International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

CFD modeling (comparing single and two-phase approaches) on thermal

performance of Al2o3/water nanouid in mini-channel heat sink
Mostafa Keshavarz Moraveji , Reza Mohammadi Ardehali
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Arak University, P.O. Box 38156-8-8349, Arak, Iran

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Available online 5 March 2013

Keywords:
Laminar
Mini-channel
Two-phase models
Nanouid
Heat transfer
CFD

a b s t r a c t
CFD modeling of laminar forced convection on Al2O3 nanouid with size particles equal to 33 nm and particle
concentrations of 0.5, 1 and 6 wt.% within 130 b Re b 1600 in mini-channel heat sink is executed by four individual models (single phase, VOF, mixture, Eulerian). Three-dimensional steady-state governing partial differential equations was discretized using nite volume method.
Inuences of some important parameters such as nanoparticle concentration and Reynolds number on the
enhancement of nanouid heat transfer have been investigated. The difference between the two-phase
models results was marginal, and they were more precise by comparison with experimental reference data
than single phase model. Besides with regard to the most precise and less CPU usage and run time, mixture
model was chosen to obtain a correlation based on dimensionless numbers for the Nusselt number and
friction factor estimation.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Along with the decreasing of electronic component dimensions
and increasing of heat generation by these devices, the problem of removing heat from them and achieving a successful design for maximum cooling has become drastically important. Then, in order to
overcome the challenge of keeping electronic equipment at their
best performance, nding new ways of thermal load managing and
performing optimization processes is inevitable [1].
Many innovative ideas have been proposed for cooling the electronic devices. Water as the working uid inside a microchannel
heat sink was used by Tuckerman and Pease [2].
Incapability of conventional uids such as water in critical heat
ux situations was compensated with the creation of Nanouid
conception. The innovative idea of adding metallic and non-metallic
nano powders to a base uid was proposed rst by Choi, showing a
number of potential advantages, such as increase in heat transfer
and reduction of heat transfer system size [1].
To explore the fundamental physical mechanisms of uid ow and
heat transfer in micro tube, many effects, including the size effect, rarefaction effect, surface roughness, viscous effect, axial heat conduction in the channel wall, surface geometry, the measurement errors,
etc. should be taken into account [3].
Many different types of nanoparticles have been used for nanouid preparation such as Sic, Tic, Ag, Au, Cu, Al2O3, CuO, and TiO2.
Communicated by Dr. W.J. Minkowycz.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m-moraveji@araku.ac.ir (M.K. Moraveji).
0735-1933/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.02.012

The most common base uids used throughout the preparation of

nanouids are water, ethylene glycol and engine oil, etc. Adding
nanoparticles to abase uid even at very low concentration has significant improvements in thermal performance. Chein and Huang
inspected the performance of the silicon micro channel heat sink by
using Cuwater nanouid. Their results show that using nanouid
has greatly improved the performance of the heat sink [4].
Jung did experiments for Al2O3water nanouids in rectangular
microchannels. The particle diameter in their experiments was
170 nm. With only 1.8% of volume concentration they reported a
32% increase of the heat transfer coefcient in comparison to single
distilled water [5].
Also, experiments on nanouid heat transfer in trapezoidal silicon
micro channels have been performed by Wu. For channels with a hydraulic diameter of194.5 m and an Al2O3water nanouid, they
reported an increase in the Nusselt number with increasing particle
concentration, Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, while the pressure
drop increased slightly when compared to pure water [5].
Ijam and Saidur [6] have studied the cooling of the minichannel
heat sink with turbulent ow regime using SiCwater and TiO2
water nanouids. Their investigation showed that using nanouids
as a working uid enhances the cooling by 7.25%12.43% for SiC
water and 7.63%12.77% for TiO2water.
In the numerical simulation process of the heat transfer and hydrodynamic behavior, two groups of studies are available in the literature. One approach is to assume that the solid suspended particles
are in thermal equilibrium with the uid phase and a relative velocity
of zero exists between solid and uid parts implying that the particles
move with the same velocity of the base uid. The authors use the

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M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

