Great Mathematicians

Many of the methods and equations used in numerical methods are associated with the
names of famous mathematicians and scientists. Here, we provide biographical sketches
of the more notable pre-twentieth century figures of the modern mathematical era.

As will be seen in the sketches, even the most well recognized pure mathematicians
worked on applied problems; indeed, some of their advances were made on the way to
solving such problems. To appreciate their work, we must remember that they did not
have the tools we take for granted - they developed them! To help with their places in
history, the figure below shows the life-spans of those that are discussed.
 John Couch Adams [1819-1892]

Adams was born in Cornwall and educated at Cambridge University. He was later
appointed Lowndean Professor and Director of the Observatory at Cambridge. In 1845,
he calculated the position of a planet beyond Uranus that could account for perturbations
in the orbit of Uranus. His requests for help in looking for the planet, Neptune; met with
little response among English astronomers. An independent set of calculations was
 completed in 1846 by Leverrier, whose suggestions
to the German astronomer Johann Galle led to
Neptune's discovery.

Adams published a memoir on the mean motion of

the Moon in 1855 and computed the orbit of the
Leonids in 1867. The Leonids are meteor showers that appear to originate in the
constellation Leo. They were especially prominent every 33 years from 902 to 1866.

Charles Babbage [1792-1871]

Babbage's design of the Analytical Engine is considered to be the forerunner of the

modern computer. Lack of technology and money prevented Babbage from realizing his
design; however, a model built from his plans at a later date worked as Babbage had
predicted. Babbage's ideas on the Analytic Engine would have been lost if Ada Lovelace
had not clearly described them along with her own ideas.

Although computer scientists associate Babbage with the computer, he was better known
as a prominent mathematician of his time, and he held the position of Lucasian Professor
at Cambridge. His important contributions were on the calculus of functions.

Along with George Peacock and John Herschel, Babbage formed the Analytical Society
to promote analytical methods and the use of Leibniz's differential notation (the
geometrically suggestive dy/dx form that we know today). English mathematicians used
Newton's fluxion notation almost exclusively until then, partly because it was widely held
among them that Leibniz appropriated Newton's ideas about calculus and claimed them
as his own. The fluxion notation (the use of a dot above the variable x to indicate the
derivative, still used in many texts today) was abstract enough to hamper developments in
calculus. Babbage's objective was to replace this "dot-age" with "d-ism" at Cambridge.

George Boole [1815-1864]

Boole was born in Lincoln, in eastern England. In addition to his mathematical prowess,
he studied classics on his own. Boole's work on linear transformations led to some
aspects of the theory of invariants. He also performed research on differential equations
and the calculus of finite differences. Boole is best remembered as one of the creators of
mathematical logic, which is one of the foundations of modern computer technology.

Arthur Cayley [1821 – 1895]

 Arthur Cayley was a British mathematician and
astronomer. After graduation in 1842, he studied and
practiced law. During the fourteen years Cayley was at
the bar, he wrote nearly 300 mathematical papers,
including some of his best and most original work.
During the same time, he met the mathematician,
James Joseph Sylvester, who was also devoting his time to both law and mathematics.
They worked together and founded their greatest work, the algebraic theory of invariants,
which played a crucial role in the development of the theory of relativity. In 1863 Cayley
was elected to the Sadlerian chair of pure mathematics at Cambridge University, a
position which he held until his death. He won several academic honors including the
Royal medal in 1859 and the Copley medal in 1881 from the Royal Society. He published
the book, ``Treatise on Elliptic Functions'', in 1876. Cayley invented and developed the
theory of matrices. His other contributions are in the areas of n-dimensional geometry,
theory of abstract groups, and physical astronomy.

