Leading To Controlling

LEADING
I. Organizational Behavior
Trying to explain and predict workplace
behavior.
Individual behavior
Group behavior
Values
Abstract ideals that guide ones thinking and
behavior across all situations.
Attitude
A learned predisposition toward a given
object.
Three components of attitude

Affective
Cognitive
behavioral
Affective Component
I feel
Consists of the feelings or emotions one has
about a situation.
Cognitive Component
I believe
Consists of the beliefs and knowledge one has
about a situation.
Behavioral Component
I intend
Intentional component
Refers to how one intends or expects to
behave toward a situation.
Cognitive Dissonance
The psychological discomfort a person
experiences between his or her cognitive
attitude and incompatible behavior.
II. Work-related attitudes

Job satisfaction
Job involvement
Organizational
Commitment
Job Satisfaction
How much do you like or dislike your job?
The extent to which you feel positively or
negatively about various aspects of your work.
Work
Pay
Promotions
Co-workers
Supervision
Job Involvement
How much do you identify with your work?
Job Involvement is the extent to which you
identify or are personally involved with your
job.
Job involvement correlates with job
satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Reflects the extend to which an employee
identifies with an organization and is
committed to its goals.
Managers are advised to increase job
satisfaction to elicit higher levels of
commitment. Higher commitment can
facilitate higher performance.
Absenteeism and Turnover

Absenteeism when an employee doesnt
show up for work.
Absenteeism is related to job satisfaction.
Turnover when employees leave their jobs.
III. Personality
Consists of the stable psychological traits and
behavioral attributes that give a person his or
her identity
Big Five Personality Dimensions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
1. Extroversion
How outgoing, talkative, sociable, and
assertive a person is
2. Agreeableness
How trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and
soft-hearted one is
3. Conscientiousness
How dependable, responsible, achievementoriented, and persistent one is
Proactive Personality
Someone who is more apt to take initiative
and persevere to influence the environment
Associated with success, individual, team,
organization, and entrepreneurship
Self-efficacy
Belief in ones ability to do a task
I can/cant do this task
IV. Five traits important to

organizations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Locus of control
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Self-monitoring
Emotional intelligence
Locus of control
Indicates how much people believe they
control their fate through their own efforts.
I am/am not the captain of my fate
Emotional Stability
How relaxed, secure, and unworried one is
Emotional intelligence EI
The ability to cope, empathize with others,
and be self-motivated.
Traits of emotional intelligence

Self-awareness the ability to read your own emotions and
gauge your moods accurately, so you will know how youre affecting
others.
Self-management- the ability to control your emotions and act

with honesty and integrity in reliable and adaptable ways.
Self-awareness Empathy allows you to show others that you

care
Relationship management the ability to communicate

clearly and convincingly, disarm conflicts, and build strong personal bonds.
V. Perception
The process of interpreting and understanding
ones environment.
Four distortions in perception

1.
2.
3.
4.
Selective perception
Stereotyping
The halo effect
Casual attribution
5.1 Selective Perception

The tendency to filter out information that is
discomforting, that seems irrelevant, or that
contradicts ones beliefs.
5.2 Stereotyping
The tendency to attribute to an individual the
characteristics one believes are typical of the
group to which the individual belongs.
By sex
By age
By race/nationality
5.3 Halo Effect

Form an impression of an individual based on
a single trait.
5.4 Casual Attributions

The activity of inferring causes for observed
behaviors.
TWO TYPES
Fundamental Attribution Bias
People attribute another persons behavior to his or
her personal characteristics rather than to situational
factors.
Self-serving Bias
People tend to take more personal responsibility for
success than for failure.
5.5 Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Pygmalion Effect
The phenomenon in which peoples
expectations of themselves or others lead
them to behave in ways that make those
expectations come true.
VI. Stress
The tension people feel when they are facing
or enduring demands, constraints, or
opportunities and are uncertain about their
ability to handle them effectively.
It is the feeling of tension and pressure.
The source of stress is called a stressor.
Sources of job related stress

Demands created by individual differences
Stress created by the job itself
Stress created by others expectations of you
Roles: sets of behaviors that people expect of occupants of a
position.
Stress created by co-workers and managers

