sihanouk took it a step farther. After the French refusal to King Sihanouk's demand on Khmer
independence, he decided to elevate the Khmer struggle against the French to the international level.
King Sihanouk decided to risk his future as king of Cambodia by campaigning against the French. The
meeting with the French government was a failure. Therefore, instead of going home directly from
France, the king made a brilliant political decision by stopping in the United States, Canada, and
Japan to publicize his "royal crusade for independence." It was a bold move by the king, because his
action could trigger the French to replace him as king of Cambodia with another prince.
To put the French in a corner, in June 1953, the king
declared that he would take a self-imposed exile in Thailand
and would not return to Phnom Penh unless the French
granted full independence to Cambodia. The Thai
government did not cooperate with the king and did not
welcome his stay in Bangkok. Why did the Thai government
that supported the Khmer Issarak refused to also support
King Norodom Sihanouk for the same cause, which was to
restore Cambodia to full independence from the French? The
Thai probably thought they had the Khmer Issaraks under
their allegiance but could not extract the same thing from
King Norodom Sihanouk. Since the king was not welcomed in
Thailand, he decided to establish his headquarters in the
autonomous zone in Siemreap. It was at this time that the
bond between King Norodom Sihanouk and Lieutenant
Colonel Lon Nol was formed. Lon Nol commanded the
autonomous zone of Siemreap, established in 1949 by the
French agreement.
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The whole Indochina was in turmoil. From their base in Siemreap, King Sihanouk and Lon Nol resisted
and fought the French. The Khmer Issaraks were also giving the French a lot of troubles. Finally on 3
July 1953, the French declared they were ready to discuss the full independence status of Cambodia.
The king insisted on his own terms, demanding total control of Cambodia in four main areas: National
Defense, Police, Judiciary, and Finance. The French agreed to the demands and King Sihanouk
returned to Phnom Penh with great triumph. The Khmer Independence Day was proclaimed
on November 9, 1953.
There is no denial that everybody played a part for Khmer independence, but King Norodom
Sihanouk must be hailed as the main architect who obtained Khmer independence from France. The
king was a brilliant and daring politician in his maneuvers with the French government. The king was
undaunted in his pursuit of Khmer independence. The road to Khmer independence was a tumultuous
one and it must not be forgotten. As we celebrate our 50th Anniversary of Independence, we must
renew our faith to keep Cambodia independent and free from any foreign influence into our national
affairs. The title proclaiming Norodom Sihanouk as Father of Khmer Independence is very
appropriate and well deserving for our aging monarch.
[1] Prince Yutevong was the product of an incestuous grandparent. His grandfather, Prince Bhumarin,
married his own sister, Princess Thnamvong, and produced the only child, Prince Chamraenvongs, which
was the father of Prince Yutevong. Traditionally speaking, Prince Yutevong should not be a Sisowath.
It is not clear how Prince Yutevong obtained Sisowath as his last name. It had been speculated that his
parents wanted to take advantage of the linear linkage with King Sisowath who ascended the throne
in 1904. Prince Yutevong who was born in 1913 was the son of Prince Chamraenvongs, a greatgrandson of King Ang Chan II (different branch from King Ang Duong), and of Princess Sisowath
Yubhiphan, the daughter of Sisowath Essaravong, with this latter being the oldest son of King
Sisowath. Because Sisowath became king of Cambodia in 1904, Prince Yutevong's parents may have
decided that their children should use their mother's last name, Sisowath, as their family last name.
That kind of action was unprecedented in the history of Khmer royalty. Based on the above
speculation, the direction of Prince Yutevong to be the leader of the Democratic Party was not by
chance but by design. His opposition to King Norodom Sihanouk was a voluntary choice tacitly
supported by the Sisowath's. The Sisowath felt cheated by the French for putting a Norodom on the
throne. They felt that Prince Sisowath Monireth should have been the heir to the throne, following King
Monivong's death. Since that time, the Sisowaths and the Norodoms have constantly been in tension
with each other.
[2] SFIO (Section Franaise de l'Internationale Ouvrire) was founded in 1905. At the 1920 SFIO
convention in Tours, France, the majority of the members decided to found the SFIC (Section Franaise
de l'Internationale Communiste), which later became PCF (Parti Communiste Franais). Even though
SFIO has been weakened by the PCF it still has great influence over the workers (source:
http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/ france/fr/instit/instit09.html)
[3] A personal interview with Chhuom Chhiet, an active member of the Democratic Party and who was
also in charge of arresting Lon Nol and Yem Sambaur, revealed an interesting tale. He heard that a
few days before his assassination, Iev Koeuss met with King Sihanouk and told him that he was going
to quit his political life and retire to Battambang.
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French Protectorate of Cambodia (Edition)

The French protectorate of Cambodia (Khmer: ,

French: Protectorat franais du Cambodge) refers to the Kingdom of Cambodia when it was a
French protectorate within French Indochina a collection of Southeast Asian protectorates within
the French Colonial Empire. The protectorate was established in 1867 when the Cambodian
King Norodom requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country,
meanwhile Siam (modern Thailand) renounced suzerainty over Cambodia and officially recognised
the French protectorate on Cambodia. Cambodia was integrated into the French Indochina union in
1887 along with the French colonies and protectorates in Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin). In
1946, Cambodia was granted self-rule within the French Union and had its protectorate status
abolished in 1949. Cambodia later gained its independence and the independent day was
celebrated on 9 November 1953.
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Start of French rule
King Norodom, the monarch who initiated overtures to France to make Cambodia its protectorate in
1863 to escape Siamese pressure
During 19th century, the kingdom of Cambodia had been reduced to a vassal state of the kingdom of
Siam which had annexed its western provinces, including Angkor while growing influence from the
Vietnamese Nguyen Dynasty threatened the eastern portion of the country. After the French
establishment of a colony in Cochinchina (present-day southern Vietnam) in 1867, King Norodom of
Cambodia requested a French protectorate over his kingdom. At the time, Pierre-Paul de La
Grandire, colonial governor of Cochinchina, was carrying out plans to expand French rule over the
whole of Vietnam and viewed Cambodia as a buffer between French possessions in Vietnam and
Siam. On 11 August 1863, Norodom signed a treaty acknowledging a French protectorate over his
kingdom. Under the treaty, the Cambodian monarchy was allowed to remain, but power was largely
vested in a resident general to be housed in Phnom Penh. France was also to be in charge of
Cambodia's foreign and trade relations as well as provide military protection. Siam later recognised
the protectorate after France ceded the Cambodian province of Battambang and recognised Thai
control of Angkor.
French colonial rule

The seat of the Governor-General for the whole of French Indochina was based in Saigon until the
capital moved to Hanoi in 1902. Cambodia, being a constituent protectorate of French Indochina, was
governed by the Rsident Suprieur (Resident-General) for Cambodia, who was directly appointed by
the Ministry of Marine and Colonies in Paris. The Resident-General was in turn assisted by Residents,
or local governors, who were posted in all the provincial centres, such as, Battambang, Pursat, Odong,
and Siem Reap. Phnom Penh, the capital, was under the direct administration of the Resident-General.
Revolt of 18851886
The first decades of French rule in Cambodia included numerous reforms into Cambodian politics, such
as the reduction of the monarch's power and abolishment of slavery. In 1884, the governor of
Cochinchina, Charles Anthoine Franois Thomson, attempted to overthrow the monarch and establish
full French control over Cambodia by sending a small force to the royal palace in Phnom Penh. The
movement was only slightly successful as the governor-general of French Indochina prevented full
colonisation due to possible conflicts with Cambodians and the monarch's power was reduced to that
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of a figurehead. In 1885, Si Votha, half brother of Norodom and contender for the throne, led a
rebellion to dispose of the French-backed Norodom after coming back from exile in Siam. Gathering
support from opposers of Norodom and the French, Si Votha led a rebellion that was primarily
concentrated in the jungles of Cambodia and the city of Kampot. French forces later aided Norodom
to defeat Si Votha under agreements that the Cambodian population be disarmed and acknowledge
the resident-general as the highest power in the protectorate.
Administrative reorganisation
Monument commemorating the restoration of the three provinces of Preah Vihear, Battambang and
Siem Reap in 1907. These three territories were seized by Siam the late 18th century but returned
under French pressure
In 1896, France and the British Empire signed an accord recognising each other's sphere of influence
over Indochina, especially over Siam. Under this accord, Siam had to cede the province
of Angkor back to the now French-controlled Cambodia. The accord acknowledged French control
over Vietnam (including the colony of Cochinchina and the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin),
Cambodia, as well as Laos, which was added in 1893 following French victory in theFranco-Siamese
War and French influence over eastern Siam. The French government also later placed new
administrative posts in the colony and began to develop it economically while introducing French
culture and language to locals as part of an assimilation program.[4] In 1897, the ruling ResidentGeneral complained to Paris that the current king of Cambodia, King Norodom was no longer fit to
rule and asked for permission to assume the king's powers to collect taxes, issue decrees, and even
appoint royal officials and choose crown princes. From that time, Norodom and the future kings of
Cambodia were figureheads and merely were patrons of the Buddhist religion in Cambodia, though
they were still viewed as god-kings by the peasant population. All other power was in the hands of
the Resident-General and the colonial bureaucracy. Nonetheless, this bureaucracy was formed mostly
of French officials, and the only Asians freely permitted to participate in government were
ethnic Vietnamese, who were viewed as the dominant Asians in the Indochinese Union.
In 1904, King Norodom died and rather than pass the throne on to Norodom's sons, the French passed
the succession to Norodom's brother Sisowath, whose branch of the royal family was more submissive
and less nationalistic to French rule than Norodom's. Likewise, Norodom was viewed as responsible for
the constant Cambodian revolts against French rule. Another reason was that Norodom's favourite son,
who he wanted to succeed him as king, Prince Yukanthor, had, on one of his trips to Europe, stirred up
public opinion about French colonial brutalities in occupied Cambodia. France later tightened its
control over Cambodia while expanding the protectorate's territory in 1902 and 1904 through
treaties with Siam, which added Preah Vihear Province to Cambodia and gave France full control
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over the Bassac River respectively. Later territorial disputes between France and Siam over
Battambang and Siem Reap Provinces led to France's occupation of Trat Province until Siam gave in
to French pressure and ceded the provinces, originally Cambodian territory until the latter part of the
18th century, in 1907 along with Banteay Meanchey Province. The acquirement of these provinces
would be the last phase of French territorial expansion in Indochina as Siam would later co-operate
with the British in the region, who feared uncontrolled French expansion and control of Siam would
upset the balance of powers in Indochina.
Economy during French colonialism

Originally serving as a buffer territory for France between its more important Vietnamese colonies
and Siam, Cambodia was not initially seen as an economically important area. The colonial
government's budget originally relied largely on tax collections in Cambodia as its main source of
revenue, and Cambodians paid the highest taxes per capita among the French colonies in Indochina.
Poor and sometimes unstable administration in the early years of French rule in Cambodia meant
infrastructure and urbanisation grew at a much lesser rate than in Vietnam and traditional social
structures in villages still remained. However, as French rule straightened after the Franco-Siamese
War, development slowly began in Cambodia, where rice and pepper crops allowed for the
economy to grow. As the French automobile industry grew, rubber plantations like the ones already in
Cochinchina and Annam were built and run by French investors. Economic diversification continued
throughout the 1920s, when corn and cotton crops were also grown. Despite economic expansion and
investment, Cambodians still continued to pay high taxes and in 1916, protests broke out demanding
for tax cuts.
Infrastructure and public works were also developed under French rule, and roads and railroads were
constructed in Cambodian territory. Most notably, a railway connected Phnom Penh with Battambang
on the Thai border.
Industry was later developed but was primarily designed to process raw materials for local use or for
export. As in nearby British Burma and British Malaya, foreigners dominated the work force of the
economy due to French discrimination against the Cambodians from holding important economic
positions. Many Vietnamese were recruited to work on rubber plantations and later immigrants
played key roles in the colonial economy as fisherman and businessmen. Chinese
Cambodians continued to be largely involved in commerce but higher positions were given to the
French.
Emergence of Khmer nationalism

Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet during much of French rule mostly
due to lesser education influence, which helped literacy rates remain low and prevented nationalist
movements like those taking place in Vietnam. However, among the French-educated Cambodian
elite, the Western ideas of democracy and self-rule as well as French restoration of monuments such
as Angkor Wat created a sense of pride and awareness of Cambodia's once powerful status in the
past. In education, there was also growing resentment among Cambodian students of the minority
Vietnamese holding a more favoured status. In 1936, Son Ngoc Than and Pach Choeun began
publishingNagaravatta (Notre cit) as a French language anti-colonial and at times, anti-Vietnamese
newspaper. Minor independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak, began to develop in 1940
among Cambodians in Thailand, who feared that their actions would have led to punishment if they
had operated in their homeland.[7]
World War II in Cambodia

After the Fall of France in 1940, Cambodia and the rest of French Indochina were ruled by the Axispuppet Vichy France government and despite an invasion of French Indochina, Japan allowed French
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colonial officials to remain in their colonies under Japanese supervision. In December 1940,
the French-Thai War erupted and despite French resistance against the Japanese backed Thai forces,
Japan compelled French authorities to cede Battambang, Sisophon, Siem Reap (excluding Siem
Reap town) and Preah Vihearprovinces to Thailand.
Japanese calls of "Asia for the Asiatics" found a receptive audience among Cambodian nationalists,
although Tokyo's policy in Indochina was to leave the colonial government nominally in charge. When
a prominent, politically active Buddhist monk, Hem Chieu, was arrested and unceremoniously
defrocked by the French authorities in July 1942, the editors of Nagaravatta led a demonstration
demanding his release. They, as well as other nationalists, apparently overestimated the Japanese
willingness to back them, for the Vichy authorities quickly arrested the demonstrators and gave Pach
Choeun, one of the Nagaravatta editors, a life sentence. The other editor, Son Ngoc Thanh, escaped
from Phnom Penh to Tokyo.
The subject of European colonies in Asia was among those discussed during the war by the Big Three
Allied leaders, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill at the three summit meetings held in Cairo, Tehran and
Yalta. With regard to the largest colony of India, Roosevelt pressed very strongly for a declaration
of grant of independence by war's end, a pressure doggedly resisted by Churchill. As regards nonBritish colonies in Asia, Roosevelt and Stalin had decided in Tehran that the French and the Dutch
would not return to Asia after the war. Roosevelt's untimely death before even the war's end, was
followed by developments very different from what Roosevelt had envisaged. The British backed the
return of French and Dutch rule in Asia and even organised dispatches of Indian soldiers under British
command for this purpose.
In an effort to enlist local support in the final months of the war, the Japanese dissolved the French
colonial administration on 9 March 1945, and urged Cambodia to declare its independence within
the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Four days later, King Sihanouk decreed an independent
Kampuchea (the original Khmer pronunciation of Cambodia). Son Ngoc Thanh returned from Tokyo in
May, and was appointed foreign minister. On 15 August 1945, the day Japan surrendered, a new
government was established with Son Ngoc Thanh acting as prime minister. When an Allied force
occupied Phnom Penh in October, Thanh was arrested for collaboration with the Japanese and was
sent into exile in France to remain under house arrest. Some of his supporters went to north-western
Cambodia, then still under Thai control, where they banded together as one faction in the Khmer
Issarak movement.
Struggle for Khmer unity

Cambodia's situation at the end of the war was chaotic. The Free French, under General Charles de
Gaulle, were determined to recover Indochina, though they offered Cambodia and the other
Inchochinese protectorates a carefully circumscribed measure of self-government. Convinced that they
had a "civilizing mission," they envisioned Indochina's participation in a French Union of former
colonies that shared the common experience of French culture. Neither the urban professional elites
nor the common people, however, were attracted by this arrangement. For Cambodians of practically
all walks of life, the brief period of independence, from March to October 1945, had been
enjoyable. The lassitude of the Khmer was a thing of the past.
In Phnom Penh, Sihanouk, acting as head of state, was placed in a delicate position of negotiating
with the French for full independence while trying to neutralise party politicians and supporters of the
Khmer Issarak and Viet Minh who considered him a French collaborator. During the tumultuous period
between 1946 and 1953, Sihanouk displayed the remarkable aptitude for political survival that
sustained him before and after his fall from power in March 1970. The Khmer Issarak was an
extremely heterogeneous guerrilla movement, operating in the border areas. The group
included indigenous leftists, Vietnamese leftists, anti-monarchical nationalists (Khmer Serei) loyal to
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Son Ngoc Thanh, and plain bandits taking advantage of the chaos to terrorise villagers. Though their
fortunes rose and fell during the immediate postwar period (a major blow was the overthrow of a
left-wing friendly government in Bangkok in 1947), by 1954 the Khmer Issarak operating with the
Viet Minh by some estimates controlled as much as 50 percent of Cambodia's territory.
In 1946, France allowed the Cambodians to form political parties and to hold elections for a
Consultative Assembly that would advise the monarch on drafting the country's constitution. The two
major parties were both headed by royal princes. The Democratic Party, led by Prince Sisowath
Yuthevong, espoused immediate independence, democratic reforms, and parliamentary government.
Its supporters were teachers, civil servants, politically active members of the Buddhist priesthood, and
others whose opinions had been greatly influenced by the nationalistic appeals
of Nagaravatta before it was closed down by the French in 1942. Many Democrats sympathised with
the violent methods of the Khmer Issarak. The Liberal Party, led by Prince Norodom Norindeth,
represented the interests of the old rural elites, including large landowners. They preferred continuing
some form of the colonial relationship with France, and advocated gradual democratic reform. In the
Consultative Assembly election held in September 1946, the Democrats won 50 of 67 seats.
With a solid majority in the assembly, the Democrats drafted a constitution modelled on that of
the French Fourth Republic. Power was concentrated in the hands of a popularly elected National
Assembly. The king reluctantly proclaimed the new constitution on 6 May 1947. While it recognised
him as the "spiritual head of the state," it reduced him to the status of a constitutional monarch, and it
left unclear the extent to which he could play an active role in the politics of the nation. Sihanouk
would turn this ambiguity to his advantage in later years, however.
In the December 1947 elections for the National Assembly, the Democrats again won a large
majority. Despite this, dissension within the party was rampant. Its founder, Sisowath Yuthevong, had
died and no clear leader had emerged to succeed him. During the period 1948 to 1949, the
Democrats appeared united only in their opposition to legislation sponsored by the king or his
appointees. A major issue was the king's receptivity to independence within the French Union,
proposed in a draft treaty offered by the French in late 1948. Following dissolution of the National
Assembly in September 1949, agreement on the pact was reached through an exchange of letters
between King Sihanouk and the French government. It went into effect two months later, though
National Assembly ratification of the treaty was never secured.
The treaty granted Cambodia what Sihanouk called "fifty percent independence": by it, the colonial
relationship was formally ended, and the Cambodians were given control of most administrative
functions. Cambodian armed forces were granted freedom of action within a self-governing
autonomous zone comprising Battambang and Siemreab provinces, which had been recovered from
Thailand after World War II, but which the French, hard-pressed elsewhere, did not have the
resources to control. Cambodia was still required to co-ordinate foreign policy matters with the High
Council of the French Union, however, and France retained a significant measure of control over the
judicial system, finances, and customs. Control of wartime military operations outside the autonomous
zone remained in French hands. France was also permitted to maintain military bases on Cambodian
territory. In 1950 Cambodia was accorded diplomatic recognition by the United States and by most
non-communist powers, but in Asia only Thailand and South Korea extended recognition.
The Democrats won a majority in the second National Assembly election in September 1951, and they
continued their policy of opposing the king on practically all fronts. In an effort to win greater
popular approval, Sihanouk asked the French to release nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh from exile and to
allow him to return to his country. He made a triumphant entry into Phnom Penh on 29 October 1951.
It was not long, however, before he began demanding withdrawal of French troops from Cambodia.
He reiterated this demand in early 1952 in Khmer Krok (Khmer Awake!) a weekly newspaper that he
had founded. The newspaper was forced to cease publication in March, and Son Ngoc Thanh fled the
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capital with a few armed followers to join the Khmer Issarak. Branded alternately a communist and
an agent of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) by Sihanouk, he remained in exile
until Lon Nol established the Khmer Republic in 1970.
Campaign for independence

