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MughalEmpire
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheMughalEmpire(Urdu:,translit.Mughliyah
Salanat)[6]orMogulEmpire,[7]selfdesignatedasGurkani
(Persian:,Grkniyn,meaning"soninlaw"),[8]wasan
empireintheIndiansubcontinent,establishedandruledbya
MuslimdynastyofChagataiTurcoMongoloriginfromCentral
Asia.[9][10][11]ThedynastythoughethnicallyTurcoMongol,was
Persianateintermsofculture.[7][12]

MughalEmpire
(Persian)
Grkniyn

(Urdu)

MugliyahSalanat
15261540
15551857

TheMughalempireextendedoverlargepartsoftheIndian
subcontinentandAfghanistan.Theempirewasthesecondlargest
tohaveexistedintheIndiansubcontinent,spanning4million
squarekilometresatitszenith,aftertheMauryaEmpire,which
spanned5millionsquarekilometres.
Thebeginningoftheempireisconventionallydatedtothevictory
byitsfounderBaburoverIbrahimLodi,thelastruleroftheDelhi
Sultanate,intheFirstBattleofPanipat(1526).TheMughal
emperorswereCentralAsianTurcoMongolsbelongingtothe
Timuriddynasty,whoclaimeddirectdescentfrombothGenghis
Khan(founderoftheMongolEmpire,throughhissonChagatai
Khan)andTimur(TurcoMongolconquerorwhofoundedthe
TimuridEmpire).DuringthereignofHumayun,thesuccessorof
Babur,theempirewasbrieflyinterruptedbytheSurEmpire.The
"classicperiod"oftheMughalEmpirestartedin1556withthe
ascensionofAkbartheGreattothethrone.UndertheruleofAkbar
andhissonJahangir,theregionenjoyedeconomicprogressaswell
asreligiousharmony,andthemonarchswereinterestedinlocal
religiousandculturaltraditions.Akbarwasasuccessfulwarrior
whoalsoforgedallianceswithseveralHinduRajputkingdoms.
SomeRajputkingdomscontinuedtoposeasignificantthreattothe
MughaldominanceofnorthwesternIndia,butmostofthemwere
subduedbyAkbar.AllMughalemperorswereMuslimswhile
AkbarwasMuslimmostofhislife,hepropoundedasyncretic
religioninthelatterpartofhislifecalledDeeniIlahi,asrecorded
inhistoricalbookslikeAineAkbariandDabestaneMazaheb.[13]

TheMughalEmpireatitsgreatestextent,in1707

Capital

(1526154015551571)

FatehpurSikri
(15711585)

Lahore
(May15861598)

Agra
(15981648)

Shahjahanabad,Delhi
(16481857)

Languages

TheMughalEmpiredidnottrytointerveneinthelocalsocieties
duringmostofitsexistence,butratherbalancedandpacifiedthem
throughnewadministrativepractices[14][15]anddiverseand
inclusiverulingelites,[16]leadingtomoresystematic,centralised,
anduniformrule.[17]Traditionalandnewlycoherentsocialgroups
innorthernandwesternIndia,suchastheMarathas,theRajputs,
thePashtuns,theHinduJatsandtheSikhs,gainedmilitaryand

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Agra

ChagataiTurkic(only
initially)
Persian(officialand
courtlanguage)[1]
Urdu(spoken)

Religion

Islam(15261857)
DineIlahi(15821605)

Government

Absolutemonarchy,
unitarystate
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governingambitionsduringMughalrule,which,through
collaborationoradversity,gavethembothrecognitionandmilitary
experience.[18][19][20][21]
ThereignofShahJahan,thefifthemperor,between162858was
thegoldenageofMughalarchitecture.Heerectedseverallarge
monuments,thebestknownofwhichistheTajMahalatAgra,as
wellastheMotiMasjid,Agra,theRedFort,theJamaMasjid,
Delhi,andtheLahoreFort.TheMughalEmpirereachedthezenith
ofitsterritorialexpanseduringthereignofAurangzebandalso
starteditsterminaldeclineinhisreignduetoMarathamilitary
resurgenceunderShivajiBhosale.Duringhislifetime,victoriesin
thesouthexpandedtheMughalEmpiretomorethan3.2million
squarekilometres(1.2millionsquaremiles),rulingovermorethan
150millionsubjects,nearlyonequarteroftheworld'spopulationat
thetime,withacombinedGDPofover$90billion.[22][23]
Bythemid18thcentury,theMarathashadroutedMughalarmies
andwonoverseveralMughalprovincesfromthePunjabto
Bengal.[24]Internaldissatisfactionaroseduetotheweaknessofthe
empire'sadministrativeandeconomicsystems,leadingtoitsbreak
upanddeclarationsofindependenceofitsformerprovincesbythe
NawabofBengal,theNawabofAwadh,theNizamofHyderabad
andothersmallstates.In1739,theMughalswerecrushingly
defeatedintheBattleofKarnalbytheforcesofNaderShah,the
founderoftheAfshariddynastyinPersia,andDelhiwassacked
andlooted,drasticallyacceleratingtheirdecline.Duringthe
followingcenturyMughalpowerhadbecomeseverelylimited,and
thelastemperor,BahadurShahII,hadauthorityoveronlythecity
ofShahjahanabad.HeissuedafirmansupportingtheIndian
Rebellionof1857andfollowingthedefeatwasthereforetriedby
theBritishEastIndiaCompanyfortreason,imprisonedandexiled
toRangoon.[25]Thelastremnantsoftheempirewereformally
takenoverbytheBritish,andtheGovernmentofIndiaAct1858let
theBritishCrownformallyassumedirectcontrolofIndiainthe
formofthenewBritishRaj.