Stress created by the environment and culture (asbestos
removal, coal mining, fire fighting, EMSs, police, etc.)
Stresses created by forces outside the organization
Money problems, family situations, divorce, etc.
Consequence of Stress
Burnout a state of emotional, mental, and
even physical exhaustion.
Burnout is a physical, mental and emotional response to

constant levels of high stress combined with a feeling of
not being in control. It usually results in physical and
mental fatigue and can include feelings of hopelessness,
powerlessness and failure. Burnout often begins when
you feel unable to meet competing demands and
become frustrated, pessimistic and dissatisfied. Some
demands are self-imposed (such as having very high
expectations of yourself) and some are other-imposed
(from family, job or society).
Some stressors most associated with

burnout:
feeling overworked and under-appreciated

confusion about expectations and priorities
too much responsibility at work
insecurity about layoffs
Over-commitment at home and work
Buffers
Administrative changes
Changes that managers can make to reduce
the stressors that lead to employee burnout.
LEADING: MOTIVATING
EMPLOYEES
Motivating For Performance
Motivation: may be defined as the psychological

processes that arouse and direct goal-directed
behavior.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
The psychological processes that arouse and direct
goal-directed behavior is motivation
In a simple model of motivation, people have needs
that motivate them to perform specific behaviors for
which they receive rewards that feed back and satisfy
the original needs
Rewards can be extrinsic (the payoff a person receives
from others for performing a particular task), or
intrinsic (the satisfaction a person receives from
performing the particular task itself)
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards

Extrinsic = Outside
Recognition
Intrinsic = Inside
Feeling of Job
Well Done
Promotions
Gifts
Pride
Sense of
Achievement
Praise
Salary Increase
Status

Figure 12.1: A Simple Model Of Motivation
12.1 Motivating For Performance

WHY IS MOTIVATION IMPORTANT?
It is important to motivate people to
-join your organization
-stay with your organization
-show up for work at your organization
-perform better for your organization
-do extra for your organization
12.2 Content Perspectives

On Employee Motivation
WHAT KINDS OF NEEDS MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES?
Theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people are
content perspectives or need-based perspectives
-where needs are defined as physiological or psychological
deficiencies that arouse behavior
Three content perspectives are Maslows hierarchy of needs,
McClellands acquired needs theory, and Herzbergs two-factor
theory

1. Abraham Maslow put forth the hierarchy of needs theory
which proposes that people are motivated by five levels of
needs:
At the most basic level, people try to fulfill physiological needs
(basic human needs like food, clothing, and shelter)
Next, are safety needs (physical safety, emotional security,
avoidance of violence)
Then, belongingness needs (love, friendship, affection)
Next, esteem needs (self-respect, status, reputation,
recognition, and self-confidence)
Finally, self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment increasing
competence, using abilities to the fullest)

Figure 12.2: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

Organization Can Do
5. Selfactualization needs
Offer adequate
ventilation, heat, water,
base pay
5. Selfactualization
needs
4. Esteem Needs
3. Belongingness Needs
2. Safety Needs
1. Physiological Needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Organization Can Do (Cont.)
needs
4. Esteem Needs
Offer safe working

conditions, job security,
health and retirement
benefits
2. Safety Needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

5. SelfOffer interaction with

others, participation inactualization needs
workgroup, good relations
with supervisors
needs
4. Esteem Needs
2. Safety Needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Offer recognition, status,
challenges, merit pay,
employee participation in
making decisions
needs
4. Esteem Needs
2. Safety Needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Offer training, creativity,
promotions, employee
5. Selfcontrol over jobs
actualization needs
needs
4. Esteem Needs
2. Safety Needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Rules of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Unsatisfied
SelfActualization
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
(Belongingness)
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Satisfied
Content Perspectives
3. Frederick Hertzberg proposed that work satisfaction
and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors:
Lower level needs are usually handled through hygiene
factors (factors associated with job dissatisfaction like
salary and working conditions)
Higher level needs are associated with motivating
factors (factors associated with job satisfaction)
So, managers should eliminate dissatisfaction, then
focus on encouraging motivation
Herzbergs Two-Factor Concept
Job-Related
Job Environment
(Motivators)
(Hygiene Factors)
Achievement
Recognition
Work Itself
Growth/Advancement
Responsibility
Peer Relationships
Working Conditions
Salary
Policy &
Administration
Supervision

Figure 12.4: Hertzbergs

Two-Factor Theory:
Satisfaction Versus
Dissatisfaction
Job Design Perspectives

On Motivation
Job Design
12.4 Job Design Perspectives

On Motivation
SHOULD FIRMS FIT PEOPLE TO JOBS, OR JOBS TO PEOPLE?
Job design is the division of an organizations work
among its employees and the application of motivational
theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance
Traditionally, people were fitted to jobs, today, many
companies fit jobs to people

