Professional Documents
Culture Documents
' ....'
'.'
',-
,<:
::',
./
Densities: Liquid
The density of a liquid is the weight of a unit volume
at tht},;~temperatureduring measurement, and is usually
expressed in lb/ft" [5aj. For example, the density ofwater
is P60w = 62.37 lb/ft3 at 60P,
Pressure has no practical effect on liquid density. However, increasing temperatures will cause liquids to expando
Process flowrates '.\ be given at a basic =F: temperature, coupled with an expansion actorat pointswhere
the temperature changes in a pipe system. This expansion
factor is: E = P60/ P, where P is the density at flowing
ternperature. Hence, the volurne flowrate, Q in gpm, at
temperature wilI be: Q = Q60E where Q60 is volume
flowrate at 60F.
58
....
---
....:.-.
,.\
....
/1
(1)
s = P/P60w
(2) .
= P = RTz =
144P'
1,544T/M
(3)
1O.72Tz
(4)
lb/ft"
l.
e
n
rt
.e
__lIl __
59
CE REFRESHER
...
COMPRESSIBILlTV factors
to critical
:\
s _ P60g
60g -
Mg
Paoa - Ma
_
(5)
conditions
for temperature
and pressure-Fig.
IIIIUlIIUlHUIIIIIIIIIIII1II1IIUllllUJIIIIIU1IUIlIIIIUlUUIUntlllll1JIIIUUlUIlIU1HIIIUlII!!IUUIUIltIlUlIIHlUllIlIlIlIlIllntl!!I!IUlllfltll1lllllllllll1
Gasor Vapor
Acetylene
Air
Ammonia
Benzene
Carbondioxide
Carbonmonoxide
Chlorine
Ethane
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl chloride
Ethylene
Hydrogen
Methane
Methyl alcohol
Methyl chloride
Natural gas':'
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Propane
Propylene
Water vapor
Critical
Critical
Sp~~ilicHeal
Molecular Ili!ijo al 60F. Pressure.Pe' Temperature.T,.
oH
Weight .:~= c/c"
Psia
26.04
28.97
17.03
78.11
44.01
28.01
7091
30.07
46.07
64.52
28.05
2.02
16.04
32.04
50.49
18.82
28.02
32.00
44.09
42.08
18.02
1.24
1.40
1.31
1.12
1.30
1.40
1.36
1.19
1.13
1.19
1.24
1.41
1.31
1.20
1.20
1.27
1.40
1.40
1.13
1.15
1.33
905
547
1.657
714
1,073
510
1,119
708
927
764
742
188
673
1,157
968
675
492
730
617
668
3,208
557
239
731
1,013
548
242
751
550
930
829
510
60
344
924
750
379
228
278
666
658
1,166
r;
~.
(
~
r
ti'
~..'.
t
~.
f
,"
f:
i~.
llUIIIHlIlllllUtlllltttlltllHIUtlUHlI!lJIllltllllUUllIltlUullllllllllfmltltltllflllUlltltlflllIItllIlIllUllllflltllfllllllllll!lItr1flllllWIWlllllllltull1ll
~.,
~... ..
:..:
....~_.:.
IUJ11HltUl
ible I
Pl+v
lb/ft"
l+v
(W/p)+ (WirY
(7)
Pl+v
500
(495/55.56) + (5/0.23)
16.32 lb/ft"
11111111111111111
:RING
I Men's
i';
)!_:-" 1.
1. With a very small arnount of vaporization, the decreased density significantly reduces the static head backpressure in a vertical pipe.
2. With a constant weight flowrate and a small amount
of vaporization, the volume of flow greatly increases. In
turn, this increases pipe resistance significantly. Such a
condition is common in condensate Iines.
Thermodynamic Properties
In routine calculations for piping and component sizing, thermodynamics is hardly involved. However, it is
useful to recognize when physical change takes place in
the flowing fluid. For example, if a liquid fiows near its
boiling point, even a little vaporization (usually due to
pressure reduction) can increase piping and component
resistances.
In order to understand the meanings of the terms
subcooled and saturated as applied to a liquid, and the
terms saturated and superheated as applied to a vapor,
we will use the temperature-volume relations that are
shown in Fig. 2.
.
When a liquid is heated at constant pressure, its temperalure increases and its volume expands, (See line
segment from a to b in Fig. 2.) On reaching the boiling
ternperature, the liquid becomes saturated. The liquid
below the boiling point is called subcooled. More heat
will gradually vaporize the liquid while its pressure and
tem perature remain constant but its volume increases
61
CE REFRESHER
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11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Pressure
Absolute.P'.
Psia
Prsssure
Temperature.
Gago.P,
Psig
1,
Heal 01Ihe
Liquiil.
Blu/Lb
110,0
111.0
112,0
124,0
125,0
126,0
127,0
95,3
96,3
97,3
109,3
110,3
111.3
112,3
334.79
335.46
336,12
343.74
344,35
344,95
345,55
305,8
306.5
307,2 '
315,2
315,8
316.4
317,1
Lalent Heat01
Evaporalion.
Blu/Lb
883,1
882,5
882,0
875,8
875,3
874,8
874,3
Superhealedsteam
PressurB Pressure Saturated
Absolute.P'. GagB.P. Temperatura.
Psig
Psia
t. F
TotalTemperature. F
500
---
600
---
700
---
800
---
11
400,0
385,3
444,60
420,0
405,3
449.40
440,0
425,3
454,03
NominalPipeSizes.In.
2 or less
31010
lOto 20
Liquid andLine
Velocily. FI/S
Velocity.FI/S
Velocity.Ft/S
1 lo 2
2103
4109
4 lo 9
3 lo 4
3106
4 lo 7
8 lo 14
8 lo 14
2104
3105
51012
5 lo 12
3 lo 5
3 lo 5
1.,5to 2,'5
2.,5 lo 3.5
4109
3 lo 4
2104
3105
51012
3 lo 5
3106
4 lo 7
8 lo 15
"
1.5103
0.4 lo 0.75
3 lo 5
1.5 lo 3
Water
Pump suctlon
Pump discharge (long)
Discharge leads (shorl)
Boiler leed
ralns
Sloped sewer
HydrocarbonIiquids
(Normal viscositiesl
Pump sucton
Discharge header (long)
Discharge leads (short)
Drains
Viscousoils
Pump sucton,
Medium vscoslty
Tar and fuel os
Discharge (short)
Drains
4107
.:
2.5105
0.5 lo 1
4106
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
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1I11nUIIIIIIIlIIIIIU!lUUUlIUlllllmUIIUUlUlltlIIIIUIII\\IIIII\\IIIIII\\1I11111111111111111111l11111l\llUUIIIIIUIlmltlllllllllllll\!ltllmllllUlllllllll1ml
Flashing Llquid
SuperhealedSteam,
SuperhealedVapor. or Gas
LowPressure
MediumPressure
HighPressurB
Velocily. Ft/S
Velocily.FI/S
Velocily.Ft/S
40 lo 80
45 lo 90
50 lo 120
80 lo 160
100 lo 190
110 lo 210
120 lo 220
30 lo 60
35 lo 70
45 lo 90
65 lo 125
80 lo 145
90 lo 160
100 lo 170
45 lo
50 lo
60 lo
65 lo
70 lo
75 lo
80 lo
100
110
120
125
130
135
140
Note: Within the above veloeities and line-size ranges. (a) large lines can have
higher veloeities than smaller ones. and (b) snort lines, and leads from headers,
can have higher velocities than long lines ano headers.
EquipmenlLines
Reboiler, downcomer (Iiquid) .
Reboiler, riser (liquid and vapor)
Overhead condenser . .
Two-phase flow . , ..
Velocity.FI/S
.3107
35 lo 45
.2510100
35 lo 75
150 lo 350
Inlel, gas turbine , ..
0.5v/,
Relief valve, discharge .
V'
Relief valve, entry p0101al slencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e
* Obtatn sonie or crttcat velocity,
Ve' from:
v, = 68 v'k(P' / p), tt/s k trom Table 1.
IllllHllmftIlIlHIIUIIIIIII1IUUUIlIJ1IIt1II11I111l1l1I1UIUlIlIlI1J1I1III11JIlIIIlUrmtlllllUU11IIIII11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111UIIIIIIIIIIIIII
"
1111111
111111111111
111111111111
25
~~
O
O
1 have
.aders.
y. FIIS
IIIIIIUIIIIII\I1I
ERING
07
045
0100
075
0200
:0250
to 320
to 350
l.5v/
ve'"
Specific Heat
The quantity of heat absorbed by a unit weight of
substance while its temperature is raised 1 is termed the
specifc heat. Customary units are in Btu/(lb)(OF). Spe63
CE REFRESHER
...
1I11!\U1l1l1111ll11l1l11\\IUllIIHlIlllllIllIIlIIllIlIlIllllIltllIIIlIU\\lltllI1111111111111111It11ll1ll1l1l1UlUtll1ll11ll1UUIIIH11I11I11111\l\Imlmlllllllllllllllll
3
4
12
6
4
10
60
10
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Fluid in Motlon
Velocity-A fluid moving in a pipeline has a parabolic
velocity-distribution profile (see Fig. 4a). The average
velocity is calculated at a given cross-section and steady
flowrate: v
q!.4, ft/s, where q is volume fiowrate in
ft3/S, and A is cross-sectional are a of the pipe in ft.2
For liquid-fiow calculations:
v = 0.408(QjtJ2)
(8)
(9)
(lO)
(11)
64
,l$
.ata
$ ... 649;;.44
ous units of viscosity is shown in Fig. 3. Elaborate instruments are required for measuring absolute viscosity such
as cp. Kinematic viscosity is simple to measure. The
relation between kinematic and absolute is:
v
== !l/S
(12)
iJ .
.t
g
s,
O)
1)
Id
~d
pe
ro
rre
.he
st/isrits
vill
ariFRICTION factors for any type of commercial pipe under any condition of fluid flow-Fig. 6
ING
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23,1974
65
CE REFRESHER
...
(13)
66
IlIIU!UIlUII111IUl1lt1lllllnU!IIltJIIl1ll1lUI1I1IlIlI1IlUIIUllllllllllllllmltlIlIIlIUIIIIII1I1l1l1ll1ll1111IlIlIIlUlIllllU1JlI1!IUHIIUI1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIUUIllII
Friction
Factor
W,
2
3
4
5
6
8
Friction
Factor,
Nominal
Pipe Size,
In.