withfederalstructure
Emperor[2]
15261530
18371857
Historicalera
FirstBattleof
Panipat
Empireinterrupted
bySurEmpire
Deathof
Aurangzeb
SiegeofDelhi

Babur(first)
BahadurShahII(last)
Earlymodern
21April1526
15401555
3March1707
21September1857

Area
1690[3]

4,000,000km
(1,544,409sqmi)

Population
1650[4]est.

145,000,000

Currency

Rupee[5]

Precededby
Delhi
Sultanate
Rajput
states
Bengal
Sultanate

Todaypartof

Succeededby
Maratha
Empire
Durrani
Empire
Sikh
Confederacy
Companyrule
inIndia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Causesofdecline
2.1.1 Modernviewsonthedecline
3 ListofMughalemperors
4 InfluenceonSouthAsia
4.1 SouthAsianartandculture
4.2 Urdulanguage
4.3 Bengalicalendarandeconomy
4.4 Mughalsociety
5 Scienceandtechnology
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5 Scienceandtechnology
5.1 Astronomy
5.2 Alchemy
5.3 Technology
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Furtherreading
8.1 Culture
8.2 Societyandeconomy
8.3 Primarysources
8.4 Olderhistories
9 Externallinks

Etymology
ContemporariesreferredtotheempirefoundedbyBaburastheTimuridempire,[26]whichreflectedtheheritageof
hisdynasty,andthiswasthetermpreferredbytheMughalsthemselves.[27]AnothernamewasHindustan,which
wasdocumentedintheAiniAkbari,andwhichhasbeendescribedastheclosesttoanofficialnameforthe
empire.[28]Inthewest,theterm"Mughal"wasusedfortheemperor,andbyextension,theempireasawhole.[29]
TheuseofMughalderivedfromtheArabicandPersiancorruptionofMongol,anditemphasisedtheMongol
originsoftheTimuriddynasty.[30]Thetermgainedcurrencyduringthe19thcentury,butremainsdisputedby
Indologists.[31]Similartermshadbeenusedtorefertotheempire,including"Mogul"and"Moghul".[7][32]
Nevertheless,Babur'sancestorsweresharplydistinguishedfromtheclassicalMongolsinsofarastheywere
orientedtowardsPersianratherthanTurcoMongolculture.[33]

History
TheMughalEmpirewasfoundedbyBabur,aCentralAsianrulerwhowas
descendedfromtheTurcoMongolconquerorTimur(thefounderofthe
TimuridEmpire)onhisfather'ssideandfromChagatai,thesecondsonof
theMongolrulerGenghisKhan,onhismother'sside.[34]Oustedfromhis
ancestraldomainsinCentralAsia,BaburturnedtoIndiatosatisfyhis
ambitions.HeestablishedhimselfinKabulandthenpushedsteadily
southwardintoIndiafromAfghanistanthroughtheKhyberPass.[34]
Babur'sforcesoccupiedmuchofnorthernIndiaafterhisvictoryatPanipat
in1526.[34]Thepreoccupationwithwarsandmilitarycampaigns,however,
didnotallowthenewemperortoconsolidatethegainshehadmadein
India.[34]Theinstabilityoftheempirebecameevidentunderhisson,
Humayun,whowasdrivenoutofIndiaandintoPersiabyrebels.[34]
Humayun'sexileinPersiaestablisheddiplomatictiesbetweentheSafavid
andMughalCourts,andledtoincreasingPersianculturalinfluenceinthe
MughalEmpire.TherestorationofMughalrulebeganafterHumayun's
triumphantreturnfromPersiain1555,buthediedfromafatalaccident
shortlyafterwards.[34]Humayun'sson,Akbar,succeededtothethrone
underaregent,BairamKhan,whohelpedconsolidatetheMughalEmpire
inIndia.[34]
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Babur,founderoftheMughal
Empire