Pafnuti Lvovich Chebyshev [1821-1894]

Chebyshev was born in Okatovo, Kaluga region in Russia. He was one of the most
famous Russian mathematicians and he made numerous important contributions to the
theory of numbers, algebra, theory of probability, analysis, and applied mathematics. He
completed his secondary education at home and enrolled in the department of physics and
mathematics at Moscow University in 1837. He graduated with a degree in mathematics
in 1841. In 1841, he won a silver medal for deriving an error estimate in the Newton-
Raphson iterative method. He received his doctorate in mathematics from Petersburg
University in 1849. In 1850, Chebyshev was elected extraordinary professor of
mathematics at Petersburg University where he became a full professor in 1860.

Chebyshev was very curious about mechanical inventions during childhood and it was
stated that during his very first lesson in geometry he saw its applicatins to mechanics.
His technological inventions include a calculating machine built in the late 1870s. When
his father became very poor during the famine of 1840, Chebyshev helped support his
family. He became interested in the theory of numbers and stated the Chebyshev problem
relating probability to the theory of numbers. He died in St. Petersburg, Russia on
December 8, 1894.

Roger Cotes [1682-1716]

Cotes was educated at Cambridge and later was the university's Plumian Professor of
Astronomy. He was well regarded by his contemporaries, including Newton. Much of
Cotes's time was spent in editing a second edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica.
His other work included hydrostatics, treatments of rational algebraic expressions, the
 earliest attempt to form a theory of errors, applications of the method of
differences, and problems in particle dynamics.

Gabriel Cramer [1704-1752]

Gabriel Cramer (1704 - 1752) was born and educated in Geneva, Switzerland and
defended a thesis dealing with sound at the age of eighteen. At age 20, he competed for
the chair of philosophy at the Academie de Calvin in Geneva. Due to his young age, he
was appointed as a co-chair of mathematics. He was promoted to chair of mathematics in
1734 and was made professor of philosophy in 1750. Cramer published his major work,
``Introduction a l'analyse des lignes courbes algebriques'', in 1750. He received many
honors, including membership in the Royal Society of London, the academies of Berlin,
Lyons. Montpellier, and the Institute of Bologna. Although he is well-known for
Cramer's rule and Cramer's paradox, neither of these were totally his original
contributions. In fact, his actual original contributions on algebraic curves and
mathematical utility are less well-known. In the context of developing a theory of
algebraic curves, Cramer included a method of solving systems of algebraic equations,
now known as Cramer's rule, in an appendix. Cramer never married and died in Bagnols-
sur-ceze, France.

René Descartes [1596-1650]

Descartes was born in Tours, France and treated

mathematics as a hobby while in the army as a young
man. His primary contributions to mathematics are in
analytical geometry and the theory of vortices. His
work laid the foundation for analytical geometry and
focused on the two-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system; however, it is clear that he was
well aware of three-dimensional representations of a
point in space. He formulated the rule of signs for the positive and negative roots of
polynomials. Newton later attempted to formulate a similar rule for the complex roots.
Descartes is responsible for the custom of using early letters of the alphabet for known
quantities and those near the end of the alphabet for unknown quantities. He also
invented the notation for expressing powers.

Descartes attempted at one time to give a physical theory of the universe. He abandoned
it when he realized that it would result in conflict with the Church. In any case, eight of
the ten laws of nature he proposed were incorrect. The first two, however, were almost
identical to Newton's.
 As a child, Descartes was allowed to stay in bed
until late in the morning because of his frail
health. He continued this practice later in life,
and stated the opinion, obviously shared by
many, that good mathematics and good health
were possible only if one did not wake up too
early in the morning.

Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet [1805-1859]

Dirichlet was the student of Gauss and the son-in-law of Jacobi. He succeeded Gauss as
Professor of Higher Mathematics at Göttingen. He devoted much time to expositions of
works by Gauss and Jacobi. His own work established Fourier s Theorem (on heat
conduction) and dealt with the theory of numbers, the theory of the potential, fifth-degree
equations, and definite integrals.

