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Petru L Cureu
Babe-Bolyai University
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Helen Pluut
National University of Singapore
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217
Groups are social systems with cognitive and emotional emergent properties. Although
traditionally emotions have been conceptualized as a hallmark of individuals (Frijda, 1986;
Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008), during the last decades substantial conceptual work has
been devoted to understanding group emotionality as an emergent group-level property
(Barsade & Gibson, 1998; Walter & Bruch, 2008). In the group emotions literature, of
particular importance are the emergence of collective emotions (i.e., affective similarity)
and collective emotional competencies (i.e., collective emotional intelligence [CEI]).
Group cognition research shows that gender diversity is conducive for the emergence
of group rationality (Curseu, Jansen, & Chappin, 2013) and group cognitive complexity
(Curseu, Schruijer, & Boros, 2007), while the percentage of women in the group is
positively correlated with collective intelligence (Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, &
Malone, 2010). In this context, as group scholars devoted substantial conceptual work to
explore emotional intelligence as an emergent group-level competence (Ayoko, Callan, &
Hartel, 2008; Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Jordan & Troth, 2004; Koman & Wolff, 2008), it
becomes important to better understand the role of gender differences in groups for the
emergence of CEI. Collective emotional intelligence is defined as the ability of a group to
develop a set of norms that promote awareness and regulation of member and group
emotions (Druskat & Wolff, 2001). Therefore, CEI is a group-level competence that
emerges from the integration of individual competencies through interpersonal interactions. Due to their higher social sensitivity and relational orientation, women promote the
emergence of collective competencies by facilitating the coordination of individual
competencies during social interactions (Curseu et al., 2013; Woolley et al., 2010). Thus,
the first aim of our study is to test the relation between the percentage of women group
members and the emergent CEI in a group.
*Correspondence should be addressed to Petru L. Curseu, Department of Organisation Studies, Tilburg University, Room 2.105,
Warandelaan 2, PO box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands (email: p.l.curseu@uvt.nl).
DOI:10.1111/bjop.12075
218
Studies on collective emotions have focused mainly on the valence of group affect
rather than the level of affective similarity within the group. In trying to explain the causal
relations between the emergence of affective similarity and group dynamics, recent
models portray an affective spiral (Walter & Bruch, 2008). On the one hand, high quality of
social interactions in groups is conducive to positive affective similarity, or the degree to
which group members align their positive individual affects. This effect is explained by
processes such as interaction synchrony (the non-conscious process by which one
individuals behaviour is adjusted to coordinate or synchronize with another) and
emotional contagion (the process where the affective states of one individual are
transferred to nearby individuals) (Kelly & Barsade, 2001; Walter & Bruch, 2008). On the
other hand, affective similarity generates interpersonal attraction and as such is conducive
to positive interpersonal relations. Emergent group emotions are therefore conceptualized both as antecedents and consequences of interpersonal interactions (Walter & Bruch,
2008). Thus, a second aim of our research is to answer the call for further research on
affective similarity in groups (Collins, Lawrence, Troth, & Jordan, 2013) and test these two
proposed causal directions and specify more clearly the dynamics between affective
similarity and teamwork quality (as indicated by cohesion and relationship conflict).
To conclude, the current article aims to test a comprehensive socio-emotional model
of groups that integrates both collective emotional competencies and affective similarity
as they relate to quality of interpersonal relations and effectiveness in groups and as such
uncovers the mechanisms through which the percentage of women in groups contributes
to group effectiveness.
219
(Lawrence & Hutchinson, 2014), which makes them focus on maintaining a good group
atmosphere and catalyses the formation of norms that foster emotional awareness
and regulation in the group. Hence, the heightened communal orientation in women is
likely to be conducive to the creation of emotionally intelligent norms in the groups they
belong to.
We contend that womens participation in a group (i.e., the percentage of women in
the group) improves CEI through the emotional resources they bring to the group
(developed individual emotional intelligence) as well as the interaction norms they help
to develop in the group that support the awareness and regulation of group affect (due
to their social sensitivity and other communal traits). In line with the arguments of
womens contribution to both the compositional and interactional aspect of CEI, we
hypothesize that the proportion of women in the group is positively related to the
emergence of CEI.