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Throughwarfareanddiplomacy,Akbarwasabletoextendtheempireinalldirectionsandcontrolledalmostthe
entireIndiansubcontinentnorthoftheGodavaririver.Hecreatedanewclassofnobilityloyaltohimfromthe
militaryaristocracyofIndia'ssocialgroups,implementedamoderngovernment,andsupportedcultural
developments.[34]Atthesametime,AkbarintensifiedtradewithEuropeantradingcompanies.Indiadevelopeda
strongandstableeconomy,leadingtocommercialexpansionandeconomicdevelopment.Akbarallowedfree
expressionofreligion,andattemptedtoresolvesociopoliticalandculturaldifferencesinhisempireby
establishinganewreligion,DiniIlahi,withstrongcharacteristicsofarulercult.[34]Helefthissuccessorsan
internallystablestate,whichwasinthemidstofitsgoldenage,butbeforelongsignsofpoliticalweaknesswould
emerge.[34]Akbar'sson,Jahangir,ruledtheempireatitspeak,buthewasaddictedtoopium,neglectedtheaffairs
ofthestate,andcameundertheinfluenceofrivalcourtcliques.[34]DuringthereignofJahangir'sson,ShahJahan,
thecultureandsplendouroftheluxuriousMughalcourtreacheditszenithasexemplifiedbytheTajMahal.[34]The
maintenanceofthecourt,atthistime,begantocostmorethantherevenue.[34]
ShahJahan'seldestson,theliberalDaraShikoh,becameregentin1658,as
aresultofhisfather'sillness.However,ayoungerson,Aurangzeb,allied
withtheIslamicorthodoxyagainsthisbrother,whochampioneda
syncretisticHinduMuslimculture,andascendedtothethrone.Aurangzeb
defeatedDarain1659andhadhimexecuted.[34]AlthoughShahJahanfully
recoveredfromhisillness,Aurangzebdeclaredhimincompetenttoruleand
hadhimimprisoned.DuringAurangzeb'sreign,theempiregainedpolitical
strengthoncemore,buthisreligiousconservatismandintolerance
underminedthestabilityofMughalsociety.[34]Aurangzebexpandedthe
empiretoincludealmostthewholeofSouthAsia,butathisdeathin1707,
manypartsoftheempirewereinopenrevolt.[34]Aurangzeb'sson,Shah
Alam,repealedthereligiouspoliciesofhisfather,andattemptedtoreform
theadministration.However,afterhisdeathin1712,theMughaldynasty
sankintochaosandviolentfeuds.In1719alone,fouremperors
successivelyascendedthethrone.[34]
DuringthereignofMuhammadShah,theempirebegantobreakup,and
vasttractsofcentralIndiapassedfromMughaltoMarathahands.Thefar
offIndiancampaignofNadirShah,whohadpriorlyreestablishedIranian
suzeraintyovermostofWestAsia,theCaucasus,andCentralAsia,
culminatedwiththeSackofDelhiandshatteredtheremnantsofMughal
powerandprestige.[34]Manyoftheempire'selitesnowsoughttocontrol
Akbarholdsareligiousassemblyof
differentfaithsintheIbadatKhanain
theirownaffairs,andbrokeawaytoformindependentkingdoms.[34]But,
FatehpurSikri.
accordingtoSugataBoseandAyeshaJalal,theMughalEmperor,however,
continuedtobethehighestmanifestationofsovereignty.Notonlythe
Muslimgentry,buttheMaratha,Hindu,andSikhleaderstookpartinceremonialacknowledgementsofthe
emperorasthesovereignofIndia.[35]
TheMughalEmperorShahAlamIImadefutileattemptstoreversetheMughaldecline,andultimatelyhadtoseek
theprotectionofoutsidepowersi.e.fromtheEmirofAfghanistan,AhmedShahAbdali,whichledtotheThird
BattleofPanipatbetweentheMarathaEmpireandtheAfghansledbyAbdaliin1761.In1771,theMarathas
recapturedDelhifromAfghancontrolandin1784theyofficiallybecametheprotectorsoftheemperorin
Delhi,[36]astateofaffairsthatcontinuedfurtheruntilaftertheThirdAngloMarathaWar.Thereafter,theBritish
EastIndiaCompanybecametheprotectorsoftheMughaldynastyinDelhi.[35]TheBritishEastIndiacompany
tookcontroloftheformerMughalprovinceofBengalBiharin1793afteritabolishedlocalrule(Nizamat)that
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lasteduntil1858,markingthebeginningofBritishcolonialeraovertheIndianSubcontinent.By1857a
considerablepartofformerMughalIndiawasundertheEastIndia'scompany'scontrol.Afteracrushingdefeatin
thewarof18571858whichhenominallyled,thelastMughal,BahadurShahZafar,wasdeposedbytheBritish
EastIndiaCompanyandexiledin1858.ThroughtheGovernmentofIndiaAct1858theBritishCrownassumed
directcontrolofEastIndiacompanyheldterritoriesinIndiaintheformofthenewBritishRaj.In1876theBritish
QueenVictoriaassumedthetitleofEmpressofIndia.

Causesofdecline
Historianshaveofferednumerousexplanationsfortherapidcollapseofthe
MughalEmpirebetween1707and1720,afteracenturyofgrowthand
prosperity.Infiscaltermsthethronelosttherevenuesneededtopayits
chiefofficers,theemirs(nobles)andtheirentourages.Theemperorlost
authority,asthewidelyscatteredimperialofficerslostconfidenceinthe
centralauthorities,andmadetheirowndealswithlocalmenofinfluence.
Theimperialarmy,boggeddowninlong,futilewarsagainstthemore
aggressiveMarathaslostitsfightingspirit.Finallycameaseriesofviolent
politicalfeudsovercontrolofthethrone.Aftertheexecutionofemperor
Farrukhsiyarin1719,localMughalsuccessorstatestookpowerinregion
afterregion.[37]
Contemporarychroniclersbewailedthedecaytheywitnessed,atheme
pickedupbythefirstBritishhistorianswhowantedtounderscoretheneed
foraBritishledrejuvenation.[38]
Mughalmatchlockrifle