Leonhard Euler [1707-1783]

Euler was born in Switzerland, studied under Johann Bernoulli at Basel, and completed
his Master's degree at age 16. He formed a lifelong friendship with Bernoulli's sons
Daniel and Nicholas. When they went to Russia at the invitation of Catherine I, Empress
of Russia, they obtained a place for Euler at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
Euler eventually became Professor of Mathematics in 1733 when the chair was vacated
by Daniel Bernoulli.

In 1741, Euler joined the Berlin Academy of Sciences at the strong request of Frederick
the Great. He returned to St. Petersburg 25 years later (and was succeeded at Berlin by
Lagrange). Euler was responsible for establishing Newtonian thought in Russia and
Prussia.

Euler was blind in one eye by the time he was in his late 20s; within a few years of
returning to Russia from Berlin, he was almost totally blind. Despite this and other
misfortunes (including a fire that destroyed many of his papers), Euler was one of the
most competent and prolific mathematicians of any time.

Among Euler's contributions to mathematics were extensive revisions of almost all of the
branches of mathematics. He gave a full analytic treatment of algebra, the theory of
equations, trigonometry, and analytical geometry. He treated series expansions of
functions and stated the rule that only convergent infinite series could be used safely. He
dealt with three-dimensional surfaces, calculus and calculus of variations, number theory,
and imaginary numbers among other subjects. He introduced the current notations for the
trigonometric functions (at about the same time as Simpson) and showed the relation
 between the trigonometric and exponential functions in the equation that
bears his name - (exp(iθ) = cosθ + i sinθ). Another Euler equation (ν + f - e
= 2) relates the number of vertices ν, the number of faces f, and the number
of edges of a polyhedron. The Beta and Gamma functions were invented by
Euler.

Outside of pure mathematics, Euler made significant contributions to

astronomy, mechanics, optics, and acoustics. Yet another Euler equation is
the inviscid equation of motion in fluid dynamics. Even current forms of Bernoulli's
hydrostatic equation, Lagrange's description of fluids, and Lagrange's calculus of
variations have been given an Eulerian flavor. In astronomy, Euler tackled the three-body
problem of celestial mechanics. Euler's results enabled Johann Mayer to construct lunar
tables, which earned his widow £5000 from the English Parliament; £300 was also sent to
Euler as an honorarium.

In short, almost every traditional subject in physics and mathematics that the modern
engineering student is likely to encounter has Euler's imprint. This extends even to the
symbol π, the exponential symbol e, the functional notation f(x), the imaginary number i,
and the summation symbol Σ.

To close the introduction to Euler, the particularly extraordinary Euler magic square (Ref.
21) is shown in Fig. A-2. In magic squares, the integers from 1 to n2 fill the (n x n) cells
of a matrix in such a way that all row sums, column sums, and diagonal-sums are
identical. Most people are familiar with the (3 x 3) square. Euler's square is an (8 x 8)
matrix in which the row sums and column sums (but not the diagonal sums) are identical.
The interesting features are that the sum for half a row or column is half of the full sum,
and that the numbers represent consecutive moves that a knight makes on a chessboard to
hit every square once.

(Baron) Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier [1768-1830]

Fourier was among the prominent French physicists who also had superb abilities in
mathematics. He is famous for his experiments on heat conduction which, along with
ideas drawn from Newton's Law of Cooling, gave rise to Fourier's Theorem. Others had
proposed similar ideas - Lagrange had given specific cases and Budan had stated the
same theorem without satisfactory proof. Fourier's work on the analytical theory of heat
contained the Fourier sine series, which is widely used in modern analysis.

Fourier had accompanied Napoleon's eastern expedition to Egypt and served as Governor
of Lower Egypt from 1798 until the French surrendered to British forces in 1801. He was
created a Baron in 1808 by Napoleon.

Karl Friedrich Gauss [1777-1855]

Gauss was born in Braunschweig, Germany. Gauss,

Lagrange, and Laplace are widely considered to be
giants of analysis. Gauss's interests were so far
ranging that they opened avenues of investigation for
many others. His notable mathematical work included
the theory of numbers, various branches of algebra,
and the theory of determinants; the last formed the
basis for Jacobi's work in that area. He had also
obtained certain results on the theory of functions that
were later found by Abel and Jacobi; however, these
were not published. Gauss also developed the method of least squares and the
fundamental laws of probability distributions.

