Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the first chapter, the background for the study is given while in this
chapter a brief review of select studies is given according to three points:
NGOs and womens empowerment, NGOs and Education of Women and
status of education, empowerment of women and work of NGOs in Iran
Women are passive powerless victims of patriarchal structure.
Gender studies across the globe have emerged from womens movement and
challenging subordination of women in every sphere of life. Gender studies
not only help in womens empowerment but importantly also create a
suitable base for development of marginalized segments of our society. The
combination of gender studies and NGOs work resulted in raising awareness
to development among deprived groups of our society. It has been realized
that participatory approach to human development at grass root level is
important now a days. The results from it are positive. The success story of
Gramin Bank in Bangladesh is a shining example. Various studies show that
the NGOs have played initial roles in grass root development in general and
womens empowerment in special.
2.1.
21
professional education is necessary for new emerging jobs but women are
not getting equal opportunity as men in higher education. The situation of
lower income groups and rural areas is worse than urban areas and higher
income groups. 4
In S. K. Bhandaris (1998) study, an attempt has been made by the
author, to compile all factual information and derive selective indicators for
depicting the progress of women education in India during the course of the
last century and to analyze the gap that still remains to be bridged towards
equalization of educational opportunities between boys and girls in the
country.5
M.I. Manvel (1998) considered relation between women and
development and explained human development without paying attention
22
23
24
14
25
26
27
the areas of rural development, women and children. The authors goal is to
throw light on the contributions of the sector in the spheres of school welfare
empowerment.18
Sushama Sahay (1998) seeks to discuss the approaches and strategies
for empowering women by outlining the strategies, mechanisms and tools
that women are using for their empowerment. It is an important and timely
contribution to a major on going debate on women studies, rural
development and voluntary initiatives at the grassroots level. 19 It is
becoming necessary to study the factors that support empowerment of
women. Therefore, NGOs have an opportunity to play an inevitable role in
empowerment of women by making and implementing strategies.
Further, various attempts of NGOs in development of women by
capacity building are studied in the edited book of Ranjani K. Murthy (2001)
in India. Various NGOs are working in slums and rural and tribal areas for
womens development in India. Active role of women in NGOs and NGOs
role in Self Help Groups, micro-enterprises, education of children especially
of girl children and organizing womens against exploitation were part of
this book.20
B.T. Bawani (1999) provided a comprehensive coverage to the course
content and the requirements of the social work teachers and research
28
29
30
31
has collated information on women professionals the world over and makes
a comparison with that of Indian findings.29
The book of V.M. Kulkarni, (1969) is a comprehensive study on the
functioning of NGOs in one of the most underdeveloped districts of India.
Probably the first of its kind, the study bring out in detail various aspects of
a functioning of NGOs profiles and portrays the psyche of their personnel
and also presents the views and opinions of their beneficiaries. The book ,
besides providing invaluable data to students, researchers, academicians and
planners, will prove to be of immense use for the NGOs and all those
interested in women development and strengthening of the voluntary
sector.30
This book of V.M. Kulkarni examines definitions of a voluntary
action discusses philosophy of voluntary action and identifies some of the
causes of unhappy situation of voluntary action in India.
2.2.
32
33
vocational) based on the social, economic, and cultural needs of the various
regions of the country and also on the basis of the gender and age of the
students.
The budget of the Ministry of Education in 1996 was 6,130 billion
rial (Rl), which is 3.8% of the gross national product. The approved budget
was 5l5, 455.6 billion, but in order to provide for the financial shortages of
the Ministry of Education, some additional funding was allocated and the
budget increased to 5l6, 130 billion. In addition to the approved budget,
some Acts were approved during the last two years to provide the Ministry
of Education with new financial resources.32
The Ministry of Education administers and finances schools at the
primary and secondary levels. The Supreme Council of Education, as the
highest legislative body, approves all policies and regulations related to nonuniversity education.
The Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (formerly the
Ministry of Culture and Higher Education) is responsible for universities of
science, art and technology. The Ministry of Health and Medical Education
deals with medical schools and the training of medical assistants.
The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs is responsible for nonformal training; non-formal vocational courses are conducted by the
34
Primary Education
Primary education is the first stage of formal education and it is
compulsory. It lasts five years and the admission age is 6 years. After the
final examination at the end of Grade V, successful pupils are awarded the
certificate of completed primary level studies.
35
3. Secondary Education
Secondary education consists of two cycles. Lower secondary
education lasts three years (age group 11-13). The three-year upper
secondary education programme is for students graduating from junior high
schools. The courses offered in secondary schools are organized in three
branches: theoretical, vocational or technical, and Kar-Danesh (knowledge
skill). A one-year pre-university course is available for those who have
successfully
completed
secondary
education.
five-year
degree.
Professional
doctorate
36
and
specialist
doctorate
women. Educational level is high among Iranian women than Indian women.
