Henry James represents one of the writers interested in capturing fundamental aspects of

the national experience and of the international encounters, as he wrote in the 19th
century, when industrialization reached full speed and crossing the Atlantic was much
faster, making it easier for Americans and Europeans to discover each other. It was the
first time after the Civil War when the well-off Americans could afford visiting Europe,
and that revealed that they had different manners, values and customs. The international
theme was one of Jamess biggest concerns and it was the theme that brought him fame.
His works have autobiographical characteristics, because, like many of his heroes, James
left his home land for Europe in order to find a better place and to enrich his experience
of life and, therefore, he found himself on a different territory, with another mentality and
another way of life. His experience is reflected in his works as all illustrate the European
experience of young Americans, who come to the Old World to enrich their knowledge,
but who find themselves against a space of difference. The importance of the
international theme stands in the fact that it helped shaping and understanding better the
American and European culture, as James himself said in the Preface to volume XIV, that
Europe only makes sense due to the existence of an America, and vice versa (qtd. in
Oltean 110). Therefore it is the meeting between the two nations that leads to the
configuration of the American distinctiveness.
In order to explore the differences between the two civilizations and the effect that these
have on the identity of the one coming from the New World, it is important to describe
the prototype of the American in Europe as opposed to the personality of the Europeans.
The heroes and heroines created by James incarnate, as Righelato notices, beauty,
innocence, freedom, vitality, frivolity and freshness (xv) as they are open to experience
and they seem to be more morally evolved. On the other hand, Europeans are
characterized by cynicism (Lund 129), corruption (Weisbuch 219) and sophistication
(Righelato xiv). The Americans in Europe are projected in contrast with the Old Worlds
way of life: in the social setting with which they are identified, in the ways the speak, as
well as in what they say, the various characters range themselves along an axis that runs
from the natural to the cultivated, from the exuberant to the restrained (Ohmann 5). In
addition to this, Buitenhuis observes that another distinction is between European
surfaces and American depths, or between complexity and simplicity (qtd. in
Oltean 25). The American hero, beautiful, charming, simple, and to a certain extent
ignorant, acts in a free, natural manner, a manner not artificial and constrained (Kar
31), as opposed to the self-consciousness of the ones he meets. Briefly, as Cushing Strout
reveals, the features of The New World, spotted as qualities, are in opposition to those of
The Old World, seen as inadequacies:
On the one side stand Liberty, Happiness, Innocence, and Simplicity, pointing toward
the Future, while separated by a pool of water [...] stand Despotism, Misery, Corruption,
and Sophistication, wrapped in the shrouds of the Past (qtd. in Spiller 114).
Thus, Americans in Europe, as symbols of the New World, are characterized only by
positive traits, while the ones they meet, symbols of the Old World, are characterized
only by negative traits, meant to emphasize the huge contrast existing between these two

cultures. It is this contrast that is responsible for Americans misunderstanding of the new
space and their difficulties in living among the people from the Old Continent.
Henry Jamess Daisy Miller, published in 1878, focuses exactly on these aspects,
describing the opposition between two national cultures and between those pertaining to
them. It presents Daisy Miller, a charming spontaneous American girl, who ends up being
the victim of the rigid social conventions of the new world she confronts herself with. As
Riquelme puts it, the short story shows the quality of being English and the quality of
being American (585) and, as Lund observes, it shows an innocent young American
woman attempting to live in the structured society of ancient Europe (126). She, as
Anderson describes her, represents the apparently simple American hero who is
projected in the struggle to understand the complex Europeans and expatriates with
whom she becomes involved (38). The story marked a very important moment in the
history of the American literature, as it represented a time when the American writers
were able to give an idea about their countrys individuality: The new nation, having
achieved a clear idea of its own identity, began [] successfully to export its forms and
techniques to Europe (Lund 126). Thus, it represents one of the works dealing with
American integrity and independence, after having won it and it reveals how the new
comers perceive Europe and what are the effects of this experience on their personality.
The story deals with the differences in mentality of the two countries, and it also informs
about the way in which the new comer looks upon his own country and culture after
having the opportunity to see a distinct one. The journey, the international dialogue may
have a positive effect on the American, as it gives him the possibility of comparing his
home country with another one and judging upon the qualities of these conflicting
societies. Daisy, on one hand, is absolutely delighted with the Old Continent and with the
high society she wishes to enter: she says that Europe is perfectly sweet (DM 13). Her
brother, Randolph, on the other hand, considers Schenectady, his hometown, to be far
superior to Europe, particularly in the quality of candy available: I cant get any candy
here any American candy. American candys the best candy (DM 9). He also affirms,
when talking about his father, that the latter is in a better place than Europe (DM
12).This illustrates the Americans view on the old continent, which can vary from person
to person, some of them considering The New World greater than anything, and others
not.
Daisy represents one of the new comers upon whom Europe seems to have cast a spell.
She is nave and only sees the best side of everything, not being able to predict that this
lack of understanding of another way of life will bring her loss. As Lund observes, she is
an innocent colonial captivated by a more worldly space (130). The girls imagination
cannot broaden to such an extent as to capture the thought that she should obey the
requirements of a divergent culture, since her social awareness emerges as having such
limitations that it can be described as very primitive. She perfectly fits the prototype of
the American in Europe, given the fact that she counts as a beautiful but rather ignorant
person. Unfortunately Daisy cannot be said to be of a remarkable intelligence or
education, taking into consideration the fact that she has not been given the opportunity
of a proper instruction. As Righelato informs, she has had little guidance and no one