Modernviewsonthedecline
Sincethe1970shistorianshavetakenmultipleapproachestothedecline,withlittleconsensusonwhichfactorwas
dominant.Thepsychologicalinterpretationsemphasisedepravityinhighplaces,excessiveluxury,andincreasingly
narrowviewsthatlefttherulersunpreparedforanexternalchallenge.AMarxistschool(ledbyIrfanHabiband
basedatAligarhMuslimUniversity)emphasisesexcessiveexploitationofthepeasantrybytherich,which
strippedawaythewillandthemeanstosupporttheregime.[39]KarenLeonardhasfocusedonthefailureofthe
regimetoworkwithHindubankers,whosefinancialsupportwasincreasinglyneededthebankersthenhelpedthe
MarathaandtheBritish.[40]Inareligiousinterpretation,somescholarsarguethattheHinduRajputsrevolted
againstMuslimrule.[41]Finally,otherscholarsarguethattheveryprosperityoftheEmpireinspiredtheprovinces
toachieveahighdegreeofindependence,thusweakeningtheimperialcourt.[42]

ListofMughalemperors

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Emperor

MughalEmpireWikipedia

Birth

Reign
Period

Death

Notes

23
February
1483

WasadirectdescendantofGenghisKhanthroughhismother
andwasdescendantofTimurthroughhisfather.Foundedthe
30
1526
December MughalEmpireafterhisvictoriesattheFirstBattleof
1530
Panipat(1526),theBattleofKhanwa(1527),andtheBattle
1530
ofGhagra(1529).[43]

Humayun

6March
1508

ReigninterruptedbySurEmpireaftertheBattleofKanauj
[44]
1530
Jan1556 (1540). Youthandinexperienceatascensionledtohis
1540
beingregardedasalesseffectiverulerthanusurper,Sher
ShahSuri.

SherShahSuri

1472

1540
May1545 DeposedHumayunandledtheSurEmpire.
1545

IslamShahSuri

c.1500

1545
1554
1554

Humayun

6March
1508

1555
Restoredrulewasmoreunifiedandeffectivethaninitialreign
Jan1556
1556
of15301540leftunifiedempireforhisson,Akbar.

Babur

Akbar

14
27
1556
November
October
1605
1542
1605

2ndandlastruleroftheSurEmpire,claimsofsonsSikandar
andAdilShahwereeliminatedbyHumayun'srestoration.

HeandBairamKhandefeatedHemuduringtheSecond
BattleofPanipatandlaterwonfamousvictoriesduringthe
SiegeofChittorgarhandtheSiegeofRanthamboreHe
greatlyexpandedtheEmpireandisregardedasthemost
illustriousruleroftheMughalEmpireashesetupthe
empire'svariousinstitutionshemarriedMariamuzZamani,
aRajputprincess.Oneofhismostfamousconstruction
marvelswastheLahoreFort.

1605
1627
1627

Jahangirsettheprecedentforsonsrebellingagainsttheir
emperorfathers.OpenedfirstrelationswiththeBritishEast
IndiaCompany.Reportedlywasanalcoholic,andhiswife
EmpressNoorJahanbecametherealpowerbehindthethrone
andcompetentlyruledinhisplace.

5January 1627
1666
1592
1658

Underhim,Mughalartandarchitecturereachedtheirzenith
constructedtheTajMahal,JamaMasjid,RedFort,Jahangir
mausoleum,andShalimarGardensinLahore.Deposedbyhis
sonAurangzeb.

Aurangzeb

21
October
1618

1658 3March
1707 1707

HereinterpretedIslamiclawandpresentedtheFatawae
AlamgirihecapturedthediamondminesoftheSultanateof
Golcondahespentthemajorpartofhislast27yearsinthe
warwiththeMaratharebelsatitszenith,hisconquests
expandedtheempiretoitsgreatestextenttheoverstretched
empirewascontrolledbyMansabdars,andfacedchallenges
afterhisdeath.Heisknowntohavetranscribedcopiesofthe
Qur'anusinghisownstylesofcalligraphy.Hediedduringa
campaignagainsttheravagingMarathasintheDeccan.

BahadurShahI

14
October
1643

FirstoftheMughalemperorstopresideoveranempire
1707
ravagedbyuncontrollablerevolts.Afterhisreign,theempire
Feb1712
1712
wentintosteadydeclineduetothelackofleadership
qualitiesamonghisimmediatesuccessors.

JahandarShah

1664

1712
Feb1713 Wasanunpopularincompetenttitularfigurehead
1713

Jahangir

ShahJahan

Oct1569

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1713
1719
1719

HisreignmarkedtheascendancyofthemanipulativeSyed
Brothers,executionoftherebelliousBanda.In1717he
grantedaFirmantotheEnglishEastIndiaCompanygranting
themdutyfreetradingrightsinBengal.TheFirmanwas
repudiatedbythenotableMurshidQuliKhantheMughal
appointedrulerofBengal.