In June 1952, Sihanouk announced the dismissal of his cabinet, suspended the constitution, and
assumed control of the government as prime minister. Then, without clear constitutional sanction, he
dissolved the National Assembly and proclaimed martial law in January 1953. Sihanouk exercised
direct rule for almost three years, from June 1952 until February 1955. After dissolution of the
assembly, he created an Advisory Council to supplant the legislature and appointed his
father, Norodom Suramarit, as regent.
In March 1953, Sihanouk went to France. Ostensibly, he was travelling for his health; actually, he was
mounting an intensive campaign to persuade the French to grant complete independence. The climate
of opinion in Cambodia at the time was such that if he did not achieve full independence quickly, the
people were likely to turn to Son Ngoc Thanh and the Khmer Issarak, who were fully committed to
attaining that goal. At meetings with the French president and with other high officials, Sihanouk was
suggested as being unduly "alarmist" about internal political conditions. The French also made the
thinly veiled threat that, if he continued to be uncooperative, they might replace him. The trip
appeared to be a failure, but on his way home by way of the United States, Canada, and Japan,
Sihanouk publicised Cambodia's plight in the media.
To further dramatise his "royal crusade for independence," Sihanouk, declaring that he would not
return until the French gave assurances that full independence would be granted. He then left Phnom
Penh in June to go into self-imposed exile in Thailand. Unwelcome in Bangkok, he moved to his royal
villa near the ruins of Angkor in Siemreab Province. Siemreab, part of the autonomous military zone
established in 1949, was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Lon Nol, formerly a right-wing politician
who was becoming a prominent, and in time would be an indispensable Sihanouk ally within the
military. From his Siemreab base, the king and Lon Nol contemplated plans for resistance if the French
did not meet their terms.
Sihanouk was making a high-stakes gamble, for the French could easily have replaced him with a
more pliable monarch; however, the military situation was deteriorating throughout Indochina, and the
French government, on 3 July 1953, declared itself ready to grant full independence to the three
states of Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos. Sihanouk insisted on his own terms, which included full control
of national defence, the police, the courts, and financial matters. The French yielded: the police and
the judiciary were transferred to Cambodian control at the end of August, and in October the country
assumed full command of its military forces. King Sihanouk, now a hero in the eyes of his people,
returned to Phnom Penh in triumph, and independence day was celebrated on 9 November 1953.
Control of residual matters affecting sovereignty, such as financial and budgetary affairs, passed to
the new Cambodian state in 1954.
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18
Water Festival
Water Festival
History of water festival
Naturally, it was noticed, in the Kingdom of Cambodia, that the Royal annual ceremony or the Royal
twelve-month ceremony for the King held inside and outside the Royal Palace is absolutely relevant to
the religion following the Brahmanism and Buddhism, and has also combined with the thousand-aged
animism before the Induisation.
With regard to the recent discovery, it is revealed that most Khmer traditional ceremonies are
combined nature, and they are performed from the ancient (pre-historic) period up to now. From
those ceremonies, it proved that the water festival, the Moon Salutation (Sampeas Preahkhe), and Ork
Ambok was performed at the same time, the ancestors cultural heritage. He added that we must
have deeply emphasized its root meaning, a key factor to study the sources and roles of other major
ceremonies, although it is connected to the Buddhism.
In addition, over the past thousand years before promoting the Indian culture located in the tropical
region, Khmer people living along the Mekong River, Tonle Sap, or other lakes greatly benefited
from these region for our ancestors had earned a living through farming and fishing.
More noticeably, the annual flood which conveyed the fertile delta giving priority to the agricultural
field is the source of happiness, progress, and excellence to demonstrate the enjoyment and
gratefulness to the natural gift. On top of this, the celebration is also the suitable opportunity not only
to strengthen the relationship and solidarity but to be relevant to keep a human social lineage
through the regatta, eating and drinking, dancing, courting, or making love.
The above illustration leads us to know Khmer ancestors paid homage to water since during ancient
times, it was regarded as the root of lives, so that all their activities both physically and mentally are
the originate causes. Because it is connected with our ancestors tendency conducting this ceremony,
the water festival becoming the national traditional ceremony is the concrete testimony.
More to that, the ancient Khmer people believed that the celebration of water festival really brings
high output and achievable wishes.
In conclusion, we could certify that it is under the natural influence, especially the monsoon, our
ancestors have created and celebrated this traditional ceremony to show the main concepts, including
delighting with the
agricultural output given by the nature and similarly, being grateful to the sacred objects in the world
such as the animism and the ancestors equal to the God supporting the positively growing output.
In reality, we were excited having watched the regatta once, the friendliness, fraternity, and
solidarity between individuals were strengthened at once. It could be proved that the society and
culture had played an important role in the water festival, the long existing tradition of the
Cambodian culture and not coming from foreign or any other culture. One more thing which we should
noticed here was the conscientious system between the Water God in Khmer word and the Kungkea
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God in Sanskrit which have the same meaning in the ancient Khmer philosophy.
It is added that the water element, Preah Neang Kungkea who was born from the water of the
Shivas hair bouquet which has the great power in the Brahmanism, is promoted equally to the Indian
God. Do we have any concrete documents relevant to the history of Khmer water festival which is
regarded as paying the excellent homage to water? The Response to this question is based on the
archaeological study, including specifically the sculptures of regatta on the bronze drum in the late
Metal Age from 300 to 100 B.C discovered in Steung Treng province as well as in other pre-historic
sites in the Indochina peninsula, Malaysia, Indonesia, and most recently in Prey Veng and Bantey
Meanchey reveals that the regatta is really performed in the Southeast Asia by Mon-Khmer or
Austro-Asiatic, our Khmer ancestors, since the pre-historic period.
In the first place, we compare the boat load in the pre-historic period to the one in the present day
through the shape, the size, and the number of rowers in those boats. After that, we have observed
the features of boats which Khmer people have used in the water festival presently, and the battle
boat carved in Khmer temples wall so that we could conclude Khmer people have been able to row
the boat over 2300 years ago.
More importantly, Khmer people still kept the original shape of Khmer boats even though the
techniques and equipment are highly developed. The general agreement on the constructing
techniques and the traditional eternity of regatta is so important for us to understand more the types
of boats and the root of Khmer water festival now.
It is added that there is only Khmer race in the Southeast Asia, who has recognized and produced
such these popular boats. Furthermore, we have hardly ever seen the other races having the ability
and intelligence to build such boat, the cultural heritage in the pre-historic period, and if possible, it
could be Thai and Lao people who have copied the rowing tradition and boat construction techniques
following Khmer people after they have settled in the Khmer Kingdom since the 14th century.
In other words, although those newcomers conducted the Khmer-like water festival, it is not similar to
the national ceremony. a deep meaning and glory as the Khmer water festival taken part by people
from the various places, king, prime minister, and all level grassroots nationwide. The bronze drums in
the pre-historic period in Cambodia presently, as well as the other regions in the former Khmer
Kingdom or in the present-day south China are greatly beneficial. The drawings of racing boats and
some musical instruments beaten are the proof indirectly certifying the regatta even though they are
in any wonderful context such as the death and rain-begging ceremony through beating the drum.
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These mean that those ancient sculptures are precisely involved with the historic events taking place in
some communities, taking the existence agriculture and paying homage to the nature and the
ancestors as the base of social mores, which is the root of the present Khmer water festival to be
noticed.
In conclusion, we should not confuse the regatta in the water festival, the ritual, with the boat battle
between Cham-Khmer naval forces in the reign of King Jayavaraman VII. Thus, they considered that
the aspects of boat battle described in details on the stone temples sculptures in the Angkorean
period, the root of the present Khmer water festival, is unreasonable. The celebration of water
festival is one thing, but doing war with battle boat is another thing (M. Tranet).
Water and Moon Festival and Boat Racing

Date: 13th November 2016 by http://www.tourismcambodia.com
For the people of Cambodia, the Water Festival and Bon Om Touk (The Pirogue Racing Festival) in
Phnom Penh is the most magnificent traditional festival. For three days Phnom Penh citizens, foreign
tourists and peasants from various provinces gather in the capital to celebrate festival night day.
The water festival had background for so long time. The water festival ceremony is the army training
to do attest of the army for preparing to do a battle. In the history, Khmer King always does the
battle with enemies by sailing. So he prepares this water festival ceremony every year to choose
Champion of sailing battle, as in Bayon Temple, Batteay Chhmar in the Preah Bat Jayvarman VII. We
had seen a lot of statues about sailing battle under leading of Jayvarman VII. The custom of this is to
have from then up to the present.
On the other hand the water is celebrated every years in November to honor the victory of
Cambodian Naval forces in the reign of King JayvarmanVII, during Angkor period of the 12th
century.
And this ceremony is to history about military exercise of our navy force in the course of national
defense and to express thanks to the 3 Buddhist symbols Gods and holy thing which helped us and
agriculture field and serves as an opportunity to pray for our lord for the happiness and sufficient
rain for rice cultivation.
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Besides the regatta, the water festival also includes three other ceremonies: Illuminated float (Loy
Pratip), Moon salutation (Sampeas Preah Khe) and the eating of pestle new special rice with banana
or coconut juice (Ork Ambok). The ceremony last three days to provide opportunity for people to by
part in competition that there were to types of boats from near and far of provinces, taking part in
the races, the pirogue and the rowing boat. Each boat was manned by about thirty to forty men or
women. The boat with a man or a woman dancing softly and gracefully to the rhythm of the drums on
the bow as an encouragement to the rowers moved swiftly through the water.
There as the race winners will be rewarded a lot of good such as: drink, money, clothes, rice,
cigarettes and the commission of the boat racing day must seek donations in order to provide this
prize for participants.
During the nighttime at about seven o'clock the river was lit by jazzy illuminated boats, which floated
slowly, and smoothly on the water's surface. Each of them was equipped with thousands of flashy neon
lights arranged in different colorful, fancy patterns representing state institutions, ministries and
services.
After a little time fireworks and multi color were lit to entertain people. Some of people made loud
noises. They burst into different shapes and colors in the sky under the clapped and cheered with joy
each time at the sight of the fireworks.
Finally the water festival is the festivity for the Cambodian people who celebrated every years and
going for a walk during the ceremony days really refreshed our mood. The lively festive atmosphere
helped relive our tension and trouble.
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Water Festival (Edition)

The Water Festival is the New Year's celebrations that take place in Southeast Asian countries such as
, Cambodia, Laos, andThailand. It is called the 'Water Festival' by Westerners because people splash
/ pour water at one another as part of the cleansing ritual to welcome the new year. Traditionally
people gently sprinkled water on one another as a sign of respect, but as the new year falls during
the hottest month in South East Asia, many people end up dousing strangers and passersby in vehicles
in boisterous celebration. The act of pouring water is also a show of blessings and good wishes. It is
believed that on this Water Festival, everything old must be thrown away, or it will bring the owner
bad luck.
The annual Water Splashing Festival of the Dai ethnic minority falls during the New Year celebrations
of the Dai Calendar. It is the most important festival observed by the Dai ethnic people of
Xishuangbanna Prefecture, and, similar to its direct neighbor Laos' Songkran festival, it involves three
days of celebrations that include sincere, yet light-hearted religious rituals that invariably end in
merrymaking, where everyone ends up getting splashed, sprayed or doused with water.
The festival lasts for three days. The first two days's activities are concentrated on the banks of the
Lancang River. On the first day, a grand celebration marks the beginning of the festival. An out-door
market is set up, where locals go for new year shopping. It is also a great place to purchase local
souvenirs. Local food and snacks are other highlights traveler may not want to miss. Artists create sand
cavings on open space close to the market. A dragon boat race is held on the Lancang River to ring
out the old year in the afternoon. At night, the banks of the river are colorfully lit, and locals float
river lanterns on the river. Floating river lanterns is an old tradition in China, which is still preserved in
many cities today. The practice is thought to drive bad luck away and bring good luck.
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The third day, the climax of the festival, is reserved for water splashing. On that day, the Dai put on
their newest and best clothes, then assemble at the local Buddhist temple, where the monks chant
Buddhist scriptures. Afterward, a symbolic water splashing ritual is enacted whereby a Buddhist
statue, with pomp and ceremony, is first coaxed out of the temple to the courtyard, then is splashed
with water. This important ritual is called 'Bathing the Buddha'.
The completion of the 'Bathing the Buddha' ritual serves as the signal that encourages ordinary
mortals to themselves engage in mutual water splashing. Accordingly, people flock to the streets with
pots, pans, bottles, or whatever, where they uninhibitedly splash, spray and douse each other with
water, with the same gusto with which Westerners engage in a good snowball free-for-all.
The Water Splashing ceremony, however, is more than just good-natured fun; it also contains a
religious element: water is regarded by the Dai as a symbol, firstly, of religious purity, but also of
goodwill among people. Therefore, splashing a fellow human being with water during the Water
Splashing Festival, whether a close neighbor or a fellow villager, or even a stranger, is an expression
of the desire for good luck and prosperity to that person.
For the tourist interested in interacting directly with the Dai ethnic minority of Xishangbanna Prefecture
in an informal and fun-filled manner, the annual Water Splashing Festival that takes place in the
month of April is the perfect occasion. China Highlights offers a special tour to the city of Jinghong
each year to coincide with the Dai ethnic minority's annual Water Splashing Festival.
A Rakhine girl pours water at revelers during Myanmar New YearThingyan Water Festival
in Yangon,Myanmar in 2011.
The festival has many different names specific to each country, such as Songkran in Laos and Thailand,
Chaul Chnam Thmey in Cambodia, and Thingyan in Myanmar. The New Year is celebrated in other
South Asian countries, based on the astrological event of the sun beginning its northward journey.
Traditional dance, singing and cultural shows are performed together during the festival. Religious
activities in the tradition of Theravada Buddhism are also carried out at both pagoda and monastery.
Young people visit elders to pay respect during this period.
The Myanmar New Year Thingyan is announced by the traditional calendar of Myanmar Team and
normally falls around 13 April. Cambodia celebrates the Cambodian New Year from 13 to 15 April.
The Lao New Year, called Songkran () in the Lao language, is celebrated every year from
13 to 15 April. The Thai New Year ( = Songkran in Thai language) is fixed every year from 13
to 15 April.
"Water Festival" is often a confusing term for foreigners in Cambodia because the Khmer New Year
in April is not normally referred to as "the Water Festival", unlike equivalent new year celebrations in
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neighboring countries. Rather, the "Water Festival" in Cambodia usually refers to the festival Bon Om
Thook (Khmer:) focused on traditional boat racing, which usually takes place in
November each year.
In Yunnan (China), the Water Splashing Festival is celebrated by the Dai ethnic group which is one of
the 55 ethnic minorities in China. The whole celebration usually starts on the 13th of April and takes
37 days. On the first day of the festival Dai people race dragon boats and light fireworks (made of
bamboo) for good luck in the coming years. The second day, Dai people get together to dance, and
pour water on others because they believe that pouring water on others can help remove bad luck
and bring out happiness. Finally, on the last day of the festival, young generations will get together to
exchange gifts and date their mates. The Water Splashing Festival is one of the most influential ethnic
festivals inYunnan area. It attracts thousands of tourists every year from all over China. The huge
tourist industry contributes greatly to the development of the area.
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19
Human rights
Human rights

For the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights, see Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
UN Photo: Humberto Calamari of Panama, Vice-Chairman of the UN General Assembly's

Third Committee, presiding, in 1958, over a meeting on the draft International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights - which built on the achievement of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, using it as its foundation.
Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour,
and are regularly protected aslegal rights in municipal and international law. They are commonly
understood as inalienable fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because
she or he is a human being," and which are "inherent in all human beings" regardless of their nation,
location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at
every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for
everyone. They require empathy and therule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect
the human rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on
specific circumstances; for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful
imprisonment, torture, and execution.
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The drafters of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law, global and regional
institutions. Actions by statesand non-governmental organizations form a basis of public
policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that "if the public discourse of peacetime global
society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights." The strong claims
made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about
the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the
term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus
that human rights encompasses a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection
against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech, or a right to education, there is
disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework
of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid
the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard.
Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of
the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.
Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true
forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the
medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such
philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and which featured
prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this
foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the twentieth century,
possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide, and war crimes, as a realization of inherent
human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society.
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of
the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world...
1st sentence of the Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Bill of Rights December 16, 1689

Although ideas of rights and liberty have existed in some form for much of human history, there is
agreement that the earlier conceptions do not closely resemble the modern conceptions of human
rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, "traditional societies typically have had
elaborate systems of duties... conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that
sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These
institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, human rights". The
history of human rights can be traced to past documents, particularly Constitution of Medina (622), AlRisalah al-Huquq (659-713), Magna Carta (1215), the Twelve Articles of Memmingen (1525),
the English Bill of Rights(1689), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789),
and the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution(1791).
The modern sense of human rights can be traced to Renaissance Europe and the Protestant
Reformation, alongside the disappearance of the feudal authoritarianism and religious conservativism
that dominated the Middle Ages. One theory is that human rights were developed during the early
Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly
held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, and that while earlier cultures had
important ethical concepts, they generally lacked a concept of human rights. For example, McIntyre
argues there is no word for "right" in any language before 1400. Medieval charters of liberty such as
the English Magna Carta were not charters of human rights, rather they were the foundation and
constituted a form of limited political and legal agreement to address specific political circumstances,
in the case of Magna Carta later being recognized in the course of early modern debates about
rights. One of the oldest records of human rights is the statute of Kalisz (1264), giving privileges to
the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination and hate speech.
Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of human rights is intertwined with the modern sense
of citizenship, which did not emerge until the past few hundred years.
16th18th century
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The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating
from natural law. In particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of
extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolom
de Las Casas. In the Valladolid debate, Juan Gins de Seplveda, who maintained an Aristotelian
view of humanity as divided into classes of different worth, argued with Las Casas, who argued in
favour of equal rights to freedom from slavery for all humans regardless of race or religion.
17th-century English philosopher John Locke discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as
being "life, liberty, and estate (property)", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be
surrendered in the social contract. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of
Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions. Two major revolutions occurred
during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the United
States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen respectively, both of which articulated certain human rights. Additionally, the Virginia
Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil
freedoms.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the