0.0205
0.0195
0.0178
0.0165
0.016
0.0152
0.0142
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
0.0136
0.0132
0.0125
0.0122
0.012
0.0118
0.0116
11l1I1lJllllIIIlHUllllllllllllllUlllIlIIlllIlIlIllltlltlllllllJlll1HltlIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIIIIIIIIIItlIIIllIlIIlIlIUll!IIJIUI!I!llIlmlllllllJlllllllllllllmIIlIlIlIlHII
Acknowledgements
The charts and illustrations in this article have been
kindly supplicd by, and used with the permission of:
American Petroleum Institute, Fig. 1; Dow Chemical
Co., Fig. 3; Crane Co., Fig. 4; Crane CO. from data
extracted from Friction Factors for Pipe Flow by L. F.
Moody with the permission of the publisher, ASME,
Fig. 5 and 6. #
References
1. Keenan, J. H., Keyes, F. O., HiIl, P. O. and Moore, J. O., "Steam
Tables," Wiley, New York, 1969.
2. Gallant, R. W., "Physieal Properties of Hydroearbons," VoL 1 and
VoL 2, Oulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1968 and 1971.
3. "A.P.!. Teehnieal Data Book: Petroleum Refining," American Perroleum lnstitute, Washington. D.C.
4. Perry, R. H. and Chilton, C. H., "Chernical Engineers' Handbook,"
5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.
5. "Flow of Fluids," Teehnieal Paper No. 410, (a) p. A-6, physieal properues of water; p. A-7, density of various liquids; p. A-8, physieal
properues of gases; p. A-ID, weight density of air; (b) pp. A-12 to
A-19, thermodynamie properties ofsteam; (e) p. A-8, physieal properties 01" gases; p. A-9, specific heat ratios for steam; (d) p. A-2, viseosity
of steam; p. A-3, viseosity of water and petroleum produets; p. A-4,
viseosity of various liquids; p. A-5, viseosity of gases and vapors;
pp. B-3 to B-5, viseosity equivalents; (e) p. A-25, frietion factor vs,
Reynolds number diagram for steel pipes; (f) pp. B-16 to B-19, steel
pipe data. (Crane Co., Chieago, Il, 60632.)
CE Refresher
I
.1
.~
1ft
= FI
- F2
E':l = P dA
- (p
+ dp)dA
p dA dl sin
<X
(1)
Direction of flow - _ ~
Euler's Derivation
dm __
<_
Pressure, p -_
b. Differential
Quantity
Enlarged
"To meet your author, see Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 66.
dz
1
115
CE REFRESHER
...
Point, .1
/p
144/p
/2g
V1
a. Horizontal Pipe
length, dl, is dz
= dl sin a, and
'iF
/>,
==
144/p
-dp dA - pdA dz
(2)
:,F== dA d/(p/g)(dv/dt)
(3)
(4)
+ (l/g)
v dv
+ dz == O
(5)
Bernoulli's Equation
Integrating Eq. (5) between reference points 1 and 2
of Fig' la for fluids where (he density can be considered
constant yields Bernoulli's equation:
2
(lIp)J
dp+(l/g)J
I
(I/p)(pz - PI)
vdv+
1
+ (v~ -
vD/2g
J dz==O
I
+ (z2 -Zl) = O
(6)
gating energy distributions or calculating pressure differentials between any two points in a pipeline.
Fig. 2 graphically iIlustrates Bernoulli's energy distribution in a slanted pipeline, with two additional factors
included: (1) there is a head loss, hL, due to friction
because we are now dealing with an actual fluid, and
(2) in a pipeline with constant diameter, velocity usually
does not change, i.e., uI = u2 The first factor changes
the righthand side of Eq. (6), and the second eliminates
the component for the velocity-head difference. * Eq. (6)
now becomes:
(7)
>
1. .
>
D.P.
==
D.Pp
:=:
D.Pr
1~
+ D.P,
When in motion, all actual fluids have internal resistance due to viscosity and friction between the fluid and
the pipe wall and equipment parts. To take this into
account, we will correct Eq. (9) by introducing a resistance coefficient, K, and letting v == v2:
hL = Kv2/2g
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/JANUARY 6,1975
(10)
(11)
Practical Formulas
We will now show how to derive sizing formulas in
the convenient units used by designers, manufacturers
and handbooks, by converting the previous relations
from the consistent units of the English system of measurement.
We will begin by converting Eq. (10) to pressure drop,
!:"P, in psi:
'
D.P == (h}p)/I44
(12)
To get pressure drop, !:"P, in psi for pipelines, we combine Eq. (10) and (11):
M = (fL/D)(v2/2g)(p/144)
(13)
i
~
','
li1
1
....
CE REFRESHER
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..
'.
Nominal
90 Bends"
Pipe
Shorl
long
Size.
Radius.
Radius
In
R= 10 R = 1.50 R=50 R= 100
(14)
Tee
Flow
Through. Flow
Branch Through
.zt.. _L_
1Y2
4.5
2.5
5.25
3.5
11
3.5
2V,
3.5
13
7.5
7.5
16
10.5
5.5
10
20
15
10
8.5
15
30
10
21
14
11
20
40
14
10
24
16
14
25
50
16
12
16
30
60
21
32
21
14
33
22
19
33
65
22
16
39
26
21
38
75
26
18
44
29
24
42
86 .,
29
20
48
32
27
50
100
32
24
57
38
32
60
120
38
D.PlOO = O.0216fp(Q2/d5),
psi/lOO ft
(15)
/J.P100 == l.35fS(Q2/d5),
psi/lOO ft
(16)
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Nominal
Pipe
Size.
In
pan
I
~o
Swing
~o
ThreeWay Cock'
Check
Ball
StralghtThrough
Cock.'
SlraightThrough
Flows
Flow
Through
Branch
Butterny.
Fully Open
6
1Y,
1.75
46
23
18
17
20
2.5
20
2.25
60
30
24
22
25
3.5
7.5
24
2V,
2.75
70
38
30
27
30
30
10
3.5
90
45
38
35
38
12
36
12
15
48
15
70
23
4.5
120
60
48
45
50
6.5
175
88
72
65
75
10
'22
230
120
95
90
100
13
30
95
27
10
12
280
150
130
120
130
16
38
120
35
6.5
12
14
320
170
145
140
150
19
40
14
15
380
190
160
150
170
20
45
16
17
420
220
180
170
190
22
50
18
18
480
250
205
180
210
, 24
58
20
20
530
290
240
200
240
27
64
24
32
630
330
270
250
290
33
78
"For partially closed globe valves, multiply tabulated values by 3 for three-quarters open. by 12 for one-halt open, and by 70 for one-quarter open.
1 With port area open. Part afea = pipe area.
2 Port area equals 80% of pipe area.
1I!1lUlllIII1I1U1lll1IUlIlIllUlllllllllll1l1llllllllllJlllllllll\UlllllIIllllBllJ\lIl1l1l1!l!I!I1rllllImuurmUllmlUlltWrW""/11IIUlWIIIUUUlllrWl/IlIllJltltlllIlllllllllIIIIIllIUIIIIIIII1I11111111U1lJ1J1!lIlnUlllIllnuIIIIIIIIIIIIUI\I!llIlmIUIIIIllIIIIIJlIlIUUIlIlIllItIIIIIl!!tIlUH1I!1!11IJIIIIIHIIIIIIIHIlJIIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIII
118
t
(
t
l
Ji
e
e
e
is necessary, which is
IJIIIIUllIIIIIUl1l1lIIUUllII1!llllUltUIII11tI1UllUlrllHllll1U1UUUllllllrlllUllltIIUllUUIIIIIII1UIIll/1I1U11111J111111111J11l1tl1l1ll1ll1l1l1l1ll11l1l11U1111
Reststances
t:,PlOO
1'4
V,
0.6
0.5
V,
1.2
0.7
:y,
0.6
0.6
Y<
1.6
1.0
1.2
0.9
2.2
1.3
1V,
1.3
1.3
1Yz
3.8
2.4
2.7
2.3
3.2
12
15
8
9.5
1Y,
== 1.92 psi/lOO ft
4
and for L
(17)
_r
d1E:]d'
L_
d,--dz
d,
dz-d,
L_
d,
NE. == 50.6(p/p.)(Q/d)
NE. == 50.6(44.9/0.3)(1,026/6.065)
_r
Nominal
szes,
In
14
(18)
19
12
14
12
MIDO
== 0.OO0336(j/p)(WZ/d5)
10
dl8dz
12
10
14
t. '"
16
18
20
6.5
22
14
22
14
10
15
13
12
27
17
10
23
17
12
15
15
14
10
30
19
12
23
19
14
15
15
16
12
30
23
14
21
23
16
13
13
18
24
18
20
I
S
I
~
I
;;1
6.5
"
'5
25
25
12
12
"
Note: Add these equivalent lengths to the equivalent en9th 01 the smaller
pipe and its components.
JllIlllIUIIIIUIIUUUlIlllIllUllllllUlllHlIllJUUllllllurwllllt/JlUIIHUUIIIIlIlIllI1I1UllrUIIl1I11UrmltlllU1UIIIIJUllllIIIUltlllltlllllll1ll1llUlllIllll
119
CE REFRESHER
.
"
IIII11UUIHmmlum!UuuwrUIlmfWIUlIIlIIll/ImUIIIIUIWIUUlUllHwrUIIIIUI//WllmJJ!nUIIIIIIIm!!mlllllm~i~'\I1hj!U!tltllll\ll1f11
vE7;dt
Resistance
Coellicient
K= 1.0
- __J
Nominal
Pipe Size,
In
--L
-r
j_
---,
___./
y,
1<
1.5
J!!f
K == 0.5
K= 0.78
0.23
-r- --r=:
\.__
L.__
0.5
2.5
1.5
0.75
1'
1Y2
5.5
3.5
1.75
4.5
2.25
15
12
7.5
3.75
20
16
10
36
29
18
48
38
24
12
10
62
49
31
15
12
78
60
39
19
14
88
70
44
22
16
100
78
50
25
18
120
95
60
30
20
136
107
68
34
24
170
135
85
42
_._
(19)
/lP1oo(L/100), psi
"
1t1l1l1l1!!111t1IIUnnUI1!UIIlIlI11IIIt1UlIlIlllIllllHlmlllll11fllJltllIIlUrUIIIUIIIl1l11!!lIlmIIfllllrUlHUWIlIlfIIlUUlWWUllUllli,Ullmrllllllflmr
p = MP' /IO.72Tz
P
16(127 + 14.7)
10.72(460 + 172)1
= 0.334 lb/ft
tt.
t::.PlOO = 0.000336(0.0166/0.334)[(1O,750)2l1,058J
o
/lP100
= 1.82 psi/lOO ft
120
Actual length
6 long-radius elbows:
2 flow-through tees:
Equivalent pipe length
78 ft
6XIO=60ft
2 X 10 = 20 ft
158 ft
=::
K =fL/D.
There is no shortcut to graphic piping designo Pipe
configurations have to be drawn or sketched in considerabl detail so, that equivalent lengths of piping,
fittings and other components contributing to the resistance of fluid flow can be, accurately added.
