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I. INTRODUCTION
ISTANCE relay is the most widely used protective technique in power networks as the main and backup protection of the transmission lines. Despite considerable advancements in digital processing algorithms and communication technology in recent decades, distance protection is still an attractive
technique due to its straightforward underlying concept and its
stand-alone operation using only the local information obtained
at the relay installation location.
With the advent of microprocessor-based relays, adaptive
protection was introduced. It offers a suitable approach to compensate for the influences of variable power system conditions
on the protection algorithms [1], [2]. Adaptive relaying is a
good tool in case of stressed power system conditions. Operation of a distance relay can be enhanced using adaptive methods
in different aspects. Third zone maloperation of the distance
relay can be avoided during the voltage instability condition
[3], [4]. Adaptive phasor estimation algorithms provide a faster
Manuscript received March 17, 2010; revised January 22, 2011; accepted
June 01, 2011. Date of publication July 19, 2011; date of current version October 07, 2011. TPWRD-00191-2010.
The authors are with the Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering,
University of Tehran, Tehran 14395-515, Iran (e-mail: msanaye@ut.ac.ir; p.jafarian@ece.ut.ac.ir).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2159404
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for the relay, the power system transients after occurrence of the
fault might lead to distance relay maloperation.
The proposed approach in this paper incorporates the fault
condition into the final decision logic to improve the performance of the distance relay. The fault location, the fault effective
resistance, the amount of variation of the successive impedance
samples measured by the relay, and the fault current amplitude
are considered in the proposed decision logic.
For the conventional distance relay, the operation speed is the
same for all of the faults within the first relay zone. Some researchers have tried to increase the relay operation speed for
faults at the initial portion of the transmission line, (e.g., at
20%) to improve system stability and reduce damage to system
equipment. One of the most important advantages of the proposed approach is that it adds an extra dimension into the decision-making space by which the relay operates faster for faults
with a higher degree of certainty.
A. Weighting the Relay Zone
The amplitude of the fault current is inversely proportional
to the fault-loop impedance. Hence, short-circuit faults occurring at the beginning parts of the transmission line should be
cleared rapidly due to the high amount of fault current, whereas
for the remote end and high-resistance faults, the relay could extend its operation time. As shown in Fig. 1, the first zone of the
distance relay can be divided into several segments, in which
higher weights are considered for the segments containing interior areas of the protected zone. Furthermore, the areas around
the transmission-line replica impedance correspond to the lowimpedance faults, for which the impedance measured by the distance relay is less affected by the fault resistance and the remote
end infeed current. Consider that higher weights for these areas
imply a higher degree of certainty for occurrence of an internal
fault. The boundary areas at the top and right sides of the relay
zone characteristic correspond to the faults with a lower degree
of certainty which could be considered as less critical conditions
due to higher fault-loop impedance.
Two criteria are considered to weigh the first zone of the relay
appropriately. In order to weigh the protected zone interior areas
with higher values, the weight function given in (1) is defined as
the first criterion. It determines the corresponding weight of any
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(1)
denotes the first zone impedance reach, and
is the
where
and are two constant paramimpedance of the given point.
eters, which determine the shape of the weight function. The
ratio of the considered weight for the close-in faults to the considered weight for the boundary faults can be increased through
reducing the parameter . Therefore, a higher value is assigned
to faults with smaller fault-loop impedance which lead to higher
fault currents and should be cleared faster.
Another weight function is defined to assign higher weights
to the faults with small fault resistance. As previously pointed
out, the areas around the transmission-line replica impedance
in the relay protective zone correspond to the low-impedance
faults. The horizontal distance between any given point in the
and the transmission-line replica
impedance plane
impedance can be calculated as follows:
(2)
(3)
where
and
are the real and imaginary parts of the first, respectively. The index defined
zone impedance that reach
in (3) determines the amount of closeness of the given point to
the transmission-line replica impedance. Higher weights can be
assigned to the impedance plane areas which correspond to the
low-impedance faults by
(4)
is a constant parameter and
denotes the index dewhere
fined in (3). At a certain fault location, the difference between
the weight assigned by (4) to a low-impedance fault and that
assigned to a high-resistance fault can be reduced through decreasing the parameter .
The two weights obtained by (1) and (4) are added together
to calculate the final weight for any given point. Meanwhile, it
should be noted that if one of the described criteria is of greater
importance, different coefficients could be used in the additional
process of these two weights. Assuming the same importance
for both of the aforementioned criteria, the final weight is calculated as
(5)
B. Measured Impedance Trajectory
This weighting procedure is implemented on a certain
number of successive impedance samples to combine their
effects on the distance relay operation. In this combination,
the effect of any undesirable sudden change in the measured
impedance curve due to the transients generated after the fault
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could also be employed to include all of the measured impedances as its inputs and directly resulting the final output.
Nevertheless, it is found that the proposed structure requires
many less neurons compared to the integrated network to
achieve the same accuracy. The number of required neurons
, whereas
at the second layer of the integrated network is
it is equal to
for the proposed structure, where denotes
the number of the successive impedances considered as the
inputs and denotes the number of the segments considered
for partitioning the relay zone characteristic.