Furrukhsiyar

1683

RafiUlDarjat

Unknown 1719

1719

RafiUdDaulat

Unknown 1719

1719

Nikusiyar

Unknown 1719

1743

Muhammad
Ibrahim

Unknown 1720

1744

MuhammadShah

1702

1719
1720,
1748
1720
1748

AhmadShah
Bahadur

1725

1748
1775
54

AlamgirII

1699

1754
1759
1759

ShahJahanIII

In
Unknown
1759

ShahAlamII

AkbarShahII

BahadurShahII

1728

1760

1775

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1772

GotridoftheSyedBrothers.Triedtocountertheemergence
oftheMarathasbuthisempiredisintegrated.Sufferedthe
invasionofNadirShahofPersiain1739.[45]

HewasmurderedbytheVizierImadulMulkandMaratha
associateSadashivraoBhau.
Wasordainedtotheimperialthroneasaresultofthe
intricaciesinDelhiwiththehelpofImadulMulk.Hewas
laterdeposedbyMarathaSardars.[46][47]

1759
1806
1806

HewasproclaimedasMughalEmperorbytheMarathas.[46]
Later,hewasagainrecognisedastheMughalEmperorby
AhmadShahDurraniaftertheThirdBattleofPanipatin
1761.[48]1764sawthedefeatofthecombinedforcesof
MughalEmperor,NawabofOudh&NawabofBengaland
BiharatthehandofEastIndiaCompanyattheBattleof
Buxar.Followingthisdefeat,ShahAlamIIleftDelhifor
Allahabad,endinghostilitieswiththeTreatyofAllahabad
(1765).ShahAlamIIwasreinstatedtothethroneofDelhiin
1772byMahadajiShindeundertheprotectionofthe
Marathas.[49]Hewasadejureemperor.Duringhisreignin
1793BritishEastIndiacompanyabolishedNizamat(Mughal
suzerainty)andtookcontroloftheformerMughalprovince
ofBengalmarkingthebeginningofBritishreigninpartsof
EasternIndiaofficially.

1806
1837
1837

HebecameaBritishpensionerafterthedefeatofthe
Marathas,whoweretheprotectoroftheMughalthrone,in
theAngloMarathawars.UnderEastIndiacompany's
protection,hisimperialnamewasremovedfromtheofficial
coinageafterabriefdisputewiththeBritishEastIndia
Company

1837
1862
1857

ThelastMughalemperorwasdeposedin1858bytheBritish
EastIndiacompanyandexiledtoBurmafollowingtheWar
of1857afterthefallofDelhitothecompanytroops.His
deathmarkstheendoftheMughaldynasty.

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InfluenceonSouthAsia
SouthAsianartandculture
AmajorMughalcontributiontotheIndiansubcontinentwastheirunique
architecture.ManymonumentswerebuiltbytheMuslimemperors,
especiallyShahJahan,duringtheMughaleraincludingtheUNESCO
WorldHeritageSiteTajMahal,whichisknowntobeoneofthefiner
examplesofMughalarchitecture.OtherWorldHeritageSitesinclude
Humayun'sTomb,FatehpurSikri,theRedFort,theAgraFort,andthe
LahoreFort
Thepalaces,tombs,andfortsbuiltbythedynastystandtodayinAgra,
Aurangabad,Delhi,Dhaka,FatehpurSikri,Jaipur,Lahore,Kabul,
Sheikhupura,andmanyothercitiesofIndia,Pakistan,Afghanistan,and
Bangladesh.[50]WithfewmemoriesofCentralAsia,Babur'sdescendants
absorbedtraitsandcustomsofSouthAsia,[51]andbecamemoreorless
naturalised.

BuiltbyMughalemperorShahJahan
forhisbelovedwife,theTajMahalis
aworldrenownedtestamentto
Mughalarchitecture.

Mughalinfluencecanbeseeninculturalcontributionssuchas:
Centralized,imperialisticgovernmentwhichbroughttogethermany
smallerkingdoms.[52]
PersianartandcultureamalgamatedwithIndianartandculture.[53]
NewtraderoutestoArabandTurkiclands.
ThedevelopmentofMughlaicuisine.[54]
MughalArchitecturefounditswayintolocalIndianarchitecture,
mostconspicuouslyinthepalacesbuiltbyRajputsandSikhrulers.
LandscapeandMughalgardening
AlthoughthelandtheMughalsonceruledhasseparatedintowhatisnow
India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,andAfghanistan,theirinfluencecanstillbe
seenwidelytoday.TombsoftheemperorsarespreadthroughoutIndia,
Afghanistan,[55]andPakistan.

Twoelephantscarryingthefishand
suninsigniaofMughalsovereignty

TheMughalartistictraditionwaseclectic,borrowingfromtheEuropeanRenaissanceaswellasfromPersianand
Indiansources.Kumarconcludes,"TheMughalpaintersborrowedindividualmotifsandcertainnaturalisticeffects
fromRenaissanceandManneristpainting,buttheirstructuringprinciplewasderivedfromIndianandPersian
traditions."[56]

Urdulanguage
AlthoughPersianwasthedominantand"official"languageoftheempire,thelanguageoftheelitelaterevolved
intoaformknownasUrdu.HighlyPersianizedandalsoinfluencedbyArabicandTurkic,thelanguagewas
writteninatypeofPersoArabicscriptknownasNastaliq,andwithliteraryconventionsandspecialised
vocabularybeingretainedfromPersian,ArabicandTurkicthenewdialectwaseventuallygivenitsownnameof
Urdu.ComparedwithHindi,theUrdulanguagedrawsmorevocabularyfromPersianandArabic(viaPersian)and
(toamuchlesserdegree)fromTurkiclanguageswhereHindidrawsvocabularyfromSanskritmoreheavily.[57]

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ModernHindi,whichusesSanskritbasedvocabularyalongwithUrduloan
wordsfromPersianandArabic,ismutuallyintelligiblewithUrdu.[58]
Today,UrduisthenationallanguageofPakistanandoneoftheofficial
languagesinIndia.