Since in the world development report 2007 Iran has rank of 94 while India
is stagnant at 128th position.34 However, Indian women are rapidly
improving higher capabilities to grab new job opportunities created by free
37
economy. Iranian women lack a little behind in this reference, but the
overall level of education is better among Iranian women. In India, disparity
among deprived women and women from upper and middle class families is
higher than Iranian society. Iranian society is more homogeneous than India.
Therefore the social hurdles like casteism, internal social disparities and
other problems are not seen in the ways of educational or other development
policies.
Nonetheless, the gender study is more flourished in India than Iran.
Women writers and scholars have been acknowledged worldwide. Since our
study is related to Iranian womens empowerment so a brief overview of
earlier studies on Iranian women is given here.
Ghasnavi (2000) studied Education of women in Iran and considered
some of the main obstacles that women cannot have equal educational
chance.35
Namazi (2002) studied about conditions and status of volunteer public
organizations in Islamic Republic of Iran and explained why work of NGOs
in Iran is important.36
F.D. Ansari (2003) studied to investigate ways in which women,
religion and culture have interacted with each other. In the context of 19 th
and 29th century Iran the study considers the effect of literacy on womens
38
lives during the 20th century, and the longer term consequences of
development since 1979 on the position of women in contemporary Iran.37
Atapour (2004) investigated into the progress and problems of women
education in Hamadan province, Iran. The study was conducted on women
education in Hamadan Province.38
Behnaz Ashtari (2004) studied in Irans civil society, however, the
situation for women in much better,
studied the role of NGOs in the process of sustainable development and the
necessity of their institutionalization as well as the necessity of giving a
greater role to them. Empowerment and strengthening of their internal
capacities seems to be an urgent need in the present paper which is based on
the findings of a research applied study in the field of organization features
of the NGOs in Iran. In order to design an organizational entrepreneurship
39
plan, attempts have been made to explain the significance of the problem.
The objectives of the research and also the review of the related literature
and then after enumerating the hypotheses of the study and explaining the
methodology of research the collected data is analyzed through application
of pertinent research tools to the findings of the research are study and
statistical samples. At the end the some suggestions have been forwarded for
the establishment of a desirable organizational model for the NGOs in Iran
Shaditalab, Jaleh, (2005), has studied womens social participation.
Development experts have distinguished citizenship control as the highest
form and degree of participation. In such participation people have decision
making power in issues that affect their daily lives. The identification of
variables that ensure women and men ability to control societys affairs is
important for the realization of participation. This article aims to identify the
different forms of womens social participation and its related factors. It is
based on a study that was conducted in the city of Tehran. The analytical
from work was assisted by theory application and previous empirical
studies. Six forms of participation were identified of which civil social
support cultural entertainment, local charity religious and participation was
the most wide spread in general at the level of social participation in Tehran
which was lower than expected . 41
40
economic
participation
Womens
social
and
economic
41
developing countries now receive this assistance and attempt to work for the
poor. NGOs in the United States Canada and Europe have gained reputation
for their efficient and cost effective activities in disaster situations. During
disasters such as famines floods, earthquakes and refuse crises they are seen
as having the capacity to react more quickly and efficiently than government
agencies in bringing aid to the victims of such miseries.44
The term NGOs may be used to include any institution or organization
outside government. The terminology includes all those organizations which
are involved in various development NGOs to differentiate them from other
private organization. NGOs are defined as a group of persons organized on
the basis of voluntary membership without state control for the furtherance
of some common interest of its members.
The
key
characteristics
of
voluntary
agencies
are:
formal
42
43
society. As such one cannot undermine their positive role. NGOs is one of
the alternatives available among various development organizations and one
of the inputs among technical financial and other resources
A few studies on NGOs and women development in Iran are done.
These studies are concentrated on womens work and political participation.
Shahnaz T Y Abadi, (2005) has studied womens empowerment issue of
Iranian women by promoting awareness and developing entrepreneurship. It
showed the effects on individual and occupational awareness and
entrepreneurship training programs on self-esteem and entrepreneurial trends
of head house holder women in Tehran.46
among Iranian women which is based on the common concepts in the social
movements. New definitions can be identified as a movement. It is
characterized by womens challenges against gender inequalities in different
aspects of their lives. According to the findings of a survey, designed to
understand the principles and objectives of the movement this paper presents
the attitudes of the women activists towards these inequalities. Data
demonstrate that an organized movement is in the process of formation
among Iranian women. It aims at the improvement of living conditions and
attempts to reduce inequalities. Moreover, it provides a felsitic assessment of
the nature of gender relations without feminist prejudices. The research
44
45
46
improvement criteria are scanty and insufficient. The growth of literacy from
8 % in 1958 to 36 % in 1977 to 52 % in 1987 and finally to74% in1997 is a
really good improvement. The number of university girls from17% in 1977
has grown to 30% in 1987 and flourished to 54 in 2003%.
At the present time both girls and boys benefit an equal chance to
attend schools and universities. Girls can almost study in all university
majors. Of course this doesn't mean that both groups are provided with equal
possibilities. And furthermore, girls can not get appropriate jobs that match
their studies and degrees.