The reluctance to publish was perhaps also related to Gauss's style. His oral presentations
contained much of the analysis that was obscured in his published work, but he was
unwilling to allow his students to take notes. In his published work, he removed all of his
analytical steps and replaced them with extremely brief, though rigorous, proofs. As a
result, his published work was often difficult to follow.

Gauss's interests included astronomy (he calculated the orbital elements of the asteroid
Ceres following its discovery by Piazzi). His analysis resulted in an appointment as
Director of the Göttingen observatory and as Professor of Astronomy. Although he
retained these positions until he died, Gauss moved on to other subjects.

Among the other subjects were geodesy, optics, and electricity and magnetism. His work
on the last is commemorated by the Gauss as the unit of magnetic flux density. Gauss and
Weber invented the declination instrument and the magnetometer, and they built an iron-
free magnetic' observatory at Göttingen. Among their researches, they demonstrated the
feasibility of telegraphic communications.
 Charles Hermite [1822 – 1901]

Charles Hermite was a French mathematician, who

was the sixth of the seven children of Ferdinand
Hermite and Madeleine Lallemand. He studied in
Paris, first at the College Henri IV and later at the
College Louis-le-Grand. There he read the works of Euler, Gauss and Lagrange instead
of preparing for his examinations. Later he tried to continue his studies at Ecole
Polytechnique. He got admitted with a poor rank; but left Polytechnique without
graduation. He took the examinations for a career of professeur. Later he studied the
works of Cauchy and Liouville on function theory as well as those of Jacobi on elliptic
and hyperbolic functions, and generalized some of the theorems. In 1843, when he was
only twenty years old, communicated his discoveries to Jacobi who got those letters
printed in Crille's Journal.

Hermite joined the Ecole Polytechnique in 1848 as repetiteur and admissions examiner
and subsequently took over Duhamel's chair as professor of analysis at the same place.
He became an inspiring figure in mathematics not only during his life time but also
afterwards. In todays mathematics, Hermite is remembered through Hermitean forms, a
complex generalization of quadratic forms, Hermitean polynomials, his solution of Lame
differential equation, Hermite interpolation procedure, and his solution of fifth-degree
equation by elliptic functions.

Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi [1804-1851]

Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (born on 10 December 1804 in Potsdam, Germany and died on
18 February 1851 in Berlin, Germany) was a German mathematician who was born in a
wealthy and cultured family. He entered the Gymnasium at Potsdam in 1816 and excelled
in Greek, Latin, history and mathematics by the time he graduated from the Gymnasium
in 1821. He then joined the University of Berlin and after finding the level of lectures in
mathematics to be elementary, he studied the works of Euler, Lagrange and other leading
mathematicians privately and mastered them. He submitted his Ph.D. thesis in 1825 and
began his career as Privatdozent at the University of Berlin at the age of twenty. After
seeing no prospect of promotion in Berlin, he moved to the University of Konigsberg in
May 1826 and became a full professor in 1832. Jacobi married Marie Schwinck in 1831
and they had five sons and three daughters. Jacobi's fundamental research, mostly in the
theory of elliptic functions, mathematical analysis, number theory, geometry, and
mechanics, was published in Crelle's Journal fur die reine und angewandte Mathematik.
Jacobi linked his research to different mathematical disciplines. For example, he
introduced elliptic functions not only into the number theory, but also into the theories of
integration and differential equations. Although the theory of determinants was started by
Leibniz, Jacobi presented it systematically and also introduced the term "Jacobian" in the
theory of determinants. The methods he developed for solving linear algebraic equations
and the algebraic eigenvalue problem have become known as Jacobi methods.
 Jacobi had smallpox and died in the early part of 1851. Dirichlet, who was a
close friend of Jacobi, delivered the memorial lecture at the Berlin Academy on
1 July 1852 and called him the greatest mathematicians among the members of
the Academy since Lagrange.