Hypothesis 1:
The proportion of women in the group has a positive effect on the emergence of
collective emotional intelligence.
Emotions are at the core of social interactions in groups and therefore influence the way
members work together. Studies indicate that groups developing norms to better deal
with affective dynamics (i.e., develop CEI) are more effective in the long run (Wolff,
Druskat, Koman, & Messer, 2006). Quality of social interactions tends to improve when
emotions are managed appropriately (Lopes, Salovey, C^
ote, & Beers, 2005), and
emotionally intelligent groups are therefore more effective due to improved teamwork
(Druskat & Wolff, 2001). Two salient indicators for the quality of the intragroup
relationships are group cohesion (as a positive indicator) and relationship conflict (as a
negative indicator).
Group cohesion reflects the social integration in small groups, in other words the force
that keeps the group together (Evans & Jarvis, 1980). At the individual level, studies have
shown that emotional intelligence of group members promotes group cohesion (Prati,
Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003; Troth, Jordan, & Lawrence, 2012), which is
further beneficial for group effectiveness (Beal, Cohen, Burke, & McLendon, 2003).
However, studies investigating emotional intelligence as a group property and its impact
upon social cohesion are rather scant. We posit that CEI is likely to enhance the cohesion
in a group, as the development of norms that encourage awareness and regulation of
affective dynamics within a group creates an atmosphere of trust and psychological safety
which further enriches the social capital of the group (Druskat & Wolff, 2001). At the same
time, CEI may reduce the likelihood that groups suffer from relationship conflict (Yang &
Mossholder, 2004). Relationship conflict refers to interpersonal frictions and disagreements experienced by group members, and it has been systematically linked to impaired
group performance (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). Collective emotional intelligence
enables groups to devise creative solutions to disagreements and avoid escalating these
conflicts (George, 2000) as well as the transformation of task into relationship conflict
(Curseu, Boros, & Oerlemans, 2012; Van Den Berg, Curseu, & Meeus, 2014). Appraising
the various emotions occurring in the group and understanding their full meaning allows
group members to recognize in time the downward emotional spirals of conflict and act to
prevent their potential damage (Yang & Mossholder, 2004). Furthermore, when conflict
occurs, these groups are more successful in comprehending the emotions arising from it
(Ayoko et al., 2008), and hence not giving way to the misattributions that lead to the
escalation and transformation of conflict (Simons & Peterson, 2000). Thus, we expect CEI
220
Hypothesis 2b:
Hypothesis 3b:
221
conflict) and the associated affective similarity, with beneficial effects for group
effectiveness.
Methods
Sample and procedure
Our study uses a cross-lagged design, variables being evaluated at two distinct moments in
time. The sample consists of 528 (45.9% women) students enrolled at various courses
(Organizational Behaviour, Organization Development, Organization Theory, and
Research in Organizations) at a Dutch university. The respondents had an average age
of 21.1 years old, and the vast majority of the students were Dutch (86.9%). All courses
required students to form small workgroups for the entire duration of the course (i.e.,
group membership remained fixed), resulting in a total of 100 student groups ranging
from three (we excluded groups with less than three members) to seven members
(average group size of 5.0).
Our data were collected as part of a collaborative research project on social networks
of teams. In two different course workshops, students were asked to fill out questionnaires evaluating the variables included in the study. We developed both Dutch and
English versions of the questionnaires and used back-translation to ensure that the Dutch
version is accurate. Individual group members filled out the questionnaires, and grouplevel scores were aggregated from individual evaluations. The first questionnaire (T1)
measured collective emotional intelligence, group mood, group cohesion, and relationship conflict. Also, to be able to control for the effects of interpersonal familiarity, at T1
each individual group member was asked to report with whom they had a friendship tie
within their group. The within-group sum of friendship ties (all reported ties were
included, bi-directional ties were coded as two uni-directional ties) at T1 was further used
as a control variable. The second questionnaire (T2) assessed the same set of variables as
well as group effectiveness. In addition, both questionnaires contained items related to
demographical characteristics (age, gender, and nationality). The period between the two
evaluation moments covered 4 weeks. This cross-lagged design allows us to test the causal
sequencing of the study variables.