National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness.
United States Declaration of Independence, 1776
These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas
Paine, John Stuart Mill and G.W.F. Hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. The term human
rights probably came into use some time between Paine's The Rights of Manand William Lloyd
Garrison's 1831 writings in The Liberator, in which he stated that he was trying to enlist his readers in
"the great cause of human rights". Although the term had been used by at least one author as early
as 1742.[
19th century
In the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery. A number of
reformers, notably British Member of Parliament William Wilberforce, worked towards the abolition
of the Atlantic slave trade and abolition of slavery. This was achieved across the British Empire by
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the Slave Trade Act 1807, which was enforced internationally by the Royal Navy under treaties
Britain negotiated with other nations, and the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. In the United States, all the
northern states had abolished the institution of slavery between 1777 and 1804, although southern
states clung tightly to the "peculiar institution". Conflict and debates over the expansion of slavery to
new territories constituted one of the reasons for the southern states' secession and the American Civil
War. During the reconstruction period immediately following the war, several amendments to
the United States Constitution were made. These included the13th amendment, banning slavery,
the 14th amendment, assuring full citizenship and civil rights to all people born in the United States,
and the 15th amendment, guaranteeing African Americans the right to vote. In Russia, the
reformer Tsar Alexander II ended serfdom in 1861, although the freed serfs often faced restrictions
of their mobility within the nation.
Many groups and movements have achieved profound social changes over the course of the 20th
century in the name of human rights. In Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws
granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or
regulating child labour. The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right
to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers.
One of the most influential wasMahatma Gandhi's movement to free his native India from British rule.
Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world,
among them the African American Civil Rights Movement, and more recent diverse identity
politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.
The establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first
of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to be
further developed following the two World Wars.
20th century
The World Wars, and the huge losses of life and gross abuses of human rights that took place during
them, were a driving force behind the development of modern human rights instruments. The League
of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end
of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security,
settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy, and improving global welfare.
Enshrined in its charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights later included in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to supplant the
League's role; this was to be the United Nations. The United Nations has played an important role in
international human-rights law since its creation. Following the World Wars, the United Nations and its
members developed much of the discourse and the bodies of law that now make up international
humanitarian law and international human rights law. Analyst Belinda Cooper argued that human
rights organizations flourished in the 1990s, possibly as a result of the dissolution of
the western and eastern Cold War blocs. Ludwig Hoffmann argues that human rights became more
widely emphasized in the latter half of the twentieth century because it "provided a language for
political claim making and counter-claims, liberal-democratic, but also socialist and post colonialist.
The CDHR was signed by member states of the OIC in 1990 at the 19th Conference of Foreign
Ministers held in Cairo, Egypt. It was seen as the answer to the UDHR. In fact, the CDHR was
"patterned after the UN-sponsored UDHR of 1948". The object of the CDHR was to "serve as a guide
for member states on human rights issues. CDHR translated the Qur'anic teachings as follows: "All men
are equal in terms of basic human dignity and basic obligations and responsibilities, without any
discrimination on the basis of race, colour, language, belief, sex, religion, political affiliation, social
status or other considerations. True religion is the guarantee for enhancing such dignity along the path
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to human integrity. On top of references to the Qur'an, the CDHR also referenced prophetic teachings
and Islamic legal tradition.
Substantive rights
Right to life
Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No one shall be
arbitrarily deprived of his life.
Article 6.1 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
The right to life is the essential right that a human being has the right not to be killed by another
human being. The concept of a right to life is central to debates on the issues ofabortion, capital
punishment, euthanasia, self defence and war. According to many human rights activists, the death
penalty violates this right. The United Nations has called on states retaining the death penalty to
establish a moratorium on capital punishment with a view to its abolition. States which do not do so
face considerable moral and political pressure.
Freedom from torture
Throughout history, torture has been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation,
punishment, and coercion. In addition to state-sponsored torture, individuals or groups may be
motivated to inflict torture on others for similar reasons to those of a state; however, the motive for
torture can also be for the sadistic gratification of the torturer, as in the Moors murders.
Since the mid-20th century, torture is prohibited under international law and the domestic laws of most
countries. It is considered to be a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by
Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Geneva Conventions of
1949 and the Additional Protocols I and II of June 8, 1977 officially agree not to torture captured
persons in armed conflicts, whether international or internal. Torture is also prohibited by the United
Nations Convention Against Torture, which has been ratified by 157 countries.
National and international legal prohibitions on torture derive from a consensus that torture and
similar ill-treatment are immoral, as well as impractical.[81] Despite these international conventions,
organizations that monitor abuses of human rights (e.g., Amnesty International, the International
Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims) report widespread use condoned by states in many regions
of the world.[82] Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practise
torture, some of them openly.
Freedom from slavery
Freedom from slavery is internationally recognized as a human right. Article 4 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights states:
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all
their forms.
Despite this, the number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history, remaining as high as
12 millionto 27 million, Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt
bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations.[90] Human trafficking is primarily for
prostituting women and children into sex industries.[91]
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Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the AntiSlavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to rid the world of
slavery.
Right to a fair trial
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial
tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
The right to a fair trial has been defined in numerous regional and international human rights
instruments. It is one of the most extensive human rights and all international human rights instruments
enshrine it in more than one article. The right to a fair trial is one of the most litigated human rights
and substantial case law has been established on the interpretation of this human right. Despite
variations in wording and placement of the various fair trial rights, international human rights
instrument define the right to a fair trial in broadly the same terms. The aim of the right is to ensure
the proper administration of justice. As a minimum the right to fair trial includes the following fair trial
rights in civil andcriminal proceedings:
the right to be heard by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal
the right to a public hearing
the right to be heard within a reasonable time
the right to counsel
the right to interpretation
Freedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of expression
is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information
or ideas, regardless of the medium used. In practice, the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in
any country and the right is commonly subject to limitations, such as on libel, slander, obscenity,
incitement to commit a crime, etc. The right to freedom of expression is recognized as a human right
under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human
rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 19 of the ICCPR
states that "[e]veryone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference" and "everyone shall
have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the
form of art, or through any other media of his choice".
Freedom of thought, conscience and religion
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to
change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or
private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Freedom of thought, conscience and religion are closely related rights that protect the freedom of an
individual or community, in public or private, to think and freely hold conscientious beliefs and to
manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally
recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any religion. The freedom
to leave or discontinue membership in a religion or religious groupin religious terms called
"apostasy"is also a fundamental part of religious freedom, covered by Article 18 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
Human rights groups such as Amnesty International organizes campaigns to protect those arrested and
or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs, particularly
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concerning intellectual, political and artistic freedom of expression and association. In legislation,
a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with
the law (for example legalizing surgical or pharmaceutical abortion) if it is incompatible with religious
or conscientious beliefs.
Freedom of movement
Freedom of movement asserts that a citizen of a state in which that citizen is present has the liberty to
travel, reside in, and/or work in any part of the state where one pleases within the limits of respect
for the liberty and rights of others,[1] and to leave that state and return at any time.
Rights debates
Events and new possibilities can affect existing rights or require new ones. Advances of technology,
medicine, and philosophy constantly challenge the status quo of human rights thinking.
Right to keep and bear arms
The right to keep and bear arms for defence is described in the philosophical and political writings of
Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others. In countries with an
English common law tradition, a long-standing common law right to keep and bear arms has long
been recognized, as pre-existing in common law, prior even to the existence of national constitutions.
Future generations
In 1997, UNESCO adopted the Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards
the Future Generation. The Declaration opens with the words:
Mindful of the will of the peoples, set out solemnly in the Charter of the United Nations, to 'save
succeeding generations from the scourge of war' and to safeguard the values and principles
enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and all other relevant instruments of
international law.
Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation
Article 1 of the declaration states "the present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that the
needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded." The preamble to the
declaration states that "at this point in history, the very existence of humankind and its environment
are threatened" and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of the environment,
the human genome, biodiversity, cultural heritage, peace, development, and education. The preamble
recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations towards future generations has been
referred to in various international instruments, including the Convention for the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972), the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Conference on Environment and Development,
1992), the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Human Rights, 1993)
and a number of UN General Assembly resolutions relating to the protection of the global climate for
present and future generations adopted since 1990.
Sexual orientation and gender identity
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Asia's first Genderqueer Pride Parade at Madurai with Anjali Gopalan. On December 11, 2013,
homosexuality was criminalized in India by a Supreme Court ruling.
Sexual orientation and gender identity rights relate to the expression of sexual
orientation and gender identity based on the right to respect for private life and the right not to be
discriminated against on the ground of "other status" as defined in various human rights conventions,
such as article 17 and 26 in the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and article 8 and article 14 in the European Convention on Human Rights.
As of 2011, homosexual behaviour is illegal in 76 countries and punishable by execution in seven
countries. The criminalization of private, consensual, adult sexual relations, especially in countries
where corporal or capital punishment is involved, is one of the primary concerns of LGBT human rights
advocates.
Other issues include: government recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption, sexual
orientation and military service, immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws
regarding violence against LGBT people, sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism laws, and equal age of
consent for same-sex activity.
A global charter for sexual orientation and gender identity rights has been proposed in the form of
the 'Yogyakarta Principles', a set of 29 principles whose authors say they apply International Human
Rights Law statutes and precedent to situations relevant to LGBT people's experience. The principles
were presented at a United Nations event in New York on November 7, 2007, co-sponsored
by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay.
The principles have been acknowledged with influencing the French proposed UN declaration on
sexual orientation and gender identity, which focuses on ending violence, criminalization and capital
punishment and does not include dialogue about same-sex marriage or right to start a family. The
proposal was supported by 67 of the then 192 member countries of the United Nations, including
all EU member states and the United States. An alternative statement opposing the proposal was
initiated by Syria and signed by 57 member nations, including all 27 nations of the Arab League as
well as Iran and North Korea.
Trade
Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of these documents
explicitly mention free trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right. And yet trade plays
a key role in providing jobs.
Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit
international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the right
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to education, that increased work and investment help accrue. Others have argued that the ability to
trade does not affect everyone equallyoften groups like the rural poor, indigenous groups and
women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade.
On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that trade, and
therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right. Additionally, trying to fit too many concepts
under the umbrella of what qualifies as a human right has the potential to dilute their importance.
Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either "fair"or "just" in that the current trade regime
produces winners and losers but its reform is likely to produce (different) winners and losers.
Water
Main article: Right to water

See also: Water politics
The right to water has been recognized in a wide range of international documents, including treaties,
declarations and other standards. For instance, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) requires State parties to ensure to women the right to enjoy
adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to [] water supply. The 1989 Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC) requires States parties to combat disease and malnutrition through the
provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking-water.
The most clear definition of the Human right to water has been issued by the UN Committee on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. This treaty body interpreting legal obligations of State parties to
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) issued in 2002 a nonbinding interpretation affirming that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to
an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable
standard of health (see ICESCR Art.11 & 12) and therefore a human right:
The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and
affordable water for personal and domestic uses.
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
On July 28, 2010, the United Nations General Assembly declared water and sanitation as human
rights. Today all States have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly
recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right.
Sexual and reproductive rights
Main article: reproductive rights

Human rights include womens rights and sexual and reproductive rights. Sexual and reproductive
rights are part of a continuum of human rights, which includes the rights to life, health and education,
the rights to equality and non-discrimination, and the right to decide the timing, number and spacing
of ones children.
Reproductive and sexual rights as part of human rights was affirmed internationally at the
Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo
in 1994.[123] It was the first among international development frameworks to address issues related to
sexuality, sexual and reproductive health, and reproductive rights.
The ICPD Programme of Action in paragraph 7.2 defines an individuals sexual and reproductive
health as complete well-being related to sexual activity and reproduction. Sexual and reproductive
health and rights (SRHR) encompass both entitlements and freedoms. This includes the definition of
reproductive rights in paragraph 7.3 of the ICPD PoA, which clarifies that these are not a new set of
rights but human rights in existing human rights instruments related to sexual and reproductive
autonomy and the attainment of sexual and reproductive health.[126] Additionally, the 1995 Beijing
Platform for Action (PfA) expands this definition to cover both sexuality and reproduction by
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affirming in paragraph 96 the right to exercise control over and make decisions about ones
sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence.
World Health Organization
Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nations 1968
International Conference on Human Rights. The sixteenth article of the resulting Proclamation of
Teheran states, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number
and the spacing of their children."
Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following rights: the right to legal or safe abortion,
the right to control one's reproductive functions, the right to qualityreproductive healthcare, and the
right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from coercion, discrimination,
and violence.
Reproductive rights may also be understood to include education about contraception and sexually
transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception, protection from
gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (FGC) and male genital mutilation (MGM).
Information and communication technologies
In October 2009, Finland's Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that every person in
Finland would have the legal right to Internet access.[131] Since July 2010, the government has legally
obligated telecommunications companies to offer broadband Internet access to every permanent
residence and office. The connection must be "reasonably priced" and have a downstream rate of at
least 1 Mbit/s.
In March 2010, the BBC, having commissioned an opinion poll, reported that "almost four in five
people around the world believe that access to the internet is a fundamental right."[133] The poll,
conducted by the polling company GlobeScan for the BBC World Service, collated the answers of
27,973 adult citizens across 26 countries to find that 79% of adults either strongly agreed or
somewhat agreed with the statement: "access to the internet should be a fundamental right of all
people".
Right to Non-refoulement vs. Right to Asylum
Non-refoulement is the right not to be returned to a place of persecution and is the foundation for
international refugee law, as outlined in the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. Both
the right to non-refoulement and the right to asylum have taken centre stage in recent debates over
the treatment of refugees. A central worry about the right to asylum is that it can limit a states power
to handle a mass influx of refugees. Processing asylum applications can take a considerable amount
of time, and this amount rises with the amount of refugees applying. This creates an incentive for more
refugees to apply, since they are allowed to stay in the country during the application process. One
potential solution to the problem of mass influx is proposed by political philosopher Andy Lamey.
Lamey proposes a portable procedural model that focuses on the right to non-refoulement. Crucially,
the procedural rights defended by this model can be applied outside national borders, within any
rights respecting country; this allows the burden of mass influx to be shared by a plurality of countries
without violating the procedural rights of the refugee.
Human rights in Cambodia

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The human rights situation in Cambodia is facing growing criticisms both within the country and an
increasingly alarmed international community. After a series of flagrant violation against basic human
rights a feeling of incertitude regarding the direction the country is emerging, sometimes comparing
the situation to a newborn Burma.
In its report on Cambodia, Human Rights Watch stated that "Authorities continue to ban or disperse
most public demonstrations. Politicians and journalists critical of the government face violence and
intimidation and are barred from equal access to the broadcast media. In addition, the judiciary
remains weak and subject to political influence. Trafficking of women and children for sexual
exploitation through networks protected or backed by police or government officials is rampant. The
government continues to turn a blind eye to fraudulent confiscation of farmers land, illegal logging,
and widespread plundering of natural resources.
The current state of the country could be described as a semblance of pluralistic democracy. In July
2004, the royalist opposition party FUNCINPEC formed a coalition government with the Cambodian
People Party (CPP) after a political deadlock of more than a year. More recently, Sam Rainsy Party
(SRP) members have been targeted for criminal prosecutions, after seeing the parliamentarian
immunity of several SRP members lifted by a criticized closed-door hand vote with members of the
parliament.
Historical background
Human rights in Cambodia may be seen in the context of both its traditions deriving primarily
from Indian culture and its absolute rule of god-kings, and Buddhism, the main religion within
Cambodian society.
On the other hand, the country is also greatly influenced from its modern influences
of French colonialism, and a half century of radical change from constitutional monarchy, to a
presidential regime under Lon Nol, a radical Marxism-Leninism under the Khmer Rouge,
a Vietnamese occupation under the communist party People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), to finally
the restoration of constitutional monarchy under a United Nations administered transition (UNTAC), a
result of the Paris Agreement signed in 1991. Under the Khmer Rouge, extensive violations of human
rights were conducted.
The Paris Agreement required that the Constitution include "basic principles, including those regarding
human rights and fundamental freedoms ..." The Paris Agreement also required Cambodia to take
effective measures to ensure that the policies and practices of the past shall never be allowed to
return." The Constitution of 1993 does indeed contain a chapter on "The Rights and Obligations of
Khmer Citizens" consisting of twenty articles (Articles 31-50), seventeen of which relate to rights and
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three to duties. In compliance with the requirement of the Paris Agreement that the constitution provide
that "[a]ggrieved individuals will be entitled to have the courts adjudicate and enforce these rights"
and that "[a]n independent judiciary will be established, empowered to enforce the rights provided
under the constitution", the Constitution stipulates that Khmer citizens have the right to denounce, make
complaints or file claims against the state of state agents, the settlement of which should be
determined by the courts.
Since the adoption of the Constitution in 1993, the UN appointed a Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for Human Rights in Cambodia and the UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights opened a Cambodian office. These institutions alongside local and international human rights
groups have documented a wide range of human rights violations, with limited results, in terms of
reform and redress.
Freedom of Expression and Assembly

Violations of freedom of expression, including lack of access to the media, are endemic. More
recently, what was decried as a campaign against freedom of expression[3] marked an accelerating
backward slide in Cambodias efforts to promote human rights values. There are severe restrictions
on freedom of assembly, granted by the Cambodian Constitution, is also being perceived by local
organizations[4] as a deliberate campaign to repress Cambodian civil society to grow and voice their
concern.
Weak Judiciary System

Efforts to establish an independent judiciary have been considerable for over a decade but have not
yet achieved hoped-for results. The judiciary remains corrupt, inefficient, and mostly controlled by the
ruling party CPP. Flagrant violations of human rights by state agents have been identified but
prosecutions have been rare.
Arbitrary arrests are also practiced by the CPP government using a politically controlled court as a
mean to strengthen its grip on power. Recently, the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention ruled
that 'the detention of Sam Rainsy Party MP Cheam Channy is in violation of both Cambodian and
international law'.
Women's Rights
Gender roles in Cambodia are strict and domestic violence against women is a very serious problem.
But for several years, the Cambodian Ministry of Women's Affairs has shown a considerable
commitment in the fight against gender-specific and domestic violence, even making it a national
Millinnium Development Goal.
LGBT Rights
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Cambodians suffer from discrimination and abuse;
including violence, workplace discrimination, and social and familial exclusion.[6] In 2010,
the Cambodian Center for Human Rights established the Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
(SOGI) Project to empower LGBT people throughout Cambodia to advocate for their rights and to
improve respect for LGBT people throughout Cambodia. In December 2010, the Cambodian Center
for Human Rights published a ground breaking report on the situation of LGBT people in Cambodia.
Same-sex sexual acts are not a criminal offence in Cambodia. However, there is no anti-discrimination
legislation, or other sanctions for those who violate the rights of LGBTI people. Further, marriage is
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limited strictly to opposite-sex couples. This definition is also used in the Law on Marriage and Family,
where article 3 reads: marriage is a solemn contract between a man and a woman, and in article 6
marriages are prohibited between persons of the same sex. The Constitution extends its rights and
freedoms to every citizen, regardless of race, colour, sex or other status a phrasing that can be
used in favour of LGBTI persons rights, given its intent to provide equality regardless of personal
characteristics. With widespread corruption and a long road ahead for Cambodia to become a
constitutional state, LGBTI persons face the same type of difficulties as other citizens, where rule of
law is weak. In addition, they are also targets of extortion related to their LGBTI identities The most
common situation where LGBTI persons face poor attitudes from authorities is when police target
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) individuals for financial gain. There are two
provisions: Human trafficking law and Commune and village safety policy. The police have used
these to arrest people (mostly transgender and gay men) under false charges and claim a payment
(between USD 10 and 30) not to keep them overnight. Transgender sex workers are frequently
abused by the police. UNDP reports that local authorities and police sometimes use various laws to
limit the rights of LGBTI people; for example through forced separation of same-sex couples, as per
parental request, or linking of LGBTI people with drug use or sex work Issues related to LGBTI
persons living conditions and rights are overall absent from political and media discourse in
Cambodia. There are a few cases where LGBTI matters have made it to the public agenda, with
officials both speaking in favour and against LGBTI rights. There is no legal group yet to protect LGBT
who are victims of legal abuses as well as human right violations. October 2014 a lesbian couple got
married but police and commune officials stop them from getting married while their both family still
continued and committed to make the marriage happened in cultural way. Article in
Khmer http://kohsantepheapdaily.com.kh/article/106818.html#.VDzqBB_UM98.facebook
Forced evictions
Human rights activists are increasingly worried that [forced eviction]s in Cambodia are spiralling out
of control. An Amnesty International report shows how, contrary to Cambodias obligations
under international human rights law, those affected by evictions have had no opportunity for genuine
participation and consultation beforehand. Information on planned evictions and
on resettlement packages has been incomplete and inaccurate, undermining the rights of those
affected to information, and to participate in decisions which affect the exercise of their human rights,
in particular the right to adequate housing. The lack of legal protection from forced eviction, and lack
of regulation of existing standards has left an accountability gap which increases the vulnerability of
marginalized people, particularly those living in poverty, to human rights abuses including forced
evictions.
Other
Other serious and persistent human rights problems include unresolved political murder, abuse of
unionists and opposition politicians. Amongst several unresolved assassinations, the murder of union
leader Chea Vichea received strong international coverage by major human rights and labour
organizations, and the United Nations.
Land confiscations, arbitrary arrest and detention, torture, forced child labor, trafficking in women
and children, discrimination and domestic violence against women, and abuse of children are also
affecting Cambodians.
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20
Kite Flying Festival
Kite
Yokaichi Giant Kite Festival is held every May inHigashiomi, Shiga, Japan.
Star-shaped kite above a meadow south ofHockenheim