On Motivation
SHOULD FIRMS FIT PEOPLE TO JOBS, OR JOBS TO PEOPLE?
In companies that fit people to jobs, the challenge then,
is to make the worker compatible with the work
To do this, firms may use job simplification where the
number of tasks a worker performs is reduced to improve
productivity

On Motivation
In companies where jobs are fitted to people, the
challenge is to make the work compatible to workers so
that performance and job satisfaction rise
Two techniques for doing this are job enlargement
and job enrichment
Job enlargement consists of increasing the number of
tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation
Job enrichment consists of building into a job such
motivating factors as responsibility, achievement,
recognition, stimulating work, and advancement

On Motivation
The Job Characteristics Model

On Motivation
The job characteristics model consists of five core job
characteristics that affect three critical psychological
states of an employee that in turn affect work
outcomes - the employees motivation, performance,
and satisfaction
The five core characteristics are:
-skill variety - the extent to which a job requires a
person to use a wide range of different skills and
abilities
-task identity - the extent to which a job requires a
worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the
job from beginning to end

On Motivation
-task significance - the extent to which a job affects
the lives of other people, whether inside or outside the
organization
-autonomy - the extent to which a job allows an
employee to make choices about scheduling different
tasks and deciding how to perform them
-feedback - the extent to which workers receive clear,
direct information about how well they are performing
the job

On Motivation
Figure 12.8: The Job Characteristics Model

On Motivation
HOW DOES THE MODEL WORK?
High motivation, high performance, high satisfaction, and low
absenteeism and turnover are associated with how much
workers feel they are doing meaningful work, whether they feel
they are responsible for the outcomes of the work, and whether
they have knowledge of the results of the work
When using the model, managers need to:
-diagnose the work environment to see whether a problem
exists
-determine whether job redesign is appropriate
-consider how to redesign the job
12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives

On Motivation
WHAT INCENTIVES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?
Reinforcement theory attempts to explain behavior
change by suggesting that behavior with positive
consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior
with negative consequences tends not to be repeated
When reinforcement theory is used to change human
behavior, it is called behavior modification

On Motivation
Reinforcement is anything that causes a given behavior to be
repeated or inhibited
There are four types of reinforcement:
1. The use of positive consequences to encourage desirable
behavior is called positive reinforcement
2. The removal of unpleasant consequences following a desired
behavior is called negative reinforcement
3. The withholding or withdrawal of positive rewards for
desirable behavior, so that the behavior is less likely to occur in
the future is called extinction
4. The application of negative consequences to stop or change
undesirable behavior is called punishment

On Motivation
Figure: 12.9: Four Types of Reinforcement

On Motivation
When using positive reinforcement or punishment,
managers should:
Reward only desirable behavior
Give rewards as soon as possible
Be clear about what behavior is desired
Have different rewards and recognize individual differences
Punish only undesirable behavior
Give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as possible
Be clear about what behavior is undesirable
Administer punishment in private
Combine punishment and positive reinforcement
12.6 Using Compensation &

Other Rewards To Motivate
HOW CAN FIRMS USE COMPENSATION AND OTHER
REWARDS TO MOTIVATE?
Wages or salaries are usually not enough to motivate
people to work hard, so many companies offer incentives
as well
Good incentive plans:
-link measurable rewards to performance
-use rewards that satisfy individual needs
-offer rewards that have been agreed on by managers
and employees
-have believable and achievable rewards

Some popular incentive plans are:
-pay for performance - pay is based on results using piece rates
-sales commissions - pay is based on a percentage of the earnings made by
sales
-bonuses - cash awards given to employees who achieve specific
performance objectives
-profit sharing - the distribution to employees of a percentage of the
companys profits
-gainsharing - the distribution of savings or gains to groups of employees
who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity
-stock options - certain employees are given the right to buy stock at a future
date for a discounted price
-pay for knowledge - employee pay is tied to the number of job relevant skills
or academic degrees they earn

HOW CAN FIRMS USE NONMONETARY REWARDS TO
MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES?
Organizations need to be sure that:
-employees have a balance between work and life
-employees can expand their skill set
-employees feel valuable

The most common non-monetary incentive is the flexible
workplace
Companies need to offer employees a means of balancing their
work and their personal lives
Companies need to create a work environment that is
conducive to productivity
Companies can help employees build their skills by developing
shadowing programs and offering tuition reimbursement
Offering sabbaticals to long-term employees gives people a
change to recharge themselves
LEADING: GROUPS AND TEAMS
Groups & Teams