has formed her taste (x). She is, as Winterbourne notices when he first sees her,
strikingly, admirably pretty (DM 10) and he admits he has not seen for a long time
anything prettier than his fair countrywomans various features (DM 11), but,
nevertheless he thinks she is completely uncultivated (DM 19).
James uses Daisys story to analyze the traditional views of a society where she is a
complete outsider and to discuss the prejudices common in any culture. From the very
beginning her attitude is wrong in the eyes of the others, her actions being against the
moral beliefs of the society. Winterbournes aunt exclaims that she is a dreadful girl
(DM 19) when she finds out Daisy has agreed to go on a little trip with her nephew after
only half hours acquaintance. Thus, she is considered to be a flirt, although in her
naivety and ignorance she finds nothing improper in going to Chateau de Chillon
accompanied by someone she has just met. A second example of the restraint and
formality of Europe, set against the openness of the American visitors is given by Daisy
when complaining about her brothers lack of playmates: He hasnt got any boys here.
There is one boy here, but he always goes round with a teacher; they wont let him play
(DM 12). Her statement suggests that the European restrictions are widely spread and,
again, gives an idea about differences in mentality because she, a symbol of the carefree
exuberance and of the noisy frivolity cannot understand why these people have to hold
their little boys in check (Ohmann 2). Thirdly, the rigidness and conventionalism of the
Europeans can be seen even when they speak. For instance, Winterbournes language is
very formal and conservative, or, as Daisy notices, is stiff, when, alternatively, she
speaks freely. As Ohmanns Daisy Miller: A Study of Changing Intentions says,
Winterbournes language is studiously formal, his opening conversational bits,
unimaginative and conventional, while Daisys speech is of an extravagant, if
unoriginal, enthusiasm (3).
The Americans cannot defend themselves against the cynicism and hypocrisy of a
decadent society and it is this societys rigidness, as opposed to their energy, that causes a
tragedy. A first clue of the corrupting and destructive influence that Europe has on the
outsider is offered by Randolph, whose health seems to have to suffer:
I havent got any teeth to hurt. They have all come out. I have only got seven teeth. []
She [mother] said shed slap me if any more came out. I cant help it. Its this old Europe.
Its the climate that makes them come out. In America they didnt come out. Its these
hotels (DM 9).
This seems to be the first sign of the old worlds evilness, which can bring nothing good
for the ones trying to live among corrupting factors, and it offers a preview of what the
consequences of such a society might be for the inexperienced, young American.
The New World and the Old World appear as the spaces where the formers lack of
familiarity with another culture and other traditions comes against the latters
sophistication and spirit of superiority. Daisys behavior causes many rumors, as she is
unaware of how her conduct should be in fact and does not understand what she does
wrong. She compromises herself by talking to young men without anyones supervision,
walking around with them and even meeting them late at night. She truly believes what