A kite is traditionally a tethered heavier-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to
create lift and drag. A kite consists of wings, tethers, and anchors. Kites often have a bridle to guide
the face of the kite at the correct angle so the wind can lift it. A kite's wing also may be so designed
so a bridle is not needed; when kiting a sailplane for launch, the tether meets the wing at a single
point. A kite may have fixed or moving anchors. Untraditionally in technical kiting, a kite consists of
tether-set-coupled wing sets; even in technical kiting, though, a wing in the system is still often called
the kite.
The lift that sustains the kite in flight is generated when air flows around the kite's surface, producing
low pressure above and high pressure below the wings. The interaction with the wind also generates
horizontal drag along the direction of the wind. The resultant force vector from the lift and drag force
components is opposed by the tension of one or more of the lines or tethers to which the kite is
attached. The anchor point of the kite line may be static or moving (e.g., the towing of a kite by a
running person, boat, free-falling anchors as in paragliders and fugitive parakites or vehicle).
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The same principles of fluid flow apply in liquids and kites are also used under water.
A hybrid tethered craft comprising both a lighter-than-air balloon as well as a kite lifting surface is
called a kytoon.
Kites have a long and varied history and many different types are flown individually and at festivals
worldwide. Kites may be flown for recreation, art or other practical uses. Sport kites can be flown in
aerial ballet, sometimes as part of a competition. Power kitesare multi-line steerable kites designed to
generate large forces which can be used to power activities such as kite surfing, kite
landboarding, kite fishing, kite buggying and a new trend snow kiting. Even Man-lifting kites have
been made.
History
Woodcut print of a kite from John Bate's 1635 book, The Mysteryes of Nature and Art
in which the kite is titledHow to make fire Drakes
Kites were invented in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily
available: silk fabric for sail material; fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line; and
resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework.
The kite has been claimed as the invention of the 5th-century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (also Mo
Di) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban). By 549 AD paper kites were certainly being flown, as it was
recorded that in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and
medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting
men, signaling, and communication for military operations. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat
(not bowed) and often rectangular. Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Kites were
decorated with mythological motifs and legendary figures; some were fitted with strings and whistles
to make musical sounds while flying. From China, kites were introduced to Cambodia, Thailand, India,
Japan, Korea and the western world.
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Kite Flying by Suzuki Harunobu, 1766 (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Kite maker from India, image fromTravels in India, including Sinde and the Punjab by H. E. Lloyd,
1845. After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, known as
the patang in India, where thousands are flown every year on festivals such as Makar Sankranti.
Kites were known throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand, with the assumption being that the
knowledge diffused from China along with the people. Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and
wood were used in religious ceremonies to send prayers to the gods. Polynesian kite traditions are
used by anthropologists get an idea of early "primitive" Asian traditions that are believed to have at
one time existed in Asia.
Boys flying a kite. Engraving published in Germany in 1828 by Johann Michael Voltz
Kites were late to arrive in Europe, although windsock-like banners were known and used by the
Romans. Stories of kites were first brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th
century, and kites were brought back by sailors from Japan and Malaysia in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries
kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research.
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In 1750 Benjamin Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning was caused
by electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. It is
not known whether Franklin ever performed his experiment, but on May 10, 1752, Thomas-Franois
Dalibard of France conducted a similar experiment using a 40 feet (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite
and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.
Kites were also instrumental in the research of the Wright brothers when developing the first airplane
in the late 1800s. Over the next 70 years, many new kite designs were developed, and often
patented. These included Eddy's tail-less diamond kite, the tetrahedral kite, the flexible kite, the sled
kite, and the parafoil kite, which helped to develop modern hang-gliders. In fact, the period from
1860 to about 1910 became the "golden age of kiting". Kites started to be used for scientific
purposes, especially in meteorology, aeronautics, wireless communications and photography; many
different designs of man-lifting kite were developed as well as power kites.
The development of mechanically powered airplane diminished interest in kites. World War II saw a
limited use of kites for military purposes (see Focke Achgelis Fa 330 for an example). Since then they
are used mainly for recreation.
Materials
Sparless Styrofoam kites

Designs often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. The finest
Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand
painted. On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly
folded for storage or transport. Cheaper mass-produced kites are often made from
printed polyester rather than silk.
Tails are used for some single-line kite designs to keep the kite's nose pointing into the wind. Spinners
and spinsocks can be attached to the flying line for visual effect. There are rotating wind socks which
spin like a turbine. On large display kites these tails, spinners and spinsocks can be 50 feet (15 m)
long or more.
Modern aerobatic kites use two or four lines to allow fine control of the kite's angle to the wind.
Traction kites may have an additional line to de-power the kite and quick-release mechanisms to
disengage flyer and kite in an emergency.
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Cambodia Kites
History of Khmer Kites

by Mr. Sim Sarak and Mrs.Cheang Yarin
1. Before Nokor Phnom or Pre-Funan era (400 years before Christ)
The original name of "Khleng Ek" was "Khleng Pnorng" invented by Khmer ancestors by around 400
BC. In the old time the Khmers like flying their kites in the harvest season. Before Nokor Phnom era,
the Khmer believed in "Neakta"(an animistic spirit or deity ) and this belief led to the celebrations of
"Fete of Neakta" at the beginning of the rainy season in order to invoke the spirits to procure rains
for farming. During the harvest season, the Khmers performed the festival of kiteflying to express
their gratitude to their ancestor spirits for ensuring sufficient rains for farmers and a prosperity for all
in general. In the ancient time, the locals used straight hard bamboo for making kite skeletons (spars)
and weaved tree-leaves for covering their kite bodies.
The kite-flying ceremonies linked with the agricultural practice.
2. Nokor Phnom or Funan era (early 1st century to 6th century)
During the first centuries of the Christ era, the state of Nokor Phnom (Funan) was influenced by Indian
civilization, especially relegion, literature and arts. The favour of the cult of kite-flying flying by the
locals became dominant form of worship in the past and then became of their faith in Neakta and
Hindu to express their gratitude to their ancestor spirits and "Preah Peay" (Divinity of Wind) for
securing a satisfactory harvest.
By that time the agricultural sector saw a very remarkable development thanks to the country's
creative water policy. People knew how to dig canals to water their land or to divert the tide or to
desalinate their land. Their canals were navigable from one region to another. One Chinese source
claims that the farmers of Funan "sow for one year and harvest for three".
Because the society by that time adopted matriarchy, their kite was considered head or leader or
queen. Therefore some of the locals also called Khleng Pnorng as "Khleng Mer-Kon" (Mother-Baby
kite).
3. Chenla era (7th - 8th centuries)
During this era, the country enjoyed a successful policy of water, thus leading to emerging cities along
the river. The agriculture sector experienced with a fine prospect and the cult of kite-flying became
more systematic than the one under Nokor Phnom era.
Due to a political instability toward early 8th century, the country was split into two: "Land Chenla"
and "Water Chenla". The country fell into the hands of "Java" of Sailendras dynasty.
The locals suffered much from the invasion while the kite-flying entertainment was disappeared.
4. Angkor era (802-1431)
Angkor era was the most glorious days of the Khmer society after the country was liberated from
Java in 802 by a Great Khmer King, Jayavarman II. His people enjoyed real peace and blended
well in participating in Buddhist and Hindu ritual ceremonies. The mass population joined in the
construction of numerous bridges and roads and many wonderful and attractive temples. The glory
took root of the irrigation policy encouraging the building of big reservoirs to ensure enough water
for farming. Generally speaking, three or four crops a year could be counted on, according to the
account of Mr. Zhou Daguan, a Chinese diplomat, who was on his mission to Angkor city between
1296-1297.
Thanks to this agricultural thrust, the practice of kite-flying became an annually important event. The
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relation between Hindu faith and farming allowed the Khmer kings to celebrate the royal ploughing
ceremony at the beginning of each rainy season. It aims at paying tribute to the God of Earth for her
gracious favour of providing land to the farmers to cultivate their rice. At the beginning of the dry
season, the festival of kite flying also share the same purpose of expressing farmers gratitude to
Preah Peay (Divinity of Wind) for bringing no rain but good weather to ripen crops. Through stone
inscription dated AD 972, we came to know that "Khleng" was used to be a sacred object during
Angkor epoch.
However, this glorious moment was fading away and replacing by bloodshed after successive Siam
invasions of Angkor, the most important occurring in 1431. The Khmers were bitterly suffered and
forced to abandon Angkor in 1432. King Ponhea Yat and his people were migrating southward to the
vicinity of Phnom Penh, the current capital of Cambodia. Khmer families were swept away from their
villages and the country's civilization was decline. Together with the disappearance of some cultural
elements, "Khleng" value had been distorted that it was a vicious object. Subsequently, the royal kiteflying ceremony was no longer popular.
5. Under the reign of King Satha 1 (1576-1595)
Onl until this moment, the Khmers resumed their practice of kite-flying. According to the account of a
Portuguese visitor, Mr. Quiroga de San Antonio, who came to Cambodia in 1590, "the Khmers flew
their kites by using Babos (a kind of tree) as skeletons and paper to cover the kite body and the kites
aired attractive musical sounds when they were flying into the sky", he wrote.
However, there was no records that the king celebrated the kite flying ceremony eventhough the kite
was revived.
6. Under the reign of King Srei Suriyopor (1603-1618)
During his reign, it was reported that the king celebrated this festival every year but was based on
Buddhist cult.
7. Under the reign of King Ang Duong (1840-1859)
King Ang Duoung was one of the Khmer king full of gracious virtues and committed himself to
Buddhism. He paid attention to promoting peace in the country and raising living conditions of his
countrymen. He assigned his institutions and government to build a road leading from Oudong
Meanchey, Royal Palace, to Kampot province to reach the seaport and another road leading from
the royal capital to Kampong Luong, an important river port in Kandal province. He was a king
friendly to the environment. He issued a royal instruction to protect the country's natural resources and
not to hunt wild animals and not to fish by deploying "pruol" (tirellis) across canals and rivers.
Concerning the conservation and development of the tradition and culture, king Ang Duong built
numerous schools attached to pagodas throughout the country and also encouraged poets and writers
to show their works. He was outstanding himself as a poet and writer.
Following a Buddhist ritual ceremony, the king ordered to hold the royal festival of kite-flying
annually without fail.
At the beginning of this festival, Buddhist monks were invited to cite protective prayers at all five
ceremonial halls, each decorated with one kite and many lanterns. This festival was usually held
between the 12th and 15th day of waxing moon of Maksir in the royal palace of Uddong Meanchey.
It was held to dedicate to the "Preah Chula Muni Chetdei", and pray for good weather and good
harvest of crops and for a prosperity for the whole kingdom. After the king's death in 1859, there
were no royal observations of such kite-flying ceremonies by his successors.
However the kite-flying entertainment had been popular among the Khmers during harvest season
until 1970.
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8. During the period of Sangkum Reas Niyum (1953-1970)
In 1863_that was four years after king Ang Duong died Cambodia became a French colony. Since
then kite-flying habit became a casual entertainment only because of the threat of poverty and the
lack of freedom of expression. However, elderly people and monks still managed to play their role
of conservation of the national culture and the intangible culture of kite flying inclusive.
On 9th November 1953, Cambodia won independence back from France thanks to the royal crusade
headed by Preah Bat Norodom Sihanouk (former King of Cambodia). Until 1970 the country was
cherished a development in all economic sub-sectors. The country was worldwide recognized as a
peaceful oasis. The agriculture sector took leading with the annual export of rice up to 500,000
tonnes while the population lived happily and with full of honour. With the agricultural progress the
Khmers were liking to enjoy themselves to fly assorted kinds of kites in the open field after their
harvest. During night time, farmers flew their Khleng Pnorng and Khleng Kaum (lantern kites) in the
open field and returned home to listen different tones of music aired by their respective kites. At
home, they were chating with each other within their families and friends while appeasing their
stomaches by eating baked potatoes or glutenous rice baked in bamboo tubes. During daytime,
children, boys and girls, like flying Khleng Kandong (kite without tail) or Khleng Kantaung (pouch kite
or Khleng Prabao (pocket kite) and Khleng Kloh (parasol kite) at will and at whim.
Unfortunately for the Cambodian people, their country was in turmoil from the successive wars and
civil strife of the 1970s. This dark period had caused hunger, misery, sufferings and killing to
Cambodian people.
Khmer culture was on the brink of extinction and the exercise of kite flying must certainly die down
automatically.
9. Khleng Ek (1994-2004)
Until 1992 a handful of elderly persons, who still remembered the skills of making Khleng Ek and love
this segment of intangible culture, resumed flying their kites with caution in the open field. They were
cautious because they were aware that landmines possibly still remained here and there.
H.E.Mr. Nouth Narang, Minister of Culture and Fine Arts, granted a positive answer to Mr.Sim Sarak's
request on 31 December 1994 for organizing the festival of kite-flying for the first time in Phnom
Penh with the participation of 27 kite lovers from nine provinces.
Khleng Pnorng or Khleng Ek was revived once again and such a festival is organized annually since
1999 until present day. Khleng Ek gives not only a colour back to the Khmer culture but also conveys
its symbolic identity of peace and happiness to young Cambodians and their friends across the world
as well.
Living under the same sky and with the globalization of humanity, Khleng Ek of the Khmers has more
and more chances since 1994 to expose itself in 17 times to the international kite festivals, including
those held in France, Italy, United Kingdom, India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam.
The revival of "Khleng Ek" explains that our motherland of Cambodia is living at peace and tastes a
happiness.
10. Special Characteristic of "Khleng Ek"
a) Khleng Ek is equipped with Ek, a kind of musical instrument which can air many melodic tones
when it flies higher into the sky;
b) kite-flying is an entertainment by members of the local community;
c) whenever the local inhabitants could find time to fly their kites, one could read a significant
message that the community is of freedom and the country enjoys peace;
d) Khleng Ek represents a mother or a leader of the country in the Cambodian context;
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All these characteristics already reflected in a code conducts written in 17th century by a famous
poet, a prince whose name was Preah Reach Samphear.
A section of his poem read as follows: The kite flies higher because of the wind, The chief highly
honours because of the innovative citizens, The fortunes are saved by a good wife, The prosperous
house is because of a faithful wife.
Phnom Penh, August 1, 2004
http://www.subvision.net
this KHLENG EK kite is an original made 1949 - skin is silk.
Mr. Dek Sarin, Director of Cultural Development, Ministry of Fine Arts, who led us through the National
Kite Exposition Hall. Some western kiters may know him from Dieppe Kitefest '94.
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21
Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year

Chinese New Year, known in modern Chinese as the "Spring Festival" (simplified Chinese ;
traditional Chinese ; Pinyin: Chn ji), is an important Chinese festival celebrated at the turn of
the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. Celebrations traditionally run from the evening preceding
the first day, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first calendar month. The first day of the
New Year falls on the new moon between 21 January and 20 February. In 2017, the first day of the
Chinese New Year is on Saturday, 28 January.
The New Year festival is centuries old and gains significance because of several myths and traditions.
Traditionally, the festival was a time to honour deities as well as ancestors. Chinese New Year is
celebrated in countries and territories with significant Chinese populations, including Mainland China,
Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore,[6] Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius, and
the Philippines. Chinese New Year is considered a major holiday for the Chinese and has had
influence on the lunar New Year celebrations of its geographic neighbours.
Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the Chinese New Year
vary widely. Often, the evening preceding Chinese New Year's Day is an occasion for Chinese
families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly
cleanse the house, in order to sweep away any ill-fortune and to make way for good incoming luck.
Windows and doors will be decorated with red color paper-cuts and couplets with popular themes
of "good fortune" or "happiness", "wealth", and "longevity". Other activities include lighting
firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes.
Although the Chinese calendar traditionally does not use continuously numbered years, outside China
its years are often numbered from the reign of the 3rd millennium BCE Yellow Emperor. But at least
three different years numbered 1 are now used by various scholars, making the year
beginning CE 2015 the "Chinese year" 4713, 4712, or 4652.
Offerings to the gods
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House doorway decorated for the New Year.

The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Chinese New Year. The calendar is also used in
countries that have been influenced by, or have relations with, China such as Korea, Japan and
Vietnam.
In the Gregorian calendar, Chinese Lunar New Year begins at the new moon that falls between 21
January and 20 February. In theChinese calendar, winter solstice must occur in the 11th month, which
means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely
the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In traditional Chinese Culture, lichun is a solar term
marking the start of spring, which occurs about 4 or 5 February, which is the median date of Chinese
New Year's Day. To determine whether a year has an intercalary month, one only needs to check
whether Chinese New Year is within the month of January.
The Gregorian Calendar dates for Chinese New Year from 1912 to 2101 are below, along with the
year's presiding animal zodiac and its Stem-branch. The traditional Chinese calendar follows a
Metonic cycle (like the modern Jewish Calendar), and returns to the same date in Gregorian calendar
roughly. The names of the Earthly Branches have no English counterparts and are not the Chinese
translations of the animals. Alongside the 12-year cycle of the animal zodiac there is a 10-year cycle
of heavenly stems. Each of the ten heavenly stems is associated with one of the five
elements of Chinese astrology, namely: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. The elements are
rotated every two years while a yin and yang association alternates every year. The elements are
thus distinguished: Yang Wood, Yin Wood, Yang Fire, Yin Fire, etc. These produce a combined cycle
that repeats every 60 years. For example, the year of the Yang fire Rat occurred in 1936 and in
1996, 60 years apart.
Many people inaccurately calculate their Chinese birth-year by converting it from their Gregorian
birth-year. As the Chinese New Year starts in late January to mid-February, the previous Chinese
year dates through 1 January until that day in the new Gregorian year, remaining unchanged from
the previous Gregorian year. For example, the 1989 year of the Snake began on 6 February 1989.
The year 1990 is generally aligned with the year of the Horse. However, the 1989 year of
the Snake officially ended on 8 February 1990. This means that anyone born from 1 January to 7
February 1990 was actually born in the year of the Snake rather than the year of the Horse. Many
online Chinese Sign calculators do not account for the non-alignment of the two calendars, using
Gregorian-calendar years rather than official Chinese New Year dates.
One scheme of continuously numbered Chinese-calendar years assigns 4709 to the year beginning,
2011, but this is not universally accepted; the calendar is traditionally cyclical, not continuously
numbered.
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Mythology
Hand-written Chinese New Year's poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's
homes, Lijiang, Yunnan
According to tales and legends, the beginning of the Chinese New Year started with a mythical beast
called the Nian. Nian would eat villagers, especially children. One year, all the villagers decided to
go hide from the beast. An old man appeared before the villagers went into hiding and said that he's
going to stay the night, and decided to get revenge on the Nian. All the villagers thought he was
insane. The old man put red papers up and set off firecrackers. The day after, the villagers came
back to their town to see that nothing was destroyed. They assumed that the old man was a deity who
came to save them. The villagers then understood that the Nian was afraid of the color red and loud
noises. When the New Year was about to come, the villagers would wear red clothes, hang red
lanterns, and red spring scrolls on windows and doors. People also used firecrackers to frighten away
the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured
by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. The Nian became Hongjun Laozu's mount.
Festivities
Red couplets and red lanterns are displayed on the door frames and light up the atmosphere. The air
is filled with strong Chinese emotions. In stores in Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, and other cities, products
of traditional Chinese style have started to lead fashion trend[s]. Buy yourself a Chinese-style coat,
get your kids tiger-head hats and shoes, and decorate your home with some beautiful red Chinese
knots, then you will have an authentic Chinese-style Spring Festival.
Xinwen Lianbo, January 2001, quoted by Li Ren, Imagining China in the Era of Global Consumerism
and Local Consciousness
Preceding days
On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the Laba holiday (simplified
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: lb), a traditional porridge, Laba
porridge (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: lb zhu), is served in
remembrance of an ancient festival, called La, that occurred shortly after the winter solstice.[31] Pickles
such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that believe
in Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. Layue (simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Lyu) is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers
to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese
New Year are known as larou (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: lru). The
porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the
family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl,
with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in
some Chinese homes. The concept of the "La month" is similar toAdvent in Christianity. Many families
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eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New
Year day.
On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their homes a
thorough cleaning. There is a Cantonese saying "Wash away the dirt on nin ya baat"
(Chinese: ; pinyin: nin nin b, x lt; Jyutping: nin4 jaa6 baat3, sai2 laap6 taap3
(laat6 taat3)), but the practice is not restricted to nin ya baat (the 28th day of month 12). It is
believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready
for good luck. Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good
luck cannot be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window-frames a new coat of
red paint; decorators and paper-hangers do a year-end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year.
Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing
new clothing and shoes also symbolize a new start. Any hair cuts need to be completed before the
New Year, as cutting hair on New Year is considered bad luck due to the homonymic nature of the
word "hair" (fa) and the word for "prosperity". Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts
outstanding for the year before the New Year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Thus it is a
common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members.
In many households where Buddhism or Taoism is prevalent, home altars and statues are cleaned
thoroughly, and decorations used to adorn altars over the past year are taken down and burned a
week before the New Year starts, to be replaced with new decorations. Taoists (and Buddhists to a
lesser extent) will also "send gods" (Chinese: ; pinyin:sngshn), an example would be burning a
paper effigy of Zao Jun the Kitchen God, the recorder of family functions. This is done so that the
Kitchen God can report to the Jade Emperor of the family household's transgressions and good
deeds. Families often offer sweet foods (such as candy) in order to "bribe" the deities into reporting
good things about the family.
Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous
year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before
them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity,
with a Christian prayer offered instead.
The biggest event of any Chinese New Year's Eve is the Reunion Dinner, named as "Nian Ye Fan". A
dish consisting of special meats is served at the tables of Chinese families, as a main course for the
dinner and offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and
remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians. In northern
China, it is customary to make dumplings (jiaozi) after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings
symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. By contrast, in the South, it is
customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and
friends in the coming days of the new year. Ningo [Pinyin] literally means "new year cake" with a
homophonous meaning of "increasingly prosperous year in year out". After dinner, some families go to
local temples hours before the new year begins to pray for a prosperous new year by lighting the
first incense of the year; however in modern practice, many households hold parties and even hold a
countdown to the new year. Traditionally, firecrackers were once lit to scare away evil spirits with the
household doors sealed, not to be reopened until the new morning in a ritual called "opening the door
of fortune" (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: kicimn). Beginning in
1982, the CCTV New Year's Gala was broadcast four hours before the start of the New Year.
First day
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The first day is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and earth, officially beginning at
midnight. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers and to
make as much of a din as possible to chase off the evil spirits as encapsulated by nian (Chinese: )
of which the term guo nian (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: gunin) was
derived. Many people, especially Buddhists, abstain from meat consumption on the first day because
it is believed that this will ensure longevity for them. Some consider lighting fires and using knives to
be bad luck on New Year's Day, so all food to be consumed is cooked the days before. On this day,
it is considered bad luck to use the broom.
Most importantly, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time to honor one's elders and families visit
the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents
and great-grandparents.
For Buddhists, the first day is also the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (better known as the more
familiar Budai Luohan), the Buddha-to-be. People also abstain from killing animals.
Lion Dance for Chinese New Year celebration in Surabaya, Indonesia