Camille Jordan [1838 – 1921]

Camille Jordan was born in Lyons, France on January 5, 1838 and died in Paris
on January 22, 1921. He was born into a well-to-do family where his father was an
engineer and mother was a sister of the famous painter Pierre Puvis de Chavannes.
Jordan was a brilliant student, entered Ecole Polytechnique at the age of 17, and
continued as a practising engineer until 1885. He taught simultaneously at the Ecole
Polytechnique and the College de France from 1873 until his retirement in 1912. He was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1881. While working as an engineer,
Jordan wrote 120 mathematical research papers. He was considered a universal
mathematician who published papers in practically all branches of mathematics of his
time. He made many fundamental contributions to group theory including the first part
of the famous Jordan-Holder theorem and was regarded as the undisputed master of
group theory. He published his results of group theory in ``Traite des substitutions'' in
1870, which remained a bible in group theory for several years. In addition, Jordan
obtained several important results in algebra including the finiteness theorems. His
works were considered to be the source for the discoveries of his students - Lie's
``continuous groups'' and Klein's ``discontinuous groups''. The refinement he suggested
to the Gauss elimination method for solving linear simultaneous equations has become
known as the Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

Kutta, Wilhelm (1867-1944)

Kutta, Wilhelm was a German mathematician and aerodynamist who extended the
Runge-Kutta method developed by Runge for numerically solving differential equations
to systems of equations. He also made important contribution to the theory of airfoils.

Joseph Louis Lagrange [ 1736-1813 )

Lagrange, born in Turin, Italy, was one of the greatest of the eighteenth-century
mathematicians. He did not show any taste for mathematics until he was 17. Then, self-
taught, he became a lecturer at 18 after only a year's study. At 19, he wrote to Euler with
the solution of an isoperimetrical problem that had been discussed for over fifty years.
The method used by Lagrange contained the principles of calculus of variations. Euler,
recognizing the superiority of Lagrange's approach, withheld his own paper on the
 problem. Lagrange was thus allowed to complete his work and to receive the
credit for the invention of a new form of calculus.

Lagrange's later works included corrections or improvements to works by

such eminent mathematicians as Newton, Euler, Taylor, and D'Alembert. He
gave the complete solution for the transverse vibration of a string and
discussed echoes, the phenomenon of beats, and compound sounds. Other
major work contained solutions of several problems in dynamics by the
calculus of variations.

Lagrange's style was to seek general solutions to problems; even so, his work
was easy to follow because of the meticulous care he used to explain his
procedures.

Pierre Simon (Marquis de) Laplace [1749-1827]

Laplace was born in Normandy. He began his professional life on the basis of a
recommendation from D'Alembert, who was impressed by a paper on mechanics. Among
his early contributions were proofs of the stability of planetary motions and work on
integral calculus, finite differences, and differential equations. In the 1780s, he
determined the attraction of a spheroid on an exterior particle; in so doing, he introduced
spherical harmonics (or Laplace coefficients) and developed the concept of the potential.
Similar coefficients for two-dimensional space had been presented earlier by Legendre,
and the idea of the potential was taken from Lagrange's earlier works.

Because of his personality, Laplace was not well liked. He gave either little or no
acknowledgment of results that he had appropriated from others. He did not care if proofs
of his work were nonexistent or presented incorrectly; he was satisfied that his results
were correct. Despite his pettiness, Laplace was a very capable mathematician. He
developed the Laplacian equation for potentials, and did extensive work on çelestial
mechanics. In his volumes on celestial mechanics, Laplace put forth the nebular
hypothesis; that is, that the solar system evolved from a rotating gaseous nebula.

Laplace also presented the formal proofs for the method of least squares, which had been
given empirically by Gauss and Legendre. These proofs contain examples of Laplace's
approach - his results were correet, but the analysis was so scanty and had so many errors
that many people questioned if he had actually done the work he presented.