Measures
Collective emotional intelligence
Collective emotional intelligence was measured with a scale comprising two dimensions: emotional awareness and emotion regulation. Three items assessed emotional
awareness in the group (e.g., We knew how everyone felt just by looking at each other)
and five items were used to assess group emotion regulation (e.g., We made each other
feel better when we were down). We selected these items from scales on group
emotional awareness and emotion regulation that evaluate groups competence of
identifying and regulating collective emotions (Curseu et al., 2012). Answers were
recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (=totally disagree) to 5 (=totally
agree). The reliability analysis pointed to two problematic (emotion regulation) items,
which were therefore excluded from the scale. The final scale consisted of six items in
total (three for each dimension) and had Cronbachs alphas of .736 and .741 for Time 1
and Time 2 respectively. The items were answered by each individual group member
and aggregated at the group level for further analyses.
222
Affective similarity
To assess affective similarity in the group, we first measured group mood using a selfreport circumplex model (see e.g., Russell, 1980). This model categorizes mood along two
dimensions: hedonic valence (pleasant unpleasant) and arousal (high activation low
activation). Respondents were asked to rate the atmosphere in the group during their
work together on a scale from 5 to +5 for both hedonic valence (5 = unpleasant,
+5 = pleasant) and arousal (5 = low energy, +5 = high energy). Respondents reported
only positive values on both dimensions of group mood, which correlate significantly and
positively with q = .53 (p = .0001) at Time 1 and q = .32 (p = .001) at Time 2. This
supports aggregation and we therefore took the mean of the ratings on the two
dimensions to evaluate group mood. Affective similarity was then assessed by computing
the within-group
agreement
index (Rwg) for this mean by using the following formula:
h
i
rwgJ h
J 1s2xj =r2E
i
, where s2x is the mean of item variance within groups and r2EU is
j
computed as: r2EU A2 1=12 for an assumed uniform distribution (A is the number of
intervals on the Likert scale used to evaluate each dimension in the circumplex). Rwg is an
index developed for assessing agreement among the judgments made by a group of people
with respect to a target, the estimators being sensitive to the similarity (among judges) on
the rank orderings of the target ratings as well as to the differences in the level of each
judges ratings (James, Demaree, & Wolf, 1993).
Group cohesion
For the measurement of group cohesion, we selected two items on group integration
related to the task (e.g., Our team is united in trying to deliver high quality assignments)
and three items referring to social group integration (e.g., The team members feel they
belong to this team) from the Group Environment Questionnaire (Blanchard, Poon,
Rodgers, & Pinel, 2000). Answers were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(=totally disagree) to 5 (=totally agree) at an individual level and group means were
further used for the analyses. Cronbachs alphas for the scale were .682 and .739 for Time
1 and Time 2 respectively.
Relationship conflict
Four items from the intragroup conflict scale (Jehn, 1995) were used to measure
relationship conflict. Individual members were asked about their experience of
relationship conflict in the group (e.g., How often are personality conflicts evident in
your team?). Answers were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very rarely/little,
5 = very often/much) at an individual level and group means were further used for the
analyses. The Cronbachs alpha for the scale was .720 at Time 1 and .781 at Time 2.
Group effectiveness
Following Hackman (1986), we conceptualize group effectiveness as a composite
measure of group performance, group viability, and group (member) satisfaction. We
selected 18 items from a scale developed by Whelan (2007) for organizational settings and
adapted these to a higher education setting. Using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = totally
223
disagree, 5 = totally agree), five items measured performance (e.g., All team members
participate in the process of goal setting for my team), seven items measured viability
(e.g., Team members are willing to be flexible and perform different roles and jobs within
the team), and five items measured satisfaction (e.g., Team members are generally
satisfied to be working in this team). The items were collected at an individual level and
aggregated at a group level using the group mean. The Cronbachs alpha for the scale was
.877.