B. Training the ANFIS Network
The ANFIS network is trained in two steps, in which the first
and second stages ANFIS subnetworks are trained separately.
The first-stage ANFIS subnetworks provide the impedance samaccording to the two criteria described in the
ples weights
previous section (i.e.,
and
). An identical ANFIS is used
for all of the first-stage subnetworks, and their training data set
is generated without simulating the transmission system. Two
vectors comprising different values within the range of the predefined distance relay protective area are generated as the subnetworks inputs. These two vectors consist of real and imaginary parts of the impedances which are inputs of the ANFIS
subnetworks. The corresponding weights of the input pairs are
calculated by (5) and each ANFIS subnetwork is trained using
the least-squares and back-propagation algorithms.
The second-stage ANFIS subnetwork makes the final decision considering the measured impedance trajectory as well as
the fault current amplitude. The training data set for this stage
is generated by using the simulated power system model. By
changing the fault type, the fault effective resistance, and the
fault inception angle, various internal and external faults are
simulated to provide the training and validation data sets. The
validation data set is different from those used for training the
ANFIS. During the second stage of the training process, the parameters of the first-stage subnetworks are kept constant.
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Fig. 4. Adaptive adjustment of the relay top border slope in accordance with
the power transfer direction.
sidered for the relay which is the same as that of the nonadaptive
conventional distance relay. Then, according to the aforementioned criteria, the borders of the initial zone are modified. The
top horizontal border is rotated in accordance with the direction and the amount of the power transfer. The left and bottom
borders are adjusted by using the cross-polarization method as
described in the previous subsection. After performing the zone
adjustment, the weighting procedure is performed on the specified number of the successive impedance samples. As previously stated, if any of the impedance samples is located outside
the relay zone, its corresponding weight is set at zero.
V. SIMULATION STUDIES AND ANALYSIS
Extensive simulation studies were carried out to evaluate the
performance of the proposed approach. The one-line diagram
of the transmission system under study is depicted in Fig. 6,
in which R denotes the relay location protecting the transmission line AB. The frequency-dependent distributed model of
the transmission line was used to accurately include the influence of the generated transients after the fault occurrence. The
parameters of the simulated transmission system are given in
the Appendix. The power system simulation software PSCAD/
EMTDC was used to perform the simulations. The sampling
frequency was considered to be 1440 Hz, which corresponds
to the sampling rate of 24 samples/cycle. The simulation data
were used in a MATLAB program in the playback mode to implement the proposed algorithm.
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The full-cycle Fourier algorithm (FCDFT) is employed to extract the fundamental phasor of the fault signals. The phasor estimation error due to the decaying-dc component is eliminated
using the method proposed in [5]. The relay first zone reach is
set to protect 90% of the transmission line. The obtained results are compared with a nonadaptive decision logic, in which
an internal fault is concluded if a certain number of the measured impedances lie within the protected zone. For the sake
of comparison, we have tried to obtain the same performance
for the proposed adaptive and the nonadaptive decision-making
logics at the relay boundary limit areas. The number of required
impedance samples within the relay zone is selected so that it
covers a half cycle of the power frequency for the conventional
algorithm. The adaptive method parameters are set so that it provides the same performance for the remote-end faults.
It was found that when the nonadaptive logic is based on
the required number of successive impedance samples within
the relay zone, the relay operation may be delayed for some
boundary limit faults where some of the measured impedance
samples fall out of the relay zone. The relay operation logic
is reset even if only one of the successive samples falls out of
the zone. Therefore, a counter-based algorithm was used for the
nonadaptive logic. The counter value would be increased by one,
whenever a new impedance sample falls within the relay zone.
Otherwise, if the counter value is greater than zero and the new
impedance sample falls out of the relay zone, instead of resetting
the counter, the counter value would be decreased by two. The
trip command would be issued when the counter value exceeds
the defined threshold. It speeds up operation of the nonadaptive
method especially for the boundary faults.
A. Training the ANFIS Subnetworks
An ANFIS subnetwork consisting of nine membership functions for each input was trained to weigh the impedance plane
at the first stage of the proposed structure. Fig. 7 depicts the surface of the trained first-stage ANFIS subnetwork. As shown, a
rectangular area covering the distance relay zone is assumed for
the inputs. An identical ANFIS was used for all of the first-stage
subnetworks.
The training and validation data sets for the second-stage
ANFIS were generated by simulating the power system under
different fault conditions including different fault inception angles, fault locations, fault resistances, fault types, power angles, and different SIR values. The corresponding output for
each input vector was provided by the described model in Section III-B.
The method used for training the ANFIS network is the combined least-squares and back-propagation algorithm. For this
purpose, parameters of the adaptive network are decomposed
, where the adaptive network
into two sets, say
is linear in terms of the elements of S2. Each epoch of this hybrid procedure consists of a forward pass and a backward pass.