Some families may invite a lion dance troupe as a symbolic ritual to usher in the Chinese New Year as
well as to evict bad spirits from the premises. Members of the family who are married also give red
envelopes containing cash known as lai see (Cantonese dialect) or angpow(Hokkien dialect/Fujian), or
"Hongpau" (Mandarin), a form of blessings and to suppress the aging and challenges associated with
the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers
also give bonuses through red packets to employees for good luck, smooth-sailing, good health and
wealth.
While fireworks and firecrackers are traditionally very popular, some regions have banned them due
to concerns over fire hazards. For this reason, various city governments (e.g., Kowloon, Beijing,
Shanghai for a number of years) issued bans over fireworks and firecrackers in certain precincts of
the city. As a substitute, large-scale fireworks display have been launched by governments in such city
states as Hong Kong and Singapore. However, it is a tradition that the indigenous peoples of
the walled villages of New Territories, Hong Kong are permitted to light firecrackers and
launch fireworks in a limited scale.
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Second day
Incense is burned at the graves of ancestors as part of the offering and prayer ritual.
The second day of the Chinese New Year, known as "beginning of the year" (simplified
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: kinin), was when married daughters visited their
birth parents, relatives and close friends. (Traditionally, married daughters didn't have the
opportunity to visit their birth families frequently.)
During the days of imperial China, "beggars and other unemployed people circulate[d] from family
to family, carrying a picture [of the God of Wealth] shouting, "Cai Shen dao!" [The God of Wealth
has come!]." Householders would respond with "lucky money" to reward the messengers. Business
people of the Cantonese dialect group will hold a 'Hoi Nin' prayer to start their business on the 2nd
day of Chinese New Year so they will be blessed with good luck and prosperity in their business for
the year.
As this day is believed to be The Birthday of Che Kung, a deity worshipped in Hong Kong,
worshippers go to Che Kung Temples to pray for his blessing. A representative from the government
asks Che Kung about the city's fortune through kau cim.
Some believe that the second day is also the birthday of all dogs and remember them with special
treats.
Third day
The third day is known as "red mouth" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Chku). Chikou is also called "Chigou's
Day" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Chgur).Chigou, literally "red dog", is an epithet of "the God of
Blazing Wrath" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Bio n zh shn). Rural villagers continue the tradition of
burning paper offerings over trash fires. It is considered an unlucky day to have guests or go visiting.
Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed
everyone should stay at home. This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God
of Wealth and have one's future told.
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Traditional food
One version of niangao, Chinese New Year cake

A reunion dinner, named as "Nian Ye Fan", is held on New Year's Eve during which family members
gather for celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the
family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of
meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it
is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners
(particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats
like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for
this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish (traditional
Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: y) is included, but not eaten completely (and the
remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year" (traditional
Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: ninnin yu y) sounds the same as "let
there be fish every year." Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune
associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven
dishes are served.
Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These
packets often contain money in certain numbers that reflect good luck and honorability. Several foods
are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names
are homophones for words that also mean good things.
Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as
these ingredients also has similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money.
Practices
History
In 1928, the ruling Kuomintang party in China decreed that Chinese New Year will fall on 1 Jan of
the Gregorian Calendar, but this was abandoned due to overwhelming opposition from the populace.
In 1967 during the Cultural Revolution, official Chinese New Year celebrations were banned in China.
The State Council of the People's Republic of China announced that the public should "Change
Customs", have a "revolutionized and fighting Spring Festival", and since people needed to work on
Chinese New Year Eve, they didn't have holidays during Spring Festival day. The public celebrations
were reinstated by the time of the Chinese economic reform.
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Red envelopes
Red packets for sale in a market inTaipei, Taiwan, before the Year of the Rat
Shoppers at a New Year market inChinatown, Singapore

Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets (Cantonese: lai sze or lai see; , or ; Pinyin:
lsh; Mandarin: hngbo ;Hokkien: ang pow; POJ: ng-pau; Hakka: fung bao) are passed out
during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors.
It is also common for adults or young couples to give red packets to children.
During this period, red packets are also known as / (ysuqin, which was evolved
from /, literally, "the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit").
Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several
hundred. Per custom, the amount of money in the red packets should be of even numbers, as odd
numbers are associated with cash given during funerals (: bijn). The number 8 is considered
lucky (for its homophone for "wealth"), and $8 is commonly found in the red envelopes in the US. The
number six (, li) is also very lucky as it sounds like "smooth" (, li), in the sense of having a
smooth year. The number four () is the worst because its homophone is "death" (). Sometimes
chocolate coins are found in the red packets.
Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for
example, are odd numbers, and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, it is common
and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note with ten or
fifty yuan bills used frequently. It is customary for the bills to be brand new printed money. Everything
regarding the New Year has to be new in order to have good luck and fortune.
The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): to-hngbo, or
(Cantonese): . A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he
or she would be "out of luck" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established
married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children
to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting
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the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after
Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune.
In Taiwan in 2000s, some employers also gave red packets as a bonus to maids, nurses or domestic
workers from Southeast Asian countries, although whether this is appropriate is controversial.
The Japanese have a similar tradition of giving money during the New Year, called Otoshidama.
Gift exchange
Chinese candy box

In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small
gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different
households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at
their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, and never pears), cakes, biscuits,
chocolates, and candies.
Certain items should not be given, as they are considered taboo. Taboo gifts include:[51][52][53][54]
items associated with funerals (i.e. handkerchiefs, towels, chrysanthemums, items colored white and
black) items that show that time is running out (i.e. clocks and watches) harp objects that symbolize
cutting a tie (i.e. scissors and knives) items that symbolize that you want to walk away from a
relationship (examples: shoes and sandals) mirrors homonyms for unpleasant topics (examples: "clock"
sounds like "the funeral ritual", green hats because "wear a green hat" sounds like "cuckold",
"handkerchief" sounds like "goodbye", "pear" sounds like "separate", and "umbrella" sounds like
"closing" or "fall").
Markets
Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. These usually open-air markets
feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks. It is convenient
for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decorations. In some places, the
practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying
a Christmas tree.
Hong Kong filmmakers also release "New Year celebration films" (), mostly comedies, at this
time of year.
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Fireworks
A Chinese man setting off fireworks during Chinese New Year in Shanghai.
Bamboo stems filled with gunpowder that were burnt to create small explosions were once used in
ancient China to drive away evil spirits. In modern times, this method has eventually evolved into the
use of firecrackers during the festive season. Firecrackers are usually strung on a long fused string so
it can be hung down. Each firecracker is rolled up in red papers, as red is auspicious, with gunpowder
in its core. Once ignited, the firecracker lets out a loud popping noise and, as they are usually strung
together by the hundreds, the firecrackers are known for their deafening explosions that are thought
to scare away evil spirits. The burning of firecrackers also signifies a joyful time of year and has
become an integral aspect of Chinese New Year celebrations.
Symbolism
An inverted character fu is a sign of arriving blessings.

As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper
meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped fu
characters (Chinese: ; pinyin: f; Cantonese Yale: fuk1; literally: "blessings, happiness"), which are
displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the
Chinese word dao (Chinese: ; pinyin: do; literally: "upside down"), is homophonous or nearly
homophonous with (Chinese: ; pinyin: do; literally: "arrive") in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it
symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity.
For the Cantonese-speaking people, if the fuk sign is hung upside down, the implied dao (upside
down) sounds like the Cantonese word for "pour", producing "pour the luck [away]", which would
usually symbolize bad luck; this is why the fuk character is not usually hung upside-down in Cantonese
communities.
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Red is the predominant color used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this color
also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually
denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, cakes, decorations
and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are colored red. The sound of the
Chinese word for "red" (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: hng; Cantonese
Yale: hung4) is in Mandarin homophonous with the word for "prosperous". Therefore, red is an
auspicious color and has an auspicious sound.
Icons and ornaments

Icons
Meaning
Illustrations
Lanterns
These lanterns that differ from those of Mid Autumn Festival in

general. They will be red in color and tend to be oval in shape.
These are the traditional Chinese paper lanterns. Those
lanterns, used on the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year for
the Lantern Festival, are bright, colorful, and in many different
sizes and shapes.
Decorations
Decorations generally convey a New Year greeting. They are

not advertisements. Fai ChunChinese calligraphy of
auspiciousChinese idioms on typically red postersare hung on
doorways and walls. Other decorations include a New year
picture,Chinese knots, and papercutting and couplets.
Dragon
dance and
Lion dance
Dragon and lion dances are common during Chinese New Year.
It is believed that the loud beats of the drum and the deafening
sounds of the cymbals together with the face of the Dragon or
lion dancing aggressively can evict bad or evil spirits. Lion
dances are also popular for opening of businesses in Hong
Kong and Macau.
Fortune gods
Cai Shen Ye, Che Kung, etc.
Chinese New Year: family, food and prosperity for the year ahead
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Tue, 28 January 2014
Gongxi facai! Its Chinese New Year, otherwise known as the spring festival. In Cambodia, nearly one
million Cambodians of Chinese heritage actively celebrate the annual festival to bring good luck for
the year ahead.
According to various Cambodian-Chinese associations, there are at least 13 big ChineseCambodian family names. These include Lim, Ung, Chea and Taing. Further more, at least 700,000
Cambodians are of Chinese descent. Traditionally, Chinese-Cambodians have congregated in cities
and townships in particular the Kingdoms economic and commercial hubs.
Heng Chou Ly, 64, a member of the Executive Committee of Sam Oung Pagoda in Mean Chey
districts Chba Ampov commune, calls Chinese New Year the biggest event and most important
celebration of the entire year for Chinese-Cambodians.
We celebrate Chinese New Year in the tradition of our parents and grandparents, he says. The
season starts more than 10 days before the end of Bos [the last month of the Khmer lunar year].
Thats when Chinese-Cambodians begin to buy incense, festive home decorations, new clothes, fruit,
flowers and cookies, while also making the home spotlessly clean to welcome in the New Year.
Chinese New Year celebrations run from the 30th day of the last Khmer lunar month until the second
week of Meakh, the first month of the Khmer lunar year. Even though the celebrations cover a
relatively long period, strictly speaking, in 2014, the festival proper runs from Chinese New Years
Eve on January 30 to February 1.
According to tradition, in the lead-up to Chinese New Year, Chinese-Cambodian shops offer great
discounts, says Huang Quisong, who is a traditional Chinese musician at Sam Oung Pagoda and
assistant to the CEO of Bacarni, a company that sells cooking equipment for restaurant-scale kitchens.
Discounting is the Chinese-Cambodian way of contributing to the New Year celebrations, making it
possible for people to spend less and buy more. It brings happiness to everyone to the sellers,
buyers, and to the recipients of gifts, bringing cheerfulness to the New Year celebrations.
Cambodian-Chinese Chou Ly says, Chinese New Year is a time for family members, both young and
old, to come together and be happy. Cheerful celebrations bring good luck for the entire year
ahead.
Chou Ly says that for some Cambodian Chinese, the celebrations start six days before the start of
Chinese New Year, on the 24th day of Bos.
We burn incense, or nakta, sending prayers for good fortune to the heavens, he says, adding that
incense is not burned until Chinese New Year gets under way in earnest.
The purpose is to cast off all the bad luck of the previous year and to call on the heavens to bring
prosperity, luck and happiness for all family members in the year ahead, Chou Ly says.
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Traditionally, families load their tables with a variety of fruits, but the most important of them is a
variety of orange known as khwik.
Other dishes include soup, fried dishes, chicken or duck, cured pork, dried squid and boiled eggs,
accompanied by rice wine and other drinks. After prayers, the entire family feasts on the delicacies.
According to Ngor Thou, ex-president of the Association of Teo Chew in Cambodia, another
interesting Chinese New Year tradition is that after homes have been made spotlessly clean, brooms
and dust pans are stored out of sight for three days from the first day of the Chinese New Year to
avoid good luck being swept away.
Most Chinese decorate their homes, doors, and window panes with a new coat of red paint, he
adds.
Meanwhile, according to Thou and in a tradition rarely followed in China itself many Buddhist
Cambodian-Chinese abstain from eating meat on the first day of Chinese New Year in the belief that
it promotes longevity.
Most importantly, though, the first day of Chinese New Year is a time for families including
grandparents and great-grandparents to spend time together at home, he says.
On the second and third day, families visit members of their extended family, or go on sightseeing
trips.
Khiev Sambath, committee member of a Chinese Pagoda in Phhsa Kandal, says: Traditionally angpow [red envelopes, or hongbao in Mandarin], which hold gifts of money, are passed out during the
celebrations. Couples and elderly family members give them to unmarried youth.
Among the other traditions observed by Chinese worldwide during Chinese New Year are incendiary
firecracker celebrations from midnight of New Years Eve, along with performances by dragon dance
troupes, which frighten away evil spirits and expel any bad luck from family homes and businesses.
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22
Hei Neak Ta
Spirits, Possessions Mark End to Chinese New Year
BY DENE-HERN CHEN AND CHIN CHAN | FEBRUARY 27, 2013
Surrounded by hundreds of cheering children and adults, the procession of Chinese spirits wailed in
the distance.
A Chinese spirit medium participates in the Hei Neak Ta parade in Phnom Penhs Meanchey district on
Monday to mark the end of the Chinese New Year. (Dene-Hern Chen/The Cambodia Daily)
As trucks decked with colorful dragon flags and makeshift altars snaked through the narrow roads of
Phnom Penhs Meanchey district, Sok Mean, 73, a rotund man flanked by two sweaty helpers, was the
first of the possessed spirit mediums to descend onto earthly soil.
Channeling the Chinese spirit of Koma Sok Meas, or Golden Haired Child, Mr. Mean approached an
altar outside a home in Chbar Ampov commune as dozens of women, men and children sank to their
knees and prayed.
Considered a good spirit, Golden Haired Child, or Mr. Mean, smiled benignly as he threw sweets to
the children and sprinkled sacred water on the many supplicants from a red plastic bucket.
Four other spirit mediums dressed in the similar finery of ancient Chinese lords and ladiesamber,
baby-blue, onyx and white regaliafollowed Mr. Mean.
One of the spirits, dressed in onyx with red wine dripping down his mouth, received particular
attention as he downed alcohol and spat it out at people. When the medium returned to his spirit
truck, he sat upon a chair of nails, but leaned heavily upon one of his helpers to prevent his whole
weight from bearing down on the sharp spikes below his bottom.
Teenagers nearby filmed him with their smartphones.
According to Mr. Mean, who spoke by phone after the Golden Haired Child spirit had left his body at
around 6:30 p.m., spirit possession is a family affair.
His father and grandfather both experienced the same possessions. He said the spirit of Kong Pheng,
a Chinese war commander, chose members of his family to embody the spirit.
I dont know from what century Kong Pheng hails, he said, adding that his body was overtaken by
the Golden Haired Child early yesterday morning.
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During the spirit parade, my soul stays in the incense in the front of the truck, and the spirit stays in
my body so I cant feel anything, Mr. Mean said. For old people like me, the spirit does not stay in
me long, maybe for only 10 hours. But young people can be possessed for an entire day.
Not all the spirits are angels. Some are ghosts, some are soldiers, and the bad ones would possess
people and cheat the public, he added.
They do not really take care of the people.
Known as the Hei Neak Ta, or Spirit Parade, the festival is held each year to mark the official end of
the Chinese New Year celebrations in a uniquely Khmer manner. While the holiday is known as the
Lantern festival in other parts of Asia, and is celebrated solely on the 15th day of the lunar calendar,
festivities in Cambodia can go on for three to four days and often feature elaborate parades with a
wide range of spirit mediums.
The spirits came here to bless this street and I have taken part in this ceremony for almost 30 years,
said Ly Yung, 62, whose home on Street 367 was blessed yesterday by Mr. Mean.
Lin Li Tan, director of Fujian Ming Sheng Chinese School, which houses a Chinese temple visited by
hundreds each year who pray for the spirits to enter their bodies, explained that spirit mediums will
often prick their tongues with needles and then lick their blood onto spirit money for good fortune.
Sometimes, when they put the blood on the [spirit money], its for extra protection, Ms. Li Tan said.
As the procession left her street, Ms. Yung remarked that the spirit parade was growing smaller each
year.
In previous years, there were more spirits and the people that the spirits entered were all old. But
this year, the spirits have entered some new young people Ms. Yung said.
While yesterdays Hei Neak Ta had hundreds participating in it, another parade scheduled to travel
from Takhmao City along National Road 2 this afternoon will attract even more revelers and will
feature more spirit mediums, and likely more bleeding from the mouth after having their tongues
pierced with a needle.
2013, The Cambodia Daily. All rights reserved. No part of this article may be reproduced in print,
electronically, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without written permission.
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23
Mid-Autumn Festival
Mid-Autumn Festival
This article is about the holiday celebrated in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore,
Malaysia, Vietnam and by ethnic Chinese worldwide. Mid-Autumn Festival is a term sometimes also used
to describe Chuseok in Korea and Tsukimi in Japan.
The Mid-Autumn Festival (traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; Vietnamese: tt
Trung Thu) is a harvest festival celebrated by ethnic Chinese and Vietnamese people. The festival is
held on the 15th day of the 8th month of the lunar calendar with full moon at night, corresponding to
late September to early October of the Gregorian calendar with full moon at night.
Mainland China listed the festival as an "intangible cultural heritage" in 2006 and a public holiday in
2008. It is also a public holiday in Taiwan, and in Hong Kong. In the Vietnamese culture, it is
considered the second-most important holiday tradition after Tt.
Alternative names
The Mid-Autumn Festival is also known by other names, such as:
Moon Festival or Harvest Moon Festival, because of the celebration's association with the full
moon on this night, as well as the traditions of moon worship and moon gazing.
Mooncake Festival, because of the popular tradition of eating mooncakes on this occasion.
Jng-chu Jit (), official name in Cantonese Chinese.
Tt Trung Thu, official name in Vietnamese.
Zhngqi Ji (), the official name in Mandarin Chinese.
Lantern Festival, a term sometimes used in Singapore and Malaysia, which is not to be
confused with the Lantern Festival in China that occurs on the 15th day of the first month of the
Chinese calendar.
Reunion Festival, because in olden times, a woman in China would take the occasion to visit
her parents before returning to celebrate with her husband and his parents.
Children's Festival, in Vietnam, because of the emphasis on the celebration of children.
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Meanings of the festival

The festival celebrates three fundamental concepts which are closely tied to one another:
Gathering, such as family and friends coming together, or harvesting crops for the festival. It's said
the moon is the brightest and roundest on this day which means family reunion.
Thanksgiving, to give thanks for the harvest, or for harmonious unions
Praying (asking for conceptual or material satisfaction), such as for babies, a spouse, beauty,
longevity, or for a good future. Traditions and myths surrounding the festival are formed around these
three concepts, although traditions have changed over time due to changes in technology, science,
economy, culture, and religion. It's about well being together.
Origins and development

The Chinese have celebrated the harvest during the autumn full moon since the Shang dynasty (c.
16001046 BCE). Morris Berkowitz, who studied the Hakka people during the 1960s, theorizes that
the harvest celebration originally began with worshiping Mountain Gods after the harvest was
completed. For the Baiyue peoples, the harvest time commemorated the dragon who brought rain for
the crops. The celebration as a festival only started to gain popularity during the early Tang
dynasty (618907 CE). One legend explains that Emperor Xuanzong of Tang started to hold formal
celebrations in his palace after having explored the Moon-Palace. The term mid-autumn () first
appeared in Rites of Zhou, a written collection of rituals of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046771
BCE).
Empress Dowager Cixi (late 19th century) enjoyed celebrating Mid-Autumn Festival so much that she
would spend the period between the thirteenth and seventeenth day of the eighth month staging
elaborate rituals.
Moon worship
Chang'e, the Moon Goddess of Immortality