Bengalicalendarandeconomy
TheeconomicpowerhouseoftheMughalEmpirewastheBengalSubah,
whichgenerated50%oftheempire'sGDP.[59]Itwasdescribedasthe
ParadiseofNationsbyMughalemperors.[60]TheMughalsintroduced
agrarianreforms,includingthemodernBengalicalendar.[61]Thecalendar
playedavitalroleindevelopingandorganisingharvests,taxcollectionand
Bengalicultureingeneral,includingtheNewYearandAutumnfestivals.
Theprovincewasaleadingproducerofgrains,salt,pearls,fruits,liquors
andwines,preciousmetalsandornaments.[62]Itshandloomindustry
flourishedunderroyalwarrants,makingtheregionahuboftheworldwide
muslintrade,whichpeakedinthe17thand18thcenturies.Theprovincial
capitalDhakabecamethecommercialcapitaloftheempire.TheMughals
expandedcultivatedlandintheBengaldeltaundertheleadershipofSufis,
whichconsolidatedthefoundationofBengaliMuslimsociety.[63]

ThephraseZubaniUrdyiMuall
("LanguageoftheexaltedUrdu")
writteninNastalqscript.

Asilvercoinmadeduringthereign
oftheMughalEmperorAlamgirII.

After150yearsofrulebyMughalviceroys,Bengalgainedsemi
independenceasadominionundertheNawabofBengalin1717.The
NawabspermittedEuropeancompaniestosetuptradingpostsacrosstheregion,includingfirmsfromBritain,
France,theNetherlands,Denmark,PortugalandAustriaHungary.AnArmeniancommunitydominatedbanking
andshippinginmajorcitiesandtowns.TheEuropeansregardedBengalastherichestplacefortrade.[62]Bythe
late18thcentury,theBritishdisplacedtheMughalrulingclassinBengal.

Mughalsociety
TheIndianeconomyremainedasprosperousundertheMughalsasitwas,
becauseofthecreationofaroadsystemandauniformcurrency,together
withtheunificationofthecountry.[64]Manufacturedgoodsandpeasant
growncashcropsweresoldthroughouttheworld.Keyindustriesincluded
shipbuilding(theIndianshipbuildingindustrywasasadvancedasthe
European,andIndianssoldshipstoEuropeanfirms),textiles,andsteel.
TheMughalsmaintainedasmallfleet,whichmerelycarriedpilgrimsto
Mecca,importedafewArabhorsesinSurat.DebalinSindhwasmostly
autonomous.TheMughalsalsomaintainedvariousriverfleetsofDhows,
whichtransportedsoldiersoverriversandfoughtrebels.Amongits
admiralswereYahyaSaleh,MunnawarKhan,andMuhammadSaleh
Kamboh.TheMughalsalsoprotectedtheSiddisofJanjira.Itssailorswere
renownedandoftenvoyagedtoChinaandtheEastAfricanSwahiliCoast,
togetherwithsomeMughalsubjectscarryingoutprivatesectortrade.

RuinsoftheGreatCaravanseraiin
Dhaka

CitiesandtownsboomedundertheMughalshowever,forthemostpart,theyweremilitaryandpoliticalcentres,
notmanufacturingorcommercecentres.[65]Onlythoseguildswhichproducedgoodsforthebureaucracymade
goodsinthetownsmostindustrywasbasedinruralareas.TheMughalsalsobuiltMaktabsineveryprovince
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undertheirauthority,whereyouthweretaughttheQuranandIslamiclawsuchastheFatawaeAlamgiriintheir
indigenouslanguages.
TheBengalregionwasespeciallyprosperousfromthetimeofitstakeoverbytheMughalsin1590totheseizure
ofcontrolbytheBritishEastIndiaCompanyin1757.[66]Inasystemwheremostwealthwashoardedbytheelites,
wageswerelowformanuallabour.Slaverywaslimitedlargelytohouseholdservants.However,somereligious
cultsproudlyassertedahighstatusformanuallabour.[67]

Scienceandtechnology
Astronomy
Whilethereappearstohavebeenlittleconcernfortheoreticalastronomy,Mughalastronomerscontinuedtomake
advancesinobservationalastronomyandproducednearlyahundredZijtreatises.Humayunbuiltapersonal
observatorynearDelhi.TheinstrumentsandobservationaltechniquesusedattheMughalobservatorieswere
mainlyderivedfromtheIslamictradition.[68][69]Inparticular,oneofthemostremarkableastronomicalinstruments
inventedinMughalIndiaistheseamlesscelestialglobe.