Nomenclature
A
a
Cp
Cd
dp
Dh
F
Fcol
Fd
Fvm
f
fdrag
G
g
hv
hp
h
k
l
Nu
P
Pr
Re
T
V

heat transfer surface, m 2

acceleration, m s 2
specic heat at constant pressure, J kg 1 K 1
drag coefcient
nano-particles diameter, m
hydraulic diameter, m
force, N
particleparticle interaction force, Pa m 1
drag force, Pa m 1
virtual mass force, Pa m 1
friction factor
drag function
particleparticle interaction modulus, Pa
gravity acceleration, m s 2
volumetric heat transfer coefcient, W m 3 K 1
liquid-particle heat transfer coefcient, W m 2 K 1
heat transfer coefcient, W m 2 K 1
thermal conductivity, W m 1 K 1
mean free path, m
average Nusselt number
pressure, Pa
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
temperature, K
velocity, m s 1

Greek letters

thermal diffusivity, m 2 s 1

friction coefcient, kg m 3 s 1

viscosity, Pa s

uid dynamic viscosity, kg m 1 s 1

uid density, kg m 3

volume fraction

Subscripts
b
bulk
dr
drift
eff
effective
f
base uid
m
mixture
nf
nanouid
p
solid particle
w
wall

Different two-phase models also sometimes are compared to

know the most precise model to be used in calculations. In an interesting research accomplished by Lot et al. different approaches including single-phase, mixture and Eulerian two-phase models were
compared while studying the forced convection of a nanouid in a
horizontal tube. It was indicated that the mixture model is more accurate compared to the other two models [7].
The objective of the present paper is involved with the single
phase (homogeneous) and three different two-phase models (volume
of uid, mixture and Eulerian) to analyze laminar forced convection
ow of a waterAl2O3 nanouid in a mini-channel heat sink with uniform and constant heat ux applied at the base interface in Reynolds
number ranging from 133 to 1515. For each model, an individual computer code was developed to satisfy this purpose.
The CFD results of each model compared with experimental reference
data are reported by Ho [8]. Accuracy of each model is evaluated with experimental and compare with each other. Inuences of some important
parameters such as nanoparticle concentration and Reynolds number
on nanouid heat transfer enhancement are investigated. Based on the
most precise results and less CPU usage and run time two correlations
for prediction of average Nusselt number and friction factor are obtained.
2. Model conguration
2.1. Geometric conguration
In this investigation, 3D computational uid dynamics (CFD) was
considered for our modeling. Simulation was performed based on single
phase (homogenous) and three two-phase models (VOF, Eulerian, and
mixture model). For each approach an individual code was developed.
The mini-channel heat sink consists of 10 parallel rectangular
mini-channels with a length of 50 mm and a cross-sectional area of
1 mm in width by 1.5 mm in height for each mini-channel. All
mini-channels are supposed to be identical in heat transfer and
hydrodynamic. Hence, one channel can be picked out as the representative for numerical modeling. The domain of our modeling is shown
in Fig. 1. Details of dimensions are available in experimental work
reported by C.J. Ho [8]. Steady state laminar ow of Al2O3/water
nanouid, with nanoparticle size of 33 nm, passes through the
mini-channel heat sink.
2.2. Governing equations
2.2.1. Single phase model
Nanouid as a single phase was considered. Furthermore, the uid
phase was assumed continuous. Governing equation continuity, momentum and energy respectively are given [9]:
Continuity equation:
:nf :V m 0:

Momentum equation:
:nf :V m :V M P : nf :V m :

Thermally isolated

1 mm

50 mm

Flow inlet

1.5 mm

justication that although a nanouid consists of a solid phase, due to

the ultra-small size of particles, it is uidized and as a result could be
considered as a single-phase uid. However, according to the ndings
of Ding and Wen this assumption may not always remain true for a
nanouid [7].
Among the literature available on CFD simulation for nanouids,
some have focused on considering a two-phase ow for the used
nanouid indicating that the slip velocity between particles and
the uid might not be zero. In a numerical study by Behzadmehr et
al. for the rst time a two-phase mixture model was implemented
to investigate the behavior of Cuwater nanouid in a tube and
the results were also compared with the previous works using a
single-phase approach. The authors claimed that the simulation is
done by assuming that base uid and particles behave separately
possessed results that are more precise compared to the previous
computational modeling [7].