Other contributions were on determinants (at the same time as Vandermonde), on

quadratic factors for equations of even degree, on definite integrals as solutions to linear
differential equations, and on solutions to the linear partial differential equation. The
theory of capillary attraction is also due to Laplace.
Aside from scientific recognition, Laplace sought social prominence. He was given the
post of Minister of the Interior by Napoleon, who sought support from the scientific
community, but he was removed in less than two months because of incompetence. Later,
when it was clear that Napoleon's empire was crumbling, Laplace offered his services to
the Bourbons and was granted the title of Marquis.

Adrian Marie Legendre [1752-1833]

Legendre was born in Toulouse and educated in Paris.

He had the misfortune of having lived at the same
time as Laplace. In addition to a professorial
appointment, Legendre held various public service
and minor governmental positions. Any ambitions he
may have had for greater recognition were stifled by
Laplace's influence and hostility.

Legendre's major contributions were in geometry, the

theory of numbers, various topics in integral calculus,
and elliptic functions. Among these are specific instances of spherical harmonics and
work on the method of least squares. In both cases, he was upstaged by Laplace who
developed the full form of spherical harmonics and gave formal proofs for the method of
least squares. His treatment of elliptic integrals also gave way to later superior methods
by Abel and Jacobi.

Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier [1811-1877]

Leverrier was born in St. Lö, was educated at the Polytechnic School in Paris, and was
later appointed as a lecturer there. He, independently of and later than Adams, calculated
the orbit of Neptune. It was his suggestion to Johann Galle that actually led to Neptune's
discovery within 1 degree of the predicted location. Leverrier's main work was in
revising tables of planetary motion.

(Baron) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646-

1716]

Leibniz was born in Leipzig. His mastery of topics

ranged over mathematics, classical languages,
philosophy, theology, and law. His early
mathematical contributions included work on
combinations and an improvement of Pascal's
 calculating machine. His more important mathematical contribution was in
the development of calculus. Despite controversy about the source of
Leibniz's ideas (some thought that he had access to Newton's work), it is
clear that his differential (dy/dx) notation was instrumental in the
development of calculus. Other notational conveniences that were
introduced by Leibniz include the dot as a symbol for multiplication, the
equal sign, the integral sign, and the decimal point. He is also credited with
the development of the binary number system.

Leibniz is also a major figure in the history of philosophy. He held that beings called
monads were the ultimate elements of the universe, and inferred the existence of God
from the harmony that existed among the monads. Euler was one who strongly opposed
this philosophy.

Leibniz dabbled in dynamics, but it is clear that his knowledge in that area was limited.
He also urged Peter the Great to establish the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg.

(Sir) Isaac Newton [1642-1727]

Newton was born in Lincolnshire and was educated at Cambridge. He later held the
Lucasian Chair at Cambridge (the same one later held by Babbage). Newton holds a
prominent place in science and mathematics for his concept of infinitesimal calculus, his
Law of Gravitation, his Laws of Motion, and his work on optics. The last included
inventions of a refracting telescope, a reflecting microscope, and the sextant.

Newton's work on calculus used the fluxion notation, which was very difficult to master.
The controversy with Leibniz caused many English scholars to persist in using this
notation and resulted in the hindrance of mathematical developments until Babbage and
his colleagues broke free of that prejudice.

Newton's genius was so widely recognized that he was always consulted or challenged.
For example, he acted as editor for other works, and was consulted by Leibniz on infinite
series, by Halley on gravitation, and by Hooke on the Earth's diurnal motion. Newton had
another controversial relation with Hooke and others regarding the theory of colors. He
was challenged by Johann Bernoulli to solve the brachistochrone problem (the curve,
now known to be the cycloid, which allows quickest descent from one point to another
under gravity) and another locus problem. Newton accomplished in a day what had taken
Leibniz six months to solve. Another challenge resulted in Newton's laying down the
principles of trajectories in a matter of hours.

