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Outlines of

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3 1924 014 474 534

Cornell University
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014474534

OUTLINES
OF

PSYCHOL O GY
BY

WILHELM WUNDT
TKANSLATBD WITH THE COOPERATION OF THE AUTHOR
BY

OHAELES HDBBAED JODD,

Ph. D.

INSTEUCTOE IN WESLETAN UNIVlEESIXr

LEIPZIG
PUBLISHED BY WILHELM ENGELMANN
LONDON
WILLIAMS & HOEGATE

1897.

NEW YOKK
GTJSTAV

E.

STECHEET

Br
d-

C2l (^x^ y^

TMNSLATOE'S PEEFACE.

1 HIS

who has

read

the cooperation of

not only contributed

and suggestions

criticisms

made with

translation has been

the author,

many

valuable

in regard to terminology, but has

the proof-sheets as they were being prepared for

all

the press.

few verbal changes have been introduced

making

the text with a view to

the

into

somewhat

discussion

clearer.

The

choosing English equivalents

difficulties that arise in

many German words, are too

The translator has
discussion.

for

respect

familiar to require detailed

derived assistance

especially

English versions of Falckenberg's

the

of Modern Philosophy", Wundt's "Lectures on

Animal Psychology", and

The terminology here employed

differs,

of the principal terms has been added

those familiar with the German.

"Perception"

would be
only

unusual.

is

'-History

Human and

Kiilpe's "Outlines of Psychology"'.

however,

points from that used in the works mentioned.

the

in this

from a comparison of other standard translations,

If

it

The

for

at

the benefit of

translation of the

were translated

many

glossary

word

'perception'

it

easily confused, especially in its verbal forms, with

possible

nehmen", and

''

equivalent

Ansdiauung"

of

"Wahrnehmtmg",

'^ivah.r-

Since the process referred to

Iranslaior's Preface.

IV

by

''Perception^''

by

the English

word whose

is

so entirely different

word

perception,

it

seemed best

signification is not so fixed.

accordingly, nsed,

by using other equivalents

was

for

employ a

to

Apprehension was,

and the danger of confusing

translation of "Auffassung"

The thanks

from that indicated

it

with the

the most part avoided

for the latter.

of the translator are due to the author for

his courtesy throughout the progress of the

work.

Mr. G. H.

Stempel has kindly aided in the task of preparing the proofsheets for the press.

Middletown, September, 1896.

C> H. J.

AUTHOE'S PEEFACE.

1 HIS book has been written primarily

furnishing
lectures

my

purpose of

students with a brief manual to supplement the

on Psychology.

At the same time

the wider circle of scientific scholars

psychology,

for the

own sake

either for its

who

aims to give

it

are interested in

sake of

for the

or

its

a systematic survey of the fundamentally im-

applications,

portant results and doctrines of modern psychology. In view

of this double purpose, I have limited myself in detailing

facts to that

which

is

most important, or

to the

examples that

serve most directly the ends of illustration, and have omitted

entirely those

are properly
I

aids to

demonstration and experiment which

made use of

have based

The

in the lecture-room.

on the doctrines that

this treatise

fact that

have come

to hold as valid after long years of labor in this field, needs

no special

justification.

Still,

have not neglected

to point

out both in a general characterization (Introduction

with references in

detail, the chief theories

the one here presented.

The

relation in

2),

and

that differ from

which

this

book stands

to

my

earlier

psychological works will be apparent after what has been

said.

to

The

bring

" Cfrundxiige der physiologisefien Psychologie"

the

means

employed by

the

natural

aims

sciences,

Author's Preface.

VI
especially

by physiology,

give a critical

and

into the service of psychology,

to

presentation of the experimental methods of

psychology, which have developed in the last few decades,

This special problem ren-

together with their chief results.

dered necessary a relative subordination of the general psychological points

of view.

The second,

the "Vorlesungen uber die Menscheiv-

revised

und

edition

Thierseele"

')

edition has long been out of date) seeks to give a

first

of

(the

more

popular account of the character and purpose of experimental

psj'chology,

and

to

discuss from the position thus

those psychological questions

which are

philosophical importance. While

xilge"

also of

more general

the treatment in the

"Grund-

by the

relations

accordingly, determined, in the main,

is,

defined

of psychology to physiology, and the treatment in the " Vm-lesungen"'

by

philosophical

present psychology in

its

this

interests-,

own proper

Outlines aims

to

coherency, and in the

systematic order that the nature of the subject-matter seems

to

me

to require.

what

is

most important and

book

this

In doing

will not be

for those readers

who

this,

however,

essential.

It

it

is

takes up only

my

hope that

an entirely unwelcome addition even

are familiar with

my

earlier

works as

well as with the discussion of the "Logik der Psychologie'''

in

my

"Logik der Geisteswisseoischaften" (Logik,

2. Aufl. II,

2. Abth.).
I

have not thought

it

necessary to repeat here the refer-

ences to psychological works, in view of the fact that I have

given such references very fully under the various heads in

my

" Grundxiige''\

1)

Translated by Prof.

"Lectures on
1894.

The reader who wishes

J.

E. Creighton

and

to

make a more

Prof. E. B. Titchener:

Human and Animal Psychology'^ Swan

Sonnenschein"&

Co.,

Author's

VII

Prefcu:4}.

thorough study of any particular question will turn in any

case to the more elaborate work.

appeared in

this

For the

literature that

has

department since the fourth edition of the

" Gi-undzilge^'' (1893), the reader has but to refer to the last

volumes of the various periodicals devoted

to

psychology: to

the "Philosophische Studieii", the ^^Zeitschrift fur Psyehologie

und

Physiologie der Sinnesorgane"

of Psychohgy",
three contain

chology.

and the

also reviews

As a

Arbeiten" edited

the "American Journal

"Psychological Revieiv".

The

last

of the current literature in psy-

recent addition to these the "Psychologischen

by

E. Kraepelin

and devoted especially

individual characterology and practical psychology,

to

may be

mentioned.
Leipzig, January, 1896.

W. Wundt.

CONTENTS.
INTEODUCTION.

Problem of Psychology
Older definitions.

1.

immediate experience.

page
1

Psychology as the science of

Relation to the mental and to

2.
3.

the natural sciences.

General Theories of Psychology

2.

Metaphysical psychology: spiritualistic and materialistic, dualistio and monistic systems.

2. Empirical psychology: two principles for the classification of its varieties.
3. Psychology of the inner sense.
4. Psychology as the
1.

science of immediate experience.

faculty-psychology.
tualistic

trends

6.

5. Descriptive psychology:
Explanatory psychology: intellec-

and voluntaristic psychology. 7. Intellectualistic

and association-psychology. 8. Er-

logical theory

roneous attribution of the nature of things to ideas, in

intellectualistic psychology.
9. Voluntaristic psychology.
10. Governing principles of the following treatise.

Methods of Psychology

3.

].

18

Relation of experiment and observation in general.

2. Application to psychology: particular significance of experimental methods for psychology. 3. Pure observation
psychology. Analysis of mental products: social psy-

chology.

General Survey of the Subject

4.

Analytic and synthetic problem of psychology. Psychical elements. 2. The various synthetic problems in order:
1.

psychical compounds, interconnections, and developments.

3.

Laws

of psychical

phenomena and

their causality.

24

Contents.

PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS.

I.

page

5.

Chief Forms and General Attributes

of Psy-

chical Elements

28

Discovery of psyolaioal elements through abstraction.

2. Two kinds of psychical elements: sensations and simple
feelings.
3. Elementary nature and specific character of
1.

psychical processes not identical.

Common

4.

attributes of

Homogeneous
and complex, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and many-

psychical elements

quality and intensity.

dimensional systems of quality.

teristics of sensational

and

6.

5.

Distinguishing characelements.

aflfective

6a.

Remarks

on the history of the concepts sensation and feeling.

6.

Pure Sensations

The concept pure

38

Rise of sensations.
Sense-stimuli. 3. Physiological substrata of the sensational
systems. Mechanical and chemical senses. 4. The so-called
1.

law of

specific

sensation.

energy of nerves.

of changes in sensation

and

2.

5.

The law of parallelism

in physiological stimulation.

45

A. Sensations of the general sense

6. Definition of the general sense.
of this sense.

7.

Sensational systems

Attributes and differences of the various

parts of the organ of the general sense.

8.

The fobr systems

of the general sense in detail.

B. Sensations of sound
9. Simple noise-sensations.
system of tonal sensations.
C.

Sensations of smell and taste

12.
Sensations of smell.
qualities.

tions

48
10.

Tone-sensations.

The four primary

and neutralization of gustatory

The
52

12a.

Classes

qualities.

olfactory

of

Reciprocal neutralization of odors.

of taste.

11.

13.

13 a.

SensaMixture

stimuli.

D. Sensations of light

54

Sensations of achromatic light.

chromatic light. 16. Saturation of colors.
14.

15.
17.

Sensation of
Brightness of

Relations between sensations of achromatic and

sensations of chromatic brightness. 19. Three-dimensional
colors.

18.

system of light-sensations. 20. The four principal sensations.

21. Relations between sensation and stimulus for the visual
sense. 22.

Complementary

colors

and color-mixtures.

23.

The

XI

Contents.
\

three fundamental colors.

24.

Inference of

character of retinal stimulation.

lation.

25.

and

26. Light-contrasts

tlie

photochemical

Persistence of the stimu26 a. Phy-

color-contrasts.

siological theories.

Simple Feelings

7.

1.

2.

General

74

characterization

the

of

simple

Sense-feelings (affective tones of sensations).

between changes in sensations and

feelings.

feelings.

3.

Relations

4.

Influence

of qualitative sensational changes on the affective state.

5.

Influence of sensational intensity on the feelings.

variety of the simple feelings.

of feelings.

8.

7.

The three chief

Examples of the various forms.

6.'

Great

directions
Inter-

9.

connection of the three affective directions with the course

10. Physiological concomitants of
of psychical processes.
feelings. 11. Special relation to the pulse. 11a. Physiological

scheme of the activity of the pulse.

II.

PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.

Definition and Classification of Psychical Com-

8.

pounds
1.

90

Definition of the concept psychical compound.

position of the psychical compounds.

3.

2.

Com-

Classification of the

same.

Intensive Ideas

9.

93

General attributes of intensive ideas. Fusion. 2. Survey

of the intensive fusions in the various sensational spheres.
the single clang. 4. Conditions
3. Intensive auditory ideas
1.

for the rise of complete clang-fusion.

6.

Difference-tones.

and tonal

10.

7.

Noise. 7

a.

5.

Compound

clangs.

Theories of clang-analysis

fusion.

Spacial Ideas

102

General concept of extensive ideas. Special characteristics of spacial ideas. 2. Psychological problem of analysis of spacial ideas. 3. Kinds of spacial ideas.
1.

A. Spacial touch-ideas
4.

Localization of touch-stimuli. Qualitative local signs.

Else of spacial touch-ideas in normal cases with vision.

The tactual sense of the blind. 7. Theory of spacial ideas
of the blind. 8. General character of the space-fusions of
5.
0.

104

XII

Contents.

page

touch.

9.

Fusions with memory-elements.

10.

Ideas of one's

own movements when vision is present. 11. Ideas of one's

own movements in the case of congenital blindness. 12. Ideas
of the position and movement of the whole body. 12a. Theories of the rise of spacial ideas of touch.

115

B. Spacial sight-ideas
13.

General character of visual ideas.

14.

General factors

of such ideas.
a.

The location of

the elements

of a visual idea in relation

to

one

116

another
15.

Localization in the field of vision.

16.

Keenness of

localization in different regions of the field of vision. Direct

and indirect vision.

of ocular movements

Ocular movements. 18. Relation

19. Constant optical
illusions of direction and magnitude due to the laws of
17.

to localization.

ocular movements. 20. Variable illusions in direction and

magnitude due to the universal attributes of voluntary
movements. 21. Distances in the field of vision not dependent
on the proximity of retinal elements to one another. 22. Two
elements of spacial vision. Necessity of assuming retinal
local signs and empirical demonstration of the same.

General theory of spacial vision.

23.
b.

The location of visual ideas in relation to the ideating subject

24. Point of orientation in binocular vision. Direction of
the line of orientation. 25. Idea of the length of the line
of orientation. 26. Discrimination of far and near. 27. Per.

ception of points

at

different

28. Theory of
Varying conditions

distances.

binocular ideas of three dimensions.

for ideas of depth.

130

29.

Influence of lines of fixation.

30.

Bi-

nocular double images and localization in depth.

c.

Relations between the location of the elemtents in regard to one

another
31.

and

their location

Erect vision.

32.

in regard

to the subject

....

136

Surface of the field of vision.

The complex local signs of depth and binocular paral33. The stereoscope.
34. Monocular ideas of depth.
Influence of accommodation. 35. The elements of perspec32 a.

lax.

35 a. Survey of the theories.

tive.

11.

Temporal Ideas

General conditions for temporal ideas. 2. Characteristics of temporal as distinguished from spacial order.
2 a. The forms of temporal ideas and their names.
1.

142

Contents.

XIII
page

A.

Temporal
3.

toiiclt-ideas

144

Relation of the mechanical attributes of the limbs

4. The rhythmical tactual move-

to the temporal ideas.

ments.
B.

5.

The tactual ideas of

beats.

Temporal auditory ideas

148

Favoring attributes of the auditory sense. Continuous

and discontinuous rhythms. 7. Analysis of simple ideas
of beats. 8. Changes in the rhythmical perception through
6.

various objective conditions.

9.

Subjective conditions of

rhythmical time-ideas.
C.

General conditions for temporal ideas

10.

153

Specific character of temporal ideas.

11.

The inner

The continuous

S.ovr and one-dimensional

General theory of temporal ideas.
The temporal signs. 13 a. Geometrical representation of
time. Nativistic and genetic theories.

fixation-point.

12.

character of time.

12.

13.

Composite Feelings
1.

158

Affective processes in general.

2.

Character of inten-

sive affective combinations. 3. Component feelings: and resultant partial feelings and total feelings. Interlacing of the
affective elements.

pound

clangs.

4.

3 a.

Exemplification with musical com-

Common

feelings.

4a. Deficiency of the

physiological theories of common feelings.

5. Pleasurable and
unpleasurable feelings. 6. Contrast-feelings. 7. Elementary
aesthetic feelings.
Agreeableness and disagreeableness.
8. Intensive and extensive feelings.
9. Intensive feelings:
color-combinations and clang-combinations. 10. Extensive

feelings: feelings

from form and those from rhythm.

chological theory of composite feelings.

12.

11.

Psy-

Principle of

the unity of the affective state.

13.
1.

Emotions

169

Definition of emotions.

course of emotions.

movements.
ments.

5 a.

4.

2.

Names

of emotions.

3.

General

Physical concomitants: expressive

of the expressive moveSymptomatica! significance of these movements.

5,

Classification

6. Changes in the pulse and respiration.

and asthenic, rapid and sluggish emotions.

Quiet, sthenic
7.

Connection

of changes in innervation with the formal attributes of

emotions. 8. Intensification of the emotions through the
physical concomitants.

9.

Psychological classification of the

page

emotions.

Emotional forms of the

10.

qualities.

aflfective

Pleasurable and unpleasurable, exciting and depressing,

11. Names of emotions.
forms of affeotiye intensities: weak and
strong emotions. 13. Forms of occurrence: sudden, gradually rising, interihittent emotions.
13a. Predominating

and relaxing emotions.

straining
12.

Emotional

significance of the affective qualities for the discrimination

of emotions.

183

14. Volitional Pkooesses

1.

3.

External volitional acts.

Motives of volition. 5. Devel-

Relation to the eniotions.

Relation to the feelings.

opment of
tive acts.

4.

2.

volition. Impulsive acts.

7.

6.

Voluntary and selec-

Resolution and decision. The feeling of activity.

8.

Weakening

9.

Development of internal

of emotions through intellectual processes.

volitional acts.

10.

Retrogra-

become mechanical. Purposive

dation. Volitional processes

character of reflex movements.

10 a.

Critique of theories

Temporal course of volitions. Reaction-experi^

ments. Sensorial and muscular reactions. 12. Compound
13 a. General
13. Reactions become automatic.
reactions.
of

1].

-will.

significance

reaction-experiments.

of

Chronometric

ap-

paratus.

ni.

INTERCONNECTION OP PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.

15. Consciousness and Attention

1.

ditions.

The concept consciousness.

201
2.

Physiological con-

2a. Localization of psychical functions in the brain.

Simultaneous and successive interconnections of conGrade of consciousness. The sinking of

psychical processes into the state of unconsciousness.
4. Apperception and attention.
5, Degree of clearness of
3.

scious processes.

contents of consciousness.
consciousness.

6 a.

Methods

tary states of consciousness.

scious contents
of apperception.

9.

attention and of volition.

11.

7.

momen-

Affective influence of con-

which are merely apprehended. 8. Feeling

Passive and active apperception. 8 a. Ex-

perimental methods.
object.

Scope of attention and of

6.

for the investigation of

Interconnection
10.

Self-consciousness.

of processes

of

The concepts subject and

12.

Further development of

the discrimination between subject and object. 12a. Critique

XV

Coiiienfs.

page

of the dualistic hypotheses.

Transition to the various

13,

psychical processes of combination.

Associations

16.

1.

224

History of the concept of association.

2.

The

ordinarily

so-called associations complex products of elementary associative processes.

3.

Chief forms of elementary associa-

tive processes.

A. Simultaneous associations
a.

227

Chief forms: assimilation and complication.

4.

Assimilations

228

General character of assimilations. 6. Auditory assimilations.

7.
Assimilations in the sphere of intensive
affective processes. 8. Spacial assimilations of touch. 9. As5.

similations in the case of visual ideas.

of assimilative processes.

analysis

these processes.
b.

11.

10.

Psychological

Differences

among

Illusion.

231

Camplications

Attributes and chief forms of complications.

12.

235

B. Successive associations
Interconnection with the assimilations. 14. General
character of successive associations. 14 a. Serial association.
13.

a.

Sensible recognition
15.

..

and cognition

..

237

Attributes and differences of these processes. 15a. Ex-

perimental investigation of the influence of complications.

16. Passage from simultaneous to successive processes.
17.

between processes of recognition and those

Differences

of cognition.
b.

241

Memory-processes
Rise out of processes of recognition.

IS.

18a.

Inter-

connection and general significance of memory-processes.

19. Stages of a memory-process: mixed forms between
recognition and remembering. 19a. The so-called "mediate
association"

cognitions
processes.

Memory-processes based on repeated reElements of memory21.

Character of memory-ideas. 23. The concept

20.

and
22.

cognitions.

memory.

17.

Appeeceptive Combinations
1.

2.

Subjective attributes of apperceptive combinations.

Relation to associations.

apperceptive combinations.

3.

General classification of

248

XVI

Contents.
page

A. Simple apperceptive functions

4.

The relating process.

(relating

and comparing)

250

The comparing process.

5.

Discovery of agreements and differences, "i- Measurements of psychical elements and compounds. 8. Difference
between psychical and physical measurement. 9. Methods
Stimulus -threshold and
10.
of psychical measurement.
10 a. Weber's law in
difference-threshold. Weber's law.
11. Psydetail and the methods for its demonstration.
chological contrast-phenomena. Interconnnection with the
6.

physiological contrasts in vision.

3.

Contrast between im-

pression and expectation.

B.

Complex apperceptive functions (synthesis and analysis)

14.

Aggregate

ideas.

260

Psychological analysis of the

16. Psychological character of

15.

activity of "imagination".

the activity of "understanding". 17. Psychological character

of concepts. 18. Imagination and understanding as individual traits.

18.

Talent.

Psychical States

267

General conditions of abnormal states.

Changes
in elements.
3. Changes in ideational compounds: hallucinations and illusions. 4. Abnormities .in affective and
volitional processes: states of depression and exaltation.
5. Abnormities of consciousness.
6. Changes in association
and in apperception. 7. Dreams. 8. Hypnosis. 9. Relations
between sleep and hypnosis. 9 a. Physiological theories of
sleep, dreams, and hypnosis.
1.

IV.

19.

2.

PSYCHICAL DEVELOPMENTS.

Psychical Attributes of Animals

276

General remarks on the pryohical development of

animals. 2. Bate of animal development and one-sidedness
1.

of their functions.

of the instincts.

3.

Animal

instincts.

4.

Development

Genetic relation of animals to man in

regard to mental development. 5 a. Deficiency of determination of the line of division in regard to psychological
attributes.

5.

Theories of instincts.

XVII

Contents.

page

20. Psychical Development of the Child

Development of sense-functions.

1.

ments

in the individual development.

2.
3.

....