In the forward pass, for given fixed values of parameters in S1,
the parameters of S2 are estimated by using the least-squares
error method (LSE). In the backward pass, the error rates propagate from the output end toward the input end, and the parameters of S1 are updated using the gradient method.
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TABLE I
PROPOSED ALGORITHM RESPONSE TO CLOSE-IN FAULTS
Fig. 8. Measured impedance trajectories for the last two cases of Table I. (a)
For small fault resistance. (b) For high fault resistance.
relay. For the last case, when the fault resistance is high, the
impedance samples weights are smaller. As can be seen, the proposed adaptive logic operates longer to increase the protective
scheme reliability.
Fig. 9 shows the measured impedance trajectory for the 16th
case of Table I. A single-phase-to-ground fault occurs at a 7-km
distance from bus A. As can be seen, the protective zone characteristic is expanded by using the cross-polarization technique.
In this case, the proposed adaptive logic issues the trip command at 16.17 ms, whereas the nonadaptive logic operates at
35.61 ms after the fault occurrence. The protective zone borders of the nonadaptive relay are shown by the dashed lines in
Fig. 9. The long operation time of the nonadaptive algorithm is
mainly due to some of the measured impedance samples falling
out of the relay zone from the left and bottom borders. If the
same cross-polarized method is used to adjust the relay directional characteristic for the proposed adaptive and nonadaptive
Fig. 10. Measured impedance trajectory for a reverse fault occurring very close
to bus A on the transmission line AC.
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Fig. 11. Measured impedance trajectory for the fourth case presented in Table I.
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TABLE II
PROPOSED ALGORITHM RESPONSE TO BOUNDARY FAULTS
Fig. 12. Measured impedance trajectory for an external fault occurring on bus
B.
accelerate the relay operation for the close-in faults, but also implicitly involves an index of the source-to-line impedance ratio
into the decision-making logic. In other words, for a certain
fault-loop impedance measured by the relay, the fault current
amplitude would be smaller at higher SIR values. This feature
could be recognized by the ANFIS-based logic to prevent relay
maloperation during the transient interval of the CVTs when the
SIR value is high.
To prevent maloperation of the nonadaptive algorithm,
the relay first zone reach should be reduced. An alternative
approach is to increase the number of required impedance
samples within the relay protective zone. Nevertheless, this
would also increase the operation time of the nonadaptive logic
undesirably for the other faults occurring inside interior areas
of the protected zone.
3) Other Faults: Table III presents some of the obtained
results for faults occurring at different locations of the transmission line. As designed, the operation speed of the proposed
relay is in proportion to the fault condition. In the case of
low impedance faults, where the measured impedance is less
affected by the remote-end infeed current, the relay operates
faster, whereas in the case of high-resistance faults, the relay
operates longer.
The proposed adaptive decision logic provides high flexibility to achieve the optimal compromise between the protection scheme operation speed and security under different fault
conditions. Therefore, while the relay operates more rapidly for
the faults occurring at the interior areas of the protected zone, it
is capable of providing high security for the boundary faults.
4) High-Resistance Faults: The quadrilateral characteristic
used for the single-phase-to-ground elements of the relay provides higher capability in identification of high-resistance faults.
The maximum fault resistance (Rf) covered by the first zone of
the relay depends on the selected resistive reach. By increasing
this value, higher Rf in the first zone could also be covered.
The last five cases of Table III present the obtained results
for the cases of high-resistance faults at different locations of
the protected transmission line. As can be found, the relay first
zone is able to cover high-resistance faults up to several tens
TABLE III
PROPOSED ALGORITHM RESPONSE TO DIFFERENT FAULTS
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Transmission-line parameters
of ohms. By increasing the relay resistive reach value, a higher
amount of Rf could also be covered by the first zone. In addition, faults with higher resistances would be identified by the
second protective zone of the distance relay. For the case of very
high-resistance faults (i.e., 100 or 200 ), the fault is usually
identified by the relay second zone. In these cases, the relay operation time is equal to the second zone operation time of the
impedance relay (i.e., about 200 ms). For example, the last case
of Table III presents the algorithm response for an AG fault with
100 . This fault is identified inside the second protective
zone of the relay whose operation time is adjusted at 200 ms. It
should be considered that the higher the fault resistance, the less
the fault current. Therefore, the operation time of the distance
relay second zone is satisfactory for the case of very-high resistance faults.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper introduces an adaptive decision logic to improve
the performance of the distance relaying of transmission lines.
The proposed method incorporates the fault condition into the
final decision logic through a weighting procedure, in which
higher weights are considered for the faults with a higher degree of certainty. Higher weights are assigned to the measured
impedance samples which are located at interior areas of the
relay zone. The trajectory of the impedance curve measured by
the relay is also used to enhance the distance relay operation. In
the case of rapid oscillations in the measured impedance curve,
the corresponding weights are reduced to avoid the relay maloperation due to the transient response of the phasor estimation algorithm or invalid data input. A high-set overcurrent relay
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