Group
two or more freely acting individuals who share
collective norms, collective goals, and have a
common identity
Groups & Teams

Team
small group of people with complementary skills
who are committed to a common purpose,
performance goals, and approach for which they
hold themselves mutually accountable
Formal versus Informal Groups

Formal group
established to do something productive for the
organization
headed by a leader
Informal group
formed by people seeking friendship
has no officially appointed leader, although a
leader may emerge
Work Teams for Four Purposes

Advice teams
created to broaden the information base for
managerial decisions
Committees, review panels
Production teams
responsible for performing day-to-day operations
Assembly teams, maintenance crews

Project teams
work to do creative problem solving, often by
applying the specialized knowledge of members of
a cross-functional team
Task forces, research groups

Action teams
work to accomplish tasks that require people with
specialized training and a high degree of
coordination
Hospital surgery teams, airline cockpit crews,
police SWAT teams
Self-Managed Teams
Self-Managed teams
groups of workers who are given administrative
oversight for their task domains
Stages of Group and Team

Development
Figure 13.1
Roles & Norms

Roles
a socially determined expectation of how an
individual should behave in a specific position
Task roles, maintenance roles
Norms
general guidelines that most group or team
members follow
Why Norms are Enforced

To help the group survive
To clarify role expectations
To help individuals avoid embarrassing
situations
To emphasize the groups important values
and identity
Cohesiveness & Groupthink

Cohesiveness
tendency of a group or team to stick together
Groupthink
a cohesive groups blind unwillingness to consider
alternatives
The Nature of Conflict

Conflict
process in which one party perceives that its
interests are being opposed or negatively affected
by another party
The Nature of Conflict

Negative conflict
conflict that hinders the organizations
performance or threatens its interest
Constructive conflict
conflict that benefits the main purposes of the
organization and serves its interests
Relationship Between Level of Conflict

and Level of Performance
Figure 13.2
Seven Causes of Conflict

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Competition for scarce resources

Time pressure
Inconsistent goals or reward systems
Ambiguous jurisdictions
Status differences
Personality clashes
Communication failures
Five Conflict-Handling Styles
Avoiding - Maybe the problem will go away

Accommodating Lets do it your way
Forcing You have to do it my way
Compromising Lets split the difference
Collaborating Lets cooperate to reach a win-win
solution that benefits both of us
Devices to Stimulate Constructive

Conflict
1. Spur competition among employees
2. Change the organizations culture &
procedures
3. Bring in outsiders for new perspectives
4. Use programmed conflict
Programmed Conflict
Devils advocacy
role-playing criticism to test whether a proposal is
workable
Dialectic method
role-playing two sides of a proposal to test
whether it is workable
Teams
Why are teams becoming so
critical?
Will self directed teams be
effective?
If so why?
If not why not?
LEADING: POWER, INFLUENCE

AND LEADERSHIP
1 The Nature Of Leadership:

Wielding Influence
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGERS &
LEADERS?
Leadership is the ability to influence employees to
voluntarily pursue organizational goals
Managers and leaders are not one and the same
Mangers have legitimate power to plan, organize, and
control
Leaders create a vision and strategic plan for the
company, which managers then implement
1 The Nature Of Leadership:

Wielding Influence
Managers cope with complexity, while leaders cope
with change
Managers cope with complexity through:
-planning and budgeting
-organizing and staffing
-controlling and staffing
Leaders cope with change by:
-setting a direction
-aligning people
-motivating and inspiring
Managers Vs. Leaders

Leaders
Managers
What needs to be done

planning and budgeting
Creating arrangements of
people to accomplish an
agenda organizing and
staffing
Ensuring people do their
jobs controlling and
problem solving
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
What needs to be done

setting a direction
Creating arrangements of
people to accomplish an
agenda aligning people
Ensuring people do their
jobs motivating and
inspiring
The Nature Of Leadership:

Wielding Influence
WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF POWER IN AN

ORGANIZATION?
Power is the extent to which a person is able to
influence others so they respond to orders.
Personalized power is directed at helping oneself
Socialized power is directed at helping others
Five Sources of Power
1. Legitimate Power influencing behavior

because of ones formal position
All managers have legitimate power over their employees;
deriving from their positions
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
2. Reward Power influencing behavior by

promising or giving rewards
all managers have; results from managers
authority to reward their subordinates
Rewards can range from praise to pay raises
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
3. Coercive Power influencing behavior by

threatening or giving punishment
All managers have; results from the managers
authority to punish their subordinates
Punishment can range from verbal or written
reprimands to demotions or terminations
Must be used judiciously
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
4. Expert Power influencing behavior because of

ones expertise
Results from ones specialized information or
expertise
Expertise, or special knowledge, can be
mundane or sophisticated
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5. Referent Power influencing behavior because

of ones personal attraction
Power derived from ones personal attraction
Characterizes strong, visionary leaders
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
14.1 The Nature Of Leadership:

Wielding Influence
HOW CAN YOU GET YOUR WAY AT WORK?
The ability to get others to follow your wishes is influence

There are nine ways to try to influence others:
-rational persuasion - convincing someone by using logic,
reason, or facts
-inspirational appeals - building enthusiasm or
confidence by appeals to emotions, ideals, or values
-consultation - getting others to participate in a decision
or change

Wielding Influence
-ingratiating tactics - acting humble or friendly before
making a request
-personal appeals - referring to friendship and loyalty
when making a request
-exchange tactics - reminding someone of past favors
or offering to make a trade
-coalition tactics - getting others to support your effort
-pressure tactics - using demands, threats, or
intimidation
-legitimating tactics - basing a request on implied
support from superiors, or on rules or policies

Wielding Influence
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO
LEADERSHIP?
There are five principal approaches or perspectives on
leadership:
1. trait
2. behavioral
3. contingency
4. full-range
5. six additional
2 Trait Approaches: Do Leaders Have Distinctive

Personality Characteristics?
DO SUCCESSFUL LEADERS HAVE DISTINCTIVE TRAITS?
Trait approaches to leadership attempt to identify distinctive
characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders
James Kouzes and Barry Posner proposed that the personal
traits that were looked for and admired in leaders were honesty,
competency, a forward-looking mentality, the ability to inspire,
and intelligence
Larry Bossidy, CEO of AlliedSignal, suggests that the four
qualities that are most important when he is interviewing and
evaluating job candidates are the ability to execute, a career
runway, a team orientation, and multiple experiences

Timothy Judge did two meta-analyses (a statistical
pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to
draw general conclusions about certain variables from
many different leaders) on traits and leadership
Judge found that extroversion, openness, and
conscientiousness were all important to leadership
effectiveness
Judge also found that personality was more important
than intelligence for leadership effectiveness

Women tend to have more leadership traits than men,
but hold fewer leadership positions
CEOs believe this may be because women lack
significant general management experience, and have
not been around long enough to be selected
Women believe that male stereotyping and exclusion
from important informal networks contribute to the
problem
Other reasons may be because women are not willing
to compete as hard as men, or make the necessary
personal sacrifices
3 Behavioral Approaches: Do Leaders Show

Distinctive Patterns of Behavior?
DO EFFECTIVE LEADERS BEHAVE IN SIMILAR WAYS?
Researchers have studied behavioral leadership approaches to
determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders
The University of Michigan study identified two forms of
leadership:
1. Managers with job-centered behavior pay more attention to
job and work procedures
2. Managers with employee-centered behavior pay more
attention to employee satisfaction and making work groups
cohesive
3 Behavioral Approaches: Do Leaders Show

Distinctive Patterns of Behavior?
The Ohio State model identified two major dimensions of leader
behavior:
1. Initiating structure is leadership behavior that organizes and
defines what group members should be doing
2. Consideration is leadership behavior that expresses concern
for employees by creating a warm, friendly, supportive climate
From both studies, we know that effective leaders:
-have supportive or employee-centered relationships with
employees
-use groups rather than individual methods of supervision
-set high performance goals
4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership

Vary With The Situation?
HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP VARY WITH THE
SITUATION?
Proponents of the contingency approach to leadership
believe that effective leadership behavior depends on
the situation at hand
There are three contingency approaches:
1. The contingency leadership model, developed by
Fred Fiedler, determines if a leaders style is task
oriented, or relationship oriented, and if that style is
effective for the situation at hand

Once an individuals leadership orientation is known,
you determine situational control (how much control
and leadership a leader has in the immediate work
environment)
There are three dimensions of situational control:
-leader-member relations - the extent to which a
leader has support, loyalty, and trust of the group
-task structure - the extent to which tasks are routine,
unambiguous, and easily understood
-position power - how much power a leader has

Neither leadership style works all the time
The task oriented approach works well in high control or
low control situations
The relationship oriented approach works well in
moderate control situations