The next article of this series will appear in the
Feb.3, 1975 issue, and will review measurement of fiow
with orifices and flow nozzles. #
.,' JANUARV 6, 1975/CHEMICAl
ENGINEERING
CHEIV
f\W.
,
To measure flow accurately, the designer of flow systems must provide a pipe diameter of sufficient size and,
equally important, a suitable configuration for the piping.
We will closely examine these parameters in relation
to the sizing of orifices and flow nozzles in piping systems.
Furthermore, we will take a look at associated requirements to ensure:
.
11m Adequate straight-run of piping before and after the
flow device.
~ Economy of the piping layout.
fi!l Provision for orifice taps, straightening van es, and
separator chambers.
fll1l Accessibility to the flow device, and instruments
connected to it, when installed in the piping system.
The most common device for measuring flow is a thin
plate with a square-edged hole in the center, held between a pair of flanges. Usually, this orifice is a stainlesssteel plate, %-in thick (for lines 16 in, or larger, Y4-in
thick). Minimum orifice bore is usually % in. If required,
a small vent hole and.drain hole are drilled in the orifice
plate-slightly overlapping the internal pipe wall at the
top and bottom. A pair of jack screws, installed in the
flanges, force the flange faces apart for replacing the
orifice plateo Pressure taps through the flanges provide
the means fOI connecting the orifice pIate to indicating,
recording or transmitting instruments. The entire assembly is shown in Fig. 1.
If an orifice is placed in a pipeline, with fluid flowing
through it, the pressure will vary along th~ orifice piperun, as shown in fig. 2...Ft a selected.installation and
fluid, the pressure difference between the .irrletand outlet
meet your author, ser,ehem, Erig" Dec. 23,'1974, p. 66,
72
(2)
v = 0.0509 W /(cPop)
By setting Eq. (1) and (2), and Eq. (1) and (3), equal
to each other, we find flowrate through the orifice proportional to:
Q
==
19,67Cd~Y
W = 157.66C;y;;;'i
(4)
(5)
ENGINEERING
ORIFICE
For liquids:
hL = (h",/12)(l/S)
(7)
2. For pipe sizing, the orifice diameter must be replaced by the internal diameter of the pipe. This is accomplished by using the ratio of the orfice bore (do) to
that of the pipe inside diameter (d1), i.e, f3
do/d1, or
do = d1f3
Inserting these values for hI, and do into Eq, (4) and
(5) yields:
Q = 5.68fiZCdr(v'h::IVS)
(S)
(9)
=:
359.43jJ2Cdi';;;
the line pressure is high compared to the pressure differential across the orfice.
Values for the orifice flow coefficient, e, are established
by experiment and can be obtained from a chart such
as that in Fig, 1. Up to an NRo of 10,000, the flow coefficient changos greatly with varying Reynolds numbers and
flow capacities, This makes for inaccuracies in flow
measurcrncnts. Between an NRe of 10,000 to 100,000, the
flow coefficient decreases about 4% to 5% with increasing
Reynolds numbers. Above an NIIe = 100,000, lhe value
for e remains constant. For reasonable accuracy, pipe
sizes should be selected so that NR"
20,000 for Reynolds numbers calculated with the internal diameter of the
pipe.
In practical applications, f3 is usually 0.7 or a maximum
of 0.75. Thc corresponding flow coefficients for NIIe ~
100,000 are e = 0.692 or 0.722. With these values, the
capacity coefficients, f32e, and sizing formulas, Eq. (8)
and (9), become:
>
For
For
f3
f3
= 0.7, pe = 0.339,
and:
Q = 1.926di(Vh.'-;''S)
(lO)
W = 121.87diVh:P-
(11)
and:
Q = 2.31d~(Vh':;-/VS)
(12)
W = 145.93diVh:P
(13)
The term h", in Eg. (10) through (13) has two meanings. First, it is the head loss across the orfice. Expressing
it as a pressure differential: ts P == (h1O/12)(62.37/144),
or t,Po = 0.0361hw.
The permanent pressure loss of an orifice-flowmeter
instaIlation is less than the pressure ditTerential measured
73
CE REFRESHER
...
",/
100
~c
'>--
'>--
6'<
o 20
6'<
- 30
>
o
o
e 40
~-
C
do
di
g
hL
hm
6.Po
Q
S
S60
v
W
f3
f32C
fiP
P,;o
Pr;",
..,
-.;;;= 0.176Q
;; 50
ru
'"
e
w
e
ro
60
E
Q)
e,
70
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 ---0.5 0.6 0.7
Ratio of orifice diameter to nipediameter , i3 = do/d,
74
r
Eq.
On
sele
(14)
cak
ests
relz
6.P,
FOI
= 0.00278 W/(dif32C
vp),
inH
(15)
DeJ
3. Change f3 Ratio-Any
change in the f3 ratio is
coupled with a corresponding value of the orifice flow
coefficient. An adjustment can be made (generally to
reduce capacity) by using capacity coefficients, {12C,
ranging from 0.04 to 0.4. If the ratio is less than 0.7, the
orifice pressure differential and the percentage of permanent pressure loss will increase for the same f1owrate.
ma
Examp~emustl"lItesProcedures
in 1
inle
Flo
B
indi
PERMANENT pressure
VSi(d~f32C), inl/2
Q_
Sin
exc
ges
2.1:
.9
Q)
a:
Nomenclature
= 50.6(Q/d )(plf!-)
1
Na. = 50.6(160/3.068)(50/1.3)
==
101,500
adv
con
600/,
orif
defl
doe
sure
F
for
CHE
FLOW NOZZLE
== 62.4 in.
CE REFRESHER .
Radius Taps:
= 1 x pipedia, N
ComerTaps
r-2Y:.pipe(jj",.;,.!.""'----__;_-8
0.5 x pipedia
pipedia.,---------1
Une Taps
TAP TYPESthat can be installed in existing pipelines without special flanges-Fig. 6
f32C can
Well-chosen
pipe configurations
can shorten orifice
pipe runs. Comparisons
for this can be appreciated
by
examining the details shown in Fig. 5. The natural con, figuration of the piping can also serve for inserting ftow
elements. For example, these are the verticallines around
a tower, lines in pipe racks, and lines approaching process
equipment for yard-piping headers. For smaller process
lines, fiow elernents can be placed in one of the vertical
legs of a U-type control-valve assembly.
For clean liquid, dry gas or air, horizontal piping is
preferred for the orifices or flow nozzles. For saturated
steam, wet gas or air, vertical downflow is preferred;
however, horizontal piping is usually also acceptable.
With clean liquid, dry gas, air and superheated
steam,
vertical upflow can also be considered. For liquids con-
Gasfiow
,,---.....
I
I
Provide
cover
removal
space
..o
r__
I
eo
x
LL
'"
s:
1-
flow nozzles
should be in
drainage, ecslurry linesthe pipe and
Separa~o~Charnbers
Dirty liquids, moist or condensing gases and corrosive
fluids require that separation charnbers or driplegs be
installed between the orifice tap and the manometer or
pressure transmitter. These cham bers are closely
mounted to both orfice taps and instruments. Sedirnent
charnbers with drain valves collect solido suspended in
Liquid fiow
Accessibiliiy lo tnstruments
The piping designer must consider access and space
requirement to orifce-tap valves and to instruments connected to ori fices.
The minimum elevation of orifice runs is approximately 2 to 2.5 ft aboye grade. Where heavy snow fall
is common at outdoor installations, a higher minirnum
elevation is chosen. The recornmended elevation for
piping with orifice anges is 7 ft aboye grade or platform
elevation. This is the case for orfice runs in pumpdischarge lines, and in exchanger inlet and outlet lines.
In pipe racks, straight runs are easily provided. Hence,
77
CE REFRESHER ..
Straightening Vanes
STRAIGTENING
The straight-length requirements enable the development of a symmetrical velocity pattern and steady flow
in the moving mass of fluid. Hence, when the fluid meets
the flow restriction, stable mcasuring conditions are
present. The same flow conditions may also be developed
with straightening vanes, which require a shorter straight
run (Fig. 8). Straightening vanes work well while they
are clean and new, and most important, if piping is
suitably designed and the vanes well positioned. Even
slight corrosion, erosion or deposits will hamper their
function, and hence measurements will be inaccurate.
If a straightening vane is preceded by an elbow, it
might defeat its own purpose. The distorted velocity
distribution developed in the elbow is captured in the
straightening vane and 0111y slightly corrected in the short
upstream orifice pipe-runo A distorted flow pattern will
result through the orifice, and a true value of pressure
difference wiU not likely exist. By replacing the elbow
with a tee (capped at one end), a more symmetrical
veIocity distribution can be obtained than by a straightening vane preceded by an elbow. Manufacturers of these
devices can recommend proper instalIation practices.
Location and dimensional details are given in the AGAASME schedules [1].
The next article in this series wilI appear in the Mar.
3, 1975 issue, and wilI take up additional ow-rneasurement techniques by means of venturi meters, flow
tubes, pitot tubes and rotatmeters. #
References
1. Sprenkle, R. E., Piping Arrangements for Acceptable Flow Meter
Accuracy, Trans. ASME, 67, 345 (1945).
2. Terrell, C. E. and Bcan, H. S., "AGA Gas Measurernent Manual,"
American Gas Assn., Arlington, Va., 1963.
(9)
(11)
FEBRUARY 3, 1975/CHEMICAl
ENGINEERING
e lE
RefiAesher
1
1
, .~
'j'
In principie, venturis work in ihe same way as orificesdo. However, the permanent pressure loss across the
venturi is very small; and in well-designed systems, venturis requre about one-half the straight length of pipe
than do orifice meters for the same aceuracy. For measuring the same flowrate, venturi meters often require a
smaller pipe size than do orifices. Also, venturis can
handle much higher capacity ranges (10 to 1; some even
20 to 1) than orifices (4 to 1).
From the standpoint of piping design, we must resolve
the following questions in order to apply venturis properly:
.
1. Can a calculated pipe size accommodate a venturi
meter? Both the pipe and venturi are sized with the same
flow data.
2. Is it possible to fit a venturi meter into a given pipe
configuration without additional pipe Iength and fittings?
The calculation procedures yield the diameters for the
inlet pipe and throat of the venturi. Manufacturers' catalogs give the overall length for a selected type and size
of venturi [1].
161
'
CE REFRESHER
_ Thraat
Inletcane-/
t.ow-pressure tap
L - - - Highpressuretap
a. Venturi Nozzle
h. Short-Form Venturi
,,-~ High-pressure
Low-pressure --;,
annular chambers
L H igh-pressure tap
\_ Low-pressure tap
b, Welded
Ref. [1 J
e, Long-Form Venturl
Sizing procedures for venturi meters (or any differen.tial-pressure producing flow element) are idcntical lo
those for orfice calculations, as given in Part 3 of this
series tChem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, pp. 72-75). Of course,
numerical va1ues for the flow coefficients differ, and the
range of throat diameters is not as wide as that for
orifices.