283

Psychical eleRise of spacial

4. Development of temporal ideas.

5. Associations
and apperceptive combinations. 6. Development of selfconsciousness. 7. Development of will, 8. Development of

ideas.

speech.
pulse.

9.

10.

Activity of the child's imagination. Play-imFunctions of the understanding. 10 a. Mistakes

in child-psychology.

21. Development of mental Communities

I.
2.

Differences betv^een

Products of

296

human and animal communities.

human communities.
298

A. Speech
4.

General development of articuChanges in sound and meaning. 6. Psy-

Gesture-language.

late language.

5.

4.

chological significance of the order of words.

B. Myths
7.

its development.
myth.

C.

303

'

Personifying apperception.
9.

Animism and

8.

General conditions for

fetishism.

10.

The nature306

Oustoms
II.

Changes in the meaning

13. Differentiation into customs, laws, and
Collective consciousness and collective will.

Relations to Myths.

of customs.

morality.

14.

12.

14 a. Critical remarks.

V.
22.

PSYCHICAL CAUSALITY AND ITS LAWS.

Concept of Mind

310

The general principle of causality. 2. The concepts

3. Mind as the supplementary
concept of psychology. 4. The concept of a mind-substance.
0. The
5. Materialistic and spiritualistic concepts of mind.
mind as an actuality. 7. Scientific development of the concept of actuality. 8. The problem of the relation between
body and mind. 9. The principle of psycho -physical
1.

matter, force, and energy,

parallelism.
causality.

10.

Necessity

of

an independent psychical

XVni

Contents.
page

23. Psychological

Laws of Relation

321

The three general laws of relation. 2. The law of

3. The principle of creative synthesis.
Increase of psychical, and constancy of physical, energy.
The law of psychical relations. 6. The law of psychical
1.

psychical resultants.
4.
5.

contrasts.

7.

Relation of the law of contrasts to the

first

two laws.

24. Psychological Laws of Development

325

The three general laws of development. 2. The law

of mental growth. 3. The law of heterogony of ends. 4. The
1

law of development towards opposites.

Glossary

329

Index

336

INTRODUCTIOK

Two

1.

PROBLEM OF PSYCHOLOGY.

1.

prominent in

the

one, psychology

infer

the

nature of an underlying

inner

readily

to

psychical processes

it

possible

is

to

metaphysical mind-sub-

experience": psychical processes

is

the "science

are here

looked

a specific form of experience, which

to

by the fact that

distinguished

known through
it

According

science.

this

phenomena from which

upon as belonging
is

of

According to the other, psychology

stance.

of

history

have been the most

the "science of mind"

is

regarded as

are

psychology

of

definitions

"introspection",

or

has been called to distinguish

its

contents are

"inner

the

sense"

as

from sense-perception

it

through the outer senses.

Neither of these definitions, however,
the psychology of to-day.

The

first,

is

satisfactory to

or metaphysical, defini-

tion belongs to a period of development that lasted longer

in this

science than in others.

But

it

is

here too forever

left behind, since psychology has developed into an empirical

discipline, operating with

"mental sciences"

partment of

methods of

its

own; and

since the

have gained recognition as a great de-

scientific

investigation, distinct

of the natural sciences,

from the sphere

and requiring as a general ground-

work an independent psychology,

free

from

all

metaphysical

theories.
WnxDT, Psychology.

Introduction.

The
ogy a
it

to

second, or empirical, definition, which sees in psychol''science of inner

may

experience",

inadequate because

is

give rise to the misunderstanding that psychology has

do with objects

different

totally

called "outer experience".

It

from those of the so-

indeed, true that there are

is,

contents of experience which belong in the spTiere of psychological investigation,

and processes studied by natural

objects

from a
ogy.

not a

is

single

the other hand,

phenomenon that may

natural

different point of view,

such are

science:

On

our feehngs, emotions, and decisions.

there

found among the

not to be

but are

become an object

of psychol-

stone, a plant, a tone, a ray of light, are, as nat-

ural phenomena, objects of mineralogy, botany, physics,

I

not,

etc.;

but in so far as they arouse in us ideas, they are at the

same time objects

For psychology

of psychology.

seeks to

account for the genesis of these ideas, and for their relations both

to other ideas

and

to

those psychical processes

not referred to external objects, such as feeHngs, volitions,

There

then,

is,

etc.

no such thing as an "inner sense" which

can be regarded as an organ of introspection, and thus distinct

from the outer

senses, or organs of objective perception.

Ideas, whose attributes psychology seeks to investigate, arise

through the outer senses no

tions

less

on which natural science

activities of feeling, emotion,

in natural science, are not

are directly

is

and

than do the sense-percepbased

while the subjective

volition,

known through

which are neglected

special organs, but

and inseparably connected with the ideas referred

to external objects.
2.

It follows, then, that the expressions outer

experience

do

points of view from which

scientific

and inner

not indicate different objects, but different

we

start in the consideration

treatment of a unitary experience.

ally led to these points of view,

We

and

are natur-

because every concrete ex-

1.

Problem of Psychohgy.

perience immediately divides into two factms: into a content

We

presented to us, and our apprehension of this content.

call the first of these factors objects

experiencing subject.

One

for the treatment of experience.

sciences,

which

of experience, the second

This division points out two directions

is

that of the natural

concern themselves with the

objects

is

that of psychology, which investigates the

of experience in

its

relations to the subject

butes derived directly from the subject.

natural science may,

accordingly, be

mediate experience, since

it is

psychology,

of

whole content

and

it

of this

of

designated as that of

all

actual experience;

on the other hand, may be

does away with this abstraction and

The assignment

in its attri-

The standpoint

designated as that of immediate experience, since

3.

other

possible only after abstracting

from the subjective factor present in

the standpoint

ex-

of

The

perience, thought of as independent of the subject.

all its

problem

purposely

it

consequences.

maldng

to psychology,

an empirical science coordinate with natural science and

supplementary to

it,

merited sciences, for

is justified

by the method

which psychology furnishes the

and

of these sciences, philology, history,

political

science, have for their subject-matter immediate

as determined

and acting

by the interaction

subject.

None

of

and

the

All

social

experience

of objects with the

of the

all

basis.

knowing

mental sciences employs

the abstractions and hypothetical supplementary concepts of

natural science

quite otherwise, they all accept ideas

accompanying subjective
then made

effort is

reality

activities as

immediate

and the

reality.

The

to explain the single components of this

through their mutual interconnections.

This method

of psychological interpretation employed in the mental sciences,

must

also be the

mode

of procedure

in

psychology

itself,

being the method required by the subject-matter of psychology, the immediate reality of experience.
1*

Introduction.

4
3 a. Since

perience

natural

is

By

of

subject,

experiencing

tte

meant the
The problem

expression outer world

the

is

total of all the objects presented in experience.

psychology

been correspondingly defined as

This definition is, however,

sometimes

has

"self-knowledge of the

its

acquirement of "knowledge of

stated as the

usually

the outer world".

sum

from

abstracting

after

problem

ex-

of

content

the

investigates

science

subject".

inadequate because the interaction of the subject with the outer

world and with other similar subjects is just as much a prob-

lem of psychology
Furthermore, the

outer world and

that

perience

pendent
perience

attributes

the

are

as

subject.

single

components

subject are separate

or that

they

contents

of experience,

is

of the

mean

can easily be interpreted to

expression

can

at

be distinguished

least

whereas,

in

of

ex-

inde-

as

outer ex-

truth,

always connected with the apprehending and knowing

of the subject, and inner experience always contains

from the outer world as indispensable components. This

functions
ideas

interconnection

necessary

the

is

experience

reality

is

result

of

the

fact

that

in

not a mere juxtaposition of different ele-

but a single organized whole which requires in each of

components the subject that apprehends the content, and the
objects that are presented as content.
For this reason natural
science can not abstract from the knowing subject entirely, but

ments,
its

only from those attributes of the subject which either disappear

when we remove

entirely
ings,

or

must be regarded
ties

the subject in

thought,

the feel-

as,

from those which, on the ground of physical researches,

of sensations.

ject of treatment

belonging to the subject,

as

as,

the

Psychology, on the contrary, has as

the total

content

of experience

quali-

its

in its

sub-

imme-

diate character.
/

The only ground,

then,

for

the

division between

natural

science on the one hand, and psychology and the mental sciences

on the other,

is

to

be found in

the

fact

that

all

experience

contains as

its

periencing

subject.

logical

aration

factors a content objectively presented,

definitions

of the

and an ex-

it
is
by no means necessary that
two factors should precede the sepfrom one another, for it is obvious that

Still,

of these

sciences

such definitions are possible only after they have a basis in the
investigations of natural science and of psychology.

All that

it is

Problem of Psychology.

1.

necessary to presuppose from the

accompanies

first,

the consciousness which

is

experience, that in

all

experience

this

objects

are

being presented to a subject.

a knowledge

There can be no assumption of

conditions upon which the distinction is

the

of

based, or of the definite characteristics

by which one factor can

Even the use of the terms
connection must be regarded as the

be distinguished from the other.

and subject in

object

application to the

are reached only

The forms
ogy

are

considers

this

first

stage of experience, of distinctions which

by developed

logical reflection.

of interpretation

supplementary

not

in natural science

only

objects after abstracting,

subject, while

the second has to

as

and psychol-

the sense that the

in

far as possible,

first

from the

do with the part the subject

plays in the rise of experience; but they are also supplementary

in ihe

that each

sense

takes a

different point

sidering the single contents of experience.

to discover the nature

it

In place of the

conceptual.

sets concepts

produces

continually
Scientific

experience

as,

to

therefore mediate

or
it

by abstracting from the

This abstraction makes it

objects

subjective components of our ideas.

necessary,

is

immediate objects of experience,

gained from these

elements.

in cosr

of objects without reference to the sub-

The knowledge that

ject.

of view

Natural science seeks

supplement reality with hypothetical

shows that many components of

analysis

for example, sensations

are subjective effects

These objective processes in their objective character, independent of the subject, can therefore never
of objective

processes.

be a part of experience.
Science makes up for this lack by
forming supplementary hypothetical concepts of the objective
properties of matter. Psychology, on the other hand, investigates
the

contents

complete

of experience in their

both the ideas that are referred to

jective

processes

that

cluster

about

objects,

them.

and actual form,

and all the subIts

knowledge

is,

therefore, immediate and perceptual: perceptual in the broad sense

of the term in which not only sense-perceptions, but

reality is

in

distinguished from all that

thought.

is

all concrete

abstract and concep tual

Psychology can exhibit the interconnection of the

contents of experience as actually presented to the subject, only

by avoiding

entirely the abstractions and supplementary concepts of

natural science.

Thus, while natural science and psychology are

Introduction.

both empirical sciences in the sense that they aim to explain the
contents of experience, though from different points of view,

obvious that, in consequence of the character of

it is

psychology

2.

is

the more strictly empirical.

GENERAL THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY.

The view

1.

still

problem,

its

that psychology

is

an empirical science which

deals, not with specific contents of experience, but with the

immediate contents of

experience,

all

is

of recent origin.

It

encounters in the science of to-day oppositional views,

still

which are to be looked upon, in general, as the remnants

of

earlier

stages

and which are

development,

of

turn

in

arrayed against one another according to their attitudes on

the question of the relation of psychology to philosophy and
to

On

the other sciences.

mentioned above (1,

I)

the basis of the two definitions

as being the

most widely accepted,

two chief theories of psychology may be distinguished:

Each

physical and empirical psychology.

into a

number

empirical analysis

physics,

its

metor-

further divided

of special tendencies.

Metaphysical psychology generally

Regarding

is

psychology
chief

values

very

and causal synthesis of psychical

a

as

effort is

part

of

little

processes.

meta-

philosophical

directed toward the

the

discovery of

a definition of the "nature of mind" that shall be in accord

with the whole theory of the metaphysical system to which
the particular psychology belongs.
cept of
to

mind has thus been

deduce from

ence.

The

it

After a metaphysical con-

established, the attempt

the actual content

of psychical

is

characteristic that distinguishes metaphysical

empirical psychology
processes, not

is,

made

experi-

from

then, its attempt to deduce psychical

from other psychical processes, but from some

General Theories of Psychology.

2.

substratum entirely unlike themselves: either from the mani-

from the

festations of a special mind-substance, or

At

and processes of matter.

chology branches

this

attributes

point metaphysical psy-

two directions. Spiritualistic psychol-

off in

ogy considers psychical processes as the manifestations of a

spedfie mind-substance, which

from matter

tially different

regarded either as essen-

is

(dualism), or as related in nature

The fundamental meta-

to matter (monism or monadology).

physical doctrine of spiritualistic psychology

of the sup&'sensible nature of
this,

the

assumption

of

mind and,

connection with

Sometimes the

immortality.

its

further notion of preexistence

added.

also

is

the assumption

is

in

Materialistic

psychology, on the other hand, refers psychical processes to

the same material substratum which natural science employs

for the explanation of natural
view, psychical

connected

processes,

with certain

like

at the end of that

life.

life

is

supersensible

nature

mind

psychology.

Both

theories

but to derive

it

as

have

seek, not to interpret psychical

itself,

of the individual

The metaphysical

psychology
of

material

of

determined by

this trend of

to this

physical vital processes,

organizations

which are formed during the

up

phenomena. According

its

in

and broken

character

of

denial of the

asserted by

this

are

particles

spiritualistic

common,

that they

experience from experience

from presuppositions about hypothetical

processes in a metaphysical substratum.

2.

From

the strife that followed these attempts at meta-

physical explanation, empirical psychology arose;

it

is

consistently carried

psychical processes

out,

it

strives

either

Wherever
to

arrange

under general concepts derived directly

from the interconnection of these processes themselves, or to

start with certain, as a rule simpler processes, and then explain the more complicated as the result of the interaction
of those with which

it

started.

There may be various fun-

Introduction.

damental principles for such an empirical interpretation, and

thus

it

several varieties of

becomes possible to distinguish

may be

In general, these

empirical psychology.

The

according to two principles of division.

first

classified

has refer-

ence to the relation of inner and outer experience, and the

attitude that the two empirical sciences, natural science

psychology, take toward each other.

to the facts or concepts derived

used for the interpretation

of

The second has

from these
psychical

system of empirical psychology has

facts,

and

reference

which are

processes.

Every

place under both of

its

these principles of classification.

On

nature of psychical
two views already mentioned (1) on account
of their decisive significance in determining the problem of
3.

the general question as to the

experience, the

psychology, stand over against each other: psychology of the

inner sense, and psychology as the science of immediate ex-

The

perience.

first treats

psychical processes as contents of

a special sphere of experience coordinate with the experience

which, derived through the outer senses,

province
totally

of

the

different

difference
distinction

natural

from

assigned as the

The second

recognizes

no real

only in the different points of view from which

first of

the older.

is

but though coordinate,

between inner and outer experience, but finds the

unitary experience

The

it.

sciences,

is

considered in the two cases.

these two varieties of empirical psychology

It arose

primarily from the

effort to

is

establish

the independence of psychical observation, in opposition to the

encroachments of natural philosophy.

natural science and psychology,

it

In thus coordinating

sees

the justification for

the equal recognition of both spheres in their entirely different objects and

modes

of perceiving these objects.

has influenced empirical psychology in two ways.

This view
First,

it

favored the opinion that psychology should employ empirical

2. Qeneral Theories of Psychology,

methods, but that these methods,

like psychological experience,

should be fundamentally different from those of natural science.

Secondly,
nection

it

gave

rise to the necessity of

other

or

between these

which were supposed to be

demand,

it

was

showing some con-

two kinds

of

experience,

In regard to the

different.

first

psychology of the inner sense that

chiefly the

deyeloped the method of 'pure introspection

tempting to solve the second question,

this

( 3

2).

In

at-

psychology was

necessarily driven back to a metaphysical basis, because of

its

assumption of a difference between the physical and the

For, from the very nature of

psychical contents of experience.

the case,

it

is

impossible to

account for the relations of

inner to outer experience,

or for the so-called "interaction

between body and mind",

from the position here taken,

except through metaphysical presuppositions.

sitions

must

itself in

then, in turn, effect the psychological investigation

such a way as to result in the importation of meta-

physical hypotheses into

4.

sense

These presuppo-

it.

Essentially distinct from the psychology of the inner

is

the trend that defines psychology as the "science of im-_

mediate experience".

Eegarding, as

it

does, outer

and inner

experience, not as different parts of experience, but as different

ways of looking at one and the same experience,

it

can not

admit any fundamental difference between the methods of

psychology and those of natural science.

sought most of

all to

shall lead to just such

cultivate

It has, therefore,

experimental methods which

an exact analysis of psychical processes

as that which the explanatory natural sciences undertake in

the case of natural phenomena,

the only

differences being

those which arise from the diverse points of view.

It holds

also that the special mental sciences which have to do with

concrete mental processes and creations

,

basis of a scientific

stand on this same

consideration of the immediate contents of

Introduction.

10

experience and of their relations to acting subjects.

It follows,

most general mental

then, that psychological analysis of the

products, such as language, mythological ideas, and laws of

custom,
all

to be regarded as

is

an aid to the understanding of

the more comphcated psychical processes.

In

methods,

its

then, this trend of psychology stands in close relation to other

sciences: as experimental psychology, to the natural sciences;

as social psychology, to the special mental sciences.

Finally,

from

this point of view, the question of the rela-

tion between psychical

tirely.

They are not

same content

different objects at

all,

but one and the

of experience, looked at in one case

of the natural sciences

in the other

and physical objects disappears en-

after abstracting

in that of psychology

from the

in their immediate

character and complete relations to the subject.

All meta-

and phy-

physical hypotheses as to the relation of psychical

sical objects are,

solve a

when viewed from

this position, attempts to

problem that never would have existed

had been

correctly stated.

in that
subject,

if

Though psychology must

the case
dispense

with metaphysical supplementary hypotheses in regard to the

interconnection of psychical processes, because these processes
are the immediate contents of experience

od

of procedure

is

still

another meth-

open from the very fact that inner and

outer experience are supplementary points of view.

Wherever

breaks appear in the interconnection of psychical processes,

it is

allowable to carry on the investigation according to the

physical methods of considering these same processes, in order

to discover whether the lacking coherency can

The same holds

for the

reverse

method

be thus supplied.
of filling

up the

breaks in the continuity of our physiological knowledge, by

means

of elements

Only on the
of

knowledge

derived from psychological investigation.

basis of such a view,

which

in their true relation,

is it

sets the

two forms

possible for psychol-

2. Oeneral

ogy to become in

Only

the

Theories of Psychology.

fullest

sense an

\\

empirical science.

in this way, too, can physiology

become the true supplementary science of psychology, and psychology, on the other
hand, the auxiliary of physiology.
5.

above

Under the second

that

(2),

is,

principle of classification mentioned

according to the facts or concepts with which

of psychical processes starts, there are two

of empirical psychology to be distinguished.
They

the investigation
varieties

same time, successive stages

are, at the

of psychological interpretation.
descriptive, the

The

in the development

first

corresponds to a

second to an explanatory stage. The attempt to

present a discriminating description of the different psychical

gave

processes,
fication.

rise

the need of an

to

appropriate

classi-

Class-concepts were formed, under which the various

processes were grouped; and the attempt was

made

to satisfy

the need of an interpretation in each particular case, by sub-

suming the components

Such concepts

their proper class-concepts.

sensation, knowledge, attention,

standing,

and

will.

compound process under

of a given

They correspond

of physics which are derived

are,

for example,

memory, imagination, underto the general concepts

from the immediate apprehension

of natural phenomena, such as weight, heat, sound,

and hght.

Like those concepts of physics, these derived psychical concepts

may

serve for a

first

grouping of the

facts,

but they

contribute nothing whatever to the explanation of these facts.

empirical psychology has often been guilty of confound-

Still,

ing

this

description

with explanation.

Thus, the faculty-

psychology considered these class-concepts as psychical forces

or faculties,

and referred psychical processes

nating or united
6.

Opposed

activity.

to

this

method

descriptive faculty-psychology,

ogy.

When

to their alter-

is

of

treatment

found in the

that of explanatory psychol-

consistently empirical, the latter

must base

its

inter-

Introduction.

pretations on certain facts which? themselves belong to psychical

These facts may, however, be taken from different spheres of psychical processes, and so it comes that
explanatory treatment may be further divided into two vaexperience.

rieties,

which correspond to the two

that go to

ject,

make up immediate
on the

chief emphasis

is

intellectualistic

psychology results.

psychical

all

laid

objects

and sub-

When

experience.

objects of

the

immediate experience,

This attempts to derive

especially

processes,

factors,

the

subjective

feelings,

impulses, and volitions, from ideas, or intellectual processes as

they

may

be called on acount of their importance for objective

knowledge.

ject,

on the contrary, the chief emphasis

If,

on the way

which immediate experience

in

is

laid

arises in the sub-

a variety of explanatory psychology results which

attri-

butes to those subjective activities not referred to external

objects

a position as independent as that assigned to ideas.