Houyi helplessly looking at his wife Chang'e flying off to the moon after she drank the elixir.
An important part of the festival celebration is moon worship. The ancient Chinese believed in
rejuvenation being associated with the moon and water, and connected this concept to
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the menstruation of women, calling it "monthly water". The Zhuang people, for example, have an
ancient fable saying the sun and moon are a couple and the stars are their children, and when the
moon is pregnant, it becomes round, and then becomes crescent after giving birth to a child. These
beliefs made it popular among women to worship and give offerings to the moon on this evening. In
some areas of China, there are still customs in which "men worship the moon and the women offer
sacrifices to the kitchen gods."
Offerings are also made to a more well-known lunar deity, Chang'e, known as the Moon Goddess of
Immortality. The myths associated with Chang'e explain the origin of moon worship during this day.
One version of the story is as follows, as described in Lihui Yang's Handbook of Chinese Mythology:
In the ancient past, there was a hero named Hou Yi who was excellent at archery. His wife was
Chang'e. One year, the ten suns rose in the sky together, causing great disaster to people. Yi shot
down nine of the suns and left only one to provide light. An immortal admired Yi and sent him the
elixir of immortality. Yi did not want to leave Chang'e and be immortal without her, so he let Chang'e
keep the elixir. But Peng Meng, one of his apprentices, knew this secret. So, on the fifteenth of August
in the lunar calendar, when Yi went hunting, Peng Meng broke into Yi's house and forced Chang'e to
give the elixir to him. Chang'e refused to do so. Instead, she swallowed it and flew into the sky. Since
she loved very much her husband and hoped to live nearby, she chose the moon for her residence.
When Yi came back and learned what had happened, he felt so sad that he displayed the fruits and
cakes Chang'e liked in the yard and gave sacrifices to his wife. People soon learned about these
activities, and since they also were sympathetic to Chang'e they participated in these sacrifices with
Yi.
Handbook of Chinese Mythology also describes an alternate common version of the myth:[8]
After the hero Houyi shot down nine of the ten suns, he was pronounced king by the thankful people.
However, he soon became a conceited and tyrannical ruler. In order to live long without death, he
asked for the elixir from Xiwangmu. But his wife, Chang'e, stole it on the fifteenth of August because
she did not want the cruel king to live long and hurt more people. She took the magic potion to
prevent her husband from becoming immortal. Houyi was so angry when discovered that Chang'e
took the elixir, he shot at his wife as she flew toward the moon, though he missed. Chang'e fled to the
moon and became the spirit of the moon. Houyi died soon because he was overcome with great
anger. Thereafter, people offer a sacrifice to Chang'e on every lunar fifteenth of August to
commemorate Chang'e's action.
Modern celebration
The festival was a time to enjoy the successful reaping of rice and wheat with food offerings made in
honor of the moon. Today, it is still an occasion for outdoor reunions among friends and relatives to
eat mooncakes and watch the moon, a symbol of harmony and unity. The festival is celebrated with
many cultural or regional customs, among them:
Burning incense in reverence to deities including Chang'e.
Performance of dragon and lion dances, which is mainly practiced in southern Chinaand Vietnam.
Lanterns
For information on a different festival that also involve lanterns, see Lantern Festival
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Mid-Autumn Festival lanterns in Chinatown, Singapore
Mid-Autumn Festival lanterns at a shop in Hong Kong

A notable part of celebrating the holiday is the carrying of brightly lit lanterns, lighting lanterns on
towers, or floating sky lanterns.[1] Another tradition involving lanterns is to write riddles on them and
have other people try to guess the answers (simplified Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ; pinyin: dng m; literally: "lantern riddle").
It is difficult to discern the original purpose of lanterns in connection to the festival, but it is certain that
lanterns were not used in conjunction with moon-worship prior to the Tang dynasty. Traditionally, the
lantern has been used to symbolize fertility, and functioned mainly as a toy and decoration. But today
the lantern has come to symbolize the festival itself. In the old days, lanterns were made in the image
of natural things, myths, and local cultures. Over time, a greater variety of lanterns could be found as
local cultures became influenced by their neighbors.
As China gradually evolved from an agrarian society to a mixed agrarian-commercial one, traditions
from other festivals began to be transmitted into the Mid-Autumn Festival, such as the putting of
lanterns on rivers to guide the spirits of the drowned as practiced during the Ghost Festival, which is
observed a month before. Hong Kong fishermen during theQing dynasty, for example, would put up
lanterns on their boats for the Ghost Festival and keep the lanterns up until Mid-Autumn Festival.
In Vietnam, children participate in parades in the dark under the full moon with lanterns of various
forms, shapes, and colors. Traditionally, lanterns signified the wish for the sun's light and warmth to
return after winter. In addition to carrying lanterns, the children also don masks. Elaborate masks were
made of papier-mch, though it is more common to find masks made of plastic nowadays.
Handcrafted shadow lanterns were an important part of Mid-Autumn displays since the 12thcentury L dynasty, often of historical figures from Vietnamese history. Handcrafted lantern-making
declined in modern times due to the availability of mass-produced plastic lanterns, which often depict
internationally recognized characters such as Pokmon's Pikachu, Disney characters, SpongeBob
SquarePants and Hello Kitty.
Mooncakes
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Typical lotus bean-filled mooncakes eaten during the festival
Animal-shaped mooncakes in Vietnam

Making and sharing mooncakes is one of the hallmark traditions of this festival. In Chinese culture, a
round shape symbolizes completeness and reunion. Thus, the sharing and eating of round mooncakes
among family members during the week of the festival signify the completeness and unity of
families.] In some areas of China, there is a tradition of making mooncakes during the night of the
Mid-Autumn Festival. The senior person in that household would cut the mooncakes into pieces and
distribute them to each family member, signifying family reunion. In modern times, however, making
mooncakes at home has given way to the more popular custom of giving mooncakes to family
members, although the meaning of maintaining familial unity remains.
Although typical mooncakes can be around a few inches in diameter, imperial chefs have made some
as large as several feet in diameter, with its surface impressed with designs of Chang'e, cassia trees,
or the Moon-Palace. One tradition is to pile 13 mooncakes on top of each other to mimic a pagoda,
the number 13 being chosen to represent the 13 months in a full lunar year.
According to Chinese folklore, a Turpan businessman offered cakes to Emperor Taizong of Tang in his
victory against the Xiongnu on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. Taizong took the round
cakes and pointed to the moon with a smile, saying, "I'd like to invite the toad to enjoy the h ()
cake." After sharing the cakes with his ministers, the custom of eating these h cakes spread throughout
the country. Eventually these became known as mooncakes. Although the legend explains the
beginnings of mooncake-giving, its popularity and ties to the festival began during the Song
dynasty (9061279 CE).
Another popular legend concerns the Han Chinese's uprising against the ruling Mongols at the end of
the Yuan dynasty (12801368 CE), in which the Han Chinese used traditional mooncakes to conceal
the message that they were to rebel on Mid-Autumn Day. Because of strict controls upon Han Chinese
families imposed by the Mongols in which only 1 out of every 10 households was allowed to own a
knife guarded by a Mongolian guard, this coordinated message was important to gather as many
available weapons as possible.
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Other foods and food displays
Cassia wine is the traditional choice for "reunion wine" drunk during Mid-Autumn Festival
Vietnamese rice figurines, known as t he

Imperial dishes served on this occasion included nine-jointed lotus roots which symbolize peace, and
watermelons cut in the shape of lotus petals which symbolize reunion. Teacups were placed on stone
tables in the garden, where the family would pour tea and chat, waiting for the moment when the full
moon's reflection appeared in the center of their cups. Owing to the timing of the plant's
blossoms, cassia wine is the traditional choice for the "reunion wine" drunk on the occasion. Also,
people will celebrate by eating cassia cakes and candy.
Food offerings made to deities are placed on an altar set up in the courtyard, including apples,
pears, peaches, grapes, pomegranates, melons, oranges, and pomelos. One of the first decorations
purchased for the celebration table is a clay statue of the Jade Rabbit. In Chinese folklore, the Jade
Rabbit was an animal that lived on the moon and accompanied Chang'e. Offerings of soy beans and
cockscomb flowers were made to the Jade Rabbit.
Nowadays, in southern China, people will also eat some seasonal fruit that may differ in different
district but carrying the same meaning of blessing.
In Vietnam, cakes and fruits are not only consumed, but elaborately prepared as food displays. For
example, glutinous rice flour and rice paste are molded into familiar animals. Pomelo sections can be
fashioned into unicorns, rabbits, or dogs. Villagers of Xun La, just south of Hanoi, produce t he,
figurines made from rice paste and colored with natural food dyes. Into the early decades of the
twentieth century of Vietnam, daughters of wealthy families would prepare elaborate centerpieces
filled with treats for their younger siblings. Well-dressed visitors could visit to observe the daughter's
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handiwork as an indication of her capabilities as a wife in the future. Eventually the practice of
arranging centerpieces became a tradition not just limited to wealthy families.
Courtship and matchmaking

The Mid-Autumn moon has traditionally been a choice occasion to celebrate marriages. Girls would
pray to Chang'e to help fulfill their romantic wishes. In some parts of China, dances are held for
young men and women to find partners. For example, young women are encouraged to throw their
handkerchiefs to the crowd, and the young man who catches and returns the handkerchief has a
chance at romance. In Daguang, in northeast Guizhou Province, young men and women of the Dong
people would make an appointment at a certain place. The young women would arrive early to
overhear remarks made about them by the young men. The young men would praise their lovers in
front of their fellows, in which finally the listening women would walk out of the thicket. Pairs of lovers
would go off to a quiet place to open their hearts to each other.
Into the early decades of the twentieth century Vietnam, young men and women used the festival as a
chance to meet future life companions. Groups would assemble in a courtyard and exchange verses
of song while gazing at the moon. Those who performed poorly were sidelined until one young man
and one young woman remained, after which they would win prizes as well as entertain matrimonial
prospects.
Games and activities

During the 1920s and 1930s, ethnographer Chao Wei-pang conducted research on traditional
games among men, women and children on or around the Mid-Autumn day in the
Guangdong Province. These games relate to flights of the soul, spirit possession, or fortunetelling.
One type of activity, "Ascent to Heaven" (Chinese: shng tintng) involves a young lady
selected from a circle of women to "ascend" into the celestial realm. While being enveloped in the
smoke of burning incense, she describes the beautiful sights and sounds she encounters.
Another activity, "Descent into the Garden" (Chinese: lu huyun), played among younger
girls, detailed each girl's visit to the heavenly gardens. According to legend, a flower tree
represented her, and the number and color of the flowers indicated the sex and number of children
she would have in her lifetime.
Men played a game called "Descent of the Eight Immortals" (jiangbaxian), where one of the Eight
Immortals took possession of a player, who would then assume the role of a scholar or warrior.
Children would play a game called "Encircling the Toad" (guanxiamo), where the group would form a
circle around a child chosen to be a Toad King and chanted a song that transformed the child into a
toad. He would jump around like a toad until water was sprinkled on his head, in which he would then
stop.
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24
Qingming Festival
Qingming Festival
The Qingming or Ching Ming Festival, also known as Tomb-Sweeping Day in English, is a traditional
Chinese festival on the first day of the fifth solar term of the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar.
This makes it the 15th day after the Spring Equinox, either 4 or 5 April in a given year. Other
common translations include Chinese Memorial Day and Ancestors' Day.
Qingming has been regularly observed as a statutory public holiday in China. In Taiwan, the public
holiday is now always observed on 5 April to honor the death of Chiang Kai-shek on that day in
1975. It became a public holiday in mainland China in 2008.
In the mainland, the holiday is associated with the consumption of qingtuan, green dumplings made
of glutinous rice and barley grass. In Taiwan, the similar confection is known
as caozaiguo or shuchuguo. A similar holiday is observed in the Ryukyu Islands, called Shm in
the local language.
Origin
The festival originated from the Cold Food Festival ("Hanshi Festival"), established by Chong'er, Duke
Wen of Jin, during the Spring and Autumn period. The festival was a memorial for his retainer Jie
Zitui, who had loyally followed him during his years of exile. Supposedly, he once even cut meat from
his own thigh to provide Chong'er with soup. Once Chong'er was enthroned as duke, however, Jie
considered his services no longer required and resigned. Although Duke Wen was generous in
rewarding those who had helped him in his time of need, he long passed over Jie, who had moved
into the forest with his mother. Duke Wen went to the forest in 636 BC but could not find them. He then
ordered his men to set fire to the forest in order to force Jie out. When Jie and his mother were killed
instead, the duke was overcome with remorse and ordered three days without fire to honor Jie's
memory. The city erected over the former forest is still called Jiexiu (lit. "Jie's rest").
The present importance of the holiday is credited to the Tang Emperor Xuanzong. Wealthy citizens in
China were reportedly holding too many extravagant and ostentatiously expensive ceremonies in
honor of their ancestors. In AD 732, Emperor Xuanzong sought to curb this practice by declaring that
such respects could be formally paid only once a year, on Qingming.
Celebration
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An Indonesian Chinese family pray for their deceased members at Qingming Festival of 2013 under
the Heaven Gate of Sanggar Agung. Qingming Festival is when Chinese people visit the columbaria,
graves or burial grounds to pray to their ancestors.
The Qingming Festival is an opportunity for celebrants to remember and honour their
ancestors at grave sites. Young and old pray before the ancestors, sweep the tombs and offer food,
tea, wine, chopsticks, joss paper, and/or libations to the ancestors. The rites have a long tradition in
Asia, especially among farmers. Some people carry willow branches with them on Qingming or put
willow branches on their gates and/or front doors. They believe that willow branches help ward off
the evil spirit that wanders on Qingming.
On Qingming, people go on family outings, start the spring plowing, sing, and dance. Qingming is
also a time when young couples traditionally start courting. Another popular thing to do is to fly kites
in the shapes of animals or characters from Chinese opera. Another common practice is to carry
flowers instead of burning paper, incense, or firecrackers.
Colored papers placed on a grave during Qingming Festival, Bukit Brown Cemetery, Singapore
Despite having no official status, the overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asian nations, such as
those in Singapore and Malaysia, take this festival seriously and observe its traditions faithfully. Some
Qingming rituals and ancestral veneration decorum observed by the oversea Chinese in Malaysia and
Singapore can be dated back to Ming and Qing dynasties, as the oversea communities were not
affected by the Cultural Revolution in Mainland China. Qingming in Malaysia is an elaborate family
function or a clan feast (usually organized by the respective clan association) to commemorate and
honour recently deceased relatives at their grave sites and distant ancestors from China at home
altars, clan temples or makeshift altars in Buddhist or Taoist temples. For the oversea Chinese
community, the Qingming festival is very much a family celebration and, at the same time, a family
obligation. They see this festival as a time of reflection and to honour and give thanks to their
forefathers. Overseas Chinese normally visit the graves of their recently deceased relatives on the
nearest weekend to the actual date. According to the ancient custom, grave site veneration is only
feasible ten days before and after the Qingming Festival. If the visit is not on the actual date,
normally veneration before Qingming is encouraged. The Qingming Festival in Malaysia and
Singapore normally starts early in the morning by paying respect to distant ancestors from China at
home altars. This is followed by visiting the graves of close relatives in the country. Some follow the
concept of filial piety to the extent of visiting the graves of their ancestors in mainland China.
Traditionally, the family will burn spirit money and paper replicas of material goods such as cars,
homes, phones and paper servants. In Chinese culture, it is believed that people still need all of those
things in the afterlife. Then family members take turns to kowtow three to nine times (depending on
the family adherence to traditional values) before the tomb of the ancestors. The Kowtowing ritual in
front of the grave is performed in the order of patriarchal seniority within the family. After the
ancestor worship at the grave site, the whole family or the whole clan feast on the food and drink
they brought for the worship either at the site or in nearby gardens in the memorial park, signifying
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family reunion with the ancestors. Another ritual related to the festival is the cockfight, as well as
being available within that historic and cultural context at Kaifeng Millennium City Park (Qingming
Riverside Landscape Garden).
The holiday is often marked by people paying respects to those who died in events considered
sensitive. The April Fifth Movement and the Tiananmen Incident were major events in Chinese
history which occurred on Qingming. When Premier Zhou Enlai died in 1976, thousands visited him
during the festival to pay their respects. Many also pay respects to victims of the Tiananmen Square
protests in 1989 and Zhao Ziyang.
In Chinese tea culture

The Qingming festival holiday has a significance in the Chinese tea culture since this specific day
divides the fresh green teas by their picking dates. Green teas made from leaves picked before
these dates are given the prestigious 'pre-qingming' () designation which commands a much
higher price tag. These teas are prized for having much lighter and subtler aromas than those picked
after the festival.
In painting
Main article: Along the River During the Qingming Festival
The famous Qingming scroll by Zhang Zeduan is an ancient Chinese painting which portrays the scene
of Kaifeng city, the capital of the Song Dynasty during a Qingming festival.
Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival,

12th century original by Zhang Zeduan (10851145)
Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival,

an 18th century recreation of the 12th century original
Qingming Festival
Published: 25-Mar-12
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PHNOM PENH (Cambodia Herald) - The Qingming Festival, also known as Tomb Sweeping Day, is a
Chinese festival when people bring food and drinks to the graves of their ancestors. People sweep
the burial grounds and offer food, tea, wine, chopsticks, joss sticks and paper accessories.
Vinh Chiang from the Chinese Embassy in Phnom Penh noted that the festival is even celebrated today
by Cambodians who are only part Chinese. Qingming is a chance to pray for happiness, success and
promotion, he said. During the celebration, young and old people alike adorn burial grounds with
colorful paper.
According to a belief handed down from the Qing dynasty, people do not worship ancestors who
have recently died as this will bring bad luck. Staff at the Chinese embassy have three days off
during Qingming, which is also known as Thanh Minh in Vietnamese. Long Pheng, a 63-year-old
former Chinese teacher, said the important day for the Qingming Festival in Cambodia this year was
April 5. Choosing the right locations for burial grounds requires assistance from a feng shui master,
she said, referring to the "wind and water" Chinese system of geomancy. Feng shui stipulates that
unsuitable locations for graves include sites with ponds in front of or around the grave and mountains
or big trees behind.
Long Pheng said she had never celebrated Qingming at the graves of her parents who were sent
away and died of starvation during the Pol Pot Regime. Instead, she has a small celebration at home.
Others whose ancestors passed away during the Pol Pot regime go to Chinese temples to offer food
and drinks. Phally, 50, from Mean Chey district in Phnom Penh, said that while she is not even part
Chinese, her parents celebrate Qingming at her grandmothers stupa in front of the family house
every year. While celebrating Qingming brings happiness and good fortune, Phally said she would
not be able to make enough money to feed her family without hard work.
- See more at: http://www.thecambodiaherald.com/cambodia/qingming-festival852#sthash.GRsQuYhw.dpuf
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25
Siem Reap Giant Puppet Parade
Siem Reap Giant Puppet Parade 2015
By Emily Martin
The Giant Puppet Parade (GPP) is an annual event, in its 9th year, which is so much more than walk
through the town with large, lit-up, puppets.
Children under 15 make up one third of Cambodias entire population and every year The GPP
offers over 600 underprivileged children in Siem Reap the opportunity to face and explore the
poignant issues they face through a fun artistic medium. The things they touch on are; poverty,
education, health and environment all things that need to be looked at in order to secure the
sustainable growth of the country.
Its grown to be the largest local community arts project for children in the country and this year the
workshops are being entirely driven by art students from Phare Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) our mother
NGO.
2015 is the first year since its inception that Artistic Director, Jig Cochrane, will not return to Siem
Reap to run the workshops, therefore all workshops will be run entirely by 14 student artists from
PPSA. Its a very exciting year for the project, said Stuart Cochlin, Project Director for GPP. This is
exactly where we are supposed to be. Jig has been an instrumental part of GPP but it is time to hand
over the reigns. Last year Jig took on more of a consultancy role, supporting from the background
rather than leading workshops. He let the Battambang Artists take the lead and was hugely
impressed with the results.
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The project this year started on 7th February, with a team of artists and volunteers holding the first
workshop in the picturesque gardens of Wat Damnak Pagoda with young landmine survivors from the
Cambodian Landmine Museum Relief Fund working alongside local expat children from nearby
international schools.
All puppets are created to include unique educational, cultural or ecological themes such as road
safety, endangered species, hygiene, local cultural appreciation and environmental awareness. Each
puppet takes an average of two days to complete and will vary in size from ten to fifteen meters.
The climactic finale of the Giant Puppet Project, is a dramatic parade through the streets of Siem
Reap Town on the 21st of February. In the ancient style of Chinese dragon puppets, each organisation
proudly exhibits their creation. The children are applauded and cheered for the duration of the
parade by an enormous and annually growing crowd of onlookers from the local communities as well
as host of international tourists. The Giant Puppet Parade in Siem Reap is the biggest event in ABCs
and Rices calendar year, says Tammy Durand, Director of ABCs and Rice, two NGOs involved in the
parade. It builds their self-worth because the puppet is actually made by them. Its wonderful to see
the children in a setting outside of school where they work as a team. They have so much fun during
the parade, marching with everyone and showing off their puppet.
The parade begins in the Old Market area of Siem Reap at 7pm and marches through the old town
before snaking its way along the river road to the Royal Independence Gardens, opposite Raffles
Grand Hotel dAngkor. Once the parade reaches its destination, entertainment is put on for the
childrens amusement including a performance by Phare, The Cambodian Circus.
Well see you there!
Puppet (Edition)
Traditional hand puppets
A Kathputli show in Mandawa, Rajasthan, India