Flowrates and head losses across venturis are calculated from the following relations for:
Ref_ [1]
VENTURIS
d. Flanged-Insert Venturi
tor various service requirements-Fig.
l.
Q == 5.68/PCf_CNv's), gpm
...:; == O.176CQv's)/Cdi/PC), inI/Z
(1)
(2)
= 359.43/32Cf_v'h:P, lb/h
y;; == O.00278W/(di/3ZCyp),
nI/2
(3)
(4)
==
O.0361hm, psi
(5)
A'summary ofsizing data js given in Fig. 3. The cornparison between various venturi meters for permanent
pressure loss can be obtained from the graph as shown
in Fig. 3. .The most economical installation from the
standpoint of piping and utility costs, i.1.I'\o the 111O;! acMARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERiNG
Nomenclature
Pressure Distributlon
Along Venturi
Tube
0.7
0.6
~
co,
0.5
~
e
0.4
..,'
e
o
o
'
ro
o.
0.3
ro
o 0.2
0.1
0.4
100
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.8
e,
0.35 0.45
0_12
e
e
0.12
Flanged-inlet, venturi
{32
{32
Vhw
f3 ratio of 0.5.
20
30
40
60
80
120
160
240
320
"In. 01 water
'
A venturi tube may be installed in a horizontal, vertcal-upfow or -downflow: or inclined position, providing
the venturi is always fuIl of the fluid being metered. In
most cases, the valved pressure taps (usually % in) are
horizontal.
The general rule requires as much straight-run of upstream pipe as possible in order to have a symmetrical
velocity profile. Venturi meters, in most installations,
need less straight upst~eam piping than do orfices, pitot
tubes or flow nozzles. Generally, with a smaller f3 ratio,
shorter upstream piping can be provided. SpecificaIly,
with f3 == 0.53, a straight run equal to 10 times the inlet
diameter is adequate, with f3 == 0.63, a straight run equal
to 20 times the inlet diameter is needed for a two-plane
pipe configuration. Upstream straight-run requirements
for various fittings can be estimated from the diagrams
shown in Fig. 4.
Straightening vanes can reduce the required upstream
pipe length. For a reasonable installation, use a minimum length of two pipe diameters upstream of the inlet
flange to the straightening vane, and '(he same length
between tJ{e vane's outlet and the venturi tube's inlet.
Usually the segmental type of straightening vane is
chosen .(see Part 3, Fig. 8, Chem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, p.
78). Configuration ofthe downstream piping has no effect
on rnetering accuracy. Reducers or elbows can be flanged
to the venturi outlet. Provide a straight run of two pipe
diameters if the venturi is followed by a valve.
If a noncorrosive clean fluid is being metered, the
venturi meters can be buried with only the pressure-tap
valves located aboye grade.
Large venturi meters in slurry service can have cleanout ports, vents with drains at both annnlar chambers,
inspection openings on the outlet cone, a manhole in the
piping joint just after the outlet cone, and valved purge
conncctions in addition lo the prcssure-sensing taps. AH
'63
CE REFRESHER
__
-
Low-pressure connection
'" High-pressure __
connection-
'.l
....Flow direction '
indicator
"'---
Pipe wall
Static pressure
hole
.:>"
\;---I
(- -
L~W pressure --
.....---Hlghpressure
- -
-1
-~h /
--~
\
\
\
\
6r-+--r-+--r-+-~
4r-+--r~--+-~~~~
2r-+--r-+~F-+'~~~--+-4--+~
OL-~~--~~~~
__'_~~
__~~-J
0.2
a. Pitot Tube
Aef. [2)
Pitot Tubes
The pitot tube works on the same principle as any
other fow restriction. However, it is not a restriction in
the pipeline but a restriction in an instrumento Because
of this, pressure loss in the pipeline is negligible. The
diferential pressure at a conventional pitot tu be (Fig. 5)
is measured between the high-pressure impact hole directed against the flow, and a static hole, located at an
angle of 900 or 1800 to the impact holeo
Because ofthe single, small, impact hole, the pitot tube
164
tu
i
!i
,;~
ltinmllllm1nIlIJIllHlIIIIUnUltllltunUlmUlHlttllUUmtlUl\tIIlIttUIILIllUilllllltllIHIIII\UU\UIImllllllllUlllIlIUlllltllUllIIlllIIUlllIUlIlIlIlIllfIllUUIIUlIIIHIIIUIIIUllIIlIIUllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIllllIlI1ll1I1111HlllfllllllllllllflllllllllllllUIIIllilnlUlllfllllllllUUUIIUIIIIII\1II111UlIIIIIIIllIllllII1ll1!l1ll1l11111/11111
Pipe
Configurations
With ASME
Straightening
Vanes in Pipeline,
Pipe Oia.
Annubar Tube
(In the Same Plane
as Last Approach- Turn),
Pipe Ola.
Annubar Tube
(In Different Plana
as Last Approach- Turn),
Pipe Dia.
Oownstream
ot Flow
Element,
Pipe Oia.
14
:3
19
24
Beducer or increaser
Fully-open gate or ball valve
Partially-open valves
Globa valve
24
24
shown in the illustration, increases the pressure differential between the high-pressure impact hole and the low
pressure in the venturi throat [2].
Manometer defiectionsfor pitot tubes and pitot-venturis are calculated in the same way as for orifice defiections. The capacity coeffcient should be obtained
from the manufacturers. For rough estimates, the capacity coefficient,f3 2C, can be taken as 0.62.
Many of the disadvantages of the conventional pitot
tube have been eliminated with an'(averagingpitot tube
called an Annubar (Fig. 6). This device consists of two
sensing tubes. The upstream tube has ene to several
impact holes (high-pressure side) facing the fiow direction. An internal tube averages the pressure.sensed at
the four impact holes. The downstream tube (low-pressure side) measures the static pressure from which is
subtracted the suction pressure of the flow.
.
i
1.
l'
\
High-pressure connection
- ~~ Identification tag
\
:- - - ..Upstream tube
\
\
Recsssed \
pressurenozzle
/
/
L Do~nstream tube
ANNUBAR meter is an averaging pitot tube-Fig.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/MARCH 3, 1975
Ref. [3]
Ref: [4J
7
165
r'
CE REFRESHER
Pipe Size,
Nominal,
In
I;to
II; to
6 lo
18 lo
Fu
to
to
to
to
__
- -
Loss,
% of h,,,
= 0.82
0.6
0.66
0.7
0.75
1%
5
16
24
Estimated
Permanent
10
0.62
0.70
0.75
0.78
8 to 4
3 to 1
<%
= [0.176Qv'S!(K~v)diJ2,
in
(6)
in
Metering float
~~:'
'.
(8)
,/
Straight-lcngth requirements for 'piping design, as recommended by the manufacturer, are given in Table 1.
-1nlet connection
Rcf: [5J
(7)
tion stays constant. In contrast, constant-restriction meters such as orifices and venturis have a fixed opening,
and the pressure differenceacrossthe restriction becomes
prportional to flow.
The rotameter consistsof a tapered metering tube with
a float that moves freely up and down (Fig. 8). The tube
must be mounted verticallywith fluid flowin an upward
direction. The float will come to rest in a dynamic equilibrium when the pressure differenceacrossthe float, plus
the buoyancy effect, balance the weight of the fioat. An
increase in the fiowrate causes the fioat to rise higher
in the tube; a dccrease causes it to fal!.
In air and water servce, (he viscosityefects of the fluid
on the rotameter remain practically constant. This makes
possible the use of standard capacity tables for such fiow
streams. Standard sizing charts, tables of correction factors for any fluid, tables of correction factors for pressure
and temperature, selectionguides for types ofrotameters,
etc., are available in manufacturers' literature [5). Hence,
rotameter calculations are seldom made by process engineers.
In relation to piping design, pressure drop across the
rotameter is negligible.
~""
1"
CE REFRESHER
l..
[g~. E -E~-E
+
Alternative
Tap
Locations
Pipa Confjgurations
P1PING arrangements for installing a rotameter having alternative taps are simple and econoll)ical-Fig.
References
1. EngineeringInformationon VenturiMeterTubes,BIF Div.,NewYork
Air Brake Co., Providence,RI 02901.
.
10
CE Refresher
Control Valves
In
Process Plan
For proper performance in any piping .system, he e are the design relations, sizing
formulas and installation procedures for seleting and using control valves for fluids.
f"
CE REFRESHER .
, \
t
nl'
Single-Seat (Equal-percentage
contoured pluq, fails closed)
Double-Seat {Equal-parcentage
ported plug, tails open) ,
Alternativo
Actuator and Plugs
CONTROL valves handle many types of process flulds, and are actuated by alr In response to a procesa signal-Flg.
Buttarfly
Valva
Camflax Valva
Safety Requirements
Without air pressure in the pneumatic actuator, the
valve can be in closed or open positiori.These alternative
86
ROTARVactuator
moves flap, plug
or disk-Fig. 3
APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Lubricator tor
valve-stem
packing box
Bellows Bonnet
(Seal between valve and
packing box in toxic serviee)
Extension Bonnet
(For eryogenic temperatures)
Finned Bonnet
(For temperatures higher thari 4000 F) .
Case Mounted
Side Mounted
.';.'"
Pneumatic Postoner
(Or transmitter) .
Limit Stop
(Restricts stem movement)
ACCESSORIES extend usefulness of control valves by providing for extreme and unusual conditions-Fig.
e, = Q( ..sVf;P)
C; is a capacity index indicating the flow of 60F water
in gpm, which will pass through the compJetely open
valve under a pressure difference of 1 psi betwecn the
inlet and outlet angcs, Obviously, if S
1 and
I::.P == 1 psi, then C" == Q.
Capacity indexes for the butterfiy valve are also given
at two throttling positions of' the flap, in addition to the
fully open position.
.
87
1
CE REFRESHER
..
/
Nomenclature
C,
e'r
e = Q( VSiy-s;y
vc
evc/c" = 0.5
''
to 0.8
in the control val ve. ' Ir the vapor pressure nears the
downstream pressure, P2, cavitation can be suspected.
Cavitation can cause rapid wear of valve plug and seat
as well as vibration and noise. If the vapor pressure falls
between upstream and downstream pressures, PI and P2,
, vaporization can occur. In this case, there will be twophase flow in the pipeline after the control valve. If the
vapor pressure is higher than the inlet pressure, PI' the
control valve receives two-phase flow; and additional
vaporization can be considered across the valve. For this
condition, diameter of the downstream pipe will usually
be larger than the upstream pipe.
The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in liquids
are, respectively:
'
6.P
< e/(6.p.)
6.P ~ c,z(IJ.P.)
where:
6.p.
