Magnetism

Reference magnetic pole is North-pole.

End

Start

Magnetic field lines:

Imaginary paths along which magnetic north of reference magnet, moves (or tends to move)
within magnetic field of the given magnet.
Magnetic Field:
Region/space around a magnet, where it can influence/affect other magnets/magnetic materials.
FIG
Characteristics of magnetic field lines:

Magnetic field lines start/originate at North Pole and terminate at south pole (outside the
magnet).
They start from S-P and end at N-P (inside the magnet).
They repel literally.
FIG
They attract or contract longitudinally.
Two field lines can never intersect/cross eachFIG
other.

Not possible
No two field lines originate from a single point.

Attraction/Repulsion Magnetic field pattern:

FIG

Where resultant magnetic field is zero

Any magnetic material placed at X, will not be attracted by either of the poles.

Null point/Zero field point:

At this point, the field affect is zero as both forces are equal and opposite.

Magnetism
FIG
i.
ii.

Leaving and acquires opposite pole, with which it is rubbed.

Divided Touch

iii.

FIG
Electrical Method
FIG
Steel bar:
Is moved slowly through a solenoid, along its axis, which is connected to a DC
Source, this causes the steel bar to be magnetized.
Electric current passing through the solenoid set all the domain in one order
hence it becomes magnet.

Demagnetization:
Hammering
Heating slowly
FIG
The magnetized bar is pulled slowly through solenoid, supplied with high frequency AC, along
its axis, which causes the domains to lose their order, hence the bar, is demagnetized.

Induced Magnetism:
Soft iron: It becomes within the magnetic field a
magnet and when we take it away from the bar it again
becomes a soft iron.
N

Placing a magnetic material within magnetic field causes it to be magnetized; this phenomenon is
called Induce magnetism.
OR
Presence of magnetic field around a magnetic material causes it to be magnetized.

Magnetic Screening:
To prevent a certain region from magnetic field, using magnetic material (like soft iron)
FIG
Q. Which set of iron nails will not be affected by the magnet?

FIG

Direction of magnetic field around current carrying wire is marked by using Right hand rule.
Right Hand Rule:

Hold current carrying wire in Right Hand such that extended thumb points direction of
current in the wire, then curl of the fingers give direction of circular magnetic field
around the wire.

Dot Cross notation for direction current in a wire:

Electric current divided into the plane of page is represented by cross i.e.

Electric current directed out of the plane of page is represented by Dot i.e.

FIG
Force between current carrying, parallel wires
FIG

Electromagnetic Field
Magnetic field of a current carrying solenoid to that of a magnet

The magnetic poles on a solenoid can be marked by using Right Hand Rule.
If current carrying solenoid is held in Right Hand such that,
Fingers are arranged along direction of current in windings of a solenoid. Then extended
thumb gives magnetic north.

Magnetic
solenoid
Outside the
is max at
weakest, on

Factors effecting
field around
solenoid

field is strongest inside the

(along its axis).
solenoid, the field strength
ends of the solenoid and
the sides of the solenoid.
strength of magnetic
current carrying

Pass more current through solenoid/increase magnitude of current through solenoid.

Increase no of turns of solenoid.

Use soft iron core inside the solenoid.

Electromagnets
Electromagnets:
Device(s) that behave like magnets when current passes through them.
Uses of Electromagnets:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Reed Switch
Electric doorbell
Magnetic Relay
Circuit breaker

1) Reed Switch:
A switch that operates heavy circuits on behalf of electromagnetic effect. It consists of
pair of metal (iron) strips, enclosed in a partially evacuated glass tube. A coil is wound
around the glass tube as shown below.
FIG
When S is closed, current passing through the coil produces magnetic field (coil
becomes electromagnetic) due to which opposite magnetic poles are induced at A & B, causing
the gap/contact to close, hence completing the main circuit and causing appliance to work.
A