Y
Wall subjected to constant heat flux q
X

Fig. 1. Numerical domain of one channel.

Flow outlet

M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

Energy equation:
:nf :C:V m :T :knf :T :

In this model, suitable denitions of thermo physical property relations for nanouid have great signicance. The following formulas are
used to calculate the thermal and physical properties of the nanouid
[10]:
nf 1f Cuo

C nf 1C f C Cuo

nf f

knf

1
1 0:25

Modeling by assuming that the coupling between phases is strong,

and particles closely follow the ow. The two phases are assumed to
be interpenetrating, meaning that each phase has its own velocity
vector eld, and within any control volume there is a volume fraction
of primary phase and also a volume fraction of the secondary phase.
Instead of utilizing the governing equations of each phase separately,
the continuity, momentum and uid energy equations for the mixture
are employed. Therefore, the steady state governing equations describing a mixture uid ow and the heat transfer in mini-channel
are presented as follows [13]:
Continuity equation:
:nf :V m 0:

where nf is density and Cnf is specic heat of the nanouid.

-Viscosity of the nanouid is estimated as:

Momentum equation:



kp n1kf n1 kf kp

 kf

kp n1kf kf kp

159

:m :V m :V M P : m :V m

n

: k k V dr;k V dr;k m;i m g TT i

k1

where is the particle volume fraction and the subscripts p, f, nf

correspond to particle, uid and nanouid. The spherical particles
are assumed for the nanoparticles with n = 3.
2.2.2. Two-phase model
There are two general approaches for modeling the ow of solid liquid mixtures. For low solid volume fractions, the most suitable approach
is the LagrangianEulerian which analyzes the base uid by the Eulerian
assumption and the particle phase by the Lagrangian one. For higher
solid volume fractions, the appropriate approach is the Euleriane
Eulerian. For nanouids, the number of particles in the computational
domain, even for a very small particle volume fraction, is extremely
large due to the very small size of the particles. This makes it impossible
to solve the nanouid ow problems by the LagrangianEulerian
approach due to limitations of the software abilities, memory and CPU
requirements, etc. In fact, there are different EulerianeEulerian models.
The most popular ones are the VOF (volume of uid), mixture, and
Eulerian [11].
2.2.2.1. Mixture model. The essential consideration of the mixture
model is that only one setoff velocity component is solved from the
differential equations for mixture momentum conservation. The velocities of dispersed phases are inferred from the algebraic balance
equations. This reduces the computational effort considerably. In the
mixture model, the primary phase inuences the secondary phase
via drag and turbulence, while the secondary phase in turn inuence
the primary phase via reduction in mean momentum and turbulence.
The mixture model is based on the following assumptions:
- A single pressure is shared by all phases.
- The secondary dispersed phases are assumed to consist of spherical
particles of uniform particle size being specied during calculations.
- The interactions between different dispersed phases are neglected.
- The concentrations of the secondary dispersed phases are solved from
scalar equations taking into account the correction due to phase slip.
The mixture model has the following limitations and requirements:
- There is no possibility for phase change.
- The ow compressibility is not accounted for.
- Pressure boundary condition cannot be specied because the ideal
gas law cannot be employed.
- Turbulence generation in the secondary phases is not accounted
for, nor is the turbulence of primary phase directly affected by
the presence of secondary phase [12].

m is the mixture density:

m 1f p

10

where is the volume fraction of solid or liquid phase.