= PI -
sr,
(1)
(2)
(3)
<
O.SPI
The sizing formula for critical flow is:
e"c = (Q/e,)(VSi"';;;)
(4)
IIIl11uunnllunlllllllU!UlllllllllmmUllllllllillllllllllllllUlIIlIIlIlIUlIlIIlIlIIlIUlIlIlIIllIIHllllllllJ111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
.0/.
Single-Seat"
Double-Seat*
12
1%
14
18
u. = 68v'k(~'/p), ft/~.
1%
21
28
36
48
2%
54
72
!::.P ~
75 .
110
124
195
270
450
480
750
10
750
1,160
12
1,080
1,620
14
1,470
2,000
16
1,920
2,560
(5)
O.sqP1
(6)
(7)
Liquid Service
Subcritical Flow-For a liquid flowing well below its
saturation temperature in the turbulent zone, with viscosity close to that of water, and sizes of the pipe and
control valve identical, the calculated control-valve
coefficient is:
(8)
,
at a selected
Q
t:,p = [.
(CvclCv)Cv
]2 S, psi
(lO)
Critical Flow-If
CE REFRESHER
UlIIIIIIIIIIIIIUH'l!Ir1l1l11I1U1I1I1I11I11I1IIf1H/IIUlm:UUIIHIltIlIllUIlIlInIllIlIlIlIlUlllillIlJIlIlIIlII1I1111111111111111111llllllllllllllllUlllllllllllllUUJmUlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllflIIIIIIIIIU1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111"11
Double-Seat*
Single-Seat*
Condition
Factor
Equal-Percentage
V-Port
Equal-Percentage
V-Port
C(
0.98t or 0.85*
0.98
0.90
0.98
0.86
0.94
0.86
0.94
Critical flow
size control valve
-- Line
___
o
Critical flow
(Control valve between
pipe reducers) .
CI,
-------
R
R
0.96
0.94
--_.-
, These values have been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-seriesplug valves havirig full-capaclty tnm, but also apply to similar valves 01 other manufacturers [2J.
t Faclor for flow to opeu.
.
'Factor for flow to close.
lI\1tlllltlllll\III1Il\\\llIllIIl1l1llllmm\llll1\11!I'''Il\ImlllllllllllltI1IUllll111IIlIlInU\llI!IIIIIIIU11I1llllllltlltlI1l1111mnlllli11t111111111l111111111111ll111l111111l1t1II111111111l11lnt1l1l111l111l1l11111111l11111111l11111111l111111111111l111111UII11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1l1111111111lllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllllnnl1111111111111111111
ti
control-valve
W_
63.3 --I'(JI
>
.rently (i.e., Pv
1'1)' additional vaporization of
liquid can be assumed inside the control valve. For this
condition:
ow will be:
w
e;. == ---:-.=--==
11.65 ..F;i>(p+ P2)Pl
where ::"1'
1\ - P2' provided that t:,,? <o.se/p.
For critica! ow when t:"p ~ o.se/p:
.
.
w
e; = 1O.13e,pVi;
..
,.:
(J4)'
Two-Phase Flow
For well-mixed liquid and inert gas in turbulent Ilow
with no additional vaporization, the following applies:
c., =
44.8
v"t;=('=1 =+='='z=)-
(15)
where PI and P2 are the upstream and downstream two'phase densities,. respectively.
When saturated liquid enters the. valve (i.e., PI == Pv),
or saturated liquid and its saturated vapor fow concur90
CE REFRESHER .
1!1IUnmmUnUUUlllllllll1!1mlllHllIfIIIIIUlllllllllmUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIlIIIUliUIIUIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIII",IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11111UIlIlIIlllllllllllllllllllllllflllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIUlIIIIIIIIIUIlIIIIIIllIIJI1II1IUtllllllllllllUUIUJIU/1lI11I
No. 556
No. 576P
No. 1042 .
No. 1040
No. 1046
..,
Flow Coefficient,
Size,
In
Cv
Flow Coeflicient,
For Valves
No. 546P-150 Psi
No. 556P-200 Psi
No. 576P-300 Psi
Cv
For Valves
No. 556-200 Psi
No. 576-300 Psi
Flow Coefficient,
Size,
In
Flow Coefficient,
Cv
For Valve
No. 1040"150 Psi
Cv
For Valves
No. 1042-300 Psi
No. 1046-600 Psi
0.9
1.2
46
55
4.2
2%
72
90
8.6
105
130
14.5
200
235
29.5
400
400
49
10
1%
24,
41
.,
720
720
Note: Flow coeflicients nave been obtained for valves manulactured by Jenkins
Bros . but siso apply to similar valves 01 other manutacturers .
. 1lllllllllllUIIIIlIIIIIIWIIIIIUlUlUtllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1II11I1II!lIInlll!llIllIllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIlIIIlUiuIIIIIUlIlIlIlIlIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllumllllllmummllllllllllllltlllllUlIIlI!l1l1llUlUllllIIlIlIUlIlIlIlIlIUnUlIlIJlUllllUJIII1l1j!lllllnl~fIIl
j
-
i
1
1
,
:1
1;
MANIFOLDS and bypasses tor iristallihg control valves into the process piping require proper clearances and drains-Fig.
tion system. Sensing points for flow, pressure, temperature and level should be close to the control valve, as
should the transmitter. Instrurnent wiring and tubing
connect these elements. Air lines run from the transmitter
'. to the diaphragm housing, and from the transmitter to
.the: instrument-air header.
Level controllers usuaIly have gage-glass companions ..
It is convenient for the plant operator to see the gage
glasses from the control-valve manifold when operating
the control-valve handwheel or the bypass globe valve.
The next article in this series .will appear in the issue
of Apr. 28, 1975, and will cover the design relations for
sizing pump-suction piping. #
.
References
1. "Handbook for Control Valve Sizing," Masonelan lnternational, Ine.
Norwood, MA 02062.
2. Dimensions-Masoneilan
Control Valves and Auxiliary Equipment,
Masoneilan lnternational, Inc .. Norwood, MA 02062.
3. "Valve Sizing," Catalog 10, Fisher Controls Co., Marshalltown, lA
50158. .
4. Fisher Control Valve Dirnensions, Bulletin 1-100, Fisher Controls
. Co., Marshalltown, lA 50158.
5. Boger, H.'W., Recent Trends in Sizing Control Valves, 23rd Annual
Symposium on Instrumentation for the Process Industries, Texas
. A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, 1968.
6. Baumann, H. D., The Introduetion of Critical Flow Factor for Valve
Sizing, ISA (Instr. Soco Am.) Trans., Apr. 1963.
.
7. Baumann, H. D., Effeet of Pipe Reducers on Valve Capacity, Instr.
Control Systems, Dec. 1967.
,8. Boger, H. W., Sizing Control Valves for Flashing Service, lnstr.
Con/ro/ Systems, Jan. 1970.
9. Boger, H. W., Flow Characteristics for Control Valve Installations,
ISA (/llS/r. Soco Am) J., Oct. 1966.
.'
10. Hutchison, J. W. (Ed.), "ISA Handbook of Control Valves," lnstrument Soco of America, Pittsburgh, 1971.
.
93
I
I
o
Successful operation of pumps
requlres the right suctlon
1:
'--
\,
1
1
__L_
Draw-off nozzle sizing. It is essential to keep a centrifugal pump suction line vapor-free. To avoid vaporization and possible cavitation in a suction line after the
draw-off nozzle inlet, the minimum static head of a liquid
aboye the nozzle should 'be more than the exit resistance.
Exit resistance of nozzles can be expressed as h.i. =
K v2/2g. Using a safety factor of three, the required
minimum liquid head aboye the draw-off nozzle will be:
hL = 3K .v2/ (2g)
Where v = (00408) Q/d2 ft./sec. and values of the resistance coefficient K, for horizontal or vertical nozzles,
are given on Fig. 1.
.
To obtain the draw-off nozzle size or minimum required
liquid height in the suction drum, the aboye equation is
solved graphically on Fig. 1. Enter Fig. 1 on the vertical
scale with the available liquid head and intersect one
curve representing the nozzle type and read veIocities on
the horizontal scale.
For vessels at the mnimum height, the pump-suction
pipe size can be the same as the draw-off nozzle size. Velocities in suction lines are about 4-8 ft./sec. for normal
viscosities. Use this velocity range if hi. > 30 inches. Gen.eral1y, the suction line is one size larger than the pumpsuction nozzle size.
To provide an economical design, when the draw-off
nozzle is at a high elevation, part of the potential encrgy
can be used for greater friction losses in the suction pipe.
When practical, usually aboye 12 inches, the pipe header
can be a size smaller than the draw-off nozzle size obtained
from Fig. 1. Examples of the interconnection bctween the
draw-of nozzle and a vertical-suction pipe section is
shown on Fig. 2. A smalIer header diameter than pump- )
suction nozzle size is-not recommended. - ..
. ..
When specifying the pump-suction-nozzle flange rating,
the suction-drum pressure plus the total static suction-head
should be taken into account beside operating tempera-
:~~::~:;:::::G
~n be;p:n::::ablC amount
fffffffinffifFf:T:mn:m:n7iffEffi
5Q
j::-
45
t-J:j:ffiti=~~~~-::j
1=
!~--I~
1"1
K=O.78
Fig. l--Graph
'v==:':
EXAMPLE:
Flow rate: Q
2200gpm, hr,
15 in.
From graph with hr.
15 in.: v
7.4 ft./see.
Pipe size: d = VO.4D8Q/v = VO.4D8 X 2200/7.4
d
11 in.
Nominal sizc: d = 12 in.
==
Fig. 2-Suction-pipe
connections
to .elevated draw-off
nozzles.
119
"
Subcooled
Liquid
1. PreSBure on liquid
s ur f ac e ;
2.
at suction
1 ~/'
?V/~1t
6'
~/
10.
12"/
PUMPV1
Fig. 3-Example configuration of suction piping.
TABLE
l-flow
data, unlr friction loss, and
total suction pipe reslstance for example
shown in fig. 3
Equivalcnt
Unir Loss
psi/IDO t.
Length Ft.
Total Loss
psi
45
96
14
9
40
6
Total:
180/100
= 0.855
0.475
~.
08rr
~____::::::_psi
p _
4//5
ps I,
.i!2fL>
~ft.
Required NP5H
~=
5
10 @
a::
::c
r-t
800
\10.408 (900)/8
Lille length:
3 clbows: 3(22) =
1 tee:
gateovalve (open):
st ramer ;
reducer (6il1. x 8-in.)
psi
~
z
psi
_:!: __1497
. _ psi
ps f
Q/v
= 6.78 ineh
Suction
psia
psi
~~;i~;~~)
~P_S~_=. _:Z!.I_&J!.f~q_8)
Flow Data:
Liquid pumped: Heavy gas-oil
Flow rate at temperature: Q = 900 gpm
Speeifie gravity: S = 0.88
Density: p == 55 lbs.zcu. ft.