It also seemed that Newton took the least obvious route in demonstrating some of his
hypotheses. For example, he sought to verify his early hypothesis on gravitation by
considering the orbit of the Moon. Incorrect estimates of distances caused the first
attempt at verification to fail. He later repeated the calculations successfully with more
 accurate estimates obtained in the course of Hooke's consultation. Another
example is his development of the series expansion for the inverse sine function,
from which he then deduced the expansion for the sine.

The genius in Newton is exemplified by the praise he received from Lagrange

and even from Laplace. Above all, there is the tribute paid to him by Gauss,
another of the truly great minds. Gauss used words like mangus or clarus to describe
other great mathematicians and philosophers, but he reserved the word summus (the best)
only for Newton. Newton was knighted in 1705.

Blaise Pascal [1623-1662]

Pascal was born in Clermont. Because of his health,

his father restricted his studies to languages and
prohibited the study of mathematics so that he would
not be overworked. Pascal's curiosity soon led him to
disregard his father's injunction, and he undertook the
study of geometry. Pascal wrote a paper on conic
sections at age 16 and built his celebrated adding
machine at age 18. In later years, he went back and
forth between mathematics and religious philosophy. Among his mathematical works are
those related to the physics of gases and liquids, creation of the theory of probability
(along with Fermat), and the creation of Pascal's triangle. He also devoted time to the
study of cycloids, in which he effectively found the definite integrals of some
trigonometric functions by summation techniques.

Simeon Denis Poisson [1781-1840]

Poisson was born in Pithiviers and was educated by his father to be a physician. His
aversion to that profession turned into permanent abandonment when one of the first
patients he treated by himself died (though not through any fault of Poisson). He turned
to mathematics and became a prolific contributor on the applications of mathematics to
problems in physics. The fields with which he dealt included probability, mechanics,
capillary action, heat, electrostatics, and magnetism. These last two spawned new
branches of mathematical physics.

A major mathematical accomplishment was on the application of Fourier series to the

solutions of physical problems. Another, by which he is best remembered, is the
correction of Laplace's equation to produce the Poisson eqnation for the potential.
 Joseph Raphson [1648 – 1715]

Joseph Raphson was an English mathematician, a Fellow of the Royal Society of

London and a friend of Newton. During the great dispute in the mathematical
community at that time over the discovery of differential calculus, naturally
Raphson sided with Newton (instead of Leibnitz).

Carl David Tolme Runge [1856 – 1927]

Carl David Tolme Runge was born in Bremen, Germany in a merchant family. His father
accumulated comfortable capital before his death in 1864. While his brothers pursued
commercial careers, Runge showed interest in more intellectual careers from childhood.
After completing the Gymnasium at age nineteen, he enrolled in the University of
Munich and took courses with Max Planck with whom he maintained friendship and
contact throughout his life. In the fall of 1877, Planck and Runge went to Berlin to attend
the lectures of Kirchoff and Helmholtz. However, finding not much attraction to those
lectures, Runge turned to pure mathematics and became a disciple of Weierstrass. He
completed his doctorate on differetial geometry in the spring of 1880.

Runge, influenced by Kronecker, continued to work on a variety of problems in algebra

and function theory, including the numerical solution of algebraic equations. He was
given a professorship at Technische Hochschule in Hannover in 1886 as a condition of
marriage. Some of the methods Runge developed have become very popular; the Runge-
Kutta method for the numerical integration of differential equations is amenable for
digital computers and still remains current.