Fluid energy equation:

n 
: k :C pk :k: V k :T :km :T :
k1

11

Volume fraction equation:





: p p V m : p p V dr;p :

12

Vm is mass average velocity:

Vm

nk1 k k V k
:
m

13

Vdr,k is the drift velocity for the secondary phase k, i.e. the nanoparticles in the present study. This is related to the relative velocity:
n

V dr;k V pf
i1

k k
V :
m fk

14

The slip velocity (relative velocity) is dened as the velocity of a secondary phase (nanoparticle, p) relative to the velocity of the primary
phase (water, f):
V pf V p V f

V pf

15



2
p m
p dp

a
18 f f drag
p
(

f drag f x

1 0:15Re0:687
; Rep 1000
p
:
0:0183Rep ; Rep > 1000

16

17

The acceleration in Eq. (16) is:

a gV m :V m

18

where, g is gravitational acceleration.

It is noted that terms relating to the natural convection must be
neglected, because our work is dealing with forced convection.

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M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

where, hp is the uid-particle heat transfer coefcient that should be

calculated from empirical correlations. In the present study the uidparticle heat transfer coefcient is calculated using this equation:

2.2.2.2. Eulerian model. In the Eulerian model there are different kinds
of coupling between phases. The pressure is shared by all the phases,
while separate continuity, momentum, and energy equations are
employed for different phases including primary and secondary
phases. The volume of each phase is calculated by integrating its
volume fraction throughout the domain, while the summation of all
the volume fractions is equal to unity [14].
The governing mass, momentum and energy equations for the
particle and base liquid phases can be written as follows [15]:

The effective thermal conductivities for liquid and particle phases

are estimated as:



: l l V l 0

19

keff;l

kb;l
l

32



: p p V p 0

20

keff;p

kb;p
p

33

l p 1

21

where:







F d F vm
: l l V l V l l p : l l V l V l T

22

kb;l

q
1 1l kl

34

kb;p

q
1l A 1 kl

35







: p p V p V p p p : p p V p V p T F d
F Vm F col :

23

Nup

and

hp dp
0:6
1=3
2 1:1Rep Pr :
kl

(
)


2
BA1
A
B1 B 1



ln


B
2
1 AB A 1 AB 2
1 AB

Due to the very small size of the particles, the lift force is neglected
in our study. Only the drag force between the phases is considered.
The drag force between the phases is calculated as:



F d V l V p :


1l  10=9
:
B 1:25
l

24

The friction coefcient is calculated according to the nanoparticle

volume concentration range. For a very dilute two-phase ow with particle diameter dp, the friction coefcient is:
3 1l   2:65
l V l V p l
:
Cd l
4
dp

25

Eq. (25) is valid for two-phase ows with l > 0.8 and Cd is the
drag coefcient and its magnitude depends on the particle Reynolds
number:
8


< 24 1 0:15Re0:687
p
C d Rep
:
0:44

Rep b1000
Rep 1000

26

where

Rep

 


l l V l V p dp
l

27

Considering the base liquid and the nanoparticle phases as incompressible uids, and neglecting the viscous dissipation and radiation,
the energy equations are written as:








: l l C pl T l V l : l keff;l T l hv T l T p








: p p C pp T p V p : p keff;p T p hv T l T p :

28

31

36

with
37

For spherical particles we have:

A

kp
3
and 7:26  10 :
kl

38

2.2.2.3. VOF model. The VOF model solves a single set of momentum
equations for all the phases and tracks their volume fraction all over
the domain of study by solving a continuity equation for the secondary
phases. The total summation of the volume fractions for all the phases
is equal to unity. Therefore, the magnitude of the primary phase
volume fraction is calculated. With this method all of the physical
properties are calculated by taking a weighted average of different
phases based on their volume fraction throughout each control volume.
The single set of momentum equations is solved to nd the velocity
components which are shared by all the phases. In the same manner,
a shared temperature is calculated from a single energy equation.
Specically, mass conservation is expressed as [11]:




: q q V q 0

39

q1

q1

where q 1 and all properties are calculated like N q N q (n is

number of the phases).
Also the conservation of momentum and energy equations are similar
as Eqs. (2) and (3).
2.3. Boundary condition denition

29

Non-linear governing equations have been subjected to the following boundary conditions:

For mono-dispersed spherical particles, hv can be calculated from:

hv

61l
hp
dp

30

2.3.1. Inlet
At the entrance of the mini-channel heat sink assembly velocity
inlet boundary condition depending on the value of Reynolds number,