Viscosity: J == 0.6 Cp
Minirnurn liquid level in suction drurn, h i. = 18 in.
With hL = 18 inches, the veloeity from Fig, 1, !1 == 8 ft./sec.
==
..
nozzle
P~MP SUC!'ON
6 - 300psI R.F.
/~
,:;-:.__
PSTRAINER
"l
ps a
Va.por prcssure oE
liquid
.
3. Pressure available
(4) 4. Static heud p reseure ,
(+ o r3 -)-------------,--(b) 5. Line
+ Line 4
5nturated
900
Fig. 4-Manufacturer's
1000
NPSH diagram.
tive. Line 6 should inelude the maximum equipment resistance in the suction line (the resistance of a dirty
strainer, for example). Similarly, Line 7 should inelude
the possible increased resistance of the deteriorated pipe
wall (if there are solids in the liquid, or water ftow for
example) .
The sum of Lines 5 ancl 8 is the available pressure
which can be convcrted to sta tic head and is used to calculate tlic available NPSH, (Line 10). This must bc cornpared with the requircd NPSH (Line 11) obtained from .
the pump manufacturero Available NPSH must be greater
than the required NPSH. The comparison should be made
to the same base line: pump centerline, pump base plate
or face of the vertical nozzle to givc three possible alternates. Manufacturer's base line is usually the pump centerlineo
A manufacturer's required NPSH diagram is shown on
Fig. 4. With an available NPSH of 10.8 fet, a maximum
of 1,050 gpm can still providc reliable suction conditions.
By adding Line ! and 4, the maximum suction nozzle
pressure isobtained for nozzle rating. By summing up Line
1 plus Line 4 minus Line 8, the nozzle pressure is obtained
for pump total head calcuJations.
Indexing terms: Cornputing-B, Flow-fi, Er ic t io n-fi, Nozzles-S, NPSH-9,
Piping.9J. Pressurc-G, Prcssure Drop-E, Purnps-, Rcsistance-Ii, Size-7, Sizing-B,
Suction-S, Vapor Prcssure-Ii, Velocirv-B.
.
April 1972
HYDROCARBON
PROCESSING
_._--~-----'.._.__ ._------------------------~_..
!--
._-,.,,--...:...;;
",",:~\~.::~?
::'(,,',1 D
::.:.
~;,'
m.ain
i'.
.;r
" -t.:
:>
:-..-:._-.y.::
'/:.:.::.:_~_~.;:-',>'.:
\. '
:"J
. ;' ;-,_.~:::;,:.:.::
~},~,'::\,.
.
j{:"i"
-:){h~i~~;:;J-:""
."
"""-" ,. . '>-:~:)i'~;
,c'--::io,;1
r, /.:,.:;.-...._-~_>.
',- :',
,'.'
. '.,/.:';
' ....
>'.~'_;"'>:;'.'
<--'-~~ ,
-: >_. _'.-",;,.:,'-.
-~
.Q7Y~~';:.;:.;
..,:.:,"y....;;:.
""
ciLi~~:2:.':::::::'!=.i:C;;~
.' ;'.....
::::;..:.,..,.':~~.-~":_":__"";"~;",,:~;:",:,i...,
":';~,.",;.i;
L.."'..,.....
;<:;'il;r
:<;::?1:;';;~
;,;,~~:~--:\
:r'"
'
':'~
'j.-'
...2~ J:'i
~,--3:-;;:::r~
_F~ ..
/'
Distlllation
column
j I/
,1/'
"
:
I
I
I
,Unes
with one end below
and other end above pipe
rack on either pipe
rack elevation
,. _ Unes with both
/
ends lower than
/
bottom pipe rack
/
.~~.
Maximum
liquid level
'1
!
I
'
. R~bolers often have two outlets and two parallelpipe segments. When sizing and arranging nonsymmetrical piping, an attempt should be made to equalize
the resistancetnrough both legs of the reboiler piping.
More resistance in one leg produces a smaller flow than
in the other. Hence, uneven heat distribution will occur
in the reboiler-one segment of the riser will be hotter
than the other.
At startup in reboilers having high, liquid drawoff
nozzles, a gravity-flow bypass is usualIy provided from
the tower's liquid space, to a low point of the downcomer.
Valves are rarely included in rehoiler piping, except
when a standby reboiler is provided, or when two or
three reboilers are used and operated at an extrernely
wide heat-capacity range. Sorne companies require line
blinds to blank off the tower nozzles during shutdown,
turnarouIld and maintenance.
The heating media (steam or a hot process stream)
connect to the tubeside of horizontal reboilers.The inlet
piping usually has a temperature-regulated control
valve (with block valves and bypass globe valve, if
required). This is normally arranged at grade near the
reboiler's tubeside inlet.
.
Reboiler elevations
Most reboilers are at grade next to the tower, with
centerline elevations of about 3 to 5.5 ft aboye ground
level for exchangers .about 1 to 3 ft dia. Exchangers
at grcl~ provide econornical arrangements-i-valves and
-{nstruments are accessble, tube-bundle handling .is
convenient, and maintenance is easy. In this arrangement, the static heads are well determined betweenthe
exchanger's centerlineand the drawoff and.return.nozzles on the tower. Vertical reboilers ar usually sup'":
portd on the distillation column itself.
Sorne reboilers have a condensare or- Iiquid-holdingspot lcated after.the tubeside outIet, as shown in ..J':/2i
lrisuch cases, the centerline elevation of the reboilr '.
istsomewhat higher than units that do not have these
control vessek'
.
..;'
.
The arrangement in F/2a is a high-capacity steam
trap. .The top of the condenser pot should not be higher
.'. than .the bottorn of the exchanger shell, to avoid foods;
ing the tubes with condensare and adversely affec;ting
the exchanger's heat-transfer duty.
_. '--:;;; . : .
The arrangement. in X/2b maintains a recfliirecf
..-._,,_J_:_; ..
.... ,,;
..-
.>', ~:.~'.:';.:;.t'
.'
:i:',
",;~~~-,~n~~';:::,~
':
:':"'~.'.~~'
.;_'.-,:
"',
;':'
':'109'
CH;~;d~'E~~~ERl~G
,:.:,::,::,:>,-,_
.i.'_;:}';;;
AUQUSTt/1975
.:.~:,", :;v
'"."
\";:-f::-f'"
..
~.
>.'-::.'
,..
~f<~~~'~;';JC'7"-fD""-"~7h~1fu~:"2:~~;f~~,~~,'2~;~
~,...'"'~~"~;\ji,'
...
<~;.,.<:;.,.~::".m
.. ."" ~..,;.,.
.')::~;~:.~:;,:,,;E~:___,,:_~~"~,~;~~
"'_~_'".,;..:::~,;_-_~~_,_~::,.:
..:L_:,_" __._,,,:.:::..,
-,
,_)
Requiredelevation'
differel1ce between :
iiquid.leve] in tower
and exchanger
.
._~,,,'_
--.-_, ,;,.:.;; ~~
'.'
;.-?iL:~
av.
thi
"tO
I~
gr;
th
Pl
Reference line
Ut
th
el
tr
i,
E
os
d
ti
(3)
800~====~~~~~~~t1
~ 6001---"""'-'?'b-"7..17t--#+-7
400
1==:::::;;:z;:2;;t:;~7
3001---Y~
~~~
200
= P = (1/144)(PIHl
- PZH2)
(5)
911
,;':,
e,.',..
compu!f
:-~.~'-7i~:;;:\?::'i.h\;r'--~/:
..
. ,.'
)\):,.:~;i:~;:~:
->:0'-
"
, ..,:.~,".
.::i~://:;Y: -. -.
.;:)~t~,/'>:}.;
;i
r>
"
;;;'~;,;'.
'~'.-:.
-"
<_.
-<';:i}.:'~',::':~.~:::g~~-:--:.:~
2i"7Y';tij$~Wf:
iF
'.r: ,.:
.:
'1
':
.,
..
);;t
,1
":..!
'.,/
.,
1.'.
t
lt
':'I:t
. :), :.11.'
,,'"
,tl
<v,,)1
.,,'
f
~;;~;t~:L
..'..,.l..
..l~
;:;':~, ''1~
".: ";11
1
~~~{ ;
-;:.:.};.>~:':'>( .'
'e~i,\f/'
~~;;'i:i;'"J!i!}~."~;~i~"""'-;:"-"'~~\~;?~,,,;;,,~,""7',;~;.;,i;,,:'::;~~E.;;,
.,.;.,.;,."-;~,;;:;~':~',""',,~~~~d~~,,-;~~t:~.~~';;..:'~;~i;.\;'
.........,"'"'.,*:;;j!,t'f"""~"..'.,.,'~>:;;....'.1
Q= W/500S
= 288~p -
3P2
Pl - P2
(9)
6.p._o
~P100
85,000'
36.7 0:6 '
)2(
yapor
Segmentfor
50% Flow,
Ft
59,500 25,500
36 :J.31
0.5- ~-.:;ROl' --
.-......
53
...:
:_}}t,tual..length
The flow data for the riser refeci that 70% ()ft6ial
-. _.r: flow -.s.
liquidand'30% vapor: We'obtairi 'ihe
density,* Pv' intheriser
from: ;:. ' .. '
-,-:-;
;'.,
. ...,
.,,::,\
'-,' "'-""_-
.; '_'.;.i-.'Entranceloss
..Elbows*
vaP6r
'-","
= 0.19 psi/lOO ft
- Downcomer
Liquid
= 0.0216fptCQ2/d5)
t::..PI00 = 0.0216(0.0182)(36.7)[(289)2/6,346]
Let us size the reboiler lines for the kerosene distillation unit, assketched in F/6. F16w data are:
Liquid
= i55 300
'
Flowrate, W; lb/h
_Density-(hot),.p,Jp/ft3
'Viscosity, L, cP'
Molecular weight, M
= 50.6(Q/d)(p/L)
'~"
.'}'~h,ll!Ptee
\Fo:EXit.loss
"''','
"0""'",
..
~~~~lbo~l9_r50%
10
'
30
'.~~:(
,>-,
-.--:--.:.,'/
"
- _'
"
_":"
36
82
'"
'
._. '"
,.__ ._.:',,,
~-', .
'
- --,,, ,
- -- -
' -'..
""
",~f
~{).19(64/i()())-+O.057(82/1()O}.=
:.:':":-~": ~..
..
;':":
-.
:---:-:i:':,;:
,"
. ,,',;
'-''"
'-:.;:'~i"'
':,'/c'_
-'--~=:'::':::=-==:=::::-:=-:-=:=="'-.:-::-::-:-;}:
CI:iEMICAL El)!:O!N~ERING AUG\lsr,.; 1975
. ' .... ,;:}.~!5 U /.' .....
