Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in
ECommerce
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
is
wide-open,
unprotected
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION
Cryptography is the science of writing in secret code and is an ancient art. The
first documented use of cryptography in writing dates back to circa 1900 B.C.
when an Egyptian scribe used non-standard hieroglyphs in an inscription. Some
experts argue that cryptography appeared spontaneously sometime after writing
was invented, with applications ranging from diplomatic mission to wartime
battle plans. It is no surprise that new forms of cryptography came soon after
the widespread development of computer communications. In data and
telecommunications, cryptography is necessary when communicating over any
untreated medium, which includes just about any network particularly the
Internet. Nowadays, doing business or paying bills over the Internet is getting
popular. Due to this scenario, some forms of protection are needed to protect
these transactions. In this topic, we are going to introduce and explain the role of
cryptography in e-commerce (EC).
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CRYPTOGRAPHY IN ECOMMERCE
ACTIVITY 7.1
Discuss whether transactions done in e-commerce are safe or not.
7.1
AUTHENTICATION
SELF-CHECK 7.1
(a)
(b)
7.1.1
For us to protect the transactions done over the internet i.e. e-commerce (EC), we
need to understand the various concepts and approaches in EC. Generally, there
are six attacks applicable to authentication in the domain of EC system:
Sniffing attacks;
ID spoofing attacks;
Dictionary attacks;
Replay attacks.
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CRYPTOGRAPHY IN ECOMMERCE 99
(a)
Sniffing Attacks
Sniffing attacks use protocol analysers to capture network traffic for
password and other data capture. A password sniffer is a program that
takes advantage of this character to monitor all of the IP (Internet Protocol)
traffic on its part of the network. By capturing the first 128 bytes of every
FTP or Telnet session, for example, password sniffers can easily pick up
your user name and password as you type them. Password sniffers may
use programs provided for network debugging as building blocks, or may
be written to use the services directly. Special-purpose password sniffing
toolkits are widely available to attackers. The danger of sniffing attacks is
rapidly spreading. Favourite targets for sniffers are network providers and
public access systems where the volume of Telnet and FTP connections is
huge. One sniffer on large public access systems can collect thousands of
sniffed account names and passwords, and then compromise every system
accessed. Even if your systems are as secure as possible and your user
passwords are not guessable, you can be infected by a packet sniffer
running at any site that your users can log in from or at any site their
packets will cross to get to you.
(b)
ID Spoofing Attacks
ID spoofing is a service that allows a hacker to masquerade as someone else
by falsifying the ID that appears on the recipients ID display. Just as e-mail
spoofing can make it appear that a message came from any e-mail address
the sender chooses, ID spoofing can make a call appear to come from any
ID number the caller wishes.
ID spoofing has been available for years to people with a specialised digital
connection to the network. Collection agencies, law enforcement officials
and private investigators have used the practice, with varying degrees of
legality. However, the advent of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) service
makes it simple for the average person to falsify a calling number, and as
Internet telephony has become more common, so has caller ID spoofing.
(c)
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CRYPTOGRAPHY IN ECOMMERCE
(d)
Dictionary Attacks
This is another form of password cracking. The term dictionary comes
from the actual book of known words. This is transferred into a file and
loaded into a tool to try to help a hacker to crack your password. The
defense against this is to not use simple-to-guess and known dictionary
words as passwords.
(e)
(f)
Replay Attacks
Replay attack is when a hacker uses a sniffer to grab packets off the wire.
After packets are captured, then the hacker can simply extract information
from the packets like authentication information and passwords. Once the
information is extracted, the captured data can be placed back on the
network or replayed.
7.1.2
Security Attacks
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Figure 7.1: (a) Authentication security attacks, (b) attacks enable and
(c) countermeasures
Weak credential policy, weak cryptography and incorrect implementation of
cryptography are three attack-enablers for credential decryption attacks. A weak
credential policy allows system users to select easy-to-guess passwords. Weak
cryptography, on the other hand, allows for a low-cost security attack. An
incorrect implementation of the cryptographic algorithm can be seen as an
implementation defect and can only be checked after the system is implemented.
Yet, it is incorporated into the system design as a security requirement. Weak
cryptography is a supplementary attack-enabler for sniffing attacks. Sniffing and
replay attacks both rely on a clear text communication channel [Herzog, 2001].
ACTIVITY 7.2
(a)
(b)
Explain one of the six attack and give examples of how it can
overcome or reduce the threats.
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CRYPTOGRAPHY IN ECOMMERCE
7.2
SECURITY GOALS
When we talk about computer security, we are concerned with three main
security goals. The three main security goals are confidentiality, integrity and
availability. In short, these three security goals are abbreviated as CIA as
shown in Figure 7.3.
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7.2.1
Confidentiality
ACTIVITY 7.3
(a)
(b)
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CRYPTOGRAPHY IN ECOMMERCE
Access control that allows only selected authenticated entities to read the
protected information.