M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

161

Fig. 2. Model grid independency test, the average Nusselt number versus Reynolds number for pure water with single phase and two-phase approaches ((a) single phase, (b) mixture
model, (c) Eulerian model, d: VOF model).

that was extracted from reference experimental [8],was applied

(z = 0):
o

V x V y 0; V z V 0 T T 0 36:2 C:

40

2.3.2. Outlet
At the mini-channel outlet plain, the static pressure with no viscous
stress has been assumed (z= Lch):
P atmospheric pressure:

41

2.3.3. Walls
The no-slip boundary condition was enforced on all solid walls:
V x Vy Vz 0:

42

First heat was removed by conduction through the solid and then
dissipated away by force convection of the cooling uid in the minichannel. The bottom surface was uniformly heated with constant heat
ux and adiabatic boundary conditions were applied at all other sides
of the mini-channel:
}

convective and diffusive terms a rst order upwind method was

used. The algebraic system resulting from numerical discretization
was solved by using GaussSeidel applied in a line going through all
volumes in the computational domain.
During the iterative process, the absolute residuals were carefully
monitored and convergence criteria for every parameter (mass,
velocity and energy) was restricted to be lower than10 5.
For more accuracy of the results grid independence examinations
were done on pure water individually in each model. For all cases a
structured non-uniform grid has been considered spotting for our
modeling domain. It is ner vicinity the bottom wall and entrance
of mini-channel where the temperature and velocity gradients are
large. Several combinations of node numbers in the length, width
and height directions were examined. The grid which has been
employed for the present study consisted of 600 18 12 nodes
(600 grids in length, 18 grids in height, and 12 grids in width direction). Also ning of grids did not make a signicant inuence on the
accuracy of Nusselt number.
The grid independence examination of the numerical solution is
illustrated in Fig. 2, where the Nusselt number versus Reynolds number for the several combinations of nod numbers is displayed.
2.5. Calculation of the Nusselt number and the pumping power

knf :T q @Bottom of minichannel

43

knf :T 0@Top; front and rearof minichannel:

44

From the collecting data of temperature, volume ow rate and

pressure drop, the average Nusselt number and pumping power or
FOMitd can be calculated from the following formulas:

2.4. Numerical implementation and grid-independence study

Dh

The set of 3D coupled non-linear differential equations has been

discretized by the control volume technique. For the treatment of
pressurevelocity coupling SIMPLE algorithm was adopted. For the

Pr

4W ch H ch
2W ch H ch

C p :
k

45


46
nf

162

M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

Fig. 3. Nu deviation from experimental in different Re for (a) = 0.139, (b) = 0.278
and (c) = 1.734%.

Re

nf :U m :Dh
nf

47

48

P p:Q_

49

qf :Q_ :C p T out T in

50

qf
q}
or h itd
T w T in Abase
T w T in

Nu itd h itd :Dh

k

h itd;m

FOMitd  
P

2:Dh :P
f
nf Lch u2

h itd

Fig. 4. Average heat transfer coefcient versus nanoparticle volume fraction in three
Reynolds number ((a) Re = 133, (b) Re = 650 and (c) Re = 1520) with four models.

51

52

h itd;bf

1

53

P bf

where Dh, Wch, Hch, Lch, Q_ , p, P, h itd , Nu itd and FOMitd are hydraulic
diameter, mini-channel width, height, length, volume ow rate,
total pressure drop, pumping power, average heat transfer coefcient,
average Nusselt number based on the temperature difference between the average base wall and the inlet uid and gure of merit,
respectively.
3. Code validation, results and discussion
Mentioned geometry conguration and boundary conditions are
same as experimental work reported by C.J. Ho [8].