Alchemy
SakeDeanMahomedhadlearnedmuchofMughalalchemyandunderstoodthetechniquesusedtoproduce
variousalkaliandsoapstoproduceshampoo.HewasalsoanotablewriterwhodescribedtheMughalEmperor
ShahAlamIIandthecitiesofAllahabadandDelhiinrichdetailandalsomadenoteofthegloriesoftheMughal
Empire.
SakeDeanMahomedwasappointedasshampooingsurgeontobothKingsGeorgeIVandWilliamIV.[70]

Technology
FathullahShirazi(c.1582),aPersianpolymathandmechanicalengineerwhoworkedforAkbar,developeda
volleygun.[71]
AkbarwasthefirsttoinitiateandusemetalcylinderrocketsknownasbansparticularlyagainstWarelephants,
duringtheBattleofSanbal.[72]
Intheyear1657,theMughalArmyusedrocketsduringtheSiegeofBidar.[73]PrinceAurangzeb'sforces
dischargedrocketsandgrenadeswhilescalingthewalls.SidiMarjanwasmortallywoundedwhenarocketstruck
hislargegunpowderdepot,andaftertwentysevendaysofhardfightingBidarwascapturedbythevictorious
Mughals.[73]
Later,theMysoreanrocketswereupgradedversionsofMughalrocketsusedduringtheSiegeofJinjibythe
progenyoftheNawabofArcot.HyderAli'sfatherFatahMuhammadtheconstableatBudikote,commandeda
corpsconsistingof50rocketmen(Cushoon)fortheNawabofArcot.HyderAlirealisedtheimportanceofrockets
andintroducedadvancedversionsofmetalcylinderrockets.Theserocketsturnedfortunesinfavourofthe
SultanateofMysoreduringtheSecondAngloMysoreWar,particularlyduringtheBattleofPollilur.[74]

Seealso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire

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Mansabdar
Mughal(tribe)
Mughalweapons
MughalHarem
MughaleAzam,anIndianfilm
MuslimconquestintheIndiansubcontinent
ListofSunniMuslimdynasties
ListofTurkicdynastiesandcountries
ListofMongolstates
MughalMongolgenealogy
TimuridEmpire
Ghaznavids
16GreatTurkicEmpires

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Furtherreading
Alam,Muzaffar.CrisisofEmpireinMughalNorthIndia:Awadh&thePunjab,170748(1988)
Ali,M.Athar(1975),"ThePassingofEmpire:TheMughalCase",ModernAsianStudies,Cambridge
UniversityPress,9(3):385396,JSTOR311728,onthecausesofitscollapse
Asher,C.B.Talbot,C(1January2008),IndiaBeforeEurope(1sted.),CambridgeUniversityPress,
ISBN9780521517508
Black,Jeremy."TheMughalsStrikeTwice",HistoryToday(April2012)62#4pp2226.fulltextonline
Blake,StephenP.(November1979),"ThePatrimonialBureaucraticEmpireoftheMughals",Journalof
AsianStudies,AssociationforAsianStudies,39(1):7794,JSTOR2053505
Dale,StephenF.TheMuslimEmpiresoftheOttomans,SafavidsandMughals(CambridgeU.P.2009)
Dalrymple,William(2007).TheLastMughal:TheFallofaDynasty:Delhi,1857.RandomHouseDigital,
Inc.
Faruqui,MunisD.(2005),"TheForgottenPrince:MirzaHakimandtheFormationoftheMughalEmpirein
India",JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient,Brill,48(4):487523,JSTOR25165118,
onAkbarandhisbrother
GommansJos.MughalWarfare:IndianFrontiersandHighroadstoEmpire,15001700(Routledge,2002)
onlineedition(http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102714757)
Gordon,S.TheNewCambridgeHistoryofIndia,II,4:TheMarathas16001818(Cambridge,1993).
Habib,Irfan.AtlasoftheMughalEmpire:PoliticalandEconomicMaps(1982).
Markovits,Claude,ed.(2004)[Firstpublished1994asHistoiredel'IndeModerne].AHistoryofModern
India,14801950(2nded.).London:AnthemPress.ISBN9781843310044.
Metcalf,B.Metcalf,T.R.(9October2006),AConciseHistoryofModernIndia(2nded.),Cambridge
UniversityPress,ISBN9780521682251
Richards,JohnF.(1996).TheMughalEmpire.CambridgeUniversityPress.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire

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Majumdar,RameshChandra(1974).TheMughulEmpire.B.V.Bhavan.
Richards,JohnF.TheMughalEmpire(TheNewCambridgeHistoryofIndia)(1996)excerptandonline
search(http://www.amazon.com/MughalEmpireCambridgeHistoryIndia/dp/0521566037/)
Richards,J.F.(April1981),"MughalStateFinanceandthePremodernWorldEconomy",Comparative
StudiesinSocietyandHistory,CambridgeUniversityPress,23(2):285308,JSTOR178737
Robb,P.(2001),AHistoryofIndia,London:Palgrave,ISBN9780333691298
Stein,B.(16June1998),AHistoryofIndia(1sted.),Oxford:WileyBlackwell,ISBN9780631205463
Stein,B.(27April2010),Arnold,D.,ed.,AHistoryofIndia(2nded.),Oxford:WileyBlackwell,ISBN978
1405195096

Culture
Berinstain,V.MughalIndia:SplendourofthePeacockThrone(London,1998).
Busch,Allison.PoetryofKings:TheClassicalHindiLiteratureofMughalIndia(2011)excerptandtext
search(http://www.amazon.com/PoetryKingsClassicalLiteratureResearch/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=
books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=12)
Preston,DianaandMichaelPreston.TajMahal:PassionandGeniusattheHeartoftheMoghulEmpire
Walker&CompanyISBN0802716733.
Schimmel,Annemarie.TheEmpireoftheGreatMughals:History,ArtandCulture(Reaktion2006)
Welch,S.C.etal.(1987).TheEmperors'album:imagesofMughalIndia.NewYork:TheMetropolitan
MuseumofArt.ISBN0870994999.