(b)
Cryptography that allows only those entities possessing the correct key to
read the protected information.
7.2.2
Integrity
Integrity is assuring the receiver receives message(s) which has not been altered
in any way from the original. Data integrity should be possible to detect whether
the data is deliberate or unintentional changes. This requires the identification of
the originator of the data is unique and cannot be manipulated.
Verification is the original contents of information which have not been altered or
corrupted. Without integrity, someone might alter information or information
might become corrupted, and the alteration could be undetected.
Below is an example of Integrity.
The following process can be used to protect data integrity:
(a)
Alice computes a one-way hash of the message m and encrypts it with her
private key.
(b)
Alice sends both the text m and the encrypted hash to Bob.
(c)
Upon receiving, Bob extracts m and computes the same one-way hash on
m. He also extracts the encrypted hash and decrypts it using Alices public
key.
(d)
Bob then compares the computed hash value with the received hash value.
If they are identical, then he validates data integrity.
(e)
If the two hashes match in the above protocol, then Bob can confirm that
the data has not changed since it was signed.
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7.2.3
Availability
ACTIVITY 7.4
Name and explain the three main elements of security goal.
7.3
NON-REPUDIATION CRYPTOGRAPHY
7.3.1
Characteristics
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(b)
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7.4
DIGITAL SIGNATURE
(b)
A verification algorithm.
(b)
Alice encrypts the resulting data using Bobs public key and sends to Bob
(c = EKpub(Bob)(EKpri(Alice)(m))).
(c)
Since Bob is able to recover m using Alices public key, he can verify that Alice
signed it with her private key. Also, the signature depends on the contents of the
message; hence, no one can use the signature with another document.
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ACTIVITY 7.5
Explain what is digital certificate.
7.5
SYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY
Symmetric cryptography uses a single private key to both encrypt and decrypt
data. Any party that has the key can use it to encrypt and decrypt data. They are
also referred to as block ciphers.
7.5.1
Symmetric Algorithms
(a)
DES
The 56-bit keys used in DES are short enough to be easily brute-forced by
modern hardware and DES should no longer be used.
(b)
3DES
Triple DES (or 3DES) uses the same algorithm, applied three times with
different keys giving it an effective key length of 128 bits. Due to the
problems using the DES algorithm, the United States National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) hosted a selection process for a new
algorithm.
(c)
AES
The advance form of DES algorithm was called Rijndael and the associated
cryptosystem is now known as the Advanced Encryption Standard or AES.
For most applications, 3DES is acceptably secure at the current time but for
most new applications it is advisable to use AES.
Examples of how a symmetric algorithm works are given below between
Alice and Bob:
(i)
(ii)
(iii) If Alice and Bob want to make sure they are communicating with each
other over an insecure channel, i.e. prove that they know the secret
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Suppose Alice contacted Bob stating she is Alice: Bob sends her an
encrypted message and she replies with an encrypted message.
(vi) Bob can decrypt this information and verifies he gets again. Now Bob
knows he is communicating with Alice.
(vii) Then Alice sends him the encrypted message , and he replies with an
encrypted message. Alice can now verify she is communicating with
Bob.
An eventual eavesdropper would not have gained information from this
exchange.
7.5.2
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Name and explain the three types of symmetric algorithms.
7.6
Public Key Cryptography (PKC) has been said to be the most significant new
development in cryptography in the last 300-400 years. Modern PKC was first
described publicly by Stanford University, Professor Martin Hellman and
graduate student Whitfield Diffie in 1976. Their paper described a two-key
crypto system in which two parties could engage in a secure communication over
a non-secure communications channel without having to share a secret key. The
most important thing to know about public key cryptography is that, unlike
earlier cryptographic systems, it relies not on a single key (a password or a secret
code), but on two keys. These keys are numbers that are mathematically
related in such a way that if either key is used to encrypt a message, the other key
must be used to decrypt it. Also important is the fact that it is next to impossible
(with our current knowledge of mathematics and available computing power) to
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obtain the second key from the first one and/or any message encoded with the
first key.
By making one of the keys available publicly (a public key) and keeping the other
key private (a private key), a person can prove that he or she holds the private
key simply by encrypting a message. If the message can be decrypted using the
public key, the person must have used the private key to encrypt the message.
Figure 7.3 illustrates the process involved in public key cryptography.
Important: It is critical that private keys be kept private! Anyone who knows the
private key can easily impersonate the owner.
(a)
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Cryptography technology only provides part of the overall security for your
networks and information.
The overall strength of security systems depends on many factors, such as the
suitability of the technology, adequate security procedures and processes,
and how well people use the procedures, processes and technology.
Integrity
Non-repudiation Cryptography
Public Cryptography
Symmetric Cryptography
Authentication
Availability
Confidentiality
Digital Signature
introduction to cryptography.
Kessler, G. C. (1998). An overview of cryptography. Retrieved July 1, 2009 from
http://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html
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