A=N , B=S North is where the arrow is pointed

When first button is pressed, it causes current to flow through the coils, wound around soft iron
cores, hence they become electromagnets due to which they attract soft iron lever, causing
hammer to hit against gong and sound is produced. In the meanwhile (when lever is attracted)
the contact breaks. Thus, opening the circuit and current stops flowing through the coils so they
lose their magnetism and springy metal brings lever back to its normal partition which closes the
contact again and making coils electromagnets. This happens again and again and hammer keeps
on hitting the gong and continuous sound is produced.
FIG
When S is closed, the current flowing through the coil, makes it an electromagnet, which then
attracts soft iron lever and its end M rises up, causing the contact to close, and hence switching
ON the main circuit.
FIG

When normal current flows through the coil of circuit breaker, the magnetic field of
electromagnet is insufficient to attract soft iron lower. Whereas, when excessive current passes
through the coil of circuit breaker, it makes the coil a stronger electromagnet which then attracts
soft iron lever consequently detaching the spring wire and breaking the circuit, preventing any
electrical damage to the appliance connected in the circuit.

Electromagnets
Force on a current carrying wire in uniform magnetic field:
FIG

When current carrying wire is placed in uniform magnetic field, it experiences a force, due to
interaction between two magnetic field, (i.e. it permanent magnet and due to current carrying
wire).
The direction of force can be identified.
i.
Either by drawing magnetic field pattern on
ii.
By using Flemings left hand rule.

Flemings Left Hand Rule:

If index finger, second finger and thumb are extended such that they are mutually perpendicular,
if index finger is arranged along uniform magnetic field, second finger along current in wire,
then extended thumb gives direction of force on the current carrying wire.

OR
Electric current in wire, magnetic field and force on the wire are mutually perpendicular.
FIG

Electromagnets
Force on current carrying rectangular loop pivoted in uniform magnetic field.
Equal and opposite forces capable of causing of movement in a body are called couple forces.
Consider a rectangular loop ABCD pivoted between opposite poles of permanent magnets about
axis XY.
When the current flows through the coil, couple force is generated on the coil, due to interaction
of two magnetic fields. The direction of couple force can be marked according to Flemings Left
Hand Rule.
Hence, according to Flemings Left Hand Rule, force is directed into the plane of the page. On
side AD of the loop and is directed out of the plane of the loop, according to the given diagram.
This couple force tends to rotate the loop in Anti clockwise direction (as viewed from the front).
When the loop crosses the vertical position, the direction of couple force on the loop remains the
same whereas direction of moments is reversed due to which the loop turns back so the direction
of moments keeps on reversing its direction every time the loop crosses vertical position.
Hence instead of rotation the loop starts oscillating about vertical position with decreasing
amplitude and eventually come to rest in vertical position.
FIG
DC Motor:
An electrical device that converts Electrical Energy into Kinetic Energy (Mechanical Energy).
DC motor consists of a rectangular coil wound on soft iron core pivoted between opposite poles
of the permanent magnets.
A split ring commutator is attached at the ends of the coil, which reverses the direction of the
current coil every half cycle; as shown below:
Top View:

Front View:

S
A

B
F

When S is closed, current passes

through the coil ABCD, which is pivoted about XY, between magnets. This current produces
couple force on the coil. The direction of this force on AD and BC, (according to Flemings LHR)
.
O
X
is out of the plane of page and into the plane of the page respectively. This causes the coil to
rotate in clockwise direction (as viewed from the front).
As the coil reaches vertical position, the carbon brushes are no more in contact with split rings
but the coil keeps on rotating due to Inertia and crossing vertical position causes current in the
coil to be reversed due to which, the direction of force on coil is reversed but the direction of
moments remains the same causing the coil to rotate continuously in one direction as shown
below:
FIG
1) It reduces friction between split rings and external circuit.
2) It provides a sliding contact between coil and external circuit.

Factors affecting speed of rotation of motor

Strength of magnets/magnetic field.