, -":.,'.--.~-~-:':,,:'-:- <:8;.;,;;"_;_:'
..
_': ~
:"~,,.-:.',:'::":
= 0.34 psi/lOO ft
Segment for
100%Flow,
Ft
6
14
24
24
18
14
Actual length
1 Elbow
1 Sharp tee
1 Entrance loss
1 Exit loss
Total
48
68
80
I1P = 1.01(80/100)
NRe = 6.31Wv/d!Lv
NRe 6.31(25,500)/(7.981)(0.01)
NRe = 2 X 106
For this Reynolds number, we obtain a friction factor,j,of 0.014 from the chart in Part 8 of series; and
then calculate the vapor-phase unit loss from:
.
=
=
D.PlOo 0.000336(f/Pv)(Wv2/d5)
.
D.p!oo 0.000336(0.014/1.31)[(25,500)2/32,380]
D.p!oo = 0.072 ps/lOO ft
,',
'-'.' .
" ...
"
,:
.' "
'.
. ....~ ............
How to design
The statc of Huids in pipelines, and the physical arrangement
of equiprncnt around the distillation tower, establish the design
parameters for rneeting hydraulic and piping conditions of the system.
.,
j
I
Gravity-flow reflux
and thermal conditions in condensing systems of distillation columns, are the reverse of those in reboiler
circuits.
The inlet line to eondensers can carry superheated
or saturated vapor, or dispcrsed vapor-liquid mixtures.
Fluid is cooled in the cxchanger, and partial or full
condensation takes place. The condenser's outlet line
can have stratified and dispersed two-phase flow, saturated liquid, or subeoolcd liquido In addition, the fiowing fluid can be a mixture of two substances. Thus, this
type of condensation offers a wide range of dassification
from a thermodynamic standpoint [1].
In contrast, saturated liquid normally flows in the
downcomer of reboilcrs. The liquid is vaporized while
passing through the exchangcr. The reboiler's outlet
line carries a dispersed vapor-iiquid mixture having a
vapor content of 30 ro 90% of total flow. (See Part 9
of this series for more details, Chem. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975,
p. 107.)
In this article, we will examine the hydraulics for
the folIowing:
1. Condensers with graviry-flow return lines.
2. Condensers with pumped-reflux lines.
3. Two-stage condensation.
Within these groups, hydraulic-design and plpmgdesign conditions vary, depending on the state of fluid
in the lines and the physical arrangement of the instalIation,
Vacuum technology has its own systems, equipment
and terminology. Piping dcsign of vacuum-condensing
systems are outside the Euler-Bernoulli-Darcy theories
and are not inc!uded in this article,
Horizontal conderisers-A condenser in "gravity-flow arrangements is located aboye the level of the terminating
point of the condenser's outlet line, as shown in F /1
and F/2. For the horizontal condenser in F/lb, vapor
enters the exchanger at the top, and subcooled liquid
leaves at the bottom. The looped-outlet pipe ensures
a permanent liquid level in the condenser. This liquid
level is controlled through the reflux branch and
through the takeoff line to storage.
The static-head pressure difference, D.Ps' between .the
vertical overhead line and the condenser's outlet line
for the arrangements in F /1 can be written as:
(1)
129
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER
15, 1975
1
I
!
[
Polnt 8-
B.
I
1
130
-C-H-E-M-(-:,-\-_E-:N-'(-;-N-E-EI-,ING SEPTEMBI~-R-I:;~:;~-
.
...
v--~
(1/144)(H1Pl
+ H2P2)
> (1/144)H3P3
+ 6.P
(4)
6.P
(5)
Pumped-reflux arrangements
HI > (l/pl)(f(P3
- HzPz
+ 1446.P)
(6)
(8)
(9)
where PI is usually vapor density, and P2 is vapor-liquid
131
cm:!lllCAL
I
1
t
,-
b, Subcooled liquid
in toe
SiZ9.
cravitv-ftow
;u'det Iine.
tJ.p
= tJ.Ps + tJ.Pp
D..P
(10)
(11)
tJ.PI'
(1/144)(pfll
- p}J2)
+
tJ.Pp .. (tJ.pp
+ D.pe) = O
132
CHl~M[CAL ENG1NEERING
sEiil:illii"~,;, 1!J'/')
(12)
column pres-
,
([[J
.
:lj
= O.
b.pp
b.pe)
(13)
133
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER 15, 1975
1
!
Det.:;d
r(?\nmdi2~("35'
\~
di
-In
"
la,
.'\
_..,~-'_-,_''':=
Two-stage condensing system has parallel flow through large surface condensers in series with air coolers
Equipment
arr;ng-ernent
1:H
CllEMICAL I-:N<:I~::i:l;iN(iSEP'It:~jllllt
1',- 1'1;',
Two-stage condensation
We will now describe a large, two-stage, condensing
system, and in doing so we will find additional design
ideas for the condenser piping.
Where cooling water is expensive, condensing systems
can be designed for use with air coolers or with a combination of air coolers and water coolers in series. If
close condensate-temperature
control is required, the
water coolers are located after the air coolers. For optimum heat transfer, a reversed sequence can be chosen.
A large-capacity
condensing system handling the
overhead from the primary fractionator of an ethylene
unit is shown in F /8. The pressure difference between
the fractionator and reflux drum is small, D.P = 1.75
psi. With this limited pressure differential, it is essential
to have minimal resistance through exchangers, piping
and pipe components.
Resistance of the surface condensers has been minimized by choosing three exchangers, each handling
one-third of the total flow; and by providing a flared
exchanger inlet, and four large outlets for each shell.
Exchanger resistance is given as 0.12 psi, exclusive of
inlet and outlet .resistances. The photograph
in F /8
shows one of the exchangers being delivered.
Air-cooler resistance has been minimized by using
numerous single passes and large-diameter finned tubes.
Air-cooler pressure loss is estimated as 0.7 psi, excluding
nozzles.
Even with al! these provisions, close to 50% of the
available overalJ pressure difference has been consumed
by the exchangers alone. About 30% of the overall D.P
has been taken up by the inlet and outlet resistan ces,
Roferences
Q;. "Prun'\', lh':n Transfer," McGrawHill, New York, 1950.
r. 1 .:n,J:. :-"1!':ill!Ii!;, A, H., Two-Phase Vertical Flow Maps, [oint
1. K<:~n,U
2.
(:,IU:
S\'jilj>0;'l\lnl
\::challcs
and Mcasurcmcnt in Two-Phaxe '-Flow
(I! Lt'('ds, Leeds, England, Scpt. 24-25, 1969; Proc.
11.""'1",,). Vol. 18' Pan 3C (1970)
l,ltlu!
(JJI
SY~!>':::",_.:ll .~,-'fJl\'(.1
'oL ,l/un
}:>'<".
-,JI \ .
4.
(;/(,(:1,1(,:,.1.:
1)1:--III1HIlIOII
SI.j.l
;-';~'j)L l(I'~
Slug
Fl~,~
in Condensei
I
I
L"l ~1;"1:11l:1j~:al
Piping Arrangements Solve Two-Phase Flow
11~d),nIJ~. I{rf!tocflfun ProcfJs.;.Fcb. 1967.
..,
A
1-
h
Y
Ir
ti
.y
:
g
:'-
and
-;
T
)
..
125
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER 13, 1975
Wp = Flowrate
through pipe
Wo = Flowrate through restriction
A
fJ
C
CK
j
do
,D
f
g
hL
k
K
L
M
tlP
llPE
llPe
R
p
T
o
ve
!l.
.P,
.'.p + 2g+Z.,
=:
P2 ~
hL +; + 2g +Z.2
+ (1/2g)(v~
..,- vi)
+ (z2 -
zl)+
hi
=O
= (l/g)vdv+
hL
= Kv2/2g
... -
It
Subscripts .
1 .' Upfiow condition
2 Downflow condition .
o Orifice..',
Pipb
Relief valve
I
1I
i
"
Weight flowrate through the pipe is: w = Apv, or
A = ~v = constant. Expressing this relation in
differential form, and remembering that both density
and velocity change along the pipeline:
w!
pdv
+ vdp
=O
(3)
dv=-v(~)
dp
-=P
P
(4)
1 '(P)l
t= P: p
(5)
dv ::; -v(dp/p)
(7)
-dp
=..!_(~)2_,1 (K _'dP)
,
gAp"
2
P.
(AW)2(h)' ('1)(
g K-
2 dP)
_ 2~2
(9)
"w = 1,335.6(0.3,77)},~11~~89 2,
. +
W == 8,380 lb/h
,/:
(1,124.7)2 - (414;7)2
1,124;7
(10)
(11)
(Pl i)21n(h)'P2
P2)2';" IviK + v
( PI
"- gPl
gh ' "
'.(13)
".
w=
the term:
=
=
11.65
2In (l.;124.7/414.7)::; 2
;Y'
(~r(~:)(-i)(K + 2In~~)
= 10.15
= 1.5
(8)
==
k ::;jL/D == 0.026(20/0.0512)
Tube entrance and xit resistance
Total resistance
pi - p
14.7)
Tube resistance:
T-;,
-2t2pdPs:{~r(~:)()(~
= 10.72(460 + 100)0.9
dP)
PI
18.7(1,110
PI
(6)
- 2p dp ::;
Pl ::; MP/10.72Tz
" ,V2p(K
'
"
1,335.6d2YPt/[K
+ 21n(PI/PZ)]X
(15)
Example
What is the flowrate of natural. gas
through arrptured exchanger' tube assurning' (I). a
(plvi)/gPl=
because:
127
vi/v~ ,'.'
'.
~!
.;._,(P2)2 = 2t:.PE ._
(.v )\n(h)2
h
...J
(19)
.,:_--
. PI
Pt
Ve
CheslerandJesser [4] introduced the followingproposition: To obtain pressure loss, /),.p,. during expandinggas flow, multiply the steady-flow pressure Ioss, /),.PE'
by a kinetic-energy correction factor, CK:
PI -
P2 == 1 _ CK(t:.PE)
Pi
PI'
P2 = tJ.p = tJ.PE X CK
(18)
(20)
-,
The original
proposition
~~
e 0.75
O
'0
31 0.70
(23)
= 68..p;:;;
UJ
0.65
(24)
0.60
0.55
Ve
k = 1.45
0.0
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
1.0
k = 1.40
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
k = 1.35
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.8
k = 1.30
0.2
0.0
0.4
. 0.6
0.8
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
44(80)
= 0.547 lb/ft'
10.72(6nO)1
!
:.:...Source: Crane Co. and Ret , [7,8].
'.
.. 0.00000336(0.013)(800)(250.00W
(258,304)(0.547)
== 15.46 psi
~P
= 15.46/80 = 0.193
We substitute
1
0.0509(250.000)
(146.17)(0.517)
i' i :
= t1P
= (159.15;82:2.