This variety has been called voluntai'isUe psychology, because

of the importance that

must be conceded

to

volitional pro-

cesses in comparison with other subjective processes.

Of
general

the two varieties

attitudes

experience

(3),

of psychology that result

on the

question

of

from the

the nature of inner

psychology of the inner sense commonly tends

towards intellectualism.
the inner sense

is

This

is

due to the fact that, when

coordinated with the outer senses, the con-

tents of psychical experience that first attract consideration

are those presented as objects to this inner sense, in a

manner

analogous to the presentation of natural objects to the outer

senses.

It

attributed

is

to

assumed that the character

ideas

alone

of

all

of objects

the contents

of

can be

psychical

experience, because they are regarded as images of the external

objects

presented

accordingly, looked

upon

to

the

outer

senses.

Ideas

are,

as the only real objects of the inner

sense, while all processes not referred to external objects, as,

2. Oeneral Theories of Psychology,

13

for example, the feelings, are interpreted as obscure ideas, or

own body,

ideas related to one's

or,

finally,

as

effects aris-

ing from combinations of the ideas.

The psychology
hand,

immediate experience

of

toward voluntarism.

tends

It

is

where the chief problem of psychology

on the other

(4),

obyious that here,

is

held to be the

investigation of the subjective rise of all experience, special

attention will be devoted to those factors from which natural

science abstracts.

psychology

Intellectualistic

7.

has in

development separated into two trends.

processes

of

its

logical

judgment and reasoning are regarded as the

of

typical forms

nations

course of

the

In one, the

of all psychoses; in the other, certain combi-

memory-ideas distinguished by their

successive

frequency, the so-called associations of ideas, are accepted

as

The

such.

logical

theory

is

most

closely related

popular method of psychological interpretation and

the older.

modem

It

still

finds

The

times.

is,

the

to

therefore,

some acceptance, however, even

associatiorir-theory arose

sophical empiricism of the last century.

in

from the philo-

The two

stand to a certain extent in antithesis, since the

first

theories

attempts

to reduce the totality of psychical processes to higher, while

the latter seeks to reduce

it

to lower and, as

simpler forms of intellectual activity.

and not only

fail to

it

is

Both are

assumed,
one-sided,

explain affective and vohtional processes

on the basis of the assumption with which they

are not able to give a

start,

but

complete interpretation even of the

intellectual processes.
8.

The union

intellectualistic

has been in

may
of

of psychology of the inner sense with the

view has led to

many

a peculiar assumption that

cases fatal to "psychological theory.

"We

define this assumption briefly as the erroneous attribution

the

nature of things

to ideas.

Not

only was an analogy

Introduetion.

assumed between the objects of the so-called inner sense and

those of the outer senses, but the former were regarded as the

images of the

latter;

and

so

it

came that the

which

attributes

natural science ascribes to external objects, were transferred

the immediate objects of the

to

"inner sense", the ideas.

The assumption was then made that ideas are themselves

much as the external objects to which we refer
them; that they disappear from consciousness and come back
into it; that they may, indeed, be more or less intensely
things, just as

and

clearly perceived

according as the inner sense

stimu-

is

and according

lated through the outer senses or not,

to the

degree of attention concentrated upon them, but that on the

whole they remain unchanged in qualitative character.

9.

In

all

these respects voluntaristie psychology

to intellectuaHsm.

and

While the

voluntarism

specific objects of inner experience,

related to the view that inner experience

immediate experience. According to

is

all

that which

general, that

is,

opposed

makes up the process

is

closely

identical with

this doctrine, the

psychological experience does not consist of a

but of

is

assumes an inner sense

latter

sum

content of
of objects,

of experience in

of all the experiences of the subject in their

immediate character, unmodified by abstraction or

reflection.

It follows of necessity that the contents of psychological expe-

rience should be regarded as

This
objective

concept

an interconnection of processes.

of process excludes

and more or

less

the attribution of an

permanent character to the con-

tents of psychical experience.

Psychical facts are occurrences,

not objects; they take place, like

all

occurrences, in time and

are never the same at a given point in time as they were

the preceding moment.

In

for all psychical processes.

this

sense

not by any means assert that volition

of

psychosis,

but

merely

volitions

Voluntaristie

that,

with

is

are typical

psychology

does

the only real form

its

closely

related

2, Oeneral Theories of Psychology.

feelings

and emotions,

it is

just as essential

15

a component of

psychological experience as sensations and ideas.

further, that all other psychical

of after the analogy of volitions

processes are to be thought

they too being a series of

continuous changes in time, not a

as

sum

generally assumes

intellectualism

It holds,

of

permanent

objects,

consequence

in

of its

erroneous attribution to ideas of those properties which we

attribute to external objects.

The

recognition of the immediate

reahty of psychological experience excludes the possibility of

the attempt to derive any particular components of psychical

phenomena from

The analogous

others specifically different.

attempts of metaphysical psychology to reduce

experience to the heterogeneous,

all

imaginary

psychological

processes

of

hypothetical substratum, are for the same reason inconsistent

with the real problem of psychology. While

however, with immediate experience

the first that

all

it

concerns

itself,

psychology assumes from

psychical contents contain objective as well

as subjective factors. These are to be distinguished only through

deUberate abstraction, and can never appear as really separate

processes.

In

fact,

immediate experience shows that there are

no ideas which do not arouse in us feehngs and impulses

different intensities, and,
volition is impossible
1

which does not refer to some ideated

The governing

0.

of

on the other hand, that a feeling or

object.

principles of the psychological position

maintained in the following chapters

may be summed up

in

three general statements.

1)

Inner, or psychological, experience

of experience apart from others

in

but

is

is

not a special sphere

immediate experience

its totality.

2)

This immediate experience

is

not

made up

of

unchang-

ing contents, but of an interconnection of processes; not of

objects,

and

but of occurrences, of universal

human

experiences

their relations in accordance with certain laws.

Introduetion.

Each

3)

processes contains an objective content

of these

and a

subjective process,

ditions

both of

all

the general con-

including

thus

knowledge and of

human

practical

all

activity.

Corresponding to these three general principles, we have

a threefold attitude of psychology to the other sciences.

As

1)

mentary

the science of immediate experience,

the natural sciences,

to

from the

their abstraction

objective,

mediate

fact can,

strictly

subject,

contents

speaking,

nificance only after

is

which,

Any

be understood in

particular
sig-

full

its

has been subjected to the analyses of

both natural science and psychology.

In

this

then,

sense,

and the

physics and physiology are auxiliary to psychology,

latter

supple^

have to do only with the

experience.

of

it is

in consequence of

in turn, supplementary to the natural sciences.

is,

As the science of the universal forms of immediate

human experience and their combination in accordance with
2)

certain laws,

it is

preceding from immediate

human

^ince psych ology has for

its

iorms and laws o| these

^neral_menta.l
others,

is

in all cases the activities

experiences,

and

their effects.

problenLjUie_mvestigatioa_of_the

activities^- it

science,^ a,nd

the

is

at once

psychology

Since

foundation^for

and

objective

pays

equal

attention

seeks to determine their interrelation,

whose

to

and

the

juris-

results are

both the

it is

and

ethics,

psychology

is

the two

since

the empirical dis-

most immediately useful

in the in-

of the general prol()lems of the them-y of

vestigation
ledge

all

conditions which underlie not' only

theoretical knowledge, but practical activity as well,

cipline

the most

etc.

subjective

it

such as philology, history, political economy,

prudence,
3)

The

the foundation of the mental sciences.

subject-matter of these sciences

foundations of philosophy.

knowThus,

in relation to natural science the supplementary,

2. Oemral Theories of Psychology.

relation to

in

\'J

the mental sciences the fundamental, and in

relation to philosophy the propaedeutic empirical science.

The view that

10a.

experience, but in the

it

way

not a

is

difference

in the

objects of

of treating experience, that distinguishes

psychology from natural science, has come to be recognized more

and more in modern psychology. Still, a clear comprehension of
the essential character of this position in regard to the

problems of psychology,

is

scientific

prevented by the persistence of older

metaphysics and natural philosophy.

from
from the fact that the natural sciences are
possible only after abstracting from the subjective factors of
experience, the more general problem of treating the contents
of all experience in the most general way, is sometimes assigned

tendencies
Instead

derived

of starting

to natural science.

In such a case psychology

is,

coordinate with the natural sciences, but

longer

of course, no

subordinate to

Its problem is no longer to remove

the abstraction
employed by the natural sciences, and in this way to gain with
them a complete view of experience, but it has to use the
concept "subject" furnished by the natural sciences, and to

them.

give

an account of the influence

experience.

of

tents

definition

Instead

of "subject"

is

logical investigations ( 1,3

by the natural sciences

is

possible
a),

is

only

as a

a finished concept

on the con-

that an
result

formed exclusively

is

is

Now,

for

identical with the body. Psychol-

accordingly defined as the science which has to determine

the dependence of immediate experience on the body.

tion,

adequate

of psycho-

here foisted upon psychology.

the natural sciences the subject

ogy

of this subject

of recognizing

which may be designated

as

This posi-

"psycho-physical materialism",

epistemologically untenable and psychologically unproductive.

Natural

science,

component of

all

which purposely abstracts from the subjective

experience,

is

least of all in a position to give

A psychology that starts with

such a purely physiological definition depends, therefore, not on

a final definition of the subject.

Hke the older materialistic psychology, on a

The position is psychologically unproductive because, from the very first, it turns over the causal
interpretation of psychical processes to physiology. But physiolexperience, but, just

metaphysical presupposition.

ogy has
Wdsdt,

not

yet furnished

Psychologj'.

such an

interpretation,

and
2

never

Introduction.

18
be able to do

will

so,

because of the

manner of regarding phenomena

between

difference

the

science and in psy-

natural

in

chology.
It is obvious, too, that such a form of psychology,
which has been turned into hypothetical brain -mechanics, can
never be of any service as a basis for the mental sciences.
The strictly empirical trend of psychology, defined in the
principles formulated above, is opposed to these attempts to
renew metaphysical doctrines. In calling it "voluntaristic", we

overlook the fact that,

are not to

voluntarism has absolutely no

doctrine

Indeed,

of will.

one-sided

hauer's

it

in

psychological

this

itself,

connection with any metaphysical

opposition to

stands in

metaphysical

which

voluntarism,

Schopen-

derived

all

and to the metaphysical

systems of a Spinoza or a Herbart, which arose from intellectu-

being from a transcendental original

In

alism.

will,

relation to metaphysics, the

its

characteristic of psy-

chological voluntarism in the sense above defined,

of

all

metaphysics from psychology.

forms of psychology,

it

to reduce volitions to

mere

sizes the

typical

ces,

character

Volitional acts

perience.

refuses

made up of a
They are

intensity.

of being occurrences

ideas,

is its

relations

its

to accept any of the

for

all

to

other

attempts

psychological

are universally recognized as

series of

exclusion

and at the same time empha-

of volition

typical in
is

In

continual

ex-

occurren-

changes in quality and

the sense that this

held to be true for

all

characteristic

the

contents of

psychical experience.

1.
)

3.

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY.

Since psychology has for

its

object, not specific con-

experience, but general experience in

tents of

character,

it

its

immediate

can make use of no methods except such as

the empirical sciences in general employ for the determination,

analysis

and causal synthesis

of facts.

The

circumstance,

that natural science abstracts from the subject, while psychol-

ogy does

not,

can be no ground for modifications in the essential

character of the methods employed in the two

it

does modify the

way

in

fields,

though

which these methods are applied.

The natural

Methods of Psychology.

3.

19

which may serve as an example for

sciences,

psychology in this respect, since they were developed earher,

make use

of hvo chief methods: experiment

Experiment

is

interference

on the part

connected

observation

phenomena observed.

course of the

observation.

an intentional

with

the observer,

of

and

in the

Observation, in

rise
its

proper

phenomena without such

sense, is the investigation of

and

inter-

ference, just as they are naturally presented to the observer

the

in

continuity

of

possible, it is always

circumstances, even

all

Wherever experiment

experience.

used in the natural sciences

when

the

phenomena

in

for

themselves

present the conditions for sufficiently exact observation,

is

an advantage

to be able to

is

under

control at will their rise

it

and

progress, or to isolate the various components of a composite

phenomenon.

Still,

even in the natural

sciences

methods have been distinguished according ta

of application.

It

is

the

two

their spheres

held that the experimental methods are

indispensable for certain problems, while in others the desired

end

may

vation.

not infrequently be reached through mere obser-

If

relations,

we

neglect a few exceptional cases due to special

these two classes of problems

general division

of

phenomena

natural

correspond to the
into

processes

and

objects.

Experimental interference

is

required in the exact deter-

mination of the course, and in the analysis of the components,

of

any natural

process, such as,

for example, light-waves or

sound-waves, an electric discharge, the formation or disintegration of a chemical compound, and stimulation and
in plants

and animals. As a

because exact observation

determine the
It

is

moment

at

is

rule,

such interference

possible only

when

which the process

phenomenon from one

another.

desirable

the observer can

shall

also indispensable in separating the various

of a complex

metaboUsm
is

As

commence.
components
a
2*

rule, this

Introduction.

20
is

possible only through the addition or subtraction of certain

conditions, or a quantitative variation of them.

The

case

is

different

They

with objects of nature.

are

relatively

constant; they do not have to be produced at a

particular

moment, but are always at the observer's disposal

and ready
vestigation

and

examination.

for
is

Here, then,

generally necessary only

experimental in-

when

the production

In

modification of the objects are to be inquired into.

such a case, they are regarded either as products or components of natural processes and come under the head of
processes rather than objects.

only question

is

When, on

the contrary, the

the actual nature of these

reference to their origin or modification,

objects, without

mere observation

is

Thus, mineralogy, botany, zoology, ana-

generally enough.

tomy, and geography, are pure sciences of observation so long

as they are kept free
iological

from the physical, chemical, and phys-

problems that are, indeed, frequently brought into

them, but have to do with processes of nature, not with the

objects in themselves.
2.

If

we apply

these

considerations to psychology,

obvious at once, from the very nature of

that

exact

observation

is

its

it is

subject-matter,

here possible only in the form of

experimental observation, and that psychology can never be

a pure science of observation.

The contents

of this science

are exclusively processes, not permanent objects.

investigate

with

exactness

the rise and

In order to

progress

of

these

processes, their composition out of various components,

the interrelations of these components,

we must be

of all to bring about their beginning at will,

to

vary the conditions of the same.

as in all cases, only through

introspection.

This

is

able

and
first

and purposely
possible here,

experiment, not through pure

Besides this general reason there

pecuHar to psychology, that does not apply at

is

all to

another,

natural

phenomena.

In the

Methods of Psychology.

3.

we purposely

latter case

the perceiving subject, and

when favored by the

regularity of

abstraction by

its

suitable

this

and the conditions

only

when the same

components of immediate experience are frequently

repeated in connection with the same subjective

is

in

determining

in

debarred from

is

fundamental principles

for chance observation can be

as

contents of the pro-

objective

Psychology, on the contrary,

objective

phenomena,

the

mere observation may succeed

astronomy,

abstract from

under circumstances, especially

with adequate certainty the

cesses.

21

states.

It

hardly to be expected, in view of the great complexity of

The

psychical processes, that this will ever be the case.

cidence
observe,

is

especially improbable

which

is

a necessary

coin-

since the very intention to

condition of all

observation,

modifies essentially the rise and progress of psychical pro-

not disturbed by this in-

cesses.

Observation of nature

tention

on the part of the observer, because here we pur-

from the

posely abstract

is

of

state

problem of psychology, however,

is

The

the subject.

chief

the exact observation of

the rise and progress of subjective processes, and

it

can be

readily seen that under such circumstances the intention to

observe either essentially modifies the facts to be observed,

or completely suppresses them.
ogy,
is

by the very way

in

led, just as physics

perimental
the

mode

On

the other hand, psychol-

which psychical processes

and physiology

of procedure.

are, to

originate,

employ the ex-

A sensation arises in us under

most favorable conditions for observation when

caused by

an external sense-stimulus,

tone-sensation

from an

as,

object

it

example,

is

external tone-vibration, or a hght-

sensation from an external hght-impression.

is

for

The

idea of an

always caused originally by the more or less com-

plicated cooperation
to study the

way

in

of

external sense-stimuli.

which an idea

is

If

we wish

formed, we can choose

IntrodiCelion.

22

no other method than that of imitating

In doing

this,

of being able

we
to

it,

and

of thus learning

exercises

not be

modify the idea

itself

of the impressions

the combination

this natural process.

have at the same time the great advantage

by changing at

what influence each

single condition

Memory-images,

on the product.

it is

true,

can

aroused through external sense impressions,

dii-ectly

but follow them after a longer or shorter interval.

is

will

that cooperate to form

Still,

it

obvious that their attributes, and especially their relation

to the primary ideas aroused

be most accurately learned,

arrival,

through direct impressions, can

riot

their chance

by waiting for

but by using such memory-ideas as

may be

aroused,

in a systematic, experimental way, through immediately pre-

ceding impressions.

The same

true of feelings

is

and

voli-

tions;

they will be presented in the form best adapted to

exact

investigation

when

those

impressions

are

purposely

produced which experience has shown to be regularly connected with affective and volitional reactions.

no

fundamental

psychical

process

to

There

which

is,

then,

experimental

methods can not be applied, and therefore none in whose

investigation they are not logically required.
3.

Pure

observation, such as

ments of natural
chical

science,

is,

is

possible in

many

depart-

from the very character of psy-

phenomena, impossible in individual psychology.

Such

a possibiUty would be conceivable only under the condition

that there existed permanent psychical objects,
of our attention, similar to the relatively
of nature,

them.

independent

permanent objects

which remain unchanged by our observation of

There

are,

indeed,

certain

facts

at the disposal of

psychology, which, although they are not real objects, stUl

have the character of psychical objects inasmuch as they

possess these attributes of relative permanence,

dence of the observer.

and indepen-

Connected with these characteristics


is

Methods of Psychology.

3.

23

the further fact that they are unapprochable by means of

common

experiment in the
facts are the

These

acceptance of the term.

mental products that have been developed in

the course of history, such as language, mythological ideas,

and customs.

The

origin

and development

of

pro-

these

ducts depend in every case on general psychical conditions

which

may

be inferred from their objective attributes.

chological analysis

can,

Psy-

consequently, explain the psychical

processes operative in their formation and development.

All

such mental products of a general character presuppose as

a

condition

the

existence

of

community com-

mental

posed of many individuals, though, of course, their deepest

sources

are

Because

of

psychical

the

investigation

and distinguished from

because of

its

oil

community,

ticular the social

chological

attributes

dependence

this

is

this

the

of

the

individual.

community,

par-

in

whole department of psy-

designated

as

social psychology,

or

as

it

individual,

may be

called

predominating method, experimental psychology.

In the present stage of the science these two branches of

psychology are generally taken up in different treatises
they are not so
ods.

much

still,

different departments as different meth-

So-called social psychology corresponds to the method

of pure observation, the objects of observation

being

the

mental

social psychology its

name,

case

The necessary connection

products.

these products with social

in this

of

communities, which has given to

is

due

to the fact that the

mental

products of the individual are of too variable a character to

be the
gain

subjects

the

become

of

necessary

objective

degree

of

collective.

Thus psychology has,

methods

The phenomena
constancy only when they

observation.

like

natural

science,

two exact

the experimental method, serving for the analysis of

simpler psychical processes, and the

observation

of general

IntrodueUon.

'2'i

mental products, serving for the investigation of the higher

psychical processes and developments.
3a. Tlie introduction of the experimental method into psychology was originally due to the modes of procedure in physiology,

especially in the physiology of the sense-organs and the nervous

system.

For

monly

called

this

reason

experimental psychology

is

also

com-

"physiological psychology"; and works treating

it

supplementary facts from

the physiology of the nervous system and the sense-organs, which

under

this title regularly contain those

require

special

discussion with a

view to the interests of psyphysiology alone.

chology, though in themselves they belong to

"Physiological psychology"

is,

accordingly,

an intermediate dis-

which is, however, as the name indicates, primarily

psychology, and is, apart from the supplementary physiological
facts that it presents, just the same as "experimental psychology"
in the sense above defined.
The attempt sometimes made to
distinguish psychology proper from physiological psychology, by
cipline

assigning to

the

first

experience, and to the

the

psychological interpretation

of inner

second the derivation of this experience

from physiological processes, is to be rejected as inadmissible.