Societyandeconomy
Chaudhuri,K.N.(1978),"SomeReflectionsontheTownandCountryinMughalIndia",ModernAsian
Studies,CambridgeUniversityPress,12(1):7796,JSTOR311823
Habib,Irfan.AtlasoftheMughalEmpire:PoliticalandEconomicMaps(1982).
Habib,Irfan.AgrarianSystemofMughalIndia(1963,revisededition1999).
Heesterman,J.C.(2004),"TheSocialDynamicsoftheMughalEmpire:ABriefIntroduction",Journalof
theEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient,Brill,47(3):292297,JSTOR25165051
Khan,IqtidarAlam(1976),"TheMiddleClassesintheMughalEmpire",SocialScientist,5(1):2849,
JSTOR3516601
Rothermund,Dietmar.AnEconomicHistoryofIndia:FromPreColonialTimesto1991(1993)

Primarysources
Bernier,Francois(1891).TravelsintheMogulEmpire,A.D.16561668.ArchibaldConstable,London.
Hiro,Dilip,ed,JournalofEmperorBabur(PenguinClassics2007)
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oriental,andoccidental,byA.V.W.Jacksononlineedition(https://archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackial
a)
Jouher(1832).TheTezkerehalvakiatorPrivateMemoirsoftheMoghulEmperorHumayunWritteninthe
PersianlanguagebyJouherAconfidentialdomesticofHisMajesty.TranslatedbyMajorCharlesStewart.
JohnMurray,London.

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Elliot,SirH.M.,EditedbyDowson,John.TheHistoryofIndia,asToldbyItsOwnHistorians.The
MuhammadanPeriodpublishedbyLondonTrubnerCompany18671877.(OnlineCopyatPackard
HumanitiesInstituteOtherPersianTextsinTranslationhistoricalbooks:AuthorListandTitleList)
Adams,W.H.Davenport(1893).WarriorsoftheCrescent.London:Hutchinson.
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Holden,EdwardSingleton(1895).TheMogulemperorsofHindustan,A.D.1398A.D.1707.NewYork:C.
Scribner'sSons.
Malleson,G.B(1896).AkbarandtheriseoftheMughalempire.Oxford:ClarendonPress.
Manucci,Niccolaotr.fromFrenchbyFranoisCatrou(1826).HistoryoftheMoguldynastyinIndia,1399
1657.London:J.M.Richardson.
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(Vol.4).London,Groliersociety.
Manucci,Niccolaotr.byWilliamIrvine(1907).StoriadoMogoror,MogulIndia16531708,Vol.1.
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Manucci,Niccolaotr.byWilliamIrvine(1907).StoriadoMogoror,MogulIndia16531708,Vol.2.
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Manucci,Niccolaotr.byWilliamIrvine(1907).StoriadoMogoror,MogulIndia16531708,Vol.3.
London,J.Murray.
Owen,SidneyJ(1912).TheFalloftheMogulEmpire.London,J.Murray.

Externallinks
MughalsandSwat(http://www.valleyswat.net/literature/papers/MUGHULS_AND_SWAT.pdf)
MughalIndia(http://www.mughalindia.co.uk/index.html)aninteractiveexperiencefromtheBritish
Museum
TheMughalEmpire(http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml)from
BBC
MughalEmpire(http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2005/04/12/mughalempire/)
TheGreatMughals(http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/mughals.html)
GardensoftheMughalEmpire(http://www.mughalgardens.org/html/home.html)
IndoIranianSocioCulturalRelationsatPast,PresentandFuture,byM.RezaPourjafar,Ali
A.Taghvaee,inWebJournalonCulturalPatrimony(FabioManiscalcoed.)(http://www.webjournal.unior.i
t/),vol.1,JanuaryJune2006
AdrianFletcher'sParadoxplacePHOTOSGreatMughalEmperorsofIndia(http://www.paradoxplace.
com/Insights/Civilizations/Mughals/Mughals.htm)
AMughaldiamondonBBC(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1566398.stm)
SomeMughalcoinswithbriefhistory(http://www.chiefacoins.com/Database/Countries/Mughal.htm)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mughal_Empire&oldid=748490473"
Categories: FormercountriesinSouthAsia Formerempires Statesandterritoriesestablishedin1526
Statesandterritoriesdisestablishedin1857 MughalEmpire HistoryofBengal HistoryofWestBengal
HistoryofBangladesh HistoryofKolkata HistoryofAfghanistan MedievalIndia HistoricalTurkicstates
Mongolstates 1526establishmentsintheMughalEmpire 1857disestablishmentsintheMughalEmpire
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