2. The path-goal leadership model, developed by
Robert House, holds that the effective leader makes
desirable awards available to followers, and increases
their motivation by clarifying the paths (behavior) that
will help them achieve those goals and providing them
with support
House revised his theory to say that employee
characteristics and environmental factors cause some
leadership behaviors to be more effective than others

where: employee characteristics include locus of control, task
ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for pathgoal clarity, environmental factors include task structure and
work group dynamics, and leader behaviors include path-goal
clarifying, achievement oriented, work facilitation, supportive,
interaction facilitation, group oriented decision making,
representation & networking, value-based
Further research is needed to determine how well Houses
revised theory holds up
However, we do know that it can be useful to have more than
one leadership style, and that leadership style should be
modified to fit employee and task characteristics

Figure 14.1: General Representation Of Houses Revised Path-Goal
Theory

3. Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard proposed the situational
leadership theory which suggests that leaders should adjust their
leadership style according to the readiness (extent to which
employees are willing and able to complete a task) of followers
-relationship behavior is the extent to which leaders maintain
personal relationships with their followers
-task behavior is the extent to which leaders organize and
explain the role of their followers
The Hersey-Blanchard model is widely used as a training tool,
but because it has not been strongly supported by scientific
research, managers should be cautious when using prescriptions
from the model
5 The Full-Range Model: Uses Of Transactional &

Transformational Leadership
HOW CAN PEOPLE BE INSPIRED TO PERFORM BEYOND
THEIR NORMAL LEVELS?
Full-range leadership, proposed by Bernard Bass and Bruce
Avolio, suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range
of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility leadership at
one extreme through transactional leadership, to
transformational leadership at the other extreme
Managers with transactional leadership focus on clarifying
employees roles and task requirements and providing rewards
and punishments contingent on performance
Transactional leaders are best in stable situations

Transformational leadership transforms employees to pursue
organizational goals over self-interests
While transactional leaders encourage people to do ordinary
things, transformational leaders encourage people to do
exceptional things
Transformational leaders are influenced by individual
characteristics (they tend to be more extroverted, agreeable,
and proactive than nontransformational managers), and
organizational culture (adaptive, flexible cultures foster
transformational leadership)
The best leaders have both transactional and transformational
qualities

Transformational leaders have four key behaviors:
1. They have charisma (a form of interpersonal
attraction that inspires acceptance and support), and
offer a vision for the organization
2. They have integrity, high ethical standards, and
desirable values
3. They encourage employees to grow and excel by
giving them challenging work, more responsibility,
empowerment, and mentoring
4. They are good at communicating the companys
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats so
that employees see them as personal challenges

There are three important implications of
transformational leadership for managers:
1. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
performance can all be improved using
transformational leadership
2. Employees at any level can be trained to be more
transactional and transformational
3. It can be used by both ethical and unethical
managers
6 Six Additional Perspectives

ARE THERE OTHER KINDS OF LEADERSHIP?
There are six additional types of leadership:
1. The leader-member exchange (LMX) model of leadership
emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships
with different subordinates
2. Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual
influence process in which people share responsibility for leading
3. Servant leaders focus on providing increased service to others
- meeting the goals of both followers and the organization
rather than to themselves
6 Six Additional Perspectives

4. Loyalty leaders who inspire loyalty have six
principles: preach what you practice, play to win-win,
be picky, keep it simple, reward the right results, listen
hard, talk straight
5. Level 5 leadership means an organization is led by a
person, a Level 5 executive, who possesses the
paradoxical characteristics of humility and a fearless
will to succeed, as well as the capabilities associated
with levels 1-4
6. E-leadership involves one-to-one, one-to-many, and
within-and between-group and collective interactions
via information technology
14.6 Six Additional Perspectives

Figure 14.3: The Level Hierarchy
Chapter 15: Interpersonal &

Organizational Communication
Mastering the Exchange of Information

The Communication Process
Barriers to Communication
How Managers Fit into the Process
Communication in the Information Age
Improving Communication Effectiveness
LEADING: INTERPERSONAL AND

ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
15.1 The Communication Process:

What It Is, How It Works
WHY DO WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS?
Communication is the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another
Good communication skills, both written and oral, are
essential to success
One study found that managers spend over 80 percent
of their day communicating

Communication is a process
The sender is the person wanting to share information, called a
message, and the receiver is the person for whom the message is
intended
Messages have to be encoded (translated into understandable
symbols or language)
Then, messages have to be decoded (interpreted and made
sense of)
The pathway by which a message travels is the medium
Feedback is the receivers reaction to the senders message
Any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a
message is noise
Basic Model
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Figure 15.1: The Communication Process