There is only one kind of causal explanation in psychology, and
that is the derivation of more complex psychical processes from
simpler ones.
In this method of interpretation physiological
elements can be used only as supplementary

aids,

because of the

between natural science and psychology as above defined

Materialistic psychology denies the existence of psychical
4).
2,
(
causality, and substitutes for this problem the other, of explainrelation

ing psychical processes by brain-physiology.

has

been shown

( 2, 10 a) to

logically untenable, appears

This tendency, which

be epistemologically and psycho-

among

the

representatives

of both

"pure" and "physiological" psychology.

1.

4.

GENERAL SUEVEY OF THE SUBJECT.

The immediate

contents of experience which constitute

the subject-matter of psychology, are under

processes of a composite character.

all

circumstances

Sense-perceptions of ex-


ternal

General Survey of (he Subject.

4.

25

memories of such sense-perceptions,

objects,

feelings,

emotions, and volitional acts, are not only continually united

in

the most various ways,

a more or

itself

some

may be

tone

ever so simple

direction, thus bringing

which

of external space,
volition

or to

is

which
is

it

of

is

an ex-

of partial ideas of its

,

but we localize

it

in

into connection with the idea

highly composite.

feeling

or

In dealing with a complex fact of

investigation has

scientific

processes; the second

third

is

willed.

solved in succession.

into

The idea

referred to some sensation that aroused the feeling

an object

kind,

this

made up

is

these processes

of

composite whole.

less

ternal body, for example,

parts.

but each

The
is

^e

the elements

three

problems to be

first is the analysis of

composite

demonstration of the combinations

discovered

by analysis enter;

the

the investigation of the laws that are operative in

the formation of such combinations.

2.

The

second, or synthetic, problem

In the

partial problems.

unite

to

form

first

is

made up

of several

place, the psychical elements

composite psychical

compounds which are

separate and relatively independent of one another in the continual flow of psychical processes.

Such compounds

are,

for

example, ideas, whether referred directly to external impressions

or objects, or interpreted by us as memories of impressions

and objects perceived

before.

feelings, emotions, or

volitions.

Other examples are composite

Then

again, these psychical

compounds stand in the most various interconnections with

one another.

Thus, ideas unite to from larger simultaneous

ideational complexes or regular successions, while affective and

volitional processes

form a variety of combinations with one

another and with ideational processes.

In

this

way we have

the interconnection of psychical compounds as a class of synthetical processes of the second degree, consisting of a union

between the simpler combinations, or those of elements into

Introduction.

26

The

psychical compounds.
in turn, unite to

form

separate psychical interconnections,

more comprehensive combinations,

still

which also show a certain regularity in the arrangement of

In

their components.

which we

arise,

this

way, combinations of a third degree

by the general name psychical

designate

They may be divided

developments.

into

developments of

Developments of a more limited sort are

different scope.

such as relate to a single mental trend, for example, the

development of the intellectual functions, of the

feelings,

or of the

From a number

such as the aesthetic or moral feelings.

such partial series arises the
Finally,

personality.

degree

will,

or of merely one special branch of these functions,

human

since

total

of

development of a psychical

animals

and

in a

still

higher

individuals are in continual interrelation with

like beings, there arise

above these individual forms the gen^

These various branches of the

eral psychical developments.

study of psychical development are in part the psychological

foundations of other sciences, such as the theory of knowledge,

pedagogy, aesthetics, and

more appropriately

ethics,

and

are, accordingly, treated

connection with these.

in

In part they

have become special psychological sciences, such as child-

We

psychology, animal and social psychology.

fore, in this treatise discuss

shall, there-

only those results from the three

mentioned departments which are of the most importance

last

for general psychology.

3.

The

solution of the last

and most general psychological

problem, the ascertainment of the laws of psychical phenomena,

depends

nations
into
of

of

apon

different

compounds,

of

interconnections

vestigation

is

the

the

investigation

degrees, the

compounds
into

of

all

the

combi-

combination of elements

into

interconnections,

developments.

And

as

this

and
in-

only thing that can teach us the actual

composition of psychical processes, so

we can

discover the

attributes

4.

General Survey of the Subject.

tents

of

which iinds

of psychical causality,

in these processes, only

27
its

expression

from the laws followed by the con-

experience and their components

their

in

various

combinations.

We

have,

accordingly,

to

consider

in

the

chapters
1)

Psychical Elements,

2)

Psychical Compounds,

3)

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds,

4)

Psychical Developments,

5)

Psychical Causality and

its

Laws.

following

I.

PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS.

CHIEF FORMS A^D GENERAL ATTRIBUTES

OF PSYOHIOAL ELEMENTS.

5.

l.^^AlLJlie conten ts of psychical experience are of a comIt follows, therefore, that psychical elements,

posite charactei:.

and irreducible components

or the absolutely simple

chical

This abstraction

only with the aid of abstraction.

by the

possible

fact that the

in different ways.

with the elements

it

is

b, e,

possible to abstract

we hear a

may be

is

now

it

.,

in

from

is

of

all

is

As

.,

If,

it.

for example,

a certaia pitch and intensity,

in this direction,

now

it

in that,

and may

But

since the

not constant, or the accompanying tone the same,

possible to

we have
2.

is

b', c', d'

the other elements, be-

be heard alternately with various other tones.

direction

rendered

connected in one case

another with

always united with

simple tone

located

is

elements are in reahty united

If the element

cause none of them

it

of psy-

phenomena, can not be found by analysis alone, but

abstract from these variable elements, and

the single tone as a psychical element.

products of psychical analysis,

we have

psychical

elements of two kinds, corresponding to the two factors con-

tained in immediate experience (

and the experiencing

contents

we

call

subject.

1, 2),

the objective contents

The elements

of the objective

sensational elements, or simply sensations:

such are a tone, or a particular sensation of hot, cold, or

light,

when we

neglect

for the

moment

all

the connections

of

Chief Forms and General Attributes of Psychical Elements.

5.

with

sensations

these

others,

The

temporal relations.

and

subjective

all their

spacial

29

and

on the other

elements,

hand, are designated as affective elements, or simple feelings.

We may mention

as examples the feelings accompanying sen-

sations of hght, sound, taste, smell, hot, cold, or pain, the feel-

ings aroused

and the

by the

feelings

moment

of

sight of

a voHtional

an agreeable or disagreeable

in a state

arising

of

Such simple feehngs are

act.

double sense products of abstraction: each

an ideational element, and

object,

attention or at the

is

in a

connected with

is

furthermore a

component

of

a psychical process which occurs ia time, and diu'ing which

the feeHng itself
3.

The

consist

of

continually changing.

is

actual

contents

various

combinations of sensational and affective

of

psychical

always

experience

elements, so that the specific character of the simple psychi-;

cal processes

depends for the most part not on the nature'

much

of these elements so

psychical compounds.

as on their union into composite

Thus, /the idea of an extended body

or of a temporal series of sensations, an emotion,

lition,

are all specific

their character as such

and

affective

is

as

little

chemical

But

present in their sensational

elements as the chemical properties of a com-

pound body can be defined by recounting the

its

and a vo-

forms of psychical experience.

elements.

Specific

character

properties of

siaAehmeiiia/r-y

nature of j)sychical processes are, accardingly-j two -entirely

different

concepts.

Every psychical

element

is

specific

content of experience, but not every specific content of immediate

experience

is

at the

same time a psychical elenient^

Thus, especially spacial and temporal ideas, emotions, and

volitional

Many

acts, are

specific

but not

elementary

processes.

elements are present only in psychical compounds of

a particular kind, but since these compounds regularly contain other elements as well, their special characteristics are

30
to

I-

be attributed to the

Psyehioal Elements.

mode

Thus,

abstract attributes, of their elements.

a momentary sound-sensation

than to the

of union, rather

we always

refer

a definite point in time.

to

This localization in time, however,

by

possible only

is

relat-

ing the given sensation to others preceding and following

it,

that the special character of the time-idea can not

so

from the single sound-sensation thought of as

arise

but only from

its

isolated,

Again, an emotion of

union with others.

anger or a voHtion contains certain simple feelings that are

never

present

of

other psychical compounds,

in

these processes

is

composite, for

which particular feelings follow one another with a certain

regularity,

and the process

whole train of these

4.

not complete without the

itself is

feelings.

Sensations and simple feelings exhibit certain

attributes

have in

and

determinants, which

we

Every simple sensation and every simple

and

other sensations and feelings;

ways have some degree

qualities,

value which

ment.

Our

entirely

upon

and

feeling

from

off

must

we

al-

distin-

from one another by

but regard the intensity as the quantitative

in

any concrete case belongs to the given

designations of
their

psychical

quahties; thus,

sations as blue, grey, yellow, hot,

as grave, cheerful, sad, gloomy,

hand,

it

this quality

Accordingly,

of intensity.

guish the different psychical elements

their

They

call quality

a definite qualitative character that marks

has

common

certain characteristic differences.

also

common two

intensity.

all

each of

still

has duration, in the course

it

we always

we

and

elements

are

ele-

based

distinguish such sencold, or

and sorrowful.

such feelings

On

the other

express the differences in the intensity of

psychical elements by the same quantitative designations, as

weak, strong, medium strong, and very strong.

sions are in both cases class-concepts
superficial

These expres-

which serve for a

first

arrangement of the elements, and each embraces

5.

Chief Forms and General Attributes of Psychical Elements.

an unlimitedly large number

of concrete elements.

31

Language

has developed a relatively complete stock of names for the

qualities of simple sensations, especially for colors

Names

for the qualities of feelings

are far behind.

and

( 15,

and

tones.

for degrees of intensity

Clearness and obscurity, as also distinctness

are sometimes classed with

indistinctness,

But^^ince these

intensity.

and

as

attributes,

will

quality

and

appear later

always jrisfi-irom-Jhe,, interconnection of psychical

4),

compounds, they can not be regarded as determinants

-of

psychical elements.
5.

Made

up, at

it

of intensity from which

gradations, to

quahty.

one we

of two determinants, quality

is,

intensity, every psychical

it

is

possible to pass,

by continual

every other degree of intensity in the same

Such gradations can be made

call

and

element must have a certain degree

ino'ease in intensity,

in only

two directions

the other decrease.

The

degrees of intensity of every qualitative element, form in this

way a single dimension, in which, from a given point, we

may move in two opposite directions, just as from any point
in

a straight Hne.

statement:

This

may be

expressed in the general

The various intensities of every psychical element

form a continuity of one dimension. The extremities of this

continuity we call the minimal and maximal sensation or
feeling,

as the case

In contrast with

may

be.

this uniformity in intensities, the qualities

have more variable attributes.

Every quality may, indeed, be

so arranged in a definite continuity that

it is

possible to pass

uninterruptedly from a given point to any other points in the

But

same

quality.

ities

which we may

the various continuities of different qualcall systems

of quality, exhibit differences

both in the variety of possible gradations, and in the number

of directions of gradation.

In these two

distinguish, on the one hand,

respects,

we may

homogeneous and complex, on

32

I-

Psychical Elements.

many-dimsn^

the other, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, aiid

sional systems

"Within a homogeneous system,

of quality.

only such small differences are possible that generally there

has never arisen any practical need of distinguishing them

by different names. Thus, we distinguish only one quality
of pressure,

hot, cold, or pain, only one feeling of attention

or of activity, although, in intensity, each of these qualities

may have many

this fact that

one quality.

it

entirely to

The

truth

is

geometrically,

it

would probably never reduce

of the

sldn show,

some distance from

arise

it.

Such

differences,

from contact with a sharp or

body,

are not

to

dull,

psychical compounds,

however, as

qualities.

They

of simultaneous sensations,

and without the various combinations

composite

from another

a rough or smooth

be reckoned as different

always depend on a large number

beyond

which are great enough

question, small qualitative differences

to let us distinguish clearly any point of the skin

at

number
we were to

limited;,, if

Thus, for example, sensations of

regions

different

really only

is

that in these cases the

merely very

is

a single point.

from

pressure

be inferred from

each of these systems there

in

of different qualities

represent

It is not to

different grades.

of these sensations into

the impressions mentioned

would be impossible.
Complex systems

of quality differ

discussing, in that they

distinguishable

mediate

forms

tonal system and

tastes,

between which

elements
exist.

Li

this

class

all

affective

of clearly

possible

inter-

we must include

the systems of

color-system,

and among the

from those we have been

embrace a large number

systems

smells

the

and

those which form

the subjective complements of these sensational systems, such

as

the

systems of tonal feelings,

probable also that

many systems

color-feelings,

etc.

of feelings belong here,

It

is

which

are objectively connected with composite impressions, but as

5.

Chief Forms and Oeneral Attributes of Psychical Elements.

33

feelings are simple in character; such are the various feelings

of

harmony or discord that correspond

to the different

com-

binations of tones.

The

differences in

number of dimensions have heen

the

determined with certainty only in the case of certain sensational systems.

The ordinary

Thus, the tonal system

is

one -dimensional.

color-system, which includes the colors

transitional qualities to white,

is

two-dimensional;

and

their

while the

complete system of Hght-sensations, which includes also the

dark color-tones and the transitional quahties to black,

is

three - dimensional.
6.

In the relations discussed thus

hand, in

attributes

essential

certain

and

sensational

far,

They

affective elements in .general agree.

differ,

which

on the other

are

connected

with the immediate relations of sensations to objects and of

feelings to the subject.
1)

When

varied in a single dimension, sensational elements

exhibit ^wre qualitative differences, which are always in the

direction until they reach the possible limits of variation,

same

where

they become maximal differences. Thus, in the color-system,

red and green, blue and yellow, or in the tonal system, the
lowest and highest audible tones, are the maximal, and at the

same time purely

ment, on

qualitative, differences.

the contrary,

suitable direction of quality,

of opposite quality.

This

Every

when continuously
is

affective elements regularly

affective ele-

varied

in

most obvious

in the case of the

connected with certain sensational

elements, as, for example, tonal feelings or color-feeHngs.

sensations a high

the

passes gradually into a feeling

and a low tone are

As

differences that approach

more or less the maximal differences of tonal sensation; the

corresponding tonal feelings are opposites.
sensational qualities are limited by
tive

qualities

by maximal opposites.

WoNDT, Psychology.

maximal

In general, then,
differences, affec-

Between these opposites

3

34
is

It

Psychical Elements.

a middle zone, where the

is,

feeling

not noticeable at

is

all.

however, frequently impossible to demonstrate this in-

difference-zone, because, while certain simple feelings disappear,

other affective qualities remain, or

The

latter case appears especially

new ones even may arise.

when the transition of the

feeling into the indifference-zone depends

sations.

on a change

in sen-

Thus, in the middle of the musical scale, those feelings

disappear which correspond to the high and low tones, but the

middle tones have

independent affective qualities

other,

still

which do not disappear with these opposites.

This

is

to be

explained hy the fact that a feehng which corresponds to a

certain sensational quality

complex

affective

as a rule,

is,

system, in which

a component of a

belongs at the same

it

Thus, the affective quaUty of

time to various dimensions.

a tone of given pitch belongs not only to the dimension of

pitch-feelings,

but also to that of feehngs of intensity, and

finally to the different

of tones

ities

and

may be

dimensions in which the clang-qual-

and

so far as feelings of pitch

yet have a very

tive

arranged.

intensity may, in this way, lie

marked

tone

of middle

pitch

in the indifference-zone

and

intensity are concerned,

The passage

clang-feeling.

of affec-

elements through the indifference-zone can be directly

observed

only

accompanying

when

care

is

taken to abstract from other

affective elements.

this observation are those in

The

cases most favorable for

which the accompanying elements

disappear entirely or almost entirely.

Wherever such an

in-

difference-zone appears without complication with other affective

elements,

we speak

of the state as free

from

feelings,

and

of

the sensations and ideas present in such a state, as indifferent.

2)

Peelings of specific, and at the same time simple and

irreducible,

quality appear not only as the

subjective

com-

plements of simple sensations, but also as the characteristic

attendants

of

composite

ideas

or

even complex ideational

Chief Forms and General Attributes of Psychical Elements.

5.

processes.

Thus, there

35

a simple tonal feeling which varies

is

with the pitch and intensity of tones, and also a feeling of

harmony which, regarded

as a feeling,

but varies with the

character

other feelings, which

may

of

each single feehng taken by

an irreducible

unit.

just as irreducible,

clangs.

itself at

Still

most various

in turn be of the

kinds, arise from melodious series of

as

is

compound

Here, again,

clangs.

a given moment, appears

Simple feelings

are, then,

much more

various and numerous than simple sensations.

3) The various pure sensations may be arranged in a
number of separate systems, between whose elements there is

no qualitative relation whatever.

Thus, a tone and a

a sensation of hot and one of pressure,

color,

belonging to

Sensations

different systems are called disparate.

or, in general,

any two sensations between which there are no intermediate

qualities, are disparate.

According to

this criterion,

each of

the four special senses (smell, taste, hearing, and sight) has a

complex sensational system, disparate from the other

closed,

senses; while the general sense (touch)

contains four

homo-

geneous sensational systems (sensations of pressure, hot, cold,

and

pain).

single

which

All simple

on the contrary, form a

feelings,

interconnected manifold, for there

it

is

is

no feeling from

not possible to pass to any other through inter-

mediate forms or through indifference -zones.

we may

distinguish certain systems

closely related, as, for example, feelings

harmonies, and rhythms.

But here

too

whose elements are more

from

colors,

tones,

StUl, they are not absolutely closed

systems, but there are everywhere relations either of likeness

or of opposition to other systems.

Thus, such feelings as those

from

sensations of moderate warmth, from tonal hamorny, and

from

satisfied

differences

may

expectation,

however great their qualitative

be, are all related in that they

general class of "pleasurable feelings".

belong to the

Still closer relations

3*

36

I.

Psychical Elements.

between certain single

exist

affective systems, as, for

example,

between tonal feelings and color-feelings, where deep tones

seem to be related to dark colors, and bright colors to high

When

tones.

in such cases a certain relationship is ascribed

to the sensations themselves,

This

distinguishing

third

it is

probably due entirely to a

accompanying feelings with the sensations.

confusion of the

characteristic

origin of the feelings

sively that the

is

that of the sensations, which depend on a

number

ent and in part distinguishable conditions.

distinction
ject,

we

that

shows

conclu-

more unitary than

It

is

of differ-

the same

find in the characterization of the sub-

which stands in immediate relation to the

feelings, as

a unit, in contrast with the plurality of the objects, to which

the sensations are related.

modem

only in

6 a. It is

psychology that the terms "sen-

sation" and "feeling" have gained the meanings assigned to

in the definitions above given.

they were

sometimes

used indiscriminatingly,

Even yet

changed.

sensations

of

sponds,

it is

feeling is

known

is

as

touch

by

and

sometimes interthose

from

and the sense

the "sense of feeUng".

This corre-

true, to the original significance of the word,

the

same

as

the

physiologists,

internal organs are called feelings

of touch itself

them

In older psychological literature

touching,

still,

after

the

very

where
useful

difierentiation has once

been made, a confusion of the two terms

Then again, the word "sensation" is used
even by psychologists to mean not only simple, but also composite qualities, such as compound clangs and spacial and temBut since we have the entirely adequate word
poral ideas.
"idea" for such compounds, it is more advantageous to limit the
word sensation to psychologically simple sense-qualities. Finally,
the term "sensation" has sometimes been restricted so as to mean
only those stimulations which come directly from external senseFor the psychological attributes of a sensation, however,
stimuli.
should be

this

avoided.

circumstance

definition of the

is

term

entirely
is

irrelevant,

unjustifiable.

and therefore such a

Chief Forms and Qeneral Attributes of Psychical Mements,

5.

37

The discrimination between sensational and affective elemenl.s

any concrete case is very much facilitated by the existence
Then again, from the fact
of indifference-zones in the feelings.
that feelings range between opposites rather than mere differences, it follows that they are much the more variable elements
of our immediate experience.
This changeable character, which
in

renders
in

it

almost impossible to hold an affective state

quality and intensity,

that stand in the

Sensations
feelings

may

oscillation

way

are

cause

the

is

constant

great difficulties

of the

of the exact investigation of feelings.

present

in

all

disappear in certain

immediate

special

but

experiences,

cases, because of their

through an indifference-zone. Obviously, then, we can,

sensations, abstract from the accompanying feel-

in the case of
ings,

but never vice versa.

easily arise,

either

In this

way two

The

that feelings are a particular species of sensations.

these

opinions

is

views

false

may

are the causes of feelings, or

that sensations

first

of

because affective elements can never be

false

derived from sensations as such, but only from the attitude of

the subject, so that under different subjective conditions the

same sensation may be accompanied by different feelings. The

second is untenable because the two classes of elements are
distinguished
on the one hand by the immediate relation of
sensations to objects and of feelings to the subject, and on the
other by the fact that the former range between maximal differBecause of the
ences, the latter between maximal opposites.
,

objective

and

subjective

perience, sensations and

and equally

essential,

factors
feelings

belonging to
are to be

though everywhere

phenomena.