224
CEI (T1)
Relationship conflict (T1)
Group cohesion (T1)
Relationship conflict (T2)
Group cohesion (T2)
Team effectiveness (T2)
ICC (1)
ICC (2)
Range Rwg
.24
.27
.38
.31
.37
.26
.56
.60
.71
.63
.69
.58
.97 (.01)
.93 (.04)
.95 (.03)
.92(.04)
.94 (.03)
.98 (.00)
[.90, 1.00]
[.78, 1.00]
[.82, .99]
[.77, 1.00]
[.73, 1.00]
[.90, 1.00]
high degree of within-group homogeneity. Also the ICC(2) values were higher than .56,
showing sufficient team level inter-rater reliability. Based on these aggregation statistics,
we can conclude that using the group-level mean for further analyses provides an accurate
estimate of the group-level phenomenon investigated.
Results
We started out by testing the bi-directional causal claims put forward by Walter and Bruch
(2008) on the interrelation between affective similarity on the one hand and group
cohesion and relationship conflict (as indicators of relationship quality) on the other hand.
The cross-lagged data on affective similarity (AS) and relationship quality (RQ) allow us to
explore the temporal sequencing of these variables. Table 2 shows the correlational
matrix for affective similarity and relationship quality, evaluated at two moments in time.
The correlations show that AS at Time 2 and RQ at Time 2 are significantly related. The
correlation between AS at Time 1 and RQ at Time 2, however, is not significant. Also, the
correlation between AS at Time 1 and AS at Time 2 is not significant. This set of
correlations shows that affective similarity is a rather volatile and transient state, as it is not
persistent over time and does not influence relationship quality at a later point in time. A
different pattern of correlations can be found for relationship quality. RQ at Time 1
correlates significantly with both AS at Time 1 and AS at Time 2. Moreover, a strong
correlation exists between RQ at Time 1 and RQ at Time 2. This indicates that relationship
quality is not a transient state but rather reflects a stable pattern of interpersonal
interactions in the group. To conclude, the correlational findings show that (1) affective
similarity is a transient state; (2) relationship quality is persistent over time; and (3)
relationship quality is more likely to drive affective similarity rather than the other way
around. Looking at the partial correlations, we find that the association between RQ at
Time 1 and AS at Time 2 drops to a not significant relation when controlling for RQ at Time
2 (q = .02; p = .88 for the correlation involving group cohesion and q = .03; p = .77
for the correlation involving relationship conflict), implying that the association between
relationship quality at Time 1 and affective similarity at Time 2 is fully explained
(mediated) by relationship quality at Time 2. Based on these findings, we conclude that
affective similarity is an associated outcome of relationship quality within the group.