)..j,~
as:
,'c'
82:2.;'i t'[
== O.\.UTl
X CK
15.46 X 1.18
18.24 psi
Adiabatic flow
Adiabatic flow can be assumed for flows through an
orfice, flow nozzle or a short pipeline. In addition to
pressure change, there will be a change in temperature.
This affects density, velocity and fiowrate. Temperature
change can be calculated frorn:
T3
= 68 V80/0.547'=
(U/vc)2
as:
159.L') fl.S
including
tiPE == .
~PE
= T (P /P)(k-l)/k = T(pjp)(k-U
1
The method of calculating flowrates through restrictions and short pipelines is .identical to the rclarion
expressed in Eq. (21). Without rnueh elaboratiou, ve
will develop certain procedures in wha 1 follO\\s. Cerailed derivations are availahle in the li: r.uure [:J.!).
-:u';,ld;
1.0
k = 1.25
P1 =;M.f/.J.0~2Tli
P1
0.50
"in _t:i ..
rhc ,-~,:-:";,,\ll
Eq. Cl',,!"i. L
and <-1:;:. ;.(~-. .
'\,I,:ith
----. __<-._------.
(:HL:,-j!l :,\L
L\:(
;i'\U':\" I.\{;
(".'1
r( fr.U':"
1~, iq7~}
1.0
factor, Y:
a net expansion
(25)
W= WEY
where WE is:
WE
= 157.66Cdo y;;;pf
(26)
= Wo = 1,891d~CY~
AP/P1
(27)
With
Inserting the appropriate values into Eq. (31) and
solving yields:
d;
= 1,891(0.765)(0.377)Y710(3.89)/11.65
W" = 8,397 lb/h
Wp
. W
=.
inz
(28)
1,891CyyAPPl
= (1,124.7 -
AP/Pl
414.7)/1,124.7
WRV
We can.also obtain the data for calculating the critical pressure drop, from F/3and F/ 4 at the lower endpoint of each lineo For example, in a flow nozzle where
f3 0.5 andk :;:: lA, F/3 gives a net expansion factor,
y
0.698, and a pressure ratio, ~Pc/ Pl
0047. Therefore, the critical pressure drop is: ~Pc :;::0047PI' and the
critical downstream pressure at the point ofsonic velocity wiU be P2 :;::P1 ,....~Pc. The flowrate will not increase
even if downstream pressure. is decreased to less than
= 0.63
pip
. We will use the following equation previously develoRed.as Eq. (17) in Part 2 [13]:
M = 0.00000336L(f/pd(WPd5)
Pipeline resistance:
= 1,891d2V(APP1)/K
. Tot:hl resistance
= W" = 1,891d2YV(APPl)/K
P2
Example 5,.-Coke-oven gas is discharged to atmos-
1,891{0.37_7)(0.62)(0.79)Y710(3.89).
WE
(31)
-
P2
= 26,748 lb/h
Critical pressure
. Wo = 18,351 lb/h
18,351 + 8,397
Wo:;::
2.9
CHEMlCALENCIl'lEERINCOCTOBER 13.1975
1.00
0.95
!::..PIP,
)... 0.85
c;
1.2
1.5
2.0
0.552
0.576
0.612
0.588
0.606
0.622
] 0.80
4
6
0.662
0.697
0.737
0.639
0.649
0.6.71
8
lO
15
0.762
0.784
0..818
0.685
._,...
0.695
0.702 .
20
40
100
0.839
0.883
0.926
0.710
0.710
0.710
0.90
.ge 0.75
'"
Q.
en
0.70
0.65
..
~
",;. ;-',
"\'
>~-:-
.,.:;
0.60
,-
... -:-_."j>"
0.55
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Pressure ratio, i;P IP,
0.7
0.8
0.9
~-
-P-
1.0
Y=Q~
8
10
15
0.750
0.773
0.807
0.698
0.705
0.718
20
40
100
0.831
0.877
0.920
0.718
0.718
0.718
Wp
0.642
0.678
0.722
References
Wp
3
4
0.612
0.631
0.635
0.658
0.670
0.685
).pe
0.525
0.550
0.593
Pressure.ratio, APIP,
'. t:.PIP,
1.2
1.5
2.0
= 1,891(9.413)(0.64) V92.2(0.265)/2.9
= 33,067 Ib/h
3.: Lobo, W. E;, Fried, L. and Skaperdas, G. T., Pressure Drop in the Flow
'of Compressible Fluids, [nd. Eng. Chem., Vol. 34, No. 7,821-823 (1942).
4:' Chesler, S. and Jesser, B. W., Pressure Drop for Flow of Compressible
Fluids in Pipes, Appendix to Paper No. 51-SA18, ASME, New York.
5. Dodge, B. F., "Chernical Engineering Thermodynamics," McGrawHill s .
New York, 1944.
6. Shapiro, A. H" "The Dynamics and Therrnodynarnics of Compressible
Fluid Flow," Ronald Press, New York, 1954.
7. "Fluid Meters, Part 1," ASME, New York.
8...
Cunningham, R. G., Orifice Meters with Supercritical Compressible Flow,
Paper No. 50-A-45, ASME, New York.
9. Smith, E. Se, Trans.ASME, Vol. 52, HYD 52:7b, 89-109.
;JO. Flow of Fluid Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Technical Paper No.
410, Crane Co., Chicago.
.
11. Smith,.B., Charts Used for Easier Pipe Sizing,HydrocarbonPTocess., May
1969.
.
12. Kern, R., Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 58.
13. Kern, R., Chem.Eng., Jan. 6, 1975, 115.
,d4: Kern, R., ehem: E"g., Feb.3, 1975, p. 72.
.., 15. Kern, R., Ch'm. Eng., June 23, 1975, p. 145.
p.
132 .
<:;HEMlCAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER ,13, 1.975
I
.~
o The
..
t
quird
fLG'1
\!!_)
\_,
P-IOO
--
,236,'~3gpH1
60900 Ib/h
33.5/hlft3
Instrument Symbol:;
FRC Flow recorder/controller
lG Level gage
PI Pressure indicator
PRC Pressure recorder/cnntruller
TI Temperature indicator
TR Temperature recorder
TW Temperature well
Other'Symbols
CW Cold Water
DR Drain
M Motor-driven pump
O
Ol
RV Reliel valve
T
Turbine-driven pump
00 all pipelnes, the coding
indicates type 01 fluid f1owing, 'ne number .and size, and
materials .specifications
(Al,
B1, ete.).
PFDJ
21
equip
, eonst
holes!
sizes;!
menu
temp
cluck
equir
ginee
3.
tatiol
eall';
the
tion
pcr
pone
man
proc
Fl2i
Ir
. ~.... ro ATM.
I
eros:
grar
Cl
~::::-
4.
basi
Spe
eng
anq
erai
sun
low
des
me
sys:
piF
t
acc
r=
la}:
dl
an
otl
lis:
.1
...
l
:\;;0;)"':"'
:'~::i~.
'
,. <r,'
_LiKi'
'211
'...':".........._-:::-:=-::-:..;.;;:;,;..;__--..;.:::.:~---'---"'"'-"-
I
!
~;~~
~.:
.~
svstern is
Block valves shall be provided and located as required for bleed and aeration systems.
A block valve shall be provided in the rnain line of fuel-oil and fuel-gas piping to fired heaters, to be
located remote from the equipment, and be accessible forrapid operation in an emergency.
Block valves shall be provided for piping leaving and entering a building.
,
Two block valves wtha bleeder ora resilient double-seated valve.with body bleeder shallbe provided
in piping connectng systerns.in services in which contamination cannot be tolerated.
.
q INhen stearn
Ir
_o,
"
,.,,'
"
-','
"',
."
....
,'
"
~_ "
-';:'J. ,. "
f'f'\
V
Static
head
required
Equpment
elevation
I Minimum
. Grade I elevation
$.\.""''Z\,<:.\.'''''''::...........
'''r'~-:::-..''''\,~
eon t iOI
. ipe"
o f pi
-
,valve
.1i
The systems designerworks out al equipment elevations, static-head pressure requrements, elevation differences between process equipment;: and elevation differences between the starting and terminating points of,
a pipeline; This is also essential 'information for plant'
layout and piping designo
.
.For unhousd process units, the most ecoomical.Io-j,
catiori for ..process equiprnent is usually at grade ..The);
units seldom require a structure; construction is easy; ,.
most valves and instrumenta can be made- accessible ..
from grade; and operation and maintenance are conve-i"
nient and safe.
.
.
.......
. -..
Minimum skirt heights for towers vary frorn 3 tof ft/
.for towers ranging from 2 to 12 ft dia., and having bot1:V"
tom ternperatures of 100 to 400 F. Higher tempera?;i.
tures (or cryogenic ternperatures) require theaddition%; .
of 1.or 2 ft to these heights in order to avaid th transmissionofunduly
high (or low) teinperattires to the~::;
foundation oi supporting steel. Drums arid exchangers;i~\
.areusually elevated 1to 4Ji: frorrl grade to the bottom;/
oftheunit,depending.ondiameter,
size and valvingJonh\
the bottom-outlet piping.
'> .
o
>
When.. a pressure ..difference between fWo I?ieces
process equipment .is not '.available, gnivity flow ig']:',
'caIled for.; The elevadn dif1erenc betw~n the eqip~i~i"
ment wHI. be determined by pipe, fi!tings and valv'i,
resistaIlces:,
..
. ,:,.,. .
:.:
..
/
,;y
, .Gravity:flow lin~ faJl,
sized. forve!ocities similar.:,,'
,'..-.,..to}hos~for pump-su~.tio~'pr reboiler~do~comer liI!es....
0
..... o,,
of.'.
pe
::',
~ -J.;>--'
,'-.
,~:".,:
'+::>"
:.;/,.,.- ..
series
15,l~
Ele
or on
ers al
eleva'
be no
Ecol
Ec(
maril
to de
sisten
than'
Even
pone!
comp
This
bling
overlwaste
waste
sults
andr
An
signer
plant
tweer
WI
ity ce
sure (
signe:
grapl
lic-sy:
bendi
Pif
from
ter sc;:
esserr
befar
contr
calc
Fo
oppo
sign.;
plant
desig;
Pip~.
TIC
tia14
conn!
threel'
dra~'
(1) J';
(3):f
ce!1;1;
tabil~
that-~;
pln{;:
A~~
spact!~
il
15,1975).
,
Elevation requirements should be noted on the P&Is,
or on data sheets so that the layout and piping designers are fuIly aware of them. Similarly.vif equipment is
elevaied for layout reasons, the process engineer should
be notified.
'j.
. <)
~...;~1~1:thissta~e,lpe~etf~'~
all~,tt~riOmiC<ll.
'se'~L';';
are;