In

all

psychical ex-

looked upon as real

interrelated,

interrelation

elements

sensational

the

of psychical
elements appear as the more constant; they alone can be isolated
this

through abstraction, by referring them to

external

objects.

It

follows, therefore, of necessity that in investigating the attributes

of both,

we must

start

with the sensations.

in the consideration of which

we

abstract

Simple sensations,

from the accompanying

affective elements, are called ^wre sensations. Obviously,

we can never

feelings" in a similar sense, since simple feelings

speak of "pure
can never be thought of apart from the accompanying sensations
and combinations of sensations. This fact is directly connected with
the second distinguishing characteristic mentioned above

(p.

34

sq).

Psychical Elements.

I.

38

1.

PURE SENSATIONS.

6.

The concept "pure sensation"

product of a twofold abstraction:

the sensation appears, and

which

united.

it is

We

2)

as

shown

in 5

the

1)

from the simple feelings with

find that pure sensations, defined in

way, form a number of disparate systems of quality

this

is

from the ideas in which

each

of pressure, of

of these systems, such as that of sensations

tone, or of hght, is either a homogeneous or a complex continuity (5, 5) from which no transition to any other system

can be found.
2.

The

gularly
their

dependent

the

We

If the

the outer world

we

call it

stimulus

physical;

if it

is

is

as sense-stiTn-

a process in

a process in our

Physiological stimuK

call it physiological.

us,

designate these pro-

name borrowed from physiology

or sensation- stimuli.

own body we

world surrounding

external

certain bodily organs.

cesses with a

us, is re-

on certain physical processes that have

partly in

origin

partly in

uli

of sensations, as physiology teaches

rise

be divided, in turn, into penpheral and central,

may

according

as they are processes in the various bodily organs outside of

the brain, or processes in the brain

sensation
illustrate,

is

attended by

all

itself.

In many cases a

three forms of stimuli.

Thus, to

an external impression of hght acts as a physical

stimulus on the eye; in the eye and optic nerve there arises

a peripheral physiological stimulation;

finally

a central phys-

iological stimulation takes place in the corpora

and

may be

wanting, while both forms of physiological stimuli are

present; as,

where the

In many cases the physical stimulus

optic nerve terminates.

of

quadrigemina

in the occipital regions of the cerebral cortex,

when we

violent

ocular

central stimulus alone

perceive a flash of light in consequence

movement.
is

In

present; as,

still

other

when we

cases

the

recall a hght-

6.

Pure Sensations.

39

The

impression previously experienced.

central stimulus

is,

accordingly, the only one that always accompanies sensation.

When

a peripheral stimulus causes a sensation,

connected with a central stimulus, and

it

must be

a physical must be

connected with both a peripheral and a central stimulus.

3.

"The physiological study

of

probable that the differentiation

development renders

of the various

it

sensational

systems has been effected in part in the course of general

The

development.

original organ of sense is the outer

with the sensitive inner organs adjoining

hearing,

taste, smell,

of

differentiations

it.

and

sight,

It may,

it.

on the other hand, are

therefore,

skin

The organs

of

later

be surmised that

the sensational systems corresponding to these special senseorgans, have also gradually arisen through differentiation from

the sensational systems of the general sense, from sensations

of pressure, hot,

and

cold.

animals some of the systems

even yet more

alike.

is

possible, too, that in lower

now

so widely differentiated are

It

From

a physiological standpoint the

primordeal character of the general sense

the fact, that

is

also apparent in

has for the .transfer of sense-stimuli to the nerves

it

either very simple organs or

none at

all.

Pressure, temperatiu-e,

and pain-stimuli can produce sensations

at points in the skin

where, in spite of the most careful investigation, no special

end-organs can be found.

There

are, indeed, special receiving

organs in the regions most sensitive to pressure (touch-corpuscles, end-bulbs,

ture renders

and corpuscles

of Vater), but their struc-

probable that they merely favor the mechanical

it

transfer of the stimulus to the nerve-endings. Special end-organs

for hot, cold,

In the
hand,

we

and pain-stimuU have not been found

later developed special sense-organs,

find

at

all.

on the other

everywhere structures which not only

effect

the suitable transfer of the stimuli to the sensory nerves, but

generally bring about a physiological transformation of the

40

Psyehical Elements.

I-

stimulation which
sensational

indispensable for the rise of the peculiar

is

But even among

qualities.

the

senses

special

there are differences in this respect.

The

appears to

receiving organ in the ear, in particular,

be of a character different from that of the organs of smell,

In its most primitive forms it consists of a
taste, and sight.
vesicle filled with one or

more

solid particles (otoliths),

and sup-

The

particles

plied with nerve-bundles distributed in

its walls.

are set in motion through sound-vibrations,

and must cause a

rapid succession of weak pressure-stimulations in the fibres of

shows an extraordinary complexity,

ture

it

of the higher animals

The auditory organ

the nerve-bundles.

recalls this

primitive type.

still,

in its essential struc-

In the cochlea of man

and the higher animals the auditory nerve passes at

through the axis, which is pierced by a large number of
canals, and then emerges through the pores which open

Here the branches are

the cavity of the cochlea.

first

fine

into

distributed

on a tightly stretched membrane, which extends through the

spiral

windings of the cochlea and

rigid arches (arches of Corti).

membrane, as
acoustics,

it is

be thrown

sound-waves

strike

must,

called
into

the

is

weighted with special

This membrane

basilar

according to the laws of

vibrations whenever

sympathetic

ear.

the

It seems,

therefore,

to play

the same part here as the otohths do in the lower forms of

the auditory organ.

At

the same time one other change has

taken place which accounts for the enormous differentiation

of the sensational system.

ent breadth

in

its

The

basilar

membrane has a

different parts, for

it

wider from the base to the apex of the cochlea.

way

it

lengths.

acts

like

And

differ-

grows continually

In

this

a system of stretched chords of different

just as in

such a system, other conditions re-

maining the same, the longer chords are tuned to lower and
the shorter to higher tones, so

we may assume

the same to

^'

Pure Sensations.

6.

41

be true for the different parts of the basilar membrane.

may

surmise

that the

homogeneous sensational system, analogous

have a

otoliths

perhaps

to

We

auditory organs with their

simplest

our

systems

of

sensations

of

The

pressure.

special development of the organ as seen in the cochlea of

higher animals explains the evolution of an extraordinarily

complex sensational system from

system.
that

it

Still,

this originally

homogeneous

the structure remains similar in this respect,

seems adapted, in the latter case as in the former, to

the best

possible

transfer of the physical stimulus

to the

sensory nerve rather than to any transformation of the stim-

This view agrees with the observed fact that, just as

ulus.

sensations of pressure

may be

skin not supplied with special

perceived on regions of the

receiving organs,

case of certain animals, such as birds,

so,

in the

where the conditions

are specially favorable for their transmission, sound-vibrations

are transferred to the auditory nerve and sensed even after

the removal of the whole auditory organ vnth

its

special re-

ceiving structure.

With
ent.

taste,

and

sight the case

Organs are present which render

stimuli
uli

smell,

is

essentially differ-

direct action of the

on the sensory nerves impossible. The external stim-

are here received through special organs

before they excite the nerves.

metamorphosed

and modified

These organs are specially

epithelial cells with

one end exposed to the

stimulus and the other passing into a nerve-fibre.

Everything

goes to show that the receiving organs here are not merely
for the transfer of the stimuH, but rather for their trans-

formation.

In the three cases under discussion

that the transformation

we have

is

external chemical agencies, ia sight

the causes

of

probable

it is

a chemical process. In smell and taste

we have

light as

chemical disintegrations in the sensory

cells;

these processes in the cells then serve as the real stimuli.

42

Psychical Elements.

I-

These three senses may, as chemical

senses,

be distinguished

from the mechanical senses of pressure and sound.

It

is

impossible to say with any degree of certainty, to which of

One

these two classes sensations of cold and hot belong.

indication of the direct relation between stimuU

and

seiisation

in mechanical senses, as contrasted with the indirect relation

in chemical senses,
lasts

only

a very

that in the

is

little

while in the latter case

in a

case the sensation

first

longer than the external stimulus,

it

persists very

much

longer.

Thus,

quick succession of pressures and more especially of

sounds,

it is

possible to distinguish clearly the single stimuH

from one another;

lights,

tastes,

and

smellSj

on the other

hand, run together at a very moderate rate of succession.

4.

Since peripheral and central stimuli are regular physical

concomitants of elementary sensational processes, the attempt

to

determine the relation between stimuH and sensations

very natural.

In attempting to solve

this

is

problem, physiol-

ogy generally considers sensations as the result of physioassumes at the same time that in

logical stimuli, but

case any proper explanation of the effect from

impossible,

and that

mine the constancy

and the resulting

all

that can be undertaken

is

this

cause

is

to deter-

between particular stimuli

of the relations

Now,

sensations.

its

it is

found in many cases

that different stimuh acting on the same end-organ produce

the same sensations

thus, for example, mechanical

trical stimulations of the eye

result

was generalized

and

produce light sensations.

in the principle, that

elec-

This

every receiving

element of a sense-organ and every simple sensory nerve-fibre

together with

its

central terminus,

is

capable of only a single

sensation of fixed quality; that the various quaUties of sensation are, therefore, due to the various physiological elements

with different specific energies.

This principle, generally called the "law of specific energy


of nerves",

for the

6.

Pure Sensations.

43

untenable for three reasons, even

is

moment

the fact that

it

we

if

neglect

simply refers the causes of

the various differences in sensations to a qualitas occulta of

sensory and nervous elements.

1)

It

is

contradictory to the physiological doctrine of the

development of the senses.

If,

as

we must assume according

to this doctrine, the complex sensational systems are derived

from systems

originally simpler

physiological sensory elements

however,

This,

also.

may be

that organs

That

them.

to

is

is

and more homogeneous, the

must have undergone a change

possible only under the

condition

modified by the stimuli which act upon

the sensory elements

say,

determine the

qualities of sensations only secondarily, as a result of the properties

which they acquire through the processes of stimulation

aroused in them.

If,

then, these sensory elements have under-

gone, in the course of time, radical changes due to the nature

of the stimuU acting

upon them, such changes could have been

possible only under the condition that the physiological stimu-

elements varied to some extent with

lations in the sensory

the quality of the stimulus.

2)

The

principle

the fact that in

of

many

specific

senses the

elements does not correspond at

sational quahties.

we can
in

energy

is

number
all to

contradictory to

of different sensory

that of different sen-

Thus, from a single point in the retina

receive all possible sensations of brightness

the organs

tinguishable

of

smell and taste

forms of the

we

find

and

color;

no clearly

sensory elements,

dis-

while even a

limited area of their sensory surfaces can receive a variety

of sensations, which, especially in the case of the olfactory
organ,- is very large.

Where we have

every reason to assume

that qualitatively diferent sensations actually do arise in differ-

ent sensory elements,

as in the case of the auditory organ,

the structure of the organ goes to show that this difference

44
is

Psyehical Elements.

not due to any attribute of the nerve -fibres or of other

sensory elements, but that

it

will, of course,

auditory

Different fibres of the

which they are arranged.

nerve

comes originally from the way in

be stimulated by different tone-vibrations,

because the different parts of the basilar membrane are tuned

to different tones; but this

is

not due to some original and

inexplicable attribute of the single auditory nerve-fibres, but

to the

way

which they are connected with the end-organ.

in

3) Finally,

the sensory nerves and central elements

can

have no original specific energy, because the peripheral sense-

organ must be exposed to the adequate stimuli for a sufor

ficient interval,

must at

least

have been so exposed at

some previous period^ before the corresponding sensations can

arise

through their stimulation.

Persons congenitally bhnd

and deaf do not have any sensations

so far as

of light or tone whatever,

we know, even when the sensory nerves and

centres

were originally present.

Everything goes to show that the differences in the qualities

of sensations are conditioned by the differences in the

processes of stimulation that arise in the sense-organs.

These

processes are dependent primarily on the character of the

physical stimuH, and only secondarily on the peculiarities of

the receiving organ, which are due to

stimuli.

As

a result of

adaptation to ihese

its

adaptation,

this

however,

it

may

happen that even when some stimulus other than that which
has effected the original adaptation of the sensory elements,
that

is,

when an inadequate

corresponding
this does

to

the

not hold for

stimulus

adequate
all

acts,

may

stimulus

stimuh or for

all

the

sensation

arise.

Still,

sensory elements.

Thus, hot land cold stimulations can not cause

cutaneous

sensations of pressure or sensations in the special sense-organs;

chemical and electrical

only

when they

act

stimuli produce

upon the

retina,

sensations of Hght

not when they act on

Pure Sensations.

6.

the optic nerve; and, finally, these

arouse sensations of smell or

sensations, but

it

general stimuli can not

When

taste.

chemical disintegration,

causes

it

45

an

electric current

may, indeed, arouse such

through the adequate chemical stimuli

is

produced.

From

5.

the very nature of the case,

it is

impossible to

explain the character of sensations from the character of physical

and physiological

StimuU and sensations can

stimuli.

not be compared with one another at

the

all;

belong

first

to the mediate experience of the natural sciences, the second

An

immediate experience of psychology.

to the

interrelation

between sensations and physiological stimuh must necessarily

however, in the sense that different kinds

exist,

ulation

correspond

always

to

different

principle of the paraUelism of changes in sensation

physiological stimulation
ciple in

stim-

of

This

sensations.

and in

an important supplementary prin-

is

both the psychological and physiological doctrines

In the

of sensation.

first

case

nite changes in the sensation,

tion of the stimulus

it is

used in producing

by means of intentional

in the second

it is

defi-

varia-

used in inferring the

identity or non-identity of physiological stimulations from the

identity or non-identity of the sensations.

same

principle

theoretical

6.

The

precedes

is

and

life

of our

SENSATIONS OF THE GENERAL SENSE.

definition

In point
all

of

the

of time,

others

endowed with mind.

sense

Furthermore, the

the basis of our practical

knowledge of the external world.

A.

factors.

is

"general

and therefore
In

its

spacial

includes two

sense"

the general sense

belongs

is

to

attributes,

that which
all

beings

the general

distinguished from the particular senses in having the

most extensive sensory surface exposed to stimuli. It includes

not only the whole external skin and the adjoining areas of

46

Psychical Elements.

I-

mucous membrane, but a large number

the

gans supplied with sensory nerves,

such as

of internal orjoints, muscles,

and bones, which are accessible to stimuli either

always, or at certain times, under special conditions, as is

tendons,

the case with bones.

The general

includes four specific, distinct sensa-

sense

tional systems: sensations of pressure, hot, cold,

infrequently a single stimulus arouses

sensations.

made up

The
of

sensation

raixture

is

of

and

Not

pain.

more than one

of these

then immediately recognized as

components from the

different

systems; for example, from sensations of pressure and pain,

or from sensations

of hot

and

In a similar manner,

pain.

as a result of the extension of the sense-organ,

we may

often

have mixtures of the various qualities of one and the same

system, for example, quahtatively different sensations of pres-

when an extended region of the skin is touched.

The four systems of the general sense are all homogeneous

sure,

systems (

5,

This shows that the sense

5).

than the others

earlier

whose systems are

all

sensations of pressure from the external skin,

to the tensions

and movements

of the muscles, joints,

name

and distinguished from the common

which include sensations of

The

complex.

and those due

tendons, are generally grouped together under the

sensations,

genetically

is

hot, cold,

and

pain,

and

touch-

sensations,

and those

sen-

sations of pressure that sometimes arise in the other internal

This distinction, however, has

organs.
lation

of the

sensations

and has nothing

to

to

ideas

its

source in the re-

and concomitant

feelings,

do with the qualities of the sensations

in themselves.
7.

The

organ to

ability of the different parts of the general sense-

receive

stimulations

and give

rise to

sensations,

can be tested with adequate exactness only on the external

skin.

The only

facts that

can be determined in regard to

Pure Sensations.

6.

47

the internal parts, are that the joints are in a high degree
to pressures, while

sensitive

much

On

under abnormal conditions.

no point of the

at once

pain.

The

is

of

is

pressure,

is

hot,

not sencold,

and

degree of sensitivity may, indeed, vary at different

and

to pain

and pain

of the immediately ad-

mucous membrane, which

stimulations

to

points, in such a

to hot,

tendons are

cold,

other hand, there

the

and

skin

external

parts of the

sitive

of hot,

organs are exceptional, and noticeable only

in the internal

joining

muscles and

the

and that sensations

so,

less

way

to cold,

that the points most sensitive to pressure,

do not, in generally, coincide.

Sensitivity

everywhere about the same, varying at most in such

a way that in some places the pain-stimulus acts on the sur-

and

face,

in others not until

has penetrated deeper.

it

On

the other hand, certain approximately punctiform cutaneous

regions

appear to

pressure, hot,

and

be most favorable

for

stimulations

These points are called

cold.

pressure-spots, hot-spots,

and

cold-spots.

They

receive sensations of pressure

hot

stimulus

applied

to

still,

stimuli.

Spots of

dif-

temperature-spots always

and pain

as

weU and a pointed

;

cold spot always

seem

sation of hot, while hot-spots do not

by pointed cold

respectively,

are distributed

in different parts of the sldn in varying numbers.

ferent modality never coincide

of

causes a sen-

to be stimulated

Furthermore, hot-spots and cold-

spots react with their adequate sensations to properly applied

mechanical and electrical

8.

stimuli.

Of the four quaHties mentioned

sensations of pressure

and pain form closed systems which show no

relations either

to each other or to the two systems of temperature-sensations.

These

last two,

opposites;

on the other hand, stand in the relation of

we apprehend hot and

but as contrasted sensations.

that this

is

It

cold not merely as different,

is,

however, very probable

not due to the original nature of the sensations,

48

Psychical Elements.

I-

but partly to the conditions of their

accompanying

For,

feelings.

and partly

rise,

be united without Limitation to form mixed sensations

hot

may

as,

and hot, pressure and pain, cold and

for example, pressure

pain

to the

while the other qualities

and cold exclude each other because, under the

conditions of their

rise,

the only possibilities for a given cu-

taneous region are a sensation of hot or one of cold, or else

"When one

an absence of both.

of these

sensations passes

continuously into the other, the change regularly takes place

in

such a way that either the sensation of hot gradually

appears and a continually increasing sensation of cold

or vice versa the sensation of cold disappears

gradually arises.

Then,

too,

and that

dis-

arises,

of hot

elementary feelings of opposite

character are connected with hot and cold, the point where

both sensations are absent corresponding to their indifferencezone.

In

still

another respect the two systems of temperature-

sensations are peculiar.

They are

to a great

extent depen-

dent on the varying conditions under which the stimuli act

upon the sense-organ.

temperature of the skin

A
is

siderable decrease below the

the temperature of the skin

considerable increase above the

perceived as hot,

same
itself,

zone between the two, can adapt

is

which

itself

while a con-

perceived as cold, but

is

the indifference-

rapidly to the existing

external temperature within fairly wide Umits.

The

fact that

in this respect too, both systems are aUke, favors the view

that they are interconnected and also antagonistic.

B.

9.

We possess

SENSATIONS OF SOUND.

two independent systems of simple auditory

which are generally, however, connected as a result

of the mixture of the two kinds of impressions.
They are
sensations,

6.

Pure Sensations.

49

the homogeneous system of simple noise-sensations and the

complex system of simple tone-sensations.

Simple noise-sensations can be produced only under conditions that exclude the simultaneous rise of tonal sensations,

as

when

air-vibrations are

produced whose rate

either too

is

when

rapid or too slow for tone-sensations to arise, or

the

sound-waves act upon the ear for too short a period. Simple
sensations of noise, thus produced,

tively alike.

also

may

vary in intensity and

but apart from these differences they are quahta-

duration,

It

possible that small quaUtative

is

among them, due

exist

differences

to the conditions of their rise,

but such differences are too small to be marked by

The

guishing names.

pound

noises

commonly

so called

com-

made up of such simple noise-sensations and of

many irregular tonal sensations (cf. 9, 7). The

ideas

a great

homogeneous system of simple noise-sensations

the

distin-

are

first

to

The auditory

develop.

is

of

vesicles

probably
the lower

animals, with their simple otoliths, could hardly produce any-

In the case of

thing but these.

it

may be

man and

the higher animals

surmised that the structures found in the vestibule

of the labyrinth receive only

homogeneous stimulations, correFinally, experiments

sponding to simple sensations of noise.

with animals deprived of their labyrinths, make

it

probable that

even direct stimulations of the auditory nerve can produce

such sensations

(p.

41).