To further explore this interpretation, we tested a comprehensive model that builds on
the notion of affective similarity as an emergent state associated with group cohesion and
relationship conflict. In this comprehensive model, we also controlled for the number of
friendship ties within groups by adding this variable as a covariate for all mediators
included in the model. The hypothesized path model was tested with the AMOS software,
46.16
8.45
3.53
1.58
3.70
.94
1.72
3.71
.93
3.66
31.72
6.03
.31
.37
.42
.05
.47
.45
.05
.28
SD
1
.11
.31**
.24*
.26**
.09
.00
.13
.08
.11
2
1
.50**
.06
.58**
.03
.15
.55**
.08
.19
1. Percentage of women
2. No. of friendship ties (T1)
3. CEI (T1)
4. Relationship conflict (T1)
5. Group cohesion (T1)
6. Affective similarity (T1)
7. Relationship conflict (T2)
8. Group cohesion (T2)
9. Affective similarity (T2)
10. Group effectiveness (T2)
1
.36**
.69**
.19
.28**
.55**
.19
.43**
1
.35**
.23*
.64**
.30**
.24*
.36**
1
.22*
.25*
.71**
.27*
.37**
1
.07
.02
.18
.07
1
.45**
.36**
.53**
1
.40**
.62**
1
.46**
226
version 19 using Structural Equation Modelling. The fit summary of this model as well as
the standard path coefficients are presented in Figure 1. The chi-square value provides a
statistical test for global model fit and shows that the model is not significantly different
from the data, v2 (8) = 8.84, p = .35. Two categories of fit indices can be distinguished:
(1) absolute fit indices, which illustrate how well the data are reproduced by the
theoretical model and (2) incremental fit indices, which compare the tested model with
the baseline model (Widman & Thomson, 2003). We have focused on the Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = .03) as an absolute fit index and we use the
TuckerLewis Index (TLI = .98), the Normed Fit Index (NFI = .95), and the Comparative
Fit Index (CFI = .99) as incremental fit indices. All values of the fit indices point to a good
fit between the model and the data and to the fact that the model cannot be substantially
improved (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
We find that the percentage of women in the group positively influences CEI (b = .25,
p = .004). Collective emotional intelligence, in turn, has strong effects on cohesion
(b = .36, p = .001) and relationship conflict (b = .26, p = .02). In line with the
argument that affective similarity is a group state that concurrently emerges from
relationship quality within the group, the data show that cohesion is positively associated
(b = .40, p = .001) and relationship conflict is negatively associated (b = .24, p = .023)
with affective similarity measured at the same moment in time. Cohesion, relationship
conflict, and affective similarity had significant associations with group effectiveness. As
hypothesized, cohesion (b = .41, p = .001) and affective similarity (b = .23, p = .007)
had a positive influence, while relationship conflict (b = .26, p = .002) had a negative
influence on group effectiveness. The number of friendship ties had significant positive
associations with CEI (b = .48, p = .001) and with cohesion (b = .37, p = .001), whereas
the associations with relationship conflict (b = .02, p = .83) and affective similarity
(b = .16, p = .14) were not significant.
SEM is an advantageous analytical approach because it allows the simultaneous test of
multiple mediators and more complex mediating chains (as we intended to test in our
study) and also provides global model fit indices useful to estimate the general accuracy of
comprehensive models (Tomarken & Waller, 2005). Nevertheless, to further check the
robustness of our analyses, we used a resampling procedure and individually tested
hypotheses 2 and 3 using bootstrapping as recommended by Preacher and Hayes (2004).
Group
cohesion (T2)
0.41**
0.36**
0.40**
% of women
in groups
0.25*
Collective emotional
intelligence (T1)
0.26**
0.40**
Affective
similarity (T2)
0.23**
Group
effectiveness (T2)
0.24*
Relationship
conflict (T2)
0.26**
Figure 1. A comprehensive model of collective emotional intelligence. Note. Model fit: Chisquare = 8.84 (df = 8; p = .35); TLI = .98; CFI = .99; NFI = .95; RMSEA = .03. Standardized path
coefficients are shown. We also controlled for the number of friendship ties within groups by adding it as a
covariate to all mediators in the model, yet for parsimony reasons, this control variable is not depicted in
the figure. *p < .05; **p < .01.
227
Discussion
Our study tested a comprehensive model of CEI and its impact on group effectiveness in
gender diverse groups. We found strong evidence that the percentage of women in the
group improves the CEI. As such, we provide support for the claim that gender
composition is an important driver of group-level competencies. Also, we uncover a
mechanism for the impact of gender composition on group effectiveness and provide
insights into the group dynamics that explain this effect. More specifically, we looked at
the interrelation between interpersonal interactions and affective dynamics in the group.
Our findings align with existing evidence that groups with better emotional competencies
228
229
230
Acknowledgements
We thank Jeroen de Jong, Jing Han, Steffie Janssen, Rob Jansen, and Gertjan Lucas for their help
with data collection.
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Received 9 January 2014; revised version received 1 May 2014