The role of NGOs is gaining place to solve contemporary
development problems of women in Iran. Development is the sum of
cooperation between people and government to increase and improve
development criteria in any country. Therefore the role of NGOs in real
development can not be overlooked. NGOs, out of governmental official
realm of training, can take advantage of vast public initiations and
capabilities to teach people in different domains. In this way they can be
very effective in knowledge and culture of public.
Enhancing public knowledge and awareness, trying to use creative
and practical new ideas from people increasing the ability and capability of
different social layers, creating capacities proportionate to social conditions
47
and trying to involve people in government decisions are some of the basic
responsibilities of the NGOs. They can share their experiences or take
advantage of the experiences of NGOs in developing countries to improve
people knowledge level and their role in the development trend. Through
enabling women and fortifying their self-esteem, it is possible to employ the
women's hidden capacities in social and economic development.
Today women's demands and ambitions in any country due to
information technology and globalization are not separate from those of the
women around the world. Women are not just seeking for equal education
chances; they are seeking for a better and more effective role in government
they work against sexual discrimination and many other limitations and
barriers made by the religious government. Women though using internet
and TV and other media besides the classroom instruction are trying to
enhance the skills that are necessary for life.
Preparing and putting into practice guidelines for the improvement of
women's economic status, removing poverty, granting education, enhancing
women's heath condition, providing them with jobs involving women in
power structures and implementation of women development in the future
are some concerns.
Thanks to electronic media, the role of community leader to womens
48
development was not so far positive which is changing now days. In the
introduction to constitution law, equality of men and women is clearly
mentioned. This equality is identified in all the articles of the law. The right
of free education for all, the political, economical and cultural equal rights
are mentioned as equal for both men women. The past leader Imam
Khomeini grand Ayatollah Khomeini and president Khatami all emphasized
the important and outstanding role of women in society. They know no
difference between men and women as far as social, economic and political
affairs are considered.
Nonetheless, equity in womens education and empowerment is not
achieved despite of the programs and publicized strategies of the
government. All emphasize preparing equal chances and mechanisms to
enhance women's status in gaining social, cultural, political and economic
spheres.
According to Islam, men and women are given equal rights in social,
scientific, educational, economic and political interactions. However Islam
defines different roles for each that matches their sexual dignity and
abilities. For example, a woman heirs as half as a man because she is not
supposed to be the bread winner of a family. Testimony of two women
valued as testimony of one man and finally a women can not sit at a judge's
49
50
51
women but these are also within such groups of women in Iran. Therefore,
this study has chosen the Hamadan Province as universe for the research
which is not well off like other development provinces of Iran. The detail
profile of Hamadan is given in the next chapter.
52
References:
53
The World Bank, (1996), The World Banks partnership with NGO-participation and
NGO group. The World Bank.
Frank, Elbers, (2000), Human Rights Education Recourse book, HREA Pub.,
Cambridge.
10
United Nations, (2002), Gender and Education for All: The leap to Equality by United
Nations Un-sco publishing Educational Scientific and cultural organist. UN Publish, London
11
12
Mendoza, Walter, and Dsouza, John, (2002) The Long and Winding Road from
Structural Change to Structural Transformation: A Backgrounder on NGOs and Peoples
Movements, Center for Education and Documentation Pub., Mumbai
13
Global Monitoring Report 2003-2004 Gender and Education for all the leap to
equality
14
Shukla, Sucheta, (2004) Womens Autonomy In India: Some Issues, Seminar paper
submitted for the partial fulfillment of the Master in Population Studies (M.P.S), International
Institute for Population Sciences, Govandi station road, Deonar Mumbai (Cited in)
15
Ibid.
16
Kishor, Sunita Gupta Kamla,(2004), Womens Empowerment in India and Its States:
Evidence from the NFHS, Economic and Political Weekly February 14, 2004 , PP. 694- 712
17
Kavshik Vijay, Sharma Bela Rani, (1998), Women Power and Development Sarup
and Sons New Delhi.
18
Sooryamoorthy, R., Gangrad K.D., (2003), NGOs in India: Across Sectional study ,
Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
19
20
21
22
S.N. Pawar, J.B., Abekar, D. Shrikant (2004) NGOs and Development: The Indian
Scenario Rawat Publications New Delhi
23
24
25
26
27
28
Kothai, L., (1995) Women and Empowerment, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi.
29
Bhatia, Anju, (2000), Womens Development and NGOs, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
30
31
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
35
36
37
Ansari, Sarah F.D., (2003) Women religion and culture in Iran Rutledge Publisher,
New York.
38
39
Behnaz, Ashtari, (2004), The position of women in Iran past Achievement and future
prospects publishers., Tehran, Iran.
40
Elaheh, Rostami Pvey, (2005), Women and Work in Iran Tehran Publishers, Tehran,
Iran.
41
42
43
44
45
Misra, Dharmendra, (2005), Participatory Governance Through NGOs , Alekh Publishers, New Delhi, P.9
( cited in)
46
47