In the embryonic development of

the higher animals, the cochlea develops from an original

vestibular

vesicle,

auditory organ.

which corresponds exactly to a primitive

We

are, therefore, justified in

the complex system of tonal sensations

is

supposing that

a product of

the'

differentiation of the homogeneous system of simple noise-

sensations,

but that in evefy

case

where

this

development'

has taken place, the simple system has remained along with
the higher.
Wdndt, Psychology.

50

Psychical Elements,

The system

10.

of simple tone-sensaUons

We

of one dimension.

The one -dimensional character

tones pitch.

of the system

finds expression in the fact that, starting with

we can vary
one we call

a given pitch,

opposite

directions:

the other lowering

raising the pitch,

experience simple

actual

two

only in

quality

the

a continuity

is

call the quality of the single simple

In

it.

never pre-

sensations of tone are

sented alone, but always united with othei^tonal sensations

and with accompanying simple sensations

concomitant elements
in

of

noise.

according to the scheme given above (5,

since,

many

can be varied indefinitely,

they

cases

are

relatively

weak

But

1),

these

and

since

comparison

in

with one of the tones, the abstraction of simple tones was

early reached through the practical use
in

The names

the art of music.

for simple

or of the

of tonal sensations

c**,

d**,

and d stand

though the clangs of musical instruments

tones,

human

c,

voice

tones and often,

by means of which we produce these

always accompanied by other,

different pitches, are

too,

by

noises.

But

weaker

since the conditions

for the rise of such concomitant tones can be so varied that

they become

very

really simple

tones of nearly perfect purity.

means
tuned

of doing this
to its

is

it

panying tones are

the sensation

is

If the

has

been possible to produce

simplest

Since the resonator increases

fundamental only,
so

The

by using a tuning-fork, and a resonator

fundamental tone.

the intensity of the

ducible.

weak,

the

other,

accom-

weak when the fork sounds,

generally

apprehended as simple and

sound -vibrations

tonal sensation are examined,

corresponding

that
irre-

to such

they will be found to corre-

spond to the simplest possible form of vibration, the pendulumoscillation, so called

particles follow the

because the vibrations of the atmospheric

same laws as a pendulum

oscillating in

Pure Sensations.

6.

a very small amplitude').

That these

5|

relatively simple sound-

vihrations correspond to sensations of simple tones,

we can even

and that

distinguish the separate tones in compounds, can

be explained, on the basis of the physical laws of sympathetic

from the structure of the organs in the cochlea.

vibrations,

The

basilar

membrane

tuned to tones
oscillatory

of

in the cochlea

different

sound-vibration

tuned to that particular pitch

same rate

of oscillation

in its different parts

so that

pitch,

strikes

is

the

ear,

will vibrate in

when a simple
only

part

the

sympathy.

If the

comes in a compound sound-vibration,

again only the part tuned to

it

will

be affected by

while

it,

the other components of the wave will set in vibration other

sections of the

membrane, which correspond

in the

same way

to their pitch.
11.

The system

shows

of tonal sensations

as a conUrvuous series in the fact that

it

is

its

character

always possible

to pass from a given pitch to any other through continuous

changes in sensation.

Music has selected at option from

continuity single sensations separated

vals, thus substituting

selection, however, is

themselves.

We

shall

relations later, in taking

extremities,

to'nal scale for

the tonal

return

line.

This

to

the

discussion

of

these

up the ideational compounds arising

9).

The natural

tonal line has two

which are conditioned by the physiological capacity

ear for receiving sounds.

lowest and highest tones;

These extremities are the

the former corresponds to 8

double vibrations per second, the latter to 40,000

1)

this

inter-

based on the relations of tonal sensations

from these sensations

of the

by considerable

Pendulum-oscillations

may be

50,000.

represented by a sine-curve, beis always proportional

cause the distance from the position of rest

to the sine of the time required to

swing to the point in question.

4*

52

I.

SENSATIONS OF SMELL AND TASTE.

C,

complex system whose

Sensations of smell form a

12.

arrangement
is

Psyehiecd Elements.

still

is

AU

unknown.

we know

is

that there

a very great number of olfactory qualities, between which

There can, then, be

there are all possible transitional forms.

no doubt that the system

12 a.

Olfactory

a continuity of

is

may

qualities

many

dimensions.

be grouped in certain

classes,

each of which contains those sensations which are more or less

This fact may be regarded as an indication of how these
related.
sensations
cipal

may

perhaps be reduced to a small number of prin-

Such

qualities.

classes

for examples, sensations like

are,

those from ether, balsam, musk, benzine, those

It

etc.

known

as aromatic,

has been observed in a few cases that certain olfactory

come from definite substances, can also be pro-

sensations which

But these observations are still induced by mixing others.

sufficient to reduce the great number of simple qualities contained in each of the classes mentioned, to a limited

primary qualities and their mixtures.

that
is

many

odors neutralize each other,

'

concerned,

This

ties.

is

when they

others,

are

true not only

chemically

other

Finally,

as

acetic

such as caoutchouc

mixed

it

so

far

in

the

number

the

as

proper

sensation
intensi-

of substances that neutralize each

but also of
acid and ammonia
and wax or tolu-balsam, which do
,

not act on each other chemically outside of the olfactory

Since this neutralization takes place
entirely

different

olfactory

of

has been observed

surfaces,

cells.

when

the two stimuli act on

one

on the right and the

mucous membrane of the nose, it is probable

dealing, not with phenomena analogous to those ex-,

other on the left

that

we

are

hibited

by complementary

central

inhibition

but with a reciprocal

Another observed fact tells
against the notion that they are complementary.
One and the
same olfactory quality can neutralize several entirely different
qualities,
sometimes even those which in turn neutralize one
another, while among colors it is always only two fixed qualities
that are complementary.
of

colors

sensations.

(22)

6.

Pure Sensations.

53

Sensations of taste have been somewhat more thoroughly-

13.

and we can here distinguish four Aistinct primary

Between these there are all possible transitional

investigated,
qualities.

which are to be regarded as mixed sensations.

tastes,

primary qualities are sour, sweet,

these, alkaline

pendent

and

Besides

and metalHc are sometimes regarded

as inde-

But

qualities.

takable relationship

perhaps of saUne

sensations

show

alkaline quaUties

an unmis-

with sahne, and metalhc with sour, so

that both are probably mixed sensations

Sweet and

The

saline.

bitter,

and sweet, metalhc

of

sour and saUne).

When

opposite qualities.

saline are

made up

(alkaline

these two

are united in proper intensities, the result

neutral mixed sensation (commonly

known

is

as "insipid"), even

though the stimuh that here reciprocally neutralize each other

do not enter into a chemical combination. The system of tastesensations

is,

accordingly, in all probabiKty to be regarded as

a two-dimensional continuity,

which may be geometrically

represented by a circular surface on whose circumference the

four primary, and their intermediate, qualities are arranged,

while the neutral mixed sensation

is

in the middle,

other transitional taste-qualities on the surface

and the

between

this

middle point and the saturated qualities on the circumference.

13

a.

In these

attributes of taste-qualities

is

perhaps the antecedent of sight.

we seem

to

liave

In this respect taste

the fundamental type of a chemical sense.

The obvious interconnection

with the chemical nature of the stimulation, makes

it

probable

even here that the reciprocal neutralization of certain sensations,

with

which the two-dimensional

system

is

perhaps connected,

character

of the

sensational

on the sensations in

depends, not

themselves, but on the relations between the physiological stimulations, just as in the case of sensations of

It

is

well

known

that

very

commonly

hot and cold

(p.

chemical

effect

the

48).
of

certain substances can be neutralized through the action of certain other substances.

Now. we do not know what the chemical

54

Psychical Elements.

changes are that are produced by the gustatory stimuli in the

But from the neutralization of sensations of sweet

taste-cells.

we may

conclude, in accordance with the principle of

changes
in sensation and in stimuli (p. 45),
the
that the chemical reactions which sweet and saline substances
The
produce in the sensory cells, also counteract each other.

and

saline

parallelism of

same would hold for other sensations for which similar

relations

In regard to the physiological conditions

for gustatory stimulations, we can draw only this one conclusion
from the facts mentioned, namely, that the chemical processes of
could be demonstrated.

stimulation corresponding to the sensations which neutralize each

other in this way, probably take place in the same

the

possibility

not excluded that several

is

liable to neutralization

the same

cells.

Of

different

course,

processes

through opposite reactions, could arise in

facts and the experiments

The known anatomical

cells.

of physiology in stimulating

single

no

papillae separately, giye

Whether we

certain conclusions in this matter.

are here dealing

with phenomena that are really analogous to those exhibited by

complementary colors

partial

22)

is

a question.

still

SENSATIONS OF LIGHT.

D.
14.

(v. iaf.

The system

of

light-sensations

is

made up

of

two

systems: that of sensations of achromatic light and

that of se?isations of chromatic

light.

in these two, all possible transitional

Between the quaUties

forms

exist.

Sensations of achromatic light, when considered alone,

form a complex system of 07ie dimension, which extends, like
the tonal
in

The sensations
we call black, in

between two limiting quahties.

line,

the neighborhood of one of these limits

the neighborhood of the other white, while between the two

we

insert grey

light

grey).

sensations

in its different shades (dark grey, grey,

This
differs

one -dimensional

system

of

and

achromatic

from that of tones in being at once

system of quality and

of intensity; for every qualitative

change in the direction from black to white is seen at the

6.

same time as an increase

change

in the direction

Each

in intensity.

and

quality

inite

Pure Sensations.

from white to black

is

qualitative

seen as a decrease

point in the series, which thus has a defintensity, is called

a degree of brightness

The whole system may, accord-

he designated as that of sensations of pure brightness.

The use

of the

word "pure"

one-dimensional

indicates the absence of all sen-

The system

sations of color.

in

and every

in intensity,

of the achromatic sensations.

ingly

55

for,

of

series

absolutely

and the same dimension.

differs essentially, in this respect,

each point

is

both the variations in quality and those

belong to one

intensity

of pure brightness

It

from the tonal Hne, in which

merely a degree of quaUty, and has also a whole

is

gradations

in

Simple

intensity.

tone -sensations

thus

form a two-dimensional continuity so soon as we take

into

account both determinants, quality and intensity, while

the system of pure brightness

when we attend

to

is

always one-dimensional, even

The whole system

both determinants.

may, therefore, be regarded as a continuous

of

brightness, in

so far as quality
sity,

series of grades

which the lower grades are designated black

is

concerned, and weak in point of inten-

while the higher grades are called white and strong.

15.

when

Sensations of color also form a orie-dimensional system

their

qualities

alone are taken into account.

Unhke

the system of sensations of pure brightness, this system returns

upon

itself

from whatever point we

leaving a given quality,

shows the greatest

we

start,

difference,

and going

that the qualitative differences become

finally

we reach

for at

first,

after

pass gradually to a quality that

still

further

we

find

smaller again, until

the starting point once more.

The

color-

spectrum obtained by refracting sunlight through a prism, or

that seen in the rainbow, shows this characteristic, though not
completely.

If in these cases

the spectrum,

we come

first to

we

start

from the red end

of

orange, then to yellow, yellow-

56

I.

Psyehieal Elements,

and

green, green-blue, blue, indigo-blue,

to

finally

violet,

more

like

red than any of the other colors except

orange, which

lies

next to red.

which

is

The

spectrum does not return quite to

it

does not contain

of the colors

all

line

of colors in the

starting-point, because

its

that

we have

in sen-

sation.

Purple-red shades which can be obtained by the ob-

jective

mixture of red and violet rays, are wanting in the

Only when we

spectrum.

them,

system

the

is

and then the system

is

is

out the spectral series with

fill

complete,

color- sensations

actual

of

a closed

circle.

This characteristic

not to be attributed to the circumstance that the spectrum

actually presents for our observation a series returning nearly

The same order

to its beginning.

by arranging according to
objects presented in

of sensations

can be found

their subjective relationship

colored

any irregular order. Even children who

have never observed attentively a solar spectrum or a rainbow, and can, therefore, begin the series with any other color
just as well as with red, always arrange

The system
dimensional.

of pure colors

we

when the

others

direction.

Its

circle.

From

sensation

similar to

the

is

then, to be defined as one-

a given point in this system

gradually varied,

most markedly
first

first to similar

different,

quahty, but in

and

the

This color

may be

maximum

finally

opposite

Every color must, accordingly, be related

other particular color as a

sation.

order.

simplest geometrical represen-

itself.

sensations, then to those

to

same

would be a

pass,

in the

It does not extend in a straight line, however,

but returns upon

tation

is,

them

to

one

of difference in sen-

called the opposite color,

and

in

the representation of the color-system by a circle, two opposite

colors

are

same diameter.

to

be placed at the two extremities of the

Thus,

for

example,

yellow and blue, light green and

is,,

violet,

purple-red and

green,

are opposite colors, that

colors which exhibit the greatest qualitative differences.

The

6.

Pure Sensations.

quality determined by the position of a sensation in

the color-system,

minations,

in distinction to

In

The

quahtative

sense the

this

such as red, orange, yellow,

tones.

other

called color-tone, a figurative

is

from tonal sensations.

colors,

57

etc.,

deter-

name borrowed
simple names of

denote merely color-

color-circle is a representation of the system of

color-tones abstracted from all the other attributes belonging

In

to the sensations.

brightness.

reality,

we

other attributes, one

Saturation

every color-sensation has two

call

its

saturation,

peculiar to

is

the

other

its

chromatic sensations,

while brightness belongs to achromatic sensations as well.

By

16.

saturation

by virtue

tions

transition

we mean

sensations of

to

tinuous passage

the attribute of color-sensa-

which they appear in

of

is

all possible stages of

pure brightness, so that a con-

possible from every color to any point in

the series of whites, greys, and blacks.

tion"

is

these transitional colors objectively, that

intense saturation of

less

pigment.

some

colorless

A color may be ever so

to think of a

still

is,

by the more or

soluble with color-

saturated, yet

it is

possible

always denotes the

of the series of diminishing grades of saturation for

whatever.

color

same time,

color-sensations

as the
is

pure brightness.
sation

of white,

color-circle,

all

color-sensations, and,

at

attribute

by which the system

of

directly united with that of sensations of

If,

now, we represent some particular sen-

grey,

or black by the central point of the

aU the grades

transitional stages from

sensation

of pure

by that radius

any

degree of saturation may, therefore, be

thought of as an attribute of
the

"satura-

greater saturation of the same color-tone,

and, on the other hand, pure brightness

end

The term

borrowed from the common method of producing

of

saturation that

any particular color to

brightness,

of the circle

can

arise as

this particular

wiU obviously be represented

which connects the centre with

58

Psychical Elements.

If the grades of saturation correspond-

the color in question.

ing to the continuous transitional stages from

to

a particular sensation of pure brightness,

we have

metrically represented,
as

simple color-tones, and whose centre

corresponding to the

brightness,

the colors

thus geo-

the system of saturation-grades

whose circumference

a circular surface

all

are

the system of

is

the sensation of pure

is

absence of

all

saturation.

For the formation of such a system of saturation-grades any

point whatever in the series of sensations
ness

may be

the white

is

taken, so long as the condition

is

fulfilled that

not too bright or the black too dark, for in such

both

in

differences

cases

of pure bright^

saturation

and color disappear.

Systems of saturation which are arranged about different

points in the series of pure brightness, always have different

A pure

grades of brightness.
ingly

at a time,

ness

system of saturation, accord-

can be made for only one particular grade of bright-

that

for only one point in the series of

is,

sensations of pure brightness.

"When such systems are made

for all possible points, the system of saturation will be sup-

plemented by that of grades of brightness.

17.

Brightness

color-sensation as
this

case,

too,

at

is
it

just

is

of

a quality

once

Starting from a given grade,

color approaches

as necessary

an attribute of a

achromatic sensations, and

if

and

is

in

degree of intensity.

the brightness increases, every

white in quality, while at the same time

the intensity increases;

if

the brightness decreases, the colors

approach black in quahty, and the intensity diminishes.

The

grades of brightness for any single color thus form a system

of intensive qualities, analogous to that of pure brightnesses,

only in place of the achromatic gradations

and

black,

From

we have

between white

the corresponding grades of saturation.

the point of greatest saturation there are two opposite

directions for variation

in saturation:

one positive, towards

6,

Pure Sensations.

accompanied by an increase

white,

sensation,

in the intensity of

on the

we

As

limits for these

two

have, on the one hand, the pure sensation white,

pure sensation black; the

the

other,

first is

same time the maximum, the second the minimum

sity.

the

and the other negative, towards black, with a

corresponding decrease in intensity.

directions

59

White and black

way

are in this
of pure

of the system of sensations

at the

of inten-

opposite extremities

and

brightness,

also of

the system of color-sensations arranged according to grades

of brightness.

foUows obviously that there

It

.medium brightness for every

From

greatest.

this

direction

positive

negative direction

same for

all

way

it

blue.

that

when
when

colors,

the brightness increases,

and

is

the saturation

for

in the

The grade

the brightness decreases.

not the

is

but varies from red to blue, in such a

most intense

is

saturation

its

point, the saturation diminishes in the

most favorable

of brightness

which

color, at

a certain

is

red and least intense for

for

This accounts for the familiar phenomenon that in

twilight,

when

color-tones

of brightness

the degree

for

of paintings,

small,

is

example

are

the blue

still

clearly

visible, while the red color-tones appear black.

18. If

neglect the somewhat different position of the

we

maximal saturation
the

relation

brightness

of the various colors in the line of brightness,

that

and

between

exists

those

sensations

of chromatic

of pure, or achromatic, brightness, by

virtue of the gradual transition of colors into

white on the

one hand, and into black on the other, may be represented

manner

in the simplest

as follows.

First,

the system of pure color-tones, that

maximal

saturation,

draw through
its

way

plaiie,

the

by a

centre of

the straight line

that where

it

circle,

cuts

this

is,

as

above.

circle,

of pure

the plane

of

we may represent

of the colors at their

Then we may

perpendicular

to

brightness, in such a

the circular surface,

! Psychical Elements.

60
it

to

represents the sensation of pure brightness corresponding

minimum

the

of saturation for the colors with

In hke manner, the other

started.

and decreasing grades

along

pendicularly

line,

But

colors in these latter circles

from the

grow continually

ities

of

must be expressed
first circle,

shorter, until finally, at the

that for every

the fact

in the short-

the shorter the

the Mne, the circles disappear entirely.

sponds to

These

color the

two extremThis corre-

maximum

brightness corresponds to the sensation white, while

mum

circle

the less the saturation.

centre,

radii

and below the

above

per-

the decreasing saturation of the

ening of their radii; just as in the

distance

may be arranged

of brightness,

this

of greatest saturation.

which we

color-circles for increasing

of

mini-

its

corresponds to black').

19.

The whole system

of sensations of chromatic bright-

ness may, accordingly, be most simply represented by a spherical surface

color-tones,

whose

equator represents the

or colors

of greatest

poles correspond to white

and

sensations of chromatic brightness.

Of

directions,

common base and apexes

and black,

is

any other geotwo

pointing in different

The only

thing

the gradual transition to

and the corresponding

variety of the color-tones,

of the

for example,

would serve the same purpose.

essential for the representation,

white

course,
as,

pure

of

while the two

black, the extremities

metrical figure with similar attributes,

cones with a

system

saturation,

which finds

its

decrease in

the

expression in the

continual decrease in the length of the radii of the color-circles.

Now,

as above shown, the system of saturations corresponding to

1) It must be observed, however, that the actual coincidence of

these sensations can be empirically proved only for the minimum
of brightness. Grades of brightness which approach the maximum
are so injurious to the eye that the general demonstration of the

approach to white must be accepted as

sufficient.

Pure Sensations.

6.

gj

may be

a particular sensation of pure brightness,

by a

represented

surface which contains all the sensations of

circular

light belonging to

one grade of brightness.

When we

unite

grades of saturation and brightness to a single system, the

toted

system of all light s&nsaUons

The equator

sphere.

polar axis

is

is

may

be represented by a solid

the system of pure color- tones; the

the system of pure brightnesses

the surface

represents the system of chromatic brightnesses, and, finally,

every circular plane perpendicular to the polar axis, corre-

sponds to a system of saturations of equal brightness.

representation by means of a sphere

This

indeed arbitrary, in

is

the sense that any other sohd figure with analogous attri-

butes

may be chosen

in its place;

it

still,

presents to view

the psychological fact that the total system of light-sensations

is

closed continuity

The

of three dimensions.

three-dimen-

sional character of the system arises from the fact that every

concrete sensation of light has three determinants

saturation,

and

and pure, or saturated,

colors

two extreme cases in the

are to

series of

be regarded as the

saturations.

form of the system comes from the

color-line,

color-tone,

Pure, or achromatic, brightness

brightness.