Expanded Model
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Did you finish

your
assignment?
What assignment
do you mean?
Noise!
Sender
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Receiver

HOW DO MANAGERS KNOW WHICH TYPE OF
COMMUNICATION TOOL TO USE?
Managers need to know how to use the right type of
communication tool for a given situation
How well a particular medium conveys information and
promotes learning is referred to as media richness
Media are positioned along a continuum ranging from high
media richness (face-to-face communication) to low media
richness (impersonal written media like newsletters)
In nonroutine situations, a rich medium works best
In routine situations, a lean medium works better
The Selecting the Right Media
High Media Richness

(Best for nonroutine,
ambiguous situations)
Face-to-face
presence
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Videoconferencing
Low Media Richness

(Best for routine, clear
situations)
Telephone
Personal written
media (e-mail,
memos, letters)
Impersonal
written media
(newsletters,
fliers, general
reports)
15.2 Barriers To Communication

WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION?
Communication barriers are anything that interferes
with accurate communication between two people
There are three types of barriers:
1. Physical barriers include things like time-zone
differences, office walls, and crashed computers

2. Semantic barriers occur when words can be
interpreted in different ways
Does right away mean today, tomorrow, in the next
hour?
The problem is intensified when jargon (terminology
specific to a particular profession or group) is used
3. There are nine personal barriers that contribute to
miscommunication:

-variable skills in communicating effectively
Some people are naturally better communicators than
others
-variations in how information is processed & interpreted
People use different frames of reference and experiences
to interpret information
-variations in trustworthiness & credibility
Communication is often flawed when there is a lack of
trust between the sender and receiver

-oversized egos
Egos influence how we treat each other and how
receptive we are to be influenced by others
-faulty listening skills
Sometimes, people simply fail to listen properly
-tendency to judge others messages
People judge others statements from their own point
of view
-inability to listen with understanding
It can be hard to put yourself in someones elses
shoes and really listen

-stereotypes & prejudices
Stereotypes consist of oversimplified beliefs about a
certain group of people and can influence
communication
-nonverbal communication
Gestures and facial expressions are an important part
of communication

WHAT IS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION?
Messages sent outside of the written or spoken word is
nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication can be expressed through:
1. Interpersonal space (how close or far away one should be
when communicating) is a source of misunderstandings
Some cultures stand much closer than others
2. Interpretations of facial expressions like smiling can differ
across cultures

3. Eye contact signals the beginning and end of conversations,
expresses emotions, monitors feedback, and can express the type
of relationship between the people communicating
4. Body movements and gestures are culture specific, so
interpreting them can be difficult
5. Norms for touching vary significantly by country
6. Setting
The setting in which the communication takes place influences
how it is received
7. Time
Keeping people waiting, not providing adequate time for tasks, and
so on are all ways that time becomes a form of nonverbal
communication

ARE THERE DIFFERENCES IN HOW MEN & WOMEN
COMMUNICATE?
There are a number of general differences in how men
and women communicate
Men tend to be more direct and blunt, women have a
softer approach, for example
Similarly, men tend to be stingy with praise while
women hand out lots of compliments
15.3 How Managers Ft Into The

Communications Process
HOW DO MANAGERS USE THE DIFFERENT CHANNELS
OF COMMUNICATION?
There are both formal and informal channels of
communication
Formal communication channels follow the chain of
command and are recognized as official
There are three types of formal communications:
vertical, horizontal, and external

1. Vertical communication flows up and down the organizational
hierarchy
Downward communication flows from a higher level to a lower
level while upward communication flows from a lower level to a
high level
2. Horizontal communication flows within and between work units its main purpose is coordination
Horizontal communication is encouraged through the use of
committees, task forces, and matrix structures
3. External communication flows between people inside and
outside the organization
It involves people like customers, suppliers, and shareholders