Stronger the magnetic field, faster would be the rotation and vice versa.
More the number of the turns of the coil, greater would be the speed and vice versa.
Magnitude of the current.
Larger the magnitude of the current, greater would be the speed and vice versa.
Using soft iron core in the coil causes the speed of rotation to increase.

Current Electricity
When work is done on an object against a field line, energy is stored in the object.
FIG

Pd:

V=

V=

E
q

W
q

Q
t
FIG

I=

Work is done, so the potential energy is stored.

Potential Difference is directly related to work done.
FIG
If object is allowed to fall?
Potential energy stored turns to kinetic energy and the object falls down.
Conclusion:
In any field line, when an object is left free, it moves in the direction of the field lines.
FIG
The movement of the electrons from lower potential to higher potential is against the
laws of nature.
Scientists name it as conventional currents.

Conventional Current:
Current that flows from positive terminal to the negative terminal. But when asked for the flow
of electrons, it is always marked opposite to the conventional current.
It is also known as the current that flows from higher potential to the lower potential.

Electric Current (Positivity)

Conventional current always flows in the opposite direction of the flow of electrons.
Resistance (R):
Opposition to the flow of charges (in a conductor) is known as Resistance of the conductor.
SI unit of resistance is ohm.
FIG

Symbol: Omega
Different materials have different resistance values.
Factors Affecting Resistance:
(Physical changes of conductor)

Length of conductor:
If the length is extended, resistance would be greater as no flowing electrons will have to
oppose more number of atoms. Larger the length of the conductor, greater will be the
resistance and vice versa.
RL
Area of cross-section of conductor (A): (thickness)
Larger the thickness of a conductor, smaller the will be its resistance and vice versa.
I
R A
FIG

Temperature: (Q)
Higher the temperature of the conductor, larger will be its resistance and vice versa.
Q1

Q2 > Q1

Q2
RQ
If physical state of conductor changes the resistance of material also changes.
Combining the length and thickness of the conductor, we get;
R L

1
A

1
A

R=Constant x

Constant=

L
A

RA
L

(1)
(2)
(3)
R 1 A1 R 2 A 2
=
L1
L2
Ratio of RA and L will be the same/constant for all.
Q: A copper wire of length 10m and a thickness of 0.25mm2 as a resistance of 500. Calculate
the resistance of copper wire with length 20m and thickness 0.5mm2.

R 1 A1 R 2 A 2
=
L1
L2
500 ( 0.25 ) R ( 0.5 )
=
10
20
1000 ( 0.25 )
=R
0.5

R=500
Q: A certain conducting wire of cross section 0.05cm2 and length 20m has a resistance of 200.
What will be the resistance of this wire if its length is reduced to 12m?
R 1 A1 R 2 A 2
=
L1
L2

R 1 R2
=
L 1 L2
200 R2
=
20 12
R2=120
Components:

Fixed Resistance

Variable Resistance

Variable Resistance (Sliding Contact)

Fuse
Switch

Lamp

Bulb

Cell

Battery

or

AC voltage source (alternating current)

Diode
Thermistor

LDR

Current Electricity
Ohms Law:
Electric current (I) passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
(V) applied across it, provided resistance (R) remains constant or (physical state of conductor
remains the same).
Mathematically:
VI
And V = RI where R is constant of proportionality and is resistance of conductor.
V = IR
V = (Pd volt)
I = Electric Current (A)
R = Resistance (R)
Investigating Ohms Law:
Consider a fixed resistor R connected in series with a pd source (V) through variable resistor.
An ammeter and switch is connected in the circuit, whereas voltmeter is connected across R, as
shown in the diagram. When the switch is closed, current flows through the resistor by adjusting
position of c sliding contact at Q, record the readings on voltmeter and Ammeter as V and I.
FIG

By changing position of sliding contact c, different pair of values for V and I are recorded in
the table shown below.