The

closed

circular character of the

on the one hand, and, on the

other,

from the

termination of the system of chromatic brightness in the ex-

tremes of pure brightness.

system

is

those of color-tones
quality,

while

every

that of brightness,

and

special characteristic

of the

that only the changes in the ttvo dimensions,

intensity.

As

is

and

movement

in

or

are pure variations in

saturations,

the third dimension,

or

at once a modification of both quality

a consequence

whole three-dimensional system

is

of this

circumstance, the

required to represent fully

the qualities of Hghl^sensations, but

it

includes also the in-

tensities of these sensations.

20. Certain

principal

sensations

are

prominent in this

62

we use them

system, because

arrangement of

Psychical Elements.

These are white and block,

and the four principal colors, red,

the others.

all

in the achromatic series,

and

yellow, green,

as points of reference for the

in the

bltie,

chromatic.

Only these

six

names

in the early

de-

sensations have clearly distinguished

All other sensations are then named

velopment of language.

reference to these or even with modifications of

either with

the names themselves.

Thus, we regard grey as a stage in

We

the achromatic series lying hetween white and black.

designate the different grades of saturation according to their

brightness, as whitish or blackish, Kght or dark color-tones;

and we generally choose compound names

tween the four principal ones,

as,

orange-yellow, yellow-green, etc.

These

late origin

20 a.

by

From

for the colors be-

for example,

show

all

purple -red,

their relatively

their very composition.

the early origin of the names for the six qualities

mentioned, the conclusion has been drawn that they are fundamental qualities of vision, and that the others are compounded

from them.

Grey

declared

is

to

be

a mixture

black and

of

white, violet and purple-red to be mixtures of blue and red, etc.

Psychologically there
sensations

compound

is

in

no

justification

for

calling

comparison with others.

any

Grey

is

light-

a simple

much as white or black; such colors as orange

and purple-red are just as much simple colors as red and yellow
and any grade of saturation which we have placed in the
sensation just as

system between a pure color and white,

is

by no means, for that

compound sensation. The closed, continuous character

of the system makes it necessary for language to pick out certain
especially marked differences in reference to which all other
reason,

sensations

are

then arranged, for the simple reason that

it

is

have an unlimited number of names. It is most

natural that white and black should be chosen as such points
of reference for the achromatic series, since they designate the
impossible to

greatest differences.
all

When

once these two are

given,

however,

other achromatic sensations will be considered as transitional

connected by a series of
case of color-sensations
circular

Pure Sensations.

them,

between

sensations

6.

form of the

is

extreme

the

since

all

63

possible grades

differences

of brightness.

similar; only here,

are

The

on account of the

color-line, it is impossible to choose directly

two absolutely greatest

Other motives besides the

differences.

necessary qualitative difference, are decisive in the choice of the

principal colors.

and

affective

We may

natural conditions of

regard as such motives, the frequency

of certain

intensity

human

light- impressions

due to the

The red color of blood,

existence.

the green of vegetation,

the blue of the sky, and the yellow of

the heavenly bodies in

contrast

with the blue of the sky,

may

well have furnished the earliest occasions for the choice of cer-

Language generally names

from the object that produced it, not the object

tain colors as those to receive names.

the

sensation

from the
qualities

sensation.

when

In this case too,

were once determined,

all

certain

principal

others must, on account of

the continuity of the series of sensations, seem to be intermediate

The

color-tones.

difference

between principal colors and tran-

due entirely to external

had been other, red might have
been regarded as a transitional color between purple and orange,
just as orange is now placed between red and yellow^).
sitional colors

conditions.

21.

is,

therefore, very probably

If these conditions

The

attributes of the system of light-sensations above

described, are so peculiar as to lead us to expect a priori that

the relation between these psychological attributes

objective processes of stimulation,

is

and the

essentially different

from

that in the cases of the sensational systems discussed before,

especially those

of

the general and auditory senses.

Most

1) The same false reasoning from the names of sensations, has

even led some scholars to assume that the sensation blue developed
later than other color-sensations, because, for example, even in Homer
the word for blue is the same as that for "dark". Tests of the colorsensations of uncivilized peoples whose languages are much more
deficient in names for colors than that of the Greeks at the time of

Homer, have given us a superabundance

sumption

is

utterly without ground.

of evidence

that this as-

! Psychical Elements.

64

striking, in this respect, is the difference

and that

in question

between the system

latter case, the prin-

In the

of tones.

between sensation and stimulus

ciple of parallelism

(p. 45),

holds not only for the physiological processes of stimulation,

but to a great extent for the physical processes as

simple sensation

corresponds

to

simple form

of simple sensations to a

and a plurahty

yibration,

well.

of

sound-

compound

Furthermore, the intensity of the sensation varies in

form.

proportion to the amplitude of the vibrations, and

with their form,

difference

so that

in

both directions

its

quality

the subjective

between sensations increases with the growing

differ-

ence between the objective physical stimuli. The relation in the

case of light -sensations

is

Like objective

entirely different.

sound, objective light also consists of vibrations in some medium.

To be

the actual form of these vibrations

sure,

interference

we know

that they consist of very short

Those seen as

waves.

light

and
In

billion vibrations per second.

in rate

of like wave-length;

and the quality

of the

continuously with the rate: red

corresponds

and

to

slowest

waves,

violet

too,

the

is,

to

simple

vibrations

sensation varies
to

shortest

the longest

and most

while the other color-tones form a continuous series

between

these, varying with the

here, however,

red and

more

are

and

a
of.

and rapid

from 450

this case,

sensations correspond to simple vibrations, that

rapid,

still

vary in wave-length from 688

to 393 milhonths of a millimetre,

790

is

from physical experiments on the phenomena

question, but

violet,

an

changes in wave-length.

essential difference appears,

Even

for the colors

which are the most different in wave-length,

similar in sensation than those

which

lie

between').

Many physicists, to be sure, believe that an analogous relation'

be found between tones of different pitch, in the fact that every

1)

is to

tone has in

its

octave a similar tone.

But

this

similarity, as

we

There are also other

amplitude of
jective

6.

Pure Sensations.

differences.

1)

65

Every change

in

change in both intensity and quality, as we noted

above in the discussion of sensations of brightness.

light,

even though

be made up of

it

all

2)

All

the different kinds of

much as objectively
made up of only one kind of waves, as
immediately apparent if we make a subjective comparison of

vibration,

simple
is

the

the physical vibrations corresponds to a sub-

simple in sensation, just as

is

which

light,

is

sensations of chromatic light with those of achromatic hght.

From

the

first of

physically simple

these facts

may produce

achromatic sensations, for

pHtude of

it

it

The

tude decreases.

is

not only chromatic, but also

approaches white when the am-

vibrations increases,

its

follows that light which

and black when the ampli-

quality of an achromatic sensation does

not, therefore, determine unequivocally its source;

produced either through a change

it

may be

in the amplitude of objective

light-vibrations or through a mixture of simple vibrations of

different wave-lengths.

In the

case,

first

however,

there

is

always connected with the change in amplitude a change in

the grade of brightness, which does not necessarily take place

when a mixture is made.

22. Even when the grade of brightness remains constant,
this achromatic sensation may have one of several sources.
A sensation of pure brightness of a given intensity may result not only

from a mixture

of all

the rates

of vibration

contained in solar light, as, for example, in ordinary daylight,

waves,

but

it

may

namely

also result

those

when only two kinds

of

ligh1>

which correspond to sensations sub-

shall see ( 9), does not exist between simple tones, but depends on
the actual sympathetic vibration of the octave in all compound
clangs. Attempts to support this supposed analogy by finding in the
color-line intervals corresponding to the various tonal intervals, third,

fourth,

fifth,

etc.,

have

WoNDT, Psychology.

all

been entirely

futile.

QQ

Psyohioal Elements.

I.

jectively the

in proper

most

different, that

to opposite colors, are

Since opposite

proportions.

objectively,

is,

produce white,

they

colors,

mixed

when mixed

called complementary

are

As examples of such opposite or complementary colwe may mention spectral red and green-blue, orange

colors.

ors

and sky-blue, yellow and indigo-blue.

Like achromatic sensations, each of the color-sensations

may

though to a more limited extent, have one of

also,

When

several sources.

two objective colors which

lie

nearer

each other in the color-circle than opposites, are mixed, the

mixture 'appears, not white, but of a color which in the series
of objectively simple quahties lies

we

started.

very

much

The

diminished

when

approach opposite colors

the diminution

is

between the two with which

saturation of the resulting color

is,

indeed,

the components of the mixture

but when they are near each other,

no longer perceptible, and the mixture and

the corresponding simple color are generally subjectively ahke.

Thus, the orange of the spectrum

is

absolutely indistinguish-

able from a mixture of red and yellow rays.

be obtained by mixing red and green,

by mixing green and

violet
is

In

this

way,

the colors in the color-circle between red and green can

all

violet,

between green and

all

and, finally, purple, which

not in the solar spectrum, can be produced by mixing red

and

violet.

The whole

series of color-tones possible in sen-

sation can, accordingly, be obtained from three objective col-

By means

ors.

same three

of the

duce white with

its

and

purple,

violet gives

of green;

colors

intermediate stages.

and

this is the

we can also proThe mixture of red

complementary color

and the white secured by mixing these complemen-

tary colors,

when mixed

in different proportions with the various

colors, gives the different grades of saturation.

23.

way

to

The

three objective colors that

may be used

in this

produce the whole system of light -sensations, are

6.

Pure

fundamental colms.

called

Sensatio7is.

57

In order to indicate their

signif-

icance, a triangular surface is chosen to represent the system

of satiu'ations

rather than the circular surface which

rived from the psychological relations alone.

icance of the fundamental colors

them

at the

angles

is

The

is

de-

special signif-

then expressed by placing

Along the

of the triangle.

sides

are

arranged the color-tones in their maximal saturation, just as

on the circumference of the color- circle,

while the

other

grades of saturation in their transitions to white, which hes

in the centre, are

on the triangular

surface.

Theoretically,

any

set of three colors could

ors,

provided they were suitably distant from one another.

mentioned,

those

Practically,

be chosen as fundamental col-

preferable for two reasons.

and

green,

red,

First,

violet,

are

by using them we avoid

haviug as one of the three, purple, which can not be produced

by

objectively simple light.

Secondly, at the two

the spectrum sensations vary most

when

the period of vibration, so that

ends of

slowly in proportion to

the extreme

colors

of

the spectrum are used as fundamental colors, the result ob-

by mixing

tained

two neighboring ones

is

most hke the

intermediate, objectively simple color').

24.

These phenomena show that in the system of

sensations

simple

relation

does

not

exist

light-

between

the

physical stimuh and the sensations.

This can be understood

from what has been said above

as

the physiological

1)

stimulation.

(3)

The

to the

visual

character of

sense

is

to

be

In the neighborhood of green this advantage does not exist,

less saturated than the intermediate

and the mixtures always appear

simple colors.

This

is

a clear proof that the choice of the three

fundamental colors mentioned is indeed the most practical, but

nevertheless arbitrary, and at bottom due to the familiar geometrical
principle that a triangle is the simplest figure that can enclose a
finite number of points in the same plane.
5*

68

Psychical Elements,

I-

reckoned among the chemical senses, and we can expect a

simple relation only between the photochemical processes in

Now, we know from experience

the retina and the sensations.

that different kinds
disintegrations,

produce

of physical light

and

chemical

like

explains in general the possibility

this

mentioned above, of having the same sensation from many

According to the principle

different kinds of objective light.

of parallelism

between changes in sensation and in the physio-

logical stimulation

45),

(p.

it

may be assumed

that the various

physical stimuli which cause the same sensation

the same photochemical

all

produce

stimulation in the retina, arfd that

altogether there are just as

many

kinds and varieties of the

photochemical processes as kinds and varieties of distinguishable

In

sensations.

fact,

that

all

we know, up

to the present time,

about the physiological substratum of light-sensations

upon

The

this assumption.

is

based

investigation of the physiological

processes of stimulation through light, has not yet given any

further result than that the stimulation

is

in all probability

a chemical process.
25.

The

relatively long persistence

the stimulation that originated

it, is

of the sensation after

exphcable on the assumption

that the Hght-stimulations are due to

the retina

This persistence

(3, p. 42).

to the object used as

pression.

At

this

first

the

stimulus,

chemical processes in
is called,

appears

after-image

brightness and color as the object: white

white, black

same

color.

when

it

is

black,

and

with reference
of the im-

after-image

if

it

when
is

in

the

same

the object

colored,

is

in the

These are the positive and like-colored after-images.

After a short time

it

passes, in the case of achromatic impres-

sions, into the opposite

grade of brightness, white into black,

or black into white; in the case of colors,

opposite or complementary color.

complementary after-images.

it

passes into the

These are the negative and

If hght-stimuli of short duration


lct

upon the eye

and

so

Pure Sensations.

69

may be

in darkness, this transition

times.

several
negative,

6.

second positive
so that

on,

phases takes place.

The

an

repeated

after-image follows the

oscillation

between the two

positive after-image

may be

readily

explained by the fact that the photochemical disintegration

caused by any kind of

of the light.

The

light,

lasts

a short time after the action

negative and complementary after-images

can be explained by the fact that disintegration in a given

direction causes a partial consumption of the photochemical

substance

most

directly

and

concerned,

corresponding modification

of

the

this

results in a

photochemical

processes

when the stimulation of the retina continues.

26. The origin of a part of the phenomena included under
the name light-contrasts and color-contrasts is very probably
the same as that of the negative and complemeiitary after-

These phenomena consist in the appearance of simul-

images.

taneous sensations of opposite brightness and color in the

neighborhood of any light-impression.

Thus, a white surface

appears to be surrounded by a dark margin, a black surface

by a bright margin, and a colored surface by a margin

the complementary color.

of

These phenomena, which are called

"marginal contrasts" when they are limited to the immediate

neighborhood of the object, are in part at least nothing but

negative or complementary after-images that are simultaneously
visible in the

immediate neighborhood of the impression as a

result of continual
is

also

existence

still

after-images
latter.

it

is

wants certain proof.

is

Whether

there

a question;

its

The fact that these conmore intense, just as

increase as the light becomes

trasts

tially

weak ocular movements.

an irradiation of the stimulation

In

do,

speaks

for

their interconnection with the

this respect, this physiological contrast differs essen-

from ceriSim psychological contrast-phenomena, with which

generally confused.

The

latter are closely connected in

70

Psychical Elements.

I-

so that

we

of psychological contrast,

numerous other forms

their rise with

not discuss them until

will

into the general treatment ( 17, 9)

later,

when we

enter

of such phenomena.

26 a. If we take the principle of parallelism between sensation

and physiological stimulation as the basis of our suppositions in
regard to the processes that occur in the retina, we may
conclude that an analogous independence in the photochemical
processes corresponds to the relative independence which appears

Two facts, one

between achromatic and chromatic sensations.
belonging to the subjective sensational system, the other to the
objective phenomena of color-mixing, can be most naturally ex-'
.plained oh this basis. The first is the tendency that every colorsensation shows, of passing into one of pure brightness when
the grade of its brightness decreases or increases. This tendency
is

most simply interpreted on the assumption that every colormade up of two physiological components, one
is

stimulation

corresponding
stimulation.

to

the

To

this

for certain

condition, that

the

chromatic,

assumption we

medium

other to

may

easily

achromatic

the

add the further

intensities of the stimuli the

components are the strongest, while for greater and

smaller intensities the achromatic components come more and more
to the front. The second fact is that any two opposite colors are

chromatic

complementary

that

is,

when mixed

produce an achromatic sensation.

in suitable proportions, they

This phenomenon

is

most

easily

understood when we assume that opposite colors, which are subjectively the greatest possible differences, represent objective photo-

chemical processes that neutralize each other. The fact that as a

result of this neutralization an achromatic stimulation arises,

readily explained

by the presupposition

accompanies every
therefore

all

chromatic

that is left

when

that

stimulation

is

very

such a stimulation

from the

first,

and

is

antagonistic chromatic stimulations

counteract each other. This assumption of a relative independence

between the chromatic and achromatic photochemical processes,
is supported in a very striking way by the existence of an ab-

normity

of vision', sometimes congenital

sometimes acquired
through pathological changes in the retina, namely total colorblindness.
In such cases all stimulations are, either on the whole
,

Pure Sensations.

6.

retina or on certain parts of

it,

any admixture of

is

This

color.

seen as pure brightness, without

an incontrovertible proof that the

chromatic and achromatic stimulations are separable physiological

processes.

we apply

If

the

of parallelism

principle

stimulation, two facts present themselves.

colors

separated

a color that

that

by a

The

short distance,

limited,

to

that

two

when mixed

give

like the intermediate simple color.

is

color-stimulation

a process that varies

is

chromatic

the

first is

This indicates

with the physical

stimulus, not continuously, as the tonal stimulation, but in short

stages,

and in such a way that the stages in red and violet are
green, where the mixture of colors fairly near

longer than in

each other, shows the

effects of

complementary

action.

Such a

non-continuous variation of the process corresponds entirely with

its

chemical nature, for chemical disintegration and synthesis must

always have to do with groups of

Second fact

that certain

is

definite

atoms

rather large differences in the stimuli,

colors, that

is,

maximal

are

or

molecules.

The

which correspond to

colors,

subjectively

are

opposite

and the same colors are

mutually neutralizing, processes.

differences,

objectively complementary, that

is,

Chemical processes, however, can neutralize each other only when

they are in some way opposite in character.
Any two com-

plementary color-stimulations must, therefore, stand in a relation

to each other similar to that which exists between the neutraliz-

ing processes
stimulations.
First,

this

operative
Still,

in the

case

of antagonistic

achromatic

there are two very essential differences here.

opposition

in

the

character

of color- stimulations

is

not limited to one case, but appears for every color distinguishable
in sensation,

so

supposition, that

that

we must

for every

conclude, according to

stage

of chromatic stimulation which

is

of the
to be

our pre-

photochemical process

assumed on the ground

of the results obtained by mixing neighboring colors, there

is

complementary process. Secondly, the difference between

two opposite colors, which is subjectively the greatest possible
difference, is mediated by transitional forms, not merely in one
direction from each color, as in the case of black and white, but
certain

in

two

opposite

directions.

complementary action of

two

In a similar

way,

the

objective

colors gradually diminishes as, start-

ing from opposite colors, they approach each other in either of

72
these

two

directions.

Psychical Elements.

We

may, then,

infer

from

this

twofold

elimination of complementary action that the return of the color-line

corresponds to a repetition of related photochemical processes, on the same grounds that led us to infer the

to its starting point,

opposite character of the processes corresponding to opposite colors,

from the

fact that they are complementary. The whole process of

chromatic stimulation, beginning with red and passing beyond violet

through purple mixtures to its starting point, running parallel, as

does with continuous changes in the wave-length of objective
light, is to be regarded as an indefinitely long succession of photo-

it

chemical processes. All these processes together, form a closed drck

in which, for every stage, there is a

neutralizing opposite and a

possible transition to this opposite in

two

We know

The numerous attempts made

number of

stages in this circle of processes.

to reduce

aU color-sensations

such stages,

different directions.

nothing about the total number of photochemical

lack

adequate

to the smallest possible

foundation.

Sometimes they

indis-

criminatingly translate the results of physical color-mixing

into

physiological processes, as in the assumption of three fundamental

colors, red, green,
all

sensations

and

violet,

of light,

from the

different mixtures of

even the achromatic,

(Young-Helmholtz hypothesis).

Sometimes

which

are to be derived

they start with the

psychologically untenable assumption that the naming of colors

is

not due to the influence of certain external objects, but to the real
significance

of the corresponding sensations (v. sup. p. 63), and

assume accordingly four fundamental colors as the sources of all
color-sensations.
The four fundamental colors here assumed are
the two pairs red and green, yellow and blue, to which are added
the similar pair of sensations of pure brightness, black and white.

All other

such as grey,

light -sensations

are regarded as subjectively and

objectively

orange,

violet,

mixed colors

etc.,

(Her-

hypothesis).
The evidence in support of the first as of
second of these hypotheses has been derived for the most
part from the not infrequent cases oi partial color-blindness.

ing's

the

Those who accept three fundamental colors, assert that all these
are to be explained as a lack of the red or green sensa-

cases

tions,

that

or else as
partial

lack

Those who accept four, hold

includes two fundamental
opposites, and is, therefore, either

of both.

color-blindness

colors that belong together as

always


red-green-blindness

6,

Pure Sensations.