Informal communication channels develop outside the
formal structure and do not follow the chain of
command
Two informal channels are the grapevine (the
unofficial communication system of the informal
organization) and management-by-wandering around
(a manager literally walking around and talking with
people across all lines of authority)
15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
HOW CAN MANAGERS USE INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY TO COMMUNICATE?
Information technology can allow managers to communicate
more effectively
There are several types of information technology including:
1. The internet, intranets, & extranets
The Internet is a network of computer networks
Two private uses of the Internet are intranets (an organizations
private Internet) and extranets (an extended intranet that
connects internal employees with selected customers, suppliers,
and other strategic partners)
The Information Age
2. E-mail
E-mail (electronic mail that is sent via the Internet) reduces the
cost of distributing information, increases teamwork, reduces
paper costs, and increases flexibility
However, it can also lead to wasted time dealing with spam
(unsolicited jokes and junk mail), information overload, and
neglect of other media
3. Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing or teleconferencing uses video and audio
links along with computers to enable people in different
locations to see, hear, and talk with each other
The Information Age
4. Group Support Systems
Group support systems use state-of-the-art computer
software and hardware to help people work better
together
They allow people to share information without time
or space constraints
Companies with these systems can create virtual
teams
The Information Age
5. Telecommuting
Telecommuting involves doing work that is usually
done at the office away from the office
Telecommuters use phone, fax, and the Internet to
communicate
Telecommuting can: reduce capital costs, increase
flexibility and autonomy for workers, provide a
competitive advantage when recruiting, increase job
satisfaction, increase productivity, and allow companies
to tap nontraditional workers
The Information Age
6. Handheld Devices
Handheld devices like PDAs and smartphones allow workers to
work from anywhere
7. Blogs
A blog is an online journal in which people write whatever they
want about any topic
Blogs give people an informal means of discussing issues
However, theyre not always accurate, they can be used to say
unflattering things about the company, and there arent any
guidelines about what is acceptable to post
The Information Age
WHAT PROBLEMS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?
Information technology can be problematic in the workplace
when it interferes with productivity
One of the biggest time killers in the workplace is personal use
of the Internet
Trying to get online connections to work, dealing with spam and
viruses, and so on also detract from an employees productivity
Information overload occurs when the amount of information
received exceeds a persons ability to handle or process it
15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER LISTENER?
To be a better listener, managers should:
-judge content, not the delivery
-ask questions and summarize remarks
-listen for ideas
-resist distractions and show interest
-give a fair hearing and correct for personal biases

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER READER?
To streamline reading, managers should
-be savvy about periodicals and books - focus on the important
stuff
-transfer their reading load - get employees to write up
summaries of important books
-make internal memos and e-mail more efficient
-use the five steps of the top down reading system: rate reasons
to read, question and predict answers, survey the big picture,
skim for main ideas, and summarize
Effective Reading
Top-Down Reading RQ3S
Rate reasons to read

Question and predict answers
Survey the big picture get overview
Skim for main ideas
Summarize as you skim
McGraw-Hill/Irwin

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER WRITER?
Dont show your ignorance - be sure to proofread and use
spelling and grammar checks before sending e-mails
Understand your strategy before you write - when writing, lay
out ideas: most important to least important, least controversial
to most controversial, and negative to positive
Start with your purpose - state your purpose and what you
expect of the reader
Write simply, concisely, and directly - be direct and use an active
voice
Telegraph your writing with a powerful layout - make your
writing easy to read by using highlighting and white space

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER SPEAKER?
1. Tell them what youre going to say - the introduction of your
speech should prepare listeners for the rest of the speech
It should take about 5-15 percent of your time
2. Say it - this part of the speech should take 75-90 percent of
your time
Be succinct
3. Tell them what you said - the conclusion can be as important
as the introduction
It should take about 5-10 percent of your time
END
=)

Leading To Controlling

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LEADING

Three components of attitude

II. Work-related attitudes

Absenteeism and Turnover

Big Five Personality Dimensions

IV. Five traits important to

Traits of emotional intelligence

Self-management- the ability to control your emotions and act

Self-awareness Empathy allows you to show others that you

Relationship management the ability to communicate

Four distortions in perception

5.1 Selective Perception

5.3 Halo Effect

5.4 Casual Attributions

5.5 Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Sources of job related stress

Stress created by co-workers and managers

Burnout is a physical, mental and emotional response to

Some stressors most associated with

feeling overworked and under-appreciated

Motivating For Performance

Motivation: may be defined as the psychological

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Motivating For Performance

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards

Motivating For Performance

12.1 Motivating For Performance

12.2 Content Perspectives

12.2 Content Perspectives

12.2 Content Perspectives

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

Offer safe working

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

5. SelfOffer interaction with

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: What the

2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rules of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Herzbergs Two-Factor Concept

12.2 Content Perspectives

Figure 12.4: Hertzbergs

Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

The Job Characteristics Model

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.4 Job Design Perspectives

12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives

12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives

12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives

12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives

12.6 Using Compensation &

12.6 Using Compensation &

12.6 Using Compensation &