No of
Obs

Potential V/volts
difference

Electric Current I/A

V
I

Constant
1
2
3
4
5
Note: For variable resistor it is always set as max value before starting the circuit to cause
minimum current to flow through the circuit and hence to avoid any electrical damage.
(Precautionary measure)
From recorded values of V and I, the ratio between all pairs of V and I are calculated. It will be
seen that for all set of values of V and I. the ratio

V
I

V
remains constant i.e.: I

is constant.

Hence it shows that V and I are directly proportional to each other, proving Ohms Law.

Graph between V and I:

As V I, hence graph b/w V and I is a straight line, passing through origin.

Gradient=

I
V

I
I
R=
R
Gradient
OR

Gradient=

V
I

Gradient=R

Current Electricity
Ohmic and Non Ohmic Conductors/materials:

Ohmic: Those materials which give a straight line graph b/w V and I (passing through
origin).
Example: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold etc

Non Ohmic: Those materials whose graph b/w V and I is not a straight line.
Example: Thermister, Diode, Light dependent resistor (LDR), Filament of bulbs.
FIG
I
R=
Gradient

1) Thermister:
An electronic component whose resistance decreases with rising temperature
If temperature is 0o, resistance is maximum. As the temp increases, resistance decreases.
Graph formed will be exponent.

The line becomes straight but never touches the axis (oC).
There is nothing that can have a resistance equal to 0.
As resistance decreases, current increases.
FIG
2) Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR):
An electronic component whose resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light
falling on it.
FIG

3) Filament of Bulbs:
As pd across the filament of lamp increases, increasing current, causes temperature to
increase which consequently decreases current.
4) Diode:

FIG
(N)(Negative)
can act like a switch
(P)(Positive)

Reverse Biasing

This reverse connection of the diode and battery source is called forward biasing.
Connecting:
P end of diode with positive side of source.
N end of diode with negative side of source
Graph:
FIG

Current Electricity
Q:

FIG

Calculate:
a) Total resistance of the current?
R = 80+20
R = 100
b) Current passing through circuit:
12
I=
V = IR
100
I=

V
R

=0.12
c) Pd across V1 and V2:
V1 = IR1
= 0.12 x 20
= 24V

V2 = IR2
= 0.12 x 80
= 9.6V

To check if the answer (c) is correct.

V1 + V2 = V
2.4 + 9.6 = 12
12 = 12
Conclusion:
When resistance is in series, the voltage drop is proportional to the resistance.

Potential Drop

Resistance

Less

Less

More

More

Another method for (c):

R1 : R2
20 : 80
1:4
V1 : V2
Share of V1
V1 =

Share of V2

1
x 12
5

V2 =

= 2.4V

4
x 12
5

= 9.6V

Combination of Resistors:
Series combination/Series Circuit:
Such arrangement of resistors in which some current passes through each resistor, as shown
below.
FIG
There is only one path available for flow of current in series circuit.
In Series circuit Pd across each resistance may be different.
Consider R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series with a Pd source V such that I current flows
through the circuit if V1, V2 and V3 are Pds across R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Then total voltage
V can be expressed as;

V = V1 + V2 + V3

(1)

If R is the total resistance in the circuit (due to R1, R2 and R3) then using Ohms Law, we can
write:
Circuit Values:

Component Values:

The total values e.g;

The voltage resistance of a

Total current, voltage, resistance.

Certain component.

Symbol: R,V,I

Symbol: R1, R2, R3, V1, V2, V3

The current in a series circuit is the same.