she does is not at all immoral, and she takes satisfaction in the company of men: I have
always had a great deal of it [society] [] I have always had [...] a great deal of
gentlemens society (DM 14).She also cannot comprehend why flirting would be
considered morally wrong, especially if she is a young yet unmarried woman, and finds it
absurd when Winterbourne tries to inform her about what the others might think about
her if she continues to act like that:
It [flirting] seems to me much more proper in young unmarried women than in old
married ones, Daisy declared.
Well, said Winterbourne, when you deal with natives you must go by the custom of the
place. Flirting is a purely American custom; it doesnt exist here (DM 45).
Her actions cause consternation in a world where everyone follows strict social rules.
Mrs. Costello considers her hopelessly vulgar (DM 31) because she goes about alone
with her foreigners (DM 30). Mrs. Walker is probably the only one who tries to save the
girl. When she acknowledges the fact that Daisys walking around with two men at night
will ruin the girls reputation forever she attempts to protect and save her from disaster,
but Daisy does not seem to care and does not take into consideration the womans words.
The climax of Daisys compromising herself is represented by the moment of her walk at
the Colosseum, in the company of Giovanelli. It is the moment when Winterbourne lets
her know he is not concerned anymore if her actions are moral or not. The fact that he
reaches an erroneous conclusion about her pleases him as he now feels free of blame and
he no longer needs to commit himself. This idea is sustained by Ohmanns affirmation:
When he finally comes upon her with Giovanelli in the Colosseum at night, he thinks that
she has certainly compromised herself. And he is relieved. For his personal feelings for
Daisy have gradually been overwhelmed by his intellectual involvement in the problem
of Daisy. He is relieved and exhilarated that the riddle has suddenly become easy to
read (5).
However, it looks as if Winterbournes opinion is the only one that matters for Daisy, idea
supported by the message transmitted by the girl for him on her deathbed. Another of the
girls statements, alluding to this idea, is the one that expresses the fact that Daisy does
not find it important anymore if she lives or dies: I dont care [] whether I have
Roman fever or not!, since she lost the esteem of the single person whose respect
mattered. After her death Winterbourne becomes conscious of the fact that he has made a
mistake and that he did not succeed in interpreting Daisys conduct as it was in reality.
His long stay abroad has made him too much accustomed to a stricter system of values,
and he is no longer able to correctly evaluate a persons actions. As Ohmann suggests, he
has lost the capacity to live and to love because he has become so rigid in his values, and
it is exactly this fact which is mocked at by James: The authorial voice concludes the
tale by mocking Winterbournes return to the narrow social code of restraint and
prejudice (6).
Given the fact that the idea of Winterbournes misreading Daisy was discussed, one must
state that Henry James portrays not only the fate of the American as an outsider in the old

continent, but also the character and opinions of the Europeanized Americans. He is able
to describe the ruptures which traveling changes bring about by analyzing Winterbournes
reactions. His misinterpretation of Daisys deeds stands as an example of how Europes
experience changes ones view on life. He has become accustomed to different social
values, estranges himself from the American attributes and condemns the actions of his
own compatriots, when he should have been a binder for these two opposed groups. At a
certain moment he recognized that he had lived at Geneva so long that he had lost a
good deal; he had become dishabituated to the American tone (DM 14). The fact that he
lost all connection with his home country and the American civilization and was absorbed
by a more inflexible one is the reason why he is so cruel to the young girl. The young
man gives up excessively quickly in his effort to persuade his fellow countrywoman to
stop acting in such a way that may cause gossip. More significantly, he does not come off
victorious in his try to understand her because he cannot become aware that Daisy can be
the emblem of unsophisticated, or, as he likes to say, uncultivated, innocence. He fails to
accurately understand Daisy, in contrast with Giovanelli, the representant of Europe, that
same Europe which judges the girl so harshly, and that is why the author looks full of
irony upon Winterbourne. The Italian, a man far from being regarded as a gentleman by
the community, but rather seen as a seducer, asserts her purity, while the American
believes she has become dishonest:
The freedom of her behaviour is finally interpreted as corruption by Winterbourne, but,
ironically, his reading is corrected by that of Giovanelli, [] who, after Daisys death,
has the last word in affirming her innocence (Righelato xii).
In The Genteel Reader and Daisy Miller Randall manages to capture this entire aspect,
pronouncing the verdict that the Roman moves toward comprehension of Daisys
character, the American away from it (571). He affirms it even more clearly a little
further, saying that:
it is the American-who is traditionally supposed to judge people as individuals, free
from class bias-who makes a dreadful blunder, and the European who is traditionally
supposed to see everything in terms of manners and social class-who comes to a true
understanding of Daisys worth (572).
This fact points, once more, to the changes that Americans in Europe suffer. It seems that
their identity is partly erased, and the European experience makes them unable to
understand the personality of the people from their own country.
One important aspect related to the New World is its innocence, and whether or not the
American can preserve this quality in a space of vice and complexity. As Oltean puts it,
an important question arises: Is it possible to keep your American innocence despite the
corruption? (Lecture). Daisy Miller also deals with Winterbournes struggle to
understand whether the young American girl is innocent or not, as she always appears to
be highly intriguing. Daisy finds her values in conflict with the European ones and she
does not understand the new social conventions. It looks as if everything she does is
wrong and she gets criticized for it. Up to a point Winterbourne considers her to be

