(e) Low Pass Filter is the circuit that blocks high frequencies and passes low frequencies.

It can be divided into two groups of low pass filter which is passive low pass filter and active low pass filter.

Figure above is a simple low pass passive filter which can be easily made by connecting together in series a single resistor
with a single capacitor. In this type of filter arrangement the input signal ( Vin ) is applied to the series combination (both
the resistor and capacitor together) but the output signal ( Vout ) is taken across the capacitor only. In terms of resistor and
capacitor, cut-off frequency, fc is given by:
Gain is given by:
At low frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very high, therefore the capacitor circuit acts like an open circuit. At very
high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very low therefore Vout is very small compared to Vin.

Figure above is first-order low pass active filter, consists simply of a passive RC filter stage providing a low frequency
path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The amplifier is configured as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving
it a DC gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as opposed to the previous passive RC filter which has a DC gain of less than
unity.

The operation of a low pass active filter is:

1. At very low frequencies, < c

2. At the cut-off frequency, = c

3. At very high frequencies, > c

(f) High Pass Filter is the circuit that passes high frequencies and blocks/rejects low frequencies.

It can be divided into two groups of high pass filter which is passive high pass filter and active high pass filter.

Figure above is passive high pass filter. In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low
frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at Vin until the cut-off frequency point
( c ) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act
more like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass directly to the output. In terms of resistor and capacitor,
cut-off frequency, fc is given by:
Gain is given by:

At low frequencies, the gain is small, therefore Vout is small compared to Vin. As the frequencies goes high the gain
approaches unity.

This first-order active high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier.
The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter, except that the amplitude of the
signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier.
The operation of a high pass active filter can be verified from the frequency gain equation above as:
1. At very low frequencies, < c

2. At the cut-off frequency, = c

3. At very high frequencies, > c