Ancient Greek terracotta puppet dolls, 5th/4th century BC,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens
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A puppet is an inanimate object, often resembling some type of human, animal or mythical figure, that
is animated or manipulated by a human called a puppeteer. The puppeteer uses movements of her
hands, arms, or control devices such as rods or strings to move the body, head, limbs, and in some
cases the mouth and eyes of the puppet. The puppeteer often speaks in the voice of the character of
the puppet, and then synchronizes the movements of the puppet's mouth with this spoken part. The
actions, gestures and spoken parts acted out by the puppeteer with the puppet are typically used
in storytelling. Puppetry is a very ancient form of theatre which dates back to the 5th century BC
in Ancient Greece. There are many different varieties of puppets, and they are made of a wide
range of materials, depending on their form and intended use. They range from very simple in their
construction and operation to very complex.
Two simple types of puppets are finger puppets, which are tiny puppets that fit onto a single finger,
and sock puppets, which are formed from a sock and operated by inserting one's hand inside the
sock, with the opening and closing of the hand simulating the movement of the puppet's "mouth".
A hand puppet is controlled by one hand which occupies the interior of the puppet and moves the
puppet around (Punch and Judy puppets are familiar examples of hand puppets). A "live-hand
puppet" is similar to a hand puppet but is larger and requires two puppeteers for each
puppet. Marionettes are a much more complicated type of puppet; they are suspended and
controlled by a number of strings connected to the head, back and limbs, plus sometimes a central rod
attached to a control bar held from above by the puppeteer.
A rod puppet is constructed around a central rod secured to the head. A shadow puppet is a cut-out
figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen. Bunraku puppets are a type of
Japanese wood-carved puppet. A ventriloquist's dummy is a human-shaped puppet operated by
a ventriloquist performer's hand; the performer produces the puppets voice with little or no movement
of her mouth, which creates the illusion that the puppet is alive. Carnival puppets are large puppets,
typically bigger than a human, designed to be part of a large spectacle or parade.
Origins
Puppetry was practiced in Ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be found in
the works of Herodotus and Xenophon, dating from the 5th century BC. The Greek word translated as
"puppet" is "" (nevrospastos), which literally means "drawn by strings, stringpulling",from "" (nevron), meaning either "sinew, tendon, muscle, string", or "wire",and ""
(spa), meaning "draw, pull".
Aristotle (384322 BC) discusses puppets in his work On the Motion of Animals.
The movements of animals may be compared with those of automatic puppets, which are set going on
the occasion of a tiny movement; the levers are released, and strike the twisted strings against one
another. In India, puppetry was practiced from ancient times and is known by different names in
different parts of the country. Excavation of clay dolls from Indus valley sites serve as an indication.
The art of puppetry called Bommalattam is mentioned in Tamil literature Silappadikaram, which is
written around 2nd century B.C.
Types
Puppetry by its nature is a flexible and inventive medium and many puppet companies work with
combinations of puppet forms and incorporate real objects into their performances. They might, for
example, incorporate performing objects such as torn paper for snow, or a sign board with word as
narrative devices within a production. The following are, alphabetically, the basic and conventional
forms of puppet:
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Black light puppet
A black light puppet

The black light puppet is a form of puppetry where the puppets are operated on a stage lit only
with ultraviolet lighting, which hides the puppeteer and accentuates the colours of the puppets, which
are normally designed using colours that respond to UV light by glowing brightly. The puppeteers
perform dressed in black against a black background, with the background and puppeteer's costume
normally made of black velvet. The puppeteers manipulate the puppets under the light, while they
position themselves unseen against the black unlit background. Puppets of many sizes and types may
be used. The original concept of this form of puppetry can be traced to Bunraku puppetry.
Bunraku puppet
The bunraku puppets are a type of wood-carved puppet originally made to stand out
through torch illumination. Developed in Japan over a thousand years ago and formalised and
combined with shamisen music at the end of the 16th century, the puppeteers dress to remain neutral
against a black background, although their presence as kind of 'shadow' figures adds a mysterious
power to the puppet. Bunraku traditionally uses three puppeteers to operate a puppet that varies
from 1/3 to 1/2 life size.
Water puppet
Vietnamese water puppets

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A water puppet is a Vietnamese puppet form, the "Ma ri nc". Ma ri nc literally means
"puppets that dance on water", an ancient tradition that dates back to the 10th century. The puppets
are built out of wood and the shows are performed in a waist-deep pool. A large rod supports the
puppet under the water and is used by the puppeteers to control them. The appearance is of the
puppets moving over the water. When the rice fields would flood, the villagers would entertain each
other using this puppet form.
The water also provides the good setting for the puppeteers' theme: day-to-day village life. Water
puppets bring wry humor to scenes of farming, fishing, festival events such as buffalo fights, and
children's games of marbles and coin-toss. Fishing turns into a game of wits between the fisherman
and his prey, with the fisherman getting the short end (often capturing his surprised neighbor by
mistake). Besides village life, scenes include legends and national history. Lion dogs romp like puppies
while dragons exhale smoke and shoot sprays of water at the audience. Performances of up to 18
short scenes are usually introduced by a pig-tailed bumpkin known as Teu, and accompanied by a
small folk orchestra.
Object puppet
Object Puppet of Nikolai ZykovTheatre, Russia.

Not all forms of puppetry need specially created items to puppet. Object puppets can be created
with found everyday objects either assembled in advance or during performance. Seor Wences was
a Spanish ventriloquist who became popular through his appearances on the American program The
Ed Sullivan Show. His characters included Johnny (a face drawn on his hand) and Pedro (a gruff head
in a box) who would talk when Wences opened the box. Similarly, chinface puppetry involves puppet
features drawn or attached onto an upside-down chin.
Motekar puppet
A Motekar puppet or Wayang Motekar is a kind of shadow puppet theater in Sundanese, Javanese,
and Indonesia known as 'wayang (kulit),' (leather) puppet. While most shadow puppets use the
silhouette of the black color, Motekar Puppet use a new technique so that the shadow of puppets can
be performed with full color. That is because Motekar Puppet use plastic materials, transparent dyes,
a special light system and a special screen. The Motekar Puppet show uses puppets and light
highlighted as wayang kulit. The play is performed by one or several puppeteers, and it usually
features music, singer, and a series of dances.
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26
Christmas
An oral history of Christmas in Cambodia
Sat, 19 December 2015
Brent Crane
Amidst the onslaught of holiday tunes, Santa-hat-wearing waiters and Yuletide-themed events
throughout Phnom Penh, it can be hard to imagine a December in the capital unaffected by Christmas
cheer. But a look back in recent history shows a city largely unconcerned with eggnog or Saint Nick.
Christmas first came to the Kingdom with the French, but according to Australian historian Milton
Osborne, at that time the celebration was mostly overshadowed by New Years.
Clara Malraux [wife of French novelist Andre Malraux] gives an account in her memoirs of New
Years celebrations on December 31, 1923 while they were living in the Hotel Manolis in the Post
Office Square all very standard stuff, much drinking and singing of Auld Lang Syne after
midnight, he said.
David Chandler, an American historian who spent two Christmas holidays here in the early 1960s,
said Christmas celebrations then were low-key. They mainly took place in the privacy of expat
apartments. The glitzy cheer so common around Phnom Penh today was absent then.
The town didnt take Christmas very seriously, Chandler said. In the early1970s, Christmas was much
like any other day, remembers Donald Jameson, who was here during that time as a US diplomat.
Since most [local Christians] were Vietnamese, it was very subdued given the strong anti-Vietnamese
bias at that time, he added.
Of course, during the Khmer Rouge period (1975-79) all religious celebrations were banned,
including Christmas. But even afterwards, during the Vietnamese-installed Peoples Republic of
Kampuchea regime, Christmas celebrations remained uncommon.
In the '80s, Christmas was virtually non-existent except for discreet celebrations among the expats
and discreet religious services within the very small Cambodian Christian community, remembered
Eva Mysliwiec, who spent over two decades here with the American Friends Service Committee, a
Quaker organisation. Its not really something that made an impression on me or stuck in my mind.
Phnom Penhs Christmas spirit began its gradual snowball towards what it is today near the end of the
Cold War, when Cambodia began opening up to outsiders after almost two decades of isolation and
gradually became flooded with Westerners.
Sister Denise Coghlan, who came to Phnom Penh in 1990 with the Catholic Church, was one of them.
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Two days before the Australian nuns first Christmas in the Kingdom in 1990, the Catholics received
good tidings: the government was going to allow them to hold Christmas mass in their original church,
located near the airport.
Though the church had been built by Catholics prior to the Khmer Rouge, it had been converted into a
military hospital by the current government. The Catholics had been requesting that it be handed
back to them for years.
That was a very significant time, because it was the first time the Catholic Church was allowed to
have Christmas mass in our own church, she explained. Services had previously been held in a room
at the Samaki Hotel (now Raffles Hotel Le Royal) and a priests backyard.
After the good news, Coghlan and others rushed to transform the hospital back into a church,
decorating the walls, setting up an altar and preparing a scene of Mary, Joseph and baby Jesus in
Bethlehem.
The mass was a marked success, remembers Coghlan. Bishop Emile Destombes, a priest who had been
in Phnom Penh when the city fell to the Khmer Rouge in 1975 and took refuge in the French Embassy,
led a service of more than 200 people. After, they all ate a lunch of chicken curry.
Others around during the tumultuous 1990s cannot recall much festivity in those years. Michael Hayes,
who founded the Phnom Penh Post in 1992, remembers the Christmas spirit taking a backseat to
violence and politics.
I had a joke in the newsroom then, he said this week at a riverside watering hole. I used to say that
we received more death threats then Christmas cards.
Mike Hsu, the owner of Sharky Bar, who has lived in the city since 1996, said it was only recently that
the Christmas spirit had finally take hold. He said there was very little signs of Christmas around when
he arrived. No signs that said Merry Christmas. No Santa Clauses. Anything Christmas-related, Hsu
said, could for the most part only be found in the major hotels or at the Foreign Correspondents Club.
Hsu marks the period around 2007 and 2008 as the point where the Christmas-isation of Phnom
Penh really began.
Whats striking to me is that its the Khmer stores too ... Its sort of amazing to me because Christmas
is not in their culture, but they like it. A lot of Western influence has rubbed off on local Khmers, he
said. Now there are dozens of stores selling Christmas novelties, he added.
Christmas
Christmas Day

Christmas or Christmas Day (Old English: Crstesmsse, meaning "Christ's Mass") is an annual festival
commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed most commonly on December 25 as a religious and
cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to
the Christian liturgical year, it is prepared for by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and
initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates
on Twelfth Night; in some traditions, Christmastide includes an Octave. Christmas Day is a
public holiday inmany of the world's nations, is celebrated culturally by a large number of nonChristian people, and is an integral part of the holiday season. In several countries,
celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with giftgiving and sharing a traditional meal with the family.
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While the month and date of Jesus' birth are unknown, by the early-to-mid 4th century, the Western
Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25, a date later adopted in the East. Today,
most Christians celebrate Christmas on the date of December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has
been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throuhgout the world.
However, some Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on the December 25 of the older Julian
calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar, the day after the
Western Christian Church celebrates the Epiphany. This is not a disagreement over the date of
Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day
that is December 25. In the Council of Tours of 567, the Church "declared the twelve days between
Christmas and Epiphany to be one unified festal cycle", thus giving significance to both December 25
and January 6.
The date of Christmas may have initially been chosen to correspond with the day exactly nine months
after the day on which early Christians believed that Jesus was conceived, or with one or
more ancient polytheistic festivals that occurred near the Roman winter solstice; a
further solar connection has been suggested because of a biblical verse identifying Jesus as the "Sun
of righteousness".
The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian,
Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular modern customs of the holiday include gift giving,
completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath, Christmas music and caroling, lighting a Christingle,
an exchange of Christmas cards, church services, a special meal, and the display of various Christmas
decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe,
and holly. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa
Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children
during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and
many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has
become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. The economic impact
of Christmas is a factor that has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the
world.
Etymology
"Christmas" is a shortened form of "Christ's mass". It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse,
which is from Old English Crstesmsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038 followed by the word Cristesmesse in 1131.[36] Crst (genitive Crstes) is from Greek Khrstos (), a translation
of Hebrew Ma () ,
"Messiah", meaning "anointed"; and msse is from Latin missa, the
celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also historically used, but is now considered
archaic and dialectal; it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, literally "Christian mass".Xmas is an
abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi () in
GreekKhrstos (), "Christ", though numerous style guides discourage its use; it has precedent in
Middle English es masse (where "" is an abbreviation for ).
Other names
In addition to "Christmas", the holiday has been known by various other names throughout its history.
The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter", or, more rarely,
as Ntiuite (from Latin ntvits below). "Nativity", meaning "birth", is from Latin ntvits. In Old
English, Gola (Yule) referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was
eventually equated with Christian Christmas. "Noel" (or "Nowel") entered English in the late 14th
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century and is from the Old French nol or nal, itself ultimately from the Latin ntlis (dis), "birth
(day)".
Nativity
Main article: Nativity of Jesus
Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of Jesus
The canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea,
to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to
Bethlehem for the census, and Jesus is born there and laid in a manger. Angels proclaim him a savior
for all people, and shepherds come to adore him. In the Matthew account, astronomers follow a
star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews. King Herod orders the massacre of
all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in
Nazareth.
Eastern Orthodox icon of the birth of Christ by St. Andrei Rublev, 15th century
Modern scholars such as E. P. Sanders, Geza Vermes and Marcus Borg consider both narratives nonhistorical, arguing that there are contradictions between them. Many biblical scholars view the
discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological
documents rather than historical accounts.
History
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Nativity of Christ medieval illustration from the

Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)
The Christian ecclesiastical calendar contains many remnants of pre-Christian festivals. Although
the dating as December 25 predates pagan influence, the later development of Christmas as a
festival includes elements of the Roman feast of the Saturnalia and the birthday of Mithra as
described in the Roman cult of Mithraism. The Chronography of 354 AD contains early evidence of
the celebration on December 25 of a Christian liturgical feast of the birth of Jesus. This was in Rome,
while in Eastern Christianity the birth of Jesus was already celebrated in connection with the
Epiphany on January 6. The December 25 celebration was imported into the East later: in Antioch
by John Chrysostom towards the end of the 4th century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria only in
the following century. Even in the West, the January 6 celebration of the nativity of Jesus seems to
have continued until after 380. In 245, Origen of Alexandria, writing about Leviticus 12:18,
commented that Scripture mentions only sinners as celebrating their birthdays, namely Pharaoh, who
then had his chief baker hanged (Genesis 40:2022), and Herod, who then had John the Baptist
beheaded (Mark 6:2127), and mentions saints as cursing the day of their birth, namely Jeremiah
(Jeremiah 20:1415) and Job (Job 3:116). In 303, Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the
birthdays of gods, a passage cited as evidence that Arnobius was unaware of any nativity
celebration. Since Christmas does not celebrate Christ's birth "as God" but "as man", this is not
evidence against Christmas being a feast at this time.[8] The fact the Donatists of North Africa
celebrated Christmas may indicate that the feast was established by the time that church was created
in 311.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of
Jesus' birth, with certain elements having origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated around
the winter solstice by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity. These elements,
including the Yule log from Yule and gift giving from Saturnalia, became syncretized into Christmas
over the centuries. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the
holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages,
to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation.
Additionally, the celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within
certain Protestant groups, such as the Puritans, due to concerns that it was too pagan or unbiblical.
Also Jehovas Witnesses reject Christmas celebration.
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Mosaic of Jesus as Christo Sole(Christ the Sun) in Mausoleum M

in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under St Peter's Basilica in Rome.
Relation to concurrent celebrations
Prior to and through the early Christian centuries, winter festivalsespecially those centered on
the winter solsticewere the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons
included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an
expectation of better weather as spring approached. Many modern Christmas customs have been
directly influenced by such festivals, including gift-giving and merrymaking from the
Roman Saturnalia, greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year, and Yule logs and various
foods from Germanic feasts. The Egyptian deity Horus, son to goddess Isis, was celebrated at the
winter solstice. Horus was often depicted being fed by his mother, which also influenced the symbolism
of the Virgin Mary with baby Christ.
The pre-Christian Germanic peoplesincluding the Anglo-Saxons and the Norsecelebrated a
winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern
English 'yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language-speaking areas,
numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography stem from Yule, including
the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat. Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky
(the Wild Hunt), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as 'the Yule one' and 'Yule father' in Old
Norse texts, whereas the rest of the gods are referred to as 'Yule beings'.
In eastern Europe also, old pagan traditions were incorporated into Christmas celebrations, an
example being the Koleda, which was incorporated into the Christmas carol.
Choice of December 25 date
One theory to explain the choice of December 25 for the celebration of the birth of Jesus is that the
purpose was to Christianize the pagan festival in Rome of the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, meaning "the
birthday of the Unconquered Sun", a festival inaugurated by the Roman emperor Aurelian (270275)
to celebrate the sun god and celebrated at the winter solstice, December 25. According to this theory,
during the reign of the emperor Constantine (306-337), Christian writers assimilated this feast as the
birthday of Jesus, associating him with the "sun of righteousness" mentioned in Malachi 4:2 (Sol
Iustitiae).
An explicit expression of this theory appears in an annotation of uncertain date added to a
manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote:
"It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at
which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took
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part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this
festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day." This
idea became popular especially in the 18th and 19th centuries.
In the judgement of the Church of England Liturgical Commission, this view has been challenged by a
view based on an old tradition, according to which the date of Christmas was fixed at nine months
after April 7 [O.S. March 25], the date of the vernal equinox, on which the Annunciation was
celebrated. This alternative view is considered academically to be "a thoroughly viable hypothesis",
though not certain. The Jewish calendar date of 14 Nisan was believed to be that of creation, as well
as of the Exodusand so of Passover, and Christians held that the new creation, both the death of Jesus
and the beginning of his human life, occurred on the same date, which some put at March 25 in the
Julian calendar. It was a traditional Jewish belief that great men lived a whole number of years,
without fractions, so that Jesus was considered to have been conceived on March 25, as he died on
March 25, which was calculated to have coincided with 14 Nisan. Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160
c. 240) gave March 25 as the day of creation and of the conception of Jesus. In his work Adversus
Haereses, Irenaeus (c. 130202) identified the conception of Jesus as March 25 and linked it to
the crucifixion at the time of the equinox, with the birth of Jesus nine months after on December 25 at
the time of the solstice.
An anonymous work known as De Pascha Computus (243) linked the idea that creation began at the
spring equinox, on March 25, with the conception or birth (the word nascor can mean either) of Jesus
on March 28, the day of the creation of the sun in the Genesis account. One translation reads: "O the
splendid and divine providence of the Lord, that on that day, the very day, on which the sun was
made, the 28 March, a Wednesday, Christ should be born. For this reason Malachi the prophet,
speaking about him to the people, fittingly said, 'Unto you shall the sun of righteousness arise, and
healing is in his wings.'"The tractate De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri
Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae falsely attributed to John Chrysostom also argued that Jesus was
conceived and crucified on the same day of the year and calculated this as March 25. This anonymous
tract also states: "But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December ... the eight before the calends
of January [25 December] ..., But they call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so
unconquered as Our Lord...? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice."
A passage of the Commentary on the prophet Daniel by Hippolytus of Rome, written in about 204, has
also been appealed to.
With regard to a December religious feast of the sun as a god (Sol), as distinct from a solstice feast
of the (re)birth of the astronomical sun, one scholar has commented that, "while the winter solstice on
or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence
that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas". "Thomas
Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian's dedication of a temple to the sun god in the
Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the 'Birthday of the Invincible Sun' on December
25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the
other quarter-tense days, as one might expect." The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks
on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the religious celebrations of the Birthday
of the Unconquered Sun and of the birthday of Jesus, stating that the hypothesis that December 25
was chosen for celebrating the birth of Jesus on the basis of the belief that his conception occurred on
March 25 "potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian's decree,
which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and
challenge".
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The Chronography of 354, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome, is an early reference to the
date of the nativity as December 25. In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part
of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival emphasized celebration of the baptism of Jesus.
Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Nicene Christianity following the
death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced
to Constantinople in 379, and to Antioch in about 380. The feast disappeared after Gregory of
Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400.
Middle Ages
The Nativity, from a 14th-centuryMissal; a liturgical book containing texts

and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western
Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. But the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmasrelated holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which
began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. In Italy,
former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions
transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 January 5); a time that appears
in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on
Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I
of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. The coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas of
800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday. By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had
become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated
Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen
and three hundred sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas
feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group
was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the
time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may
have continued in this form. "Misrule"drunkenness, promiscuity, gamblingwas also an important
aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special
Christmas ale.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other
evergreens. Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal
relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting,
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and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish
dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on
Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the Reformation in 16th17thcentury Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and
the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
Reformation to the 18th century
Public notice in Boston deeming Christmas illegal and sacrilegious

Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican
Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet John
Milton penned On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during
Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, states that Martin
Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much
copied in North America." Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was
celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans, strongly condemned the
celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the
"rags of the Beast". In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate
observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major
point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party." The Catholic Church also
responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of
England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up
their old-style Christmas generosity.[101] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during
the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was
controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The
book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of
Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plowboys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.
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The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas, (1686),

published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.
The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many Calvinist clergymen still
disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of
Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration
in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the
observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious
observation of days". It was not until 1958 that Christmas again became a Scottish public holiday.
Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God
for Charles return, /Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. For then we scarcely did it know, /
Whether it Christmas were or no." The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th
century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a
number of years.
In Colonial America, the Pilgrims of New England also disapproved of Christmas. The Plymouth
Pilgrims put their loathing for the day into practice in 1620 when they spent their first Christmas Day
in the New World working thus demonstrating their complete contempt for the day. Non-Puritans in
New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas
observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban by the Puritans was revoked in 1681 by English
governor Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas
became fashionable in the Boston region.
At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday
freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers
of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina,
were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in
America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after
the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom. George
Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the Battle of
Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at
this time.
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With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian
Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was forcibly renamed the "equality
cake" under anticlerical government policies.
19th century
Ebenezer Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present.

From Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, 1843.
In the early 19th century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In
1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas
and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a
holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and
feasting, within a context of social reconciliation." Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the
holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas
that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink,
dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry
Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the
appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in
traditional rituals and religious observances.
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The Queen's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, published in the Illustrated

London News, 1848, and republished in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia, December 1850
The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with "Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit. In
1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of
the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's "Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern" (1833), with
the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing"
and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", popularized in Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union
with the Kingdom of Hanover by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife of King George III. In 1832,
the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung
with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince
Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.
An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation
when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was
published in the United States in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become
common in America.
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short
stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old
Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he
experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,
and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had
transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
[
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(1)
(2)
1. A Norwegian Christmas, 1846 painting by Adolph Tidemand
2. The Christmas Visit. Postcard, c.1910
In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first
line: Twas the Night Before Christmas).[135] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging
gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the
cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some
see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher
Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping
spree.
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856.
"The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it
more so." In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends
who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmasthrew open their church doors and assembled in
force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."
The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was
'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen
states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875, Louis
Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American
Christmas card".On June 26, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday.
20th century
Up to the 1950s, in the UK, many Christmas customs were restricted to the upper classes and betteroff families. The mass of the population had not adopted many of the Christmas rituals that later
became general. The Christmas tree was rare. Christmas dinner might be beefcertainly not turkey.
In their stockings children might get an apple, orange and sweets. Full celebration of a family
Christmas with all the trimmings only became widespread with increased prosperity from the 1950s.
National papers were published on Christmas Day until 1912. Post was still delivered on Christmas
Day until 1961. League football matches continued in Scotland until the 1970s while in England they
ceased at the end of the 1950s.
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Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations
along with other Christian holidayswere prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 30s and 40s,
the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions,
such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established
an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this
persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a
protest against the holiday. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that
the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in
Russia after seven decades.
European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, "because Nazi
ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to
deemphasizeor eliminate altogetherthe Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists
tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the
regime's racial ideologies."
As Christmas celebrations began to be held around the world even outside traditional Christian
cultures in the 20th century, some Muslim-majority countries have banned the practice of Christmas,
claiming it undermines Islam.
Customs and traditions

Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world,
including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of
former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or
foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan,
where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted
many of the secular aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees.
Countries in which Christmas is not a formal public holiday include Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan,
Bahrain, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (excepting Hong Kong and Macao), Comoros, Iran, Israel, Japan,
Kuwait, Laos, Libya, Maldives, Mauritania, Mongolia, Morocco, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar,
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey,
Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and Yemen. Christmas celebrations around
the world can vary markedly in form, reflecting differing cultural and national traditions.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed
that incorporate regional and local cultures. For Christians, participating in a religious service plays an
important part in the recognition of the season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest
annual church attendance. In Catholic countries, people hold religious processions or parades in the
days preceding Christmas. In other countries, secular processions or parades featuring Santa Claus
and other seasonal figures are often held. Family reunions and the exchange of gifts are a
widespread feature of the season. Gift giving takes place on Christmas Day in most countries. Others
practice gift giving on December 6, Saint Nicholas Day, and January 6, Epiphany.
Decorations
Main article: Christmas decoration
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A typical Neapolitan presepe/presepio, or Nativity scene. Local crches are renowned for their ornate
decorations and symbolic figurines, often mirroring daily life.
The practice of putting up special decorations at Christmas has a long history. In the 15th century, it
was recorded that in London it was the custom at Christmas for every house and all the parish
churches to be "decked with holm, ivy, bays, and whatsoever the season of the year afforded to be
green". The heart-shaped leaves of ivy were said to symbolize the coming to earth of Jesus,
while holly was seen as protection against pagans and witches, its thorns and red berries held to
represent the Crown of Thorns worn by Jesus at the crucifixion and the blood he shed.
Clifton Mill in Clifton, Ohio is the site of this Christmas display with over 3.5 million lights.
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of
Asissi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across
the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple
representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets renowned manger scene traditions include the
colourful Krakw szopka in Poland, which imitate Krakw's historical buildings as settings, the
elaborate Italian presepi (Neapolitan, Genoese and Bolognese), or the Provenal crches
in southernFrance, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called santons. In certain parts of the world,
notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative
to static crches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s,
inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity
scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic
ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable
family heirloom.
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of
Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion, while green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the
evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter, and gold is the first color associated with
Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty.
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On Christmas Day, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath
is traditionally lit in many church services.
The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding
the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree
worship; according to eighth-century biographer ddi Stephanus, Saint Boniface (634709), who
was a missionary in Germany, took an axe to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir
tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had
a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity. The English language phrase "Christmas
tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language. The modern
Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century though many argue
that Martin Luther began the tradition in the 16th century.
The Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York

From Germany the custom was introduced to Britain, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and
then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of Queen Victoria. By 1841 the Christmas
tree had become even more widespread throughout Britain. By the 1870s, people in the United
States had adopted the custom of putting up a Christmas tree. Christmas trees may be decorated
with lights and ornaments.
Since the 19th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas.
Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with
a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along
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with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in
many homes during this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes
with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures.
Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. Both
the displaying of wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The
concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths and are
designed to prepare Christians for the Advent season. Candles in each window are meant to
demonstrate the fact that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played from speakers, and Christmas
trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and
consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with
secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. In some
countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night, the evening of
January 5.
Music and carols
Main article: Christmas music
Christmas carolers in Jersey

The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in 4th-century Rome. Latin hymns such as
"Veni redemptor gentium", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the
theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the
Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poet Prudentius (d. 413) is still sung in some churches today.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European
monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th
century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing
something closer to the traditional Christmas carol.
By the 13th century, in France, Germany, and particularly, Italy, under the influence of Francis of
Asissi, a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native language developed. Christmas
carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twentyfive "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of wassailers, who went from house to house.
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Child singers in Bucharest, 1841

The songs we know specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations
such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church.
Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them
their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King
Wenceslas", and "The Holly and the Ivy" can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are
among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "Adeste Fideles" (O Come all ye faithful)
appears in its current form in the mid-18th century, although the words may have originated in the
13th century.
Singing of carols initially suffered a decline in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in northern
Europe, although some Reformers, like Martin Luther, wrote carols and encouraged their use in
worship. Carols largely survived in rural communities until the revival of interest in popular songs in the
19th century. The 18th-century English reformer Charles Wesley understood the importance of music
to worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, which were influential in the Great
Awakening in the United States, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was
originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! the Herald Angels Sing".
Felix Mendelssohn wrote a melody adapted to fit Wesley's words. In Austria in 1818 Mohr and
Gruber made a major addition to the genre when they composed "Silent Night" for the St. Nicholas
Church, Oberndorf. William Sandys' Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833) contained the first
appearance in print of many now-classic English carols, and contributed to the mid-Victorian revival of
the festival.
Completely secular Christmas seasonal songs emerged in the late 18th century. "Deck the Halls" dates
from 1784, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. In the 19th and 20th century,
African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became
more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holidays songs were commercially produced in
the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in
early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and
classical music.
Traditional cuisine
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Christmas pudding cooked on Stir-up Sunday,

the Sunday before the beginning of the Advent season
A special Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the
food that is served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions, such as Sicily, have special
meals for Christmas Eve, when 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries
influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird,
gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such
as Christmas pudding, mince pies, fruit cake and Yule log cake.
In Poland and other parts of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, fish often is used for the traditional
main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden it is common with a special
variety of smrgsbord, where ham, meatballs and herring play a prominent role. In Germany,
France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are
popular throughout the world. The Maltese traditionally serve Imbuljuta tal-Qastan, a chocolate and
chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Massand throughout the Christmas season. Slovaks prepare the
traditional Christmas bread potica, bche de Nol in France, panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts
and cakes. The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter
Christmas delicacies include the German stollen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit
cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have
been long associated with special Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweetened dairybased beveragetraditionally made with milk and/or cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it
a frothy texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is
often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
Cards
A 1907 Christmas card with Santa and some of his reindeer

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Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family
members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a
Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card,
produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular
among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards
exchanging E-cards.
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities, and feature artwork, commercially
designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas
narrative with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem,
or a white dove which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards
are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, mythical figures such as Santa Claus, objects
directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly and baubles, or a variety of images
associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes and the wildlife of the
northern winter. There are even humorous cards and genres depicting nostalgic scenes of the past such
as crinolined shoppers in idealized 19th century streetscapes.
Some prefer cards with a poem, prayer, or Biblical verse; while others distance themselves from
religion with an all-inclusive "Season's greetings".
Commemorative stamps
Christmas stamp released in the United States in 1982, featuring a painting by Giovanni Battista
Tiepolo. A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers
will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These
stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round.
They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in
considerable quantities.
In 1898 a Canadian stamp was issued to mark the inauguration of the Imperial Penny Postage rate.
The stamp features a map of the globe and bears an inscription "XMAS 1898" at the bottom. In
1937, Austria issued two "Christmas greeting stamps" featuring a rose and the signs of the zodiac. In
1939, Brazil issued four semi-postal stamps with designs featuring the three kings and a star of
Bethlehem, an angel and child, the Southern Cross and a child, and a mother and child. Both the US
Postal Service and the United Kingdom's Royal Mail regularly issue Christmas-themed stamps each
year.
Gift giving
Christmas gifts underneath a Christmas tree.

The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the
most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people
exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with St. Nicholas, and the gifts of gold,
frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi. The practice of gift giving
in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian Christian customs, but on the
other hand the Christian "core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and
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receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the
Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's
renewed participation in the divine life."
Gift-bearing figures
Christmas gift-bringers in Europe
Sinterklaas or Saint Nicholas, considered by many to be the original Santa Claus

A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these
are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Pre
Nol, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas orSinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris
Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte is
sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus.
The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name Santa
Claus can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas, which means simply Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was a
4th-century Greek bishop of Myra, a city in the Roman province of Lycia, whose ruins are 3 kilometres
(1.9 mi) from modern Demre in southwest Turkey. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the
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care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be
celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the
behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By
the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in
his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the Reformation in 16th17thcentury Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted
in English to Kris Kringle, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in
particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors
including Washington Irving and the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (18401902).
Following the American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out
symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial
town of New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
In 1809, the New-York Historical Society convened and retroactively named Sancte Claus the patron
saint of Nieuw Amsterdam, the Dutchname for New York City. At his first American appearance in
1810, Santa Claus was drawn in bishops' robes. However, as new artists took over, Santa Claus
developed more secular attire. Nast drew a new image of "Santa Claus" annually, beginning in
1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the modern vision of the figure, perhaps based on
the English figure of Father Christmas. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s and
continues through the present day.
Father Christmas, a jolly, well nourished, bearded man who typified the spirit of good cheer at
Christmas, predates the Santa Claus character. He is first recorded in early 17th century England, but
was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness rather than the bringing of gifts.
In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French Pre Nol evolved
along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus,
while La Befana is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the Epiphany. It is said that La
Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all
children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Black Peter. In other
versions, elves make the toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Claus.
Santa Claus reacts to a toy request (Jonathan Meath as Santa)

There has been some opposition to the narrative of the American evolution of Saint Nicholas into the
modern Santa. It has been claimed that the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost
half a century after the end of the American War of Independence. Moreover, a study of the
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"children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no
references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas. However, not all scholars agree with Jones's findings,
which he reiterated in a book-length study in 1978; Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick
Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive
and well from the early settlement of the Hudson Valley on.
Current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that
while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers
them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and
the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In South Tyrol (Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia,
and Switzerland, the Christkind (Jeek in Czech, Jzuska in Hungarian and Jeiko in Slovak) brings
the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basilon New Year's Eve, the eve of that
saint's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the
German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still
brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht
Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus
and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.
Date
Irenaeus (c. 130202) viewed Christ's conception as March 25 in association with the Passion, with the
nativity nine months after on December 25. Hippolytus of Rome (170235) may also have identified
December 25 for the birth of Jesus and March 25 for the conception. Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160c.
240) identified December 25, later to become the most widely accepted date of celebration, as the
date of Jesus' birth in 221. The precise origin of assigning December 25 to the birth of Jesus is
unclear. Various dates were speculated: May 20, April 18 or 19, March 25, January 2, November 17
or 20. When celebration on a particular date began, January 6 prevailed at least in the East; but,
except among Armenians (the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Evangelical Church), who
continue to celebrate the birth on January 6, December 25 eventually won acceptance everywhere.
The New Testament Gospel of Luke may indirectly give the date as December for the birth of Jesus,
with the sixth month of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist cited by John Chrysostom (c. 386)
as a date for the Annunciation. Tertullian (d. 220) did not mention Christmas as a major feast day in
the Church of Roman Africa. In Chronographai, a reference work published in 221, Sextus Julius
Africanus suggested that Jesus was conceived on the spring equinox. The equinox was March 25 on
the Roman calendar, so this implied a birth in December.
The belief that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity, rather
than the exact birth date, is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.
In the early 4th century, the church calendar in Rome contained Christmas on December 25 and other
holidays placed on solar dates. According to Hijmans "It is cosmic symbolism ... which inspired the
Church leadership in Rome to elect the southern solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and
the northern solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective
dates of conception." Usener and others proposed that the Christians chose this day because it was the
Roman feast celebrating the birthday of Sol Invictus. Modern scholar S. E. Hijmans, however, states
that "While they were aware that pagans called this day the 'birthday' of Sol Invictus, this did not
concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas."
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Around the year 386 John Chrysostom delivered a sermon in Antioch in favour of adopting December
25 celebration also in the East, since, he said, the conception of Jesus (Luke 1:26) had been
announced during the sixth month of Elisabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist (Luke 1:1013), which
he dated from the duties Zacharias performed on the Day of Atonement during the seventh month of
the Hebrew calendar Ethanim or Tishri (Leviticus 16:29, 1 Kings 8:2) which falls from late September
to early October. That shepherds watched the flocks by night in the fields in the winter time is
supported by the phrase "frost by night" in Genesis 31:3840. A special group known as the
shepherds of Migdal Eder (Genesis 35:1921, Micah 4:8) watched the flocks by night year round
pastured for Temple Sacrifice near Bethlehem.
In the early 18th century, some scholars proposed alternative explanations. Isaac Newton argued that
the date of Christmas, celebrating the birth of him whom Christians consider to be the "Sun of
righteousness" prophesied in Malachi 4:2, was selected to correspond with the southern solstice, which
the Romans called bruma, celebrated on December 25. In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst
Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar
holiday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a "paganization" that debased the true church. It
has been argued that, on the contrary, the Emperor Aurelian, who in 274 instituted the holiday of
the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, did so partly as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date
already important for Christians in Rome. In 1889, Louis Duchesne proposed that the date of
Christmas was calculated as nine months after the Annunciation, the traditional date of the conception
of Jesus.
Page 282 of 284
& 2016
Referesnces
1. https://www.iww.org
2. https://www.en.wikipedia.org
3. https://www.timeanddate.com
4. http://www.tourismcambodia.com
5. http://www.camboguide.com
6. https://www.cambodiadaily.com
7. http://www.thefamouspeople.com
8. http://www.norodomsihamoni.org
9. http://www.phnompenhpost.com
10. http://www.khmertimeskh.com
11. http://www.tourismcambodia.org
12. http://www.sokhahotels.com
13. https://www.cambodianchildrensfund.org
14. http://www.childrightscoalitionasia.org
15. https://www.google.com.kh
16. http://www.leisurecambodia.com
17. http://www.1stopcambodia.net
18. http://www.cambodia.org
19. http://www.publicholidays.asia
20. http://www.bodhikaram.com
21. http://www.visitkhmer.blogspot.com
22. http://www.khana.org.kh
23. http://www.news.bbc.co.uk
24. http://www.pressocm.gov.kh
25. http://www.apsarakhmer.blogspot.com
26. http://www.france.diplomatie.fr
27. http://www.un.org
Page 283 of 284
& 2016
Nothing stable even your shadow!

Trust yourself! Build your own confidence.
Thearith EAT
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& 2016

Holidays in Cambodia

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Holidays in Cambodia

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Compiled By Thearith EAT

Kite Flying Festival

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Phnom Penh, Cambodia

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Cambodian holidays and its origine

New Year's Day

Celebrates the beginning of the Gregorian New Year

This national holiday was established to commemorate the end of

This national holiday was established to commemorate the

This national holiday was established to commemorate the brave

This national holiday was established to celebrate the New Year in

This national holiday was established as a Buddhist observance

This national holiday was established to celebrate the economic and

This national holiday corresponds to the start of the planting season.

This national holiday was established to celebrate the birthday of

This national holiday was established to celebrate the memorial and

This national holiday was established to celebrate the birthday of

This national holiday was established to celebrate the signing of the

This national holiday was established for buddhist to pay their

This national holiday for Commemoration Day to the Royal Soul of

This holiday is to commemorate the Treaty of Paris on October 23,

This national holiday was established to celebrate Cambodia's

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This national holiday was established to commemorate the United

Other Festivals and its origine

The festival is held on a full-moon day in September every year. The

Chinese New Year, or Spring Festival, has been broadly celebrated

More commonly called "Full Moon Festival" by locals (as Cambodia

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Chinese festival, many Cambodians celebrate this festival as it is

The Qingming Festival, also known as Tomb Sweeping Day (or

A festival celebrated in Siem Reap that commemorates the artistic

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Ethiopian New Year called Enkutatash. It is celebrated on September 11 (September 12 in leap

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New Year's Eve

In European countries, the New Year is greeted with private fireworks.

Happy Christmas and New Year card

In Nassau, Bahamas, the Junkanoo parade takes place.

New Year's Day

New Year's babies

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Khmer Rouge bullet holes left at Angkor Wat temple

Paris student group

Path to power and reign

Sihanouk and the GRUNK

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Life under the Khmer Rouge

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Crimes against humanity

Skulls of Khmer Rouge victims.

Remains of victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Kampong Trach Cave,

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Place in the United Nations

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Ramifications of Vietnamese victory

Photos of the victims of the Khmer Rouge.