innocent yet uncultivated, but in the end public opinion gets in the way of his true
evaluation, and he accepts and adopts the general view. As Randall states, he misjudges
character through manners (568) because he is entirely too much in awe of public
opinion and hesitates to judge or act for himself (569). The end of the tale comes as a
disambiguation of all the mystery created around the main female character, and one can
tell that she was, in fact, beyond doubt, innocent. What is tragic is that she never
understood the results that her actions might bring upon herself, and, as Buitenhuis
detects, she dies innocent and wronged, but she can hardly arouse deep feelings of
sympathy since she has very little comprehension of the causes of her fate (145). A nave
and blameless person, she lives her European experience with great greediness, but,
regrettably, she is touched by the destructive power (Mariani 249) that the old, mean
continent encompasses. The contrast between Americans and Europeans is remarkably
used by James with the purpose of highlighting the Americans innocence, provided that,
as it has been stated before, only in the presence of each other their traits can be fully
identified, or, as Oltean explains, these two poles of the world give sense to each other
(Spaces104)
Another important aspect of Daisy as a symbol of America is her independence and the
way she tries to conserve it no matter what. She listens neither to Winterbourne nor to
Mrs. Walker, the ones attempting to make her discover the proper way to behave, until it
is not too late. Unfortunately she is strong-willed and her response is an abrupt and
determined one: I have never allowed a gentleman to dictate to me, or to interfere with
anything I do (DM 37), meant to emphasize her wish of autonomy. Randall observes she
refuses to take advice from anybody, man or woman (572).This is because Daisy wants
to be free, and, as her own name hints, she is in the springtime of her life and she wants
to carry her existence far from being constrained, as she has no inhibitions. Kar sees
Daisys option of submitting to the societys demands as a way of losing her identity
(35). In view of that, she preserves her individuality despite the general publics judgment
and does not enclose herself within the boundaries of the social mores she fails to identify
herself with.
In conclusion, Daisy Miller shows the outcome of European life on the Americans
identity, and the way in which an American, in the person of Daisy Miller, may end up to
be the victim of a different social and moral system, which she cannot understand. The
differences between America and Europe, or, more exactly between the New and the Old
World, and Europes sophistication and corruption, reflected in the opinions of its
inhabitants, can lead to disaster the young inexperienced American who finds
himself/herself confronted with these bizarre values. Nevertheless, Henry James
portrayed Daisy Miller as a person who can preserve her identity, by not allowing the
new society to restrict her freedom, even if it is this attitude that leads to her death.

Sterile, bland New England culture clashes with lavish, exciting old Europe in The
Ambassadors, Henry Jamess 1903 masterpiece. The story tells of the travels of Lewis

Lambert Strether, a nondescript American and the ambassador of the title, as he

journeys to Europe to rescue his fiances son Chad from a life of Parisian debauchery.
What seems to be a simple mission becomes complicated, though, once Strether arrives
in Paris. There he is seduced by the luxurious European lifestyle: the lavish parties,
beautiful women, and endless wealth are intoxicating, and addicting. Once Strether has
witnessed Chads prosperity and his relationship with the mysterious Madame de
Vionnet, Strether doubts that can convince Chad to go homeand is not even sure if he
wants to return himself. Jamess elegant prose brings this, what the author considered his
best novel, to vivid life.