Philipp Ludwig von Seidel [1821 – 1896]

Philipp Ludwig von Seidel was a German astronomer and mathematician. He was born
in Zweibrucken. Since his father, Justus Christian Felix Seidel, was a post office official,
young Philipp Seidel had to spend his childhood at several places. After graduating from
school, he took private lessons in mathematics from L. C. Schnurlein, who studied under
Gauss. Seidel entered Berlin University in 1840 and attended the lectures of Dirichlet
and Encke. He moved to Konigsberg in 1842 and studied with Bessel and Jacobi. In
1843, he moved to Munich and obtained his doctorate for the dissertation, Uber die beste
Form der Spiegel in Teleskopen, in 1846. Seidel's major investigations were in the fields
of dioptrics and mathematical analysis with some contributions to the method of least
squares, probability theory and photometry. The method he proposed for the solution of
linear algebraic equations has become known as Gauss-Seidel iteration method. The
photometric measurements of fixed stars and planets he made were the first ones to be
made and his investigations led to the production of improved telescopes. He applied
probability theory to astronomy and studied the relation between the frequency of certain
 diseases and climate conditions at Munich. He was made a member of the
Bavarian Academy of Sciences in 1851 and a full professor at Bavaria in 1855.
Seidel retired early due to eye problems and died in Munich in 1896. He
remained a bachelor, had to retire early due to eye problems, and was cared for
until 1889 by his unmarried sister, Lucie, and later by the widow of the
clergyman, Langhans.

Thomas Simpson [1710-1761]

Thomas Simpson (1710 - 1761) was born in England. His father was a weaver who
wanted his son to take up the same profession. Through his studies in arithmetic and
astrology, Simpson acquired a local reputation as a fortune teller during his childhood.
For some time, he worked as a weaver during day time and taught at evenings. He
published his first mathematical contributions in the well-known ``Ladies Diary'' in 1736
and his first book, ``A New Treatise of Fluxions'' in 1737. Although Robert Heath
accused him of plagiarism, it brought additional publicity to Simpson. Simpson was
appointed second mathematical master at the Royal Military Academy in 1743 and was
elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1745. His books on algebra, geometry and
trigonometry became best sellers. He assumed the editorship of the annual ``Ladies
Diary'' from 1754 and acquired a reputation as the ablest analyst that England can boast
of. It is ironic that Simpson is best remembered for Simpson's rule, which was
discovered long before him, for finding the area under a curve as

where the curve is replaced by a parabola passing through the points (A, a), (B, b) and (C,
c).

Brook Taylor [1685-l73l]

Brook Taylor was born in England in a well-to-do family. Taylor's scientific work was
influenced by his home life. His major scientific contributions are in the areas of
vibrating string and perspective drawing. His father was interested in music and art and
entertained many musicians in his home. The family archives of Taylor contained an
unpublished manuscript entitled “On Musick'' and some paintings.

Taylor entered St. John's College in 1701, received the LL.B. degree in 1709, was elected
to the Royal Society in 1712, and was awarded the LL.D. degree in 1714. During this
period, he visited France several times and developed scientific correspondence with
Pierre Remond de Montmort and Abraham De Moivre on infinite series and probability.
 Taylor published his first important paper, dealing with h the determination
of the center of oscillation of a body, in the Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Societry in 1714.

Taylor's most productive period was 1714-1719; his publications dealt with
functional analysis and experiments on capillarity, magnetism and
thermometer. He is best known for the theorem or process for expanding
functions into infinite series that is commonly known as ``Taylor's series
expansion''. The mathematical book he published in 1715, ``Methodus'',
qualifies Taylor as one of the founders of the calculus of finite differences and as one of
the first to use it in interpolation and summation of series.

François Viete (Franciscus Vieta) [1540-1603]

Viete was born in Fontenay, was trained as a lawyer, and spent most of his life in public
service. He was, however, a reputable mathematician and devoted much of his leisure
time to mathematics. His main interests lay in algebra and geometry. He knew how to
write multiple angle formulas for sines and was adept at manipulating algebraic forms.

His major work was on the application of algebraic techniques to problems in geometry.
His skill in algebra was probably helped by his insistence on using notations that clearly
indicated a power, instead of the custom of assigning a different letter for each power.
Much of his later work was on roots of equations by factoring, and he devised a closed-
form method for computing the roots of cubic equations.