Other words used for resistance: effective, equivalent or net resistance.
Symbols for them: RT, Re or R.
Similarly for R1, R2 and R3
V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
Putting in equation (1)
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
R = R 1 + R2 + R 3

(2)

Equation (2) states that total resistance of series circuit is equal to the sum of resistances in the
circuit.
Total resistance of series circuit is always larger than the largest resistance in the circuit.
i.e. if:
R1 = 2
R2 = 10
R3 = 18

Then
R > R3
Q:

FIG

For the circuit given above, calculate:

a) Effective resistance:
R = R 1 + R2 + R 3
= 20 + 40 + 240
= 300
b) Current passing through the circuit:
V = IR
30 = I (300)
30
I = 300
I = 0.1V
c) Pd across:
i.
R1
V = 0.1 x 20
= 2V
Q:

ii.

R2
V = 0.1 x 40
= 4V

iii.

R3
V = 0.1 x 240
= 24V

FIG

Calculate the missing values in the circuit given above. Also calculate total resistance:

V = IR
20 = 0.5 (R)
R = 40
R1 =

V
I
12
0.5

V2 = V V1

= 24

= 20 - 12
V2 = 8V

V2 = IR2

R = R 1 + R2

8 = 0.5 (R2)

or

40 = 24 + R2

R2 = 16

Q:

R2 = 16

FIG

Resistance of thermistor varies with temperature effect:

Inc temp
Q:

dec resistance

FIG

200 in darkness and 40 in sunlight

a) Calculate maximum and minimum current through the circuit and state under what
conditions current is:
i.
Maximum:
In sunlight
V = IR
12 = I (60)
Imax = 0.2A
ii.
Minimum:
In darkness V = IR
12 = I (220)
Imin = 0.05A
b) Calculate Pd across lamps when LDR is exposed to sunlight.
V = IR
= (0.2) (20)
= 4V
c) Calculate Pd across LDR when it is in darkness.
V = IR
= 0.05 (200)
= 10V
Parallel Circuit:
Such arrangement of resistors in which same Pd exists across each resistor.
OR

FIG

Such combination of networks in which Pd across the resistor remains the same.
In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance will (may) be deficient.
If R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel with a Pd source V, such that I current flows through
the circuit then, current through R1, R2 and R3 will be I1, I2 and I3 respectively. Hence we can
write:

I = I 1 + I2 + I 3

(1)

Using Ohms Law:

V = IR, where R = total resistance of the circuit
`

I=

V
R

Also:
I1 =

V
R1

I2 =

V
R2

I3 =

V
R3

putting in equ (1)

We get
V V V V
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
V
1 1 1
=V
+ +
R
R1 R2 R3

)
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R 3

Equ (2)

Equ (2) states that:

Reciprocal of total resistance of parallel circuit is equal to the sum of reciprocals
of all resistances in the circuit.
Effective resistance of parallel circuit is always lesser than least resistance in the circuit.
e.g. if: R1 = 21

R < 2
1 1 1 1
= + +
R 2 10 20

R2 = 102

R3 = 203 then

1 10+2+1
=
R
20
1 13
=
R 20

20
13

R = 1.54

Current Electricity
Q:

FIG

Calculate:
a) V1 = ?
V1 = 20V (It stays same in a parallel circuit)
b) I1 = ?
c) I2 = ?
V1 = I1R1
V2 = I2R2
20 = I1 (20)
20 = I2 (50)
I1 = 1A
I2 = 0.4A
d) I = ?
I = I1 + I2
= 1+0.4
= 1.4A

e)

R=?
V = IR
20 = (1.4) x R
20
R = 1.4

Alternate for (e):

I
I
I
= +
R R1 R2
R = 14.3
Special Case:
FIG
Equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel

1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
1 R2 + R 3
=
R R1 R 2

R=

Product

R=

20 x 50
20+ 50

R=

1000
70

Only for two resistor

R = 14.3
FIG
R=

100
20

R = 5

R=

1
2
R = 0.5

For identical resistors product is half in this

R=

valueof single resistor

number of resistors

FIG

R=

10
3

R = 3.3
FIG

For identical resistors

R=

4 x6
4+ 6
24
10

= 2.4

FIG
R=

4
5

R = 1.25
FIG

R=

R2
2R
R