M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

In order to indicate the validity and precision of the computer

codes, average Nusselt number Nu itd , based on the temperature difference between the average base wall and the inlet uid, and gure
of merit (FOMitd) were extracted from published experimental work
[8]. Two mentioned parameters ( Nu itd and FOMitd) for pure water
and three particle fraction (.5, 1 and 6 wt.% equal to volume fraction,
respectively 0.139, 0.278 and 1.734%) were used to validate our
modeling, hydrodynamically and thermally. Fig. 3 indicates comparison between the experimental and calculated Nusselt number versus
Reynolds number for the mentioned volume concentrations by single
phase and three two-phase models. As we can see there is a good
agreement between present modeling results and the experimental
one. In the lower volume concentration ( = .139 and .278%) the differences between single phase model and two phase model aren't
sensible (especially in = .139% that are under 10%). With increasing
in , modeling results with two phase models acquire over estimate
while single phase prediction remains under estimate. Undoubtedly
deviation from experimental with two phase models is lower than
single phase in all cases but this deviation for single phase approach
is becoming more sensible when volume concentration goes up to
= 1% or to a higher Reynolds number. Maximum deviation from
experimental with two-phase approaches was 16%.
The effect of nanoparticle volume fraction on the average heat
transfer coefcient in three Reynolds number (133, 650 and 1520)
by four models is indicated in Fig. 4.
It is apparent that two modeling results reect either the qualitative or the quantitative excellent behavior with the experimental
values. The difference between the three two-phase models is very
narrow. While taking into account less run time and CPU usage the
mixture model is an excellent selection for our modeling.
Fig. 5 illustrates the variation of Nusselt number with Reynolds
number and volume fraction. It is recognizable augmenting Nusselt
number with the increasing Reynolds number and volume fraction.
It is due to the fact that nanouids with higher particle concentrations have higher static and dynamic thermal conductivities, and
higher Reynolds numbers lead to higher velocity and temperature
gradients at the mini-channel wall which in turn increase the heat
transfer coefcient [16].
Because of the mixture model that has represented the most precise
consequences of all, a correlation for average Nusselt number was developed based on its results (130Re 1530, 6.5 Pr 7, 0 0.01734):
0:391801

Nu 0:290263Re:Pr

19:8223

54

163

Fig. 6. Comparison correlated Nu with simulated one.

Above correlation is compared with the calculating results and is

depicted in Fig. 6. The deviation of the correlated average Nusselt
number from the calculated is between + 3 and 7%.
Fig. 7 shows the deviation of FOMitd from experimental for =
1.734%. It can be observed that the FOMitd of the nanouid based on
the two-phase models agrees well with those of experimental data
under the same Reynolds number. Also, the three two-phase models
led to nearly the same hydrodynamic results. The maximum deviation of the two phase models is less than 10%.
In order to use the nanouids for industrial applications, it is necessary to nd out the ow characteristic of the nanouids in addition
to the heat transfer evaluation.
By using the simulation results, friction factor in the mini-channel
heat sink as a function of the Reynolds number, particle volume fraction (), was correlated (130 Re 1530, 0 0.01734):
0:90158

f 34:81713Re

0:066694

55

Fig. 8 represents the comparison of the correlated friction factor

obtained from the above equation with the modeling ones. The maximum deviation is less than 9%.

This correlation can be used for laminar ow of al2o3/water nanouid in mentioned mini-channel heat sink.

Fig. 5. Results of variation Nu versus Re in various nanoparticle volume fraction with

mixture model.

Fig. 7. Comparison FOMitd with experimental in different Re for =1.734% with four models.

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M.K. Moraveji, R.M. Ardehali / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 44 (2013) 157164

References

Fig. 8. Comparison of correlated friction factor with simulated one.

4. Conclusion
A 3D laminar forced convection of Al2O3water nanouids inside
the mini-channel heat sink was studied using CFD tool. Four individual
computer codes (single phase, VOF, mixture, Eulerian) were developed.
Based on experimental data the validity of each model was investigated.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present assessment:
- When we look at the two-phase model results, they are very close
to each other by contrast (in both aspect: hydrodynamic and heat
transfer).
- The two phase models represented a better approximation of the
experimental data comparing to the single phase model.
- Increase in the Reynolds number (Re) and nanoparticle concentration
led to Nusselt number enhancement.
- Regarding less run time and CPU usage the mixture model is a good
recommendation for this modeling.
- Based on mixture model results veriable correlations for Nusselt
number and friction factor were obtained.

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