73

An

or yellow-blue-blindness.

examination of color-blindness does

unprejudiced

not justify either of these

The three-color theory can not explain

assertions.

blindness, and the four-color theory

is

total

color-

in contradiction to cases of

pure red-blindness and pure green-blindness. Finally, both theories

are overthrown by the cases that unquestionably occur, in
as do not correspond to any
fundamental colors, appear colorless. The

which such parts of the spectrum

of the three or four

only thing that our present knowledge justifies us in saying,

that every simple sensation of light

is

is

conditioned physiologically

by a combination of two photochemical processes, a mcmochromatic

The first is made up, in turn, of a process
and a chromatic.
mainly of disintegration, when the light is more intense, and a
process of restitution, when the light is weaker. The chromatic
process varies by stages in such a

way

that the whole series of

photochemical color-disintegrations forms a

circle

of processes in

which the products of the disintegration for any two

most distant stages, neutralize each other').

relatively

Various changes as a result of the action of light have been observed in the living retina, all of which go to support the assump-

Such are the gradual change into a

which in the retina not exposed to

tion of a photochemical process.

colorless state, of a substance

light

red

is

(bleaching

of

the

visual

purple);

microscopical

movements of the pigmented protoplasm between the

of

the

rods

phenomena
stimulation,

clusion

1)

rods and

or

elements,

cones;

sensitive

and, finally, changes in the

use

form

Attempts
and cones themselves.
any way for a physiological theory of lightThe most probable conare certainly premature.
to

these

in

which we can now draw

The further assumption

is

is

that the

made by

difference in the

the defenders of the four

fundamental colors, that two opposite colors are related just as bright
and dark achromatic stimulations, that is, that one of these colors
other to
is due to a photochemical disintegration (dissimilation), the
a restitution (assimilation). This is an analogy that contradicts the
actual facts. The result obtained by mixing complementary colors
on its subjective side a sttppression of the color-sensation 'while
the mixture of white and black, on the other hand, produces an
is

intermetUaie sensation.

74

Psychical Elements.

forms of tte rods and cones

The centre of the

function.

vision in the

human

rods

the

parts

are

connected with a difference in

which is the region of direct

is

retina,

the eccentric

eye, has only cones, while in

more numerous; furthermore,

in the centre

(which also wants the visual purple) the discrimination of colors

much better than in the eccentric regions while the latter

is

much more

are

sensitive to brightness.

The natural conclusion

facts is that the differences in sensitivity are

from these

connected

with the photochemical properties of the rods and cones.

we

7.

SIMPLE FEELINGS.

Simple feelings

may

we never observe except

as
less

is

many more ways

originate in very

than simple sensations, as was noted in

(p.

in

Even

5.

connection

sucli feelings

more

with

or

complex ideational processes, have a simple character

34

sq.).

Thus, for example, the feeling of tonal harmony

just as simple as the feeling connected with a single tone.

Several tonal

sensations together are required to produce a

harmony, so that

it is

a compound so far as

contents are concerned,

is

so different

feehngs are, subjectively, equally irreducible.

between the two

simple

sensations

sensational

from that

feelings connected with the single tones, that

difference

its

but the affective quality of certain

harmonious compound clangs

to

Still,

lack here too any particular evidence.

is

of the

both classes of

The only

essential

that the feehngs which correspond

can be easily isolated from the inter-

connections of which they form a part in our experience, by

the same method of abstraction which

we employed

covering the simple sensations

Those, on the other

hand,

that

are

connected

(p. 38).

with

in dis-

some composite ideational

compound, can never be separated from the feehngs which

enter into the

compound

as

subjective

complements

of the

7.

Simple Feelings.

Thus, for example,

sensations.

the feeling of

it

75
impossible to separate

is

harmony connected with

the chord c e g from

the simple feelings connected with each of the single tones

c,

e,

and

The

g.

latter

may,

background, for as we shall see later

unite with

the feeling of

pushed into the

indeed, be

harmony

they always

3a),

( 9,

form a unitary

to

total

feelmg, but they can never be eliminated.

The

2.

feeling connected with a simple sensation

monly known
satimi.

com-

is

as a sense-feeling, or the affective tone of a sen-

These two expressions are capable of misinterpretation

in

two opposite

by

"sense-feeling"

senses.

diate experience that

but one that really

other hand,

There

is

a tendency to think that

we mean not merely a component

may be

exists

by

may be regarded

isolated

imme-

of

through abstraction,

"Affective tone", on the

itself.

must

as an affective quality that

inevitably belong to a sensation, just as "color-tone"

is

a ne-

In reahty, however,

cessary determinant of a color-sensation.

a sense-feeling without a sensation can no more exist than can

a feeling of tonal harmony without tonal sensations.
as

is

of pain, of pressure, of hot,

and

of cold,

and muscle-sensa-

are called independent sense-feelings,

tions,

confusion of the concepts sensation and

is

When,

sometimes the case, the feelings accompanying sensations

still

especially in physiology.

prevalent,

this confusion certain sensations,

called "feelings",

and

due to the

it is

feeling

(p.

As

36)

which

a result of

such as those of touch, are

in the case of

some sensations accom-

panied by strong feelings, as sensations of pain, the

crimination of the two elements
place,

it

would be

real truth

of the

many

is

dis-

In the second

just as inadmissable to ascribe to a given

sensation a definite

The

is

neglected.

feeling

fixed in

quahty and

that in every case the sensation

intensity.
is

only one

factors that determine the feeling present at a

given moment; besides the sensation, the processes that have

76

/.

Psychical Elements.

gone before and the permanent dispositions

we can

ysis

The concept "sense-feeHng" or

part.

and abstraction:

as separated

first,

we must think

of the simple feeling

from the concomitant pure sensation, and secondly,

we must pick out from among

which

affective elements

is

play

"affective

accordingly, in a double sense the product of anal-

is,

are^

changiag

various

the

all

connected with a given sensation

most constant and

different conditions, the one that is

under

only partially account for in special cases

an essential
tone"

conditions that

connected with the sensation after the removal, so far as

possible, of all the influences that could disturb or complicate

the simple effect of the sensation.

The
meet,

first

if

these conditions

of

we keep

comparatively easy to

is

mind the psychological meaning

in

concepts sensation and feehng.

The second

is

very

of the

difficult,

and, especially in the case of the most highly developed sensational

systems, the

possible to
infer

remove

what the pure

means

of the

auditory and visual,

never really

it is

"We can

entirely such indirect influences.

affective tone of

a sensation

is,

only by

same method that has already been used

the abstraction of pure sensations (

5,

Here,

p. 28).

for
too,

we may assume that only that affective tone which remains

constant when all other conditions change, belongs to the
sensation itself.
The rule is easily applied to sensation, but
only with great difficulty to feelings, because the secondary
influences

referred

tone.

are

to

with the sensation as

is

generally

as

closely

connected

the primary occasion of the affective

Thus, for example, the sensation green arouses almost

unavoidably the idea of green vegetation and since there are

,

connected with

may be
color

this idea

composite feelings whose character

entirely independent

itself, it is

feeling observed

of the

affective

tone

of the

impossible to determine directly whether the

when a green impression

is

presented,

is

7. Simple

pure

Feelings.

77

a feeling aroused by the attending idea,

affective tone,

or a combination of both.
2

This

a.

difficulty

has led

many

psychologists

argue

to

They
some accompanying ideas and
action of the sensation is due ia every case

against the existence of any pure aifective tone whatever.

assert that every sensation arouses

the

that

affective

But the

to these ideas.

conditions

for

attendant

ideas

results of experimental variation of the

light-sensations,

tell

when

necessarily be strongest

The

of

maximum.

The pure

observed in surrounding darkness have

These colors

tone.

those

of the

might

refer.

are,

natural

There

is

for

spectral

colors

affective

which

accompanying feelings

to

little justification

for the attempts

from such ideas exclusively.

may

It

can not

be aroused through

on the other hand, the constancy with which

still,

example,

by no means
when its grade

is

strongest

just as

certain tonal qualities are

as,

the

would

it

however, generally very different from

be doubted that familiar musical ideas

;

the

objects

to derive tonal feelings

a single tone

This

affective tone of a color is greatest

reaches

saturation

If

feeling,

the sensational contents of the im-

pression were most like those of the ideas.

the case.

view.

against this

were the only sources of the

chosen to express particular feelings,

deep tones to express grave

and sad

feelings,

can be understood only under the condition that the correspond-

The
more obvious when

ing affective quality belongs to the simple tonal sensation.

circle in

which the argument moves

is

still

the affective tones of sensations of taste, smell, and

sense

are

derived

from the accompanying

ideas.

the

general

When,

for

example, the agreeable or disagreeable tone of a taste-sensation

is increased by the recollection of the same impression as experienced before, this can be possible only under the condition that

the earlier impression was itself agreeable or disagreeable.

3.

The

numerous.

varieties

The

of

simple sense-feelings are exceedingly

feelings

corresponding to a particular sen-

sational system also form a system,

since, in general,

a change

in the quality or intensity of the affective tone runs parallel

to every change in the quality or intensity of the sensations.

78

At

I-

Psyehioal Elements.

the same time these changes in the affective systems are

from the corresponding changes in the

essentially different

sensational systems,

so that

to

quality

and

intensity.

the affective tone

varied,

it

hut also in quality; and

both.

impossible to regard the

If the intensity of a sensation

may change not

if

is

only in intensity,

the quality of the sensation

varied, the affective tone usually

sity

is

determinant of sensations, analogous

affective tone as a third

is

changes in quality and inten-

For example, increase the sensation sweet in

it changes gradually from
agreeable to dis-

and

intensity

agreeable.

Or, gradually substitute

one of sour or

bitter,

for

sweet sensation

keeping the intensity constant,

it will

be

observed that, for equal intensities, sour and, more especially,

produce a much stronger feeling than sweet.

bitter
eral,

In gen-

then, every change in sensation is usually accompanied

by a twofold change in

and

in the quality

The way

feeling.

which changes

in

intensity of affective tones are related to

each other follows the principle already stated

every

series

between

of

affective

(p.

33) that

changes in one dimension ranges

opposites, not, as is the case with the corresponding

sensational changes, between greatest differences.

4.

tative

In accordance with

this principle, the greatest

opposites in affective quality,

tensity

correspond to

differences in sensations

and

to

maxima

the

quah-

greatest

of affective in-

which are either equal or at least approximately equal,

according to the special pecularities of the qualitative opposites.

The middle point between

an absence of

these two opposites corresponds to

all intensity, so far as

to which the opposites belong

is

intensity can be observed only

sational system

a point which

is

is

only the single dimension

concerned.

when

This absence of

the corresponding sen-

absolutely one-dimensional.

In

all

other cases,

a neutral middle for one particular series of

sensational differences, belongs at the

same time

to another

Simple Feelings.

7.

sensational dimension or even to a

in each of which

79

number

of such dimensions,

has a definite affective value.

it

Thus, for

example, spectral yellow and blue are opposite colors which

In passing grad-

have corresponding opposite affective tones.

from one of these to the

ually along the color-line

green would be the neutral middle between them.

itself

stands

in

contrast with

affective

purple; and, furthermore,

is,

it

like

its

every

other,

But green

opposite

color,

saturated

color,

one extremity of a series made up of the transitional stages

of a single color-tone to white.

Again, the system of simple

tonal sensations forms a continuity of only one dimension,

but in this case more than in others

it is

late the corresponding affective tones

through abstraction, as

we

impossible to iso-

did the pure sensations, because in actual experience

we

always have, not only intermediate stages between tones of

different pitch, but also transitions

tones and noises

The

made up

result of these conditions

is

that every many-dimensional

system has a corresponding complex system of

sensational

tones,

affective

between absolutely simple

of a profusion of simple tones.

in

which every point generally belongs

at

once to several dimensions, so that the feeling corresponding

to a given sensation

due to

its

system.

is

a resultant of the affective elements

position in various dimensions of the sensational

It follows that discrimination

between simple and

composite feehngs in the sphere of affective qualities, can not

be carried out.
sensation,

the

fusion

is

The

feeling that corresponds to a particular

as a rule,
of

for the reasons given, a product of

several simple

feelings,

though

it

irreducible as a feeling of originally simple nature

further consequence

is

that the

is
(cf.

still

12,

as
3).

neutral naiddle between

opposite affective quaUties, can be actually found in experi-

ence only in the special cases where the affective tone of a

particular sensation corresponds to the neutral middle of all

go

I.

Psychical Elements.

dimensions to which

the

it

This special condition

belongs.

the many-dimensional

sensational

systems, especially those of sight and hearing,

in just the

is

obviously

for

fulfilled

cases in which

it is

of special practical value for the undis-

In the one

turbed occurrence of affective processes.

medium

sensations of

case,

brightness and those of the low grades

of chromatic saturation approximating them, in the other, the

auditory impressions of our ordinary environment, which are

between a tone and noise in character

human

voice),

quality.

On

The

for example, the

affective

both sides of these zones arise the more intense

tones

affective

(as,

form the neutral indifference-zones of

more marked sensational

the

of

existence of such indifference-zones

makes

it

qualities.

possible for

the complex feelings which correspond to the various combi-

nations of these sensational qualities, to develop almost in-

dependently, without regard to the accompanying sense-f eeKngs.

The

5.

variations in

and

quality

affective

intensity that

run parallel to the grades of sensational intensity, are much

They can be most

simpler.

sensational

systems

is

systems

of

the

clearly seen in the

Each

general sense.

of a uniform quaUty throughout,

homogeneous
of

these

and can be

fairly

well represented geometrically by a single point, so that the

only possible sensational changes are those of intensity, and

can be attended only by a one-dimensional

these

affective

zone

is,

changes between opposites.

and

cold,

of

and

the

that are

medium

neutral indifference-

sensations of

this

hot,
in-

The simple feehngs on

zone exhibit decidedly opposite characters,

can, in general,
feelings,

pressure,

connected with the normal, medium

ordinary sense-stimuli.

both sides of

urable

of

accordingly, always easy to observe in these cases.

It corresponds to

tensity

The

series

be reckoned, on the one

on the other,

The unpleasurable feehngs are

side,

to unpleasurable

the

to pleas(v. inf.

6).

only ones that can be

Simple Feelings.

7.

produced with certainty, by increasing the intensity of the

Through habituation

sensation.

to

moderate

such an

stimuli,

expansion of the indifference-zone has taken place in these

systems of the general sense, that
as a rule

the stimuli are weak,

only a succession of sensations very different in

or

intensity

when

can produce

quality,

In

feehngs.

noticeable

such cases, feelings of pleasure always correspond to sen-

medium

sations of

The

regular

affective

intensity.

between sensational intensity and

relation

tone, can be better observed without this influence

in the

of contrast,

case

of

taste.

At

sations

and increases with the increasing

first

sations to a

medium

a pleasurable feeling arises

maximum, then

it

sensational intensity,

increases

The

6.

two

sen-

intensity of the sen-

sinks to zero with a certain

and

when

finally,

maximum

is

this intensity

reached.

variety of simple affective qualities

much

facts.

and

with weak

more, the feeling becomes unpleasurable and

still

increases until the sensational

great,

of smell

certain sensations

greater than that of sensations.

First, every

sensation of the

is

this is the chief reason, the different

from the various combinations

sive,

spacial,

course

the

feelings,

emotions

and

are so

arising

also certain stages in

have corresponding

volitions,

which are, as above remarked

It is greatly to

Secondly,

compounds

(p.

76),

and must therefore be classed among the simple

feelings

due to

of sensations, such as inten-

and temporal ideas, and

of

is

many- dimensional

systems belongs at once to several series of feelings.

and

exceedingly

This

irreducible,
feelings.

be regretted that our names for simple

much more hazy than

The proper nomenclature

of feeling

is

those for sensations.

limited entirely to the

expression of certain general antitheses, as pleasurable and un-

and disagreeable, grave and gay, excited

These designations are usually based on the

pleasurSible, agreeable

and

quiet, etc.

Whsdi, Psychology.

/ Psychical Elements.

82

emotions into which the feelings enter as elements,

so

general

complex ideas whose

pressions,

as,

affective

character

for

of

many musical

and

objects

which give

life

simple affective

logical mistake,

which

the

Then,

is

of tone,

a gross psycho-

makes an

it

is

a complete

out of the question, even

such a Hst in the case of simple sensations.

The
do

above,

con-

composite affective processes

why

too, there are still other reasons

possible.

is

difficulties indicated,

of simple affective qualities

more than

To

first.

In consequence of the

7.

list

of

names

a corresponding poverty

furthermore fatal since

is

adequate investigation

is

themselves,

qualities

impossible from the

rise to the

attributes, are here wanting.

their

clude, for this reason, that there

of

a psycho-

is

consequence of the subjective nature of the feehngs.

All the motives of practical

of

writers in

This poverty

the feelings accompanying clangs.

language in special names for the feehngs,

logical

used

certain simple im-

example, by Goethe in his description of

the affective tone of colors, and by

describing

cases,

similar, are

is

feelings connected with

in describing the

of single

In other

character.

of Yery different

simple feelings

number

large

each includes

that

and are

feelings,

by

not form closed systems,

of light, or

of taste,

manifold, interconnected in

it

would be im-

virtue of the attributes described

as

do the sensations

but are united in a single

all its

parts

(p. 35).

Furthermore,

the union of certain feelings gives rise to feehngs which are

not only unitary, but even simple in character

manifold of feelings, made up, as

most

delicately

shaded quahties,

(p. 75).

In

this

it is,

of a great variety of

it is

nevertheless possible

to distinguish certain different chief directions, including certain

affective opposites of

may

predominant character.

Such

directions

always be designated by the two names that indicate

their opposite extremes.

Each name

is,

however, to be looked

upon

as a

collective

Simple Feelings.

7,

name

Three such chief directions

them the

ing) feelings

Any

laxation.

is

all

affective directions

may

belong to

that makes

will

all of

these

The

last

possible to distin-

it

The combination

guish the different directions.

of

different

which ordinarily takes place, and the above

79) influences

of feelings arising

why we

we

and unpleasurable

two or even only one of them.

mentioned possibihty

(p.

distinguished;

that of feelings of strain and re-

finally

concrete feeling

directions or only

mentioned

of

arousing and subduing (exciting and depress-

and

may be

of pleasurable

direction

feelings, that of

number

including an endless

from one another.

feelings differing

call

which are due to the overlapping

from various causes,

go to explain

all

are perhaps never in a state entirely free from feeling,

although the general nature of the feelings demands an indifference-zone.

8.

Feelings connected with sensations of the general sense

and with impressions

as

good examples

A sensation

forms.

of smell

of

pure

and

taste,

may be

regarded

and unpleasurable

pleasurable

of pain, for example,

regularly accom-

is

panied by an unpleasurable feeling without any admixture of

other affective forms.

Li connection with pure sensations,

arousing and subduing feelings

may be

observed best in the

case of color-impressions and clang-impressions.

Thus, red

is

arousing, blue subduing.

Feelings of strain and relaxation are

always

the

connected

with

temporal

course

of

processes.

Thus, in expecting a sense-impression, we note a feeling of

strain,

and on the

of relaxation.

arrival of the

expected event, a feeling

Both the expectation and

satisfaction

may be

accompanied at the same time by a feeling of excitement

under special conditions, by pleasurable
feelings.

Still,

and then those

these other feelings

of

strain

or

may be

or,

unpleasurable
entirely absent,

and relaxation are recognized as

84

Psychical Elements.

I-

specific

forms whicli can not be reduced to others, just as

The presence

the two directions mentioned before.

may be

than one direction

more

of

discovered in the case of very

many feelings which are, nevertheless, simple

as much as the feelings mentioned.
Thus,

in quaUty, just

the feeUngs of

and gaiety connected with the sensible impres-

seriousness

sions of low

and high tones or dark and bright

colors, are to

he regarded as characteristic qualities which are outside the

indifference -zone in both the pleasurable
direction

and the exciting and depressing

and unpleasurable
direction.

We

are

never to forget here that pleasurable and unpleasurable, exciting

and depressing, are not names of single

ities,

but

number

affective qual-

which an indefinitely large

directions, within

of

of simple qualities appear, so that the unpleasurable

quality of seriousness

is

not only to be distinguished from

that of a painful touch, of a dissonance,

different cases of seriousness itself

may

but even the

etc.,

vary in their quahty.

Again, the direction of pleasurable and unpleasurable feelings,

is

united with that of feelings

the case

of

the

affective

of strain

tones

of

and

relaxation,

The

rhythms.

succession of strain and relaxation in these cases

by pleasure, the disturbance

feeling, as

when we

of this regularity

is

in

regular

attended

by the opposite

are disappointed or surprised.

Then,

under certain circumstances the feeling may, in both

too,

cases,

be of an exciting or a subduing character.

These examples lead very naturally to the assumption

9.

that the three

chief

directions of simple feelings

depend on

the relations in which each single feehng stands to the whole

succession
feeling

sents

of psychical processes.

In

this

succession every

has in general a threefold significance.

a particular modification of the

moment;

this

modification belongs to

impleasurable direction.

2) It

state

the

exercises

1)

It repre-

of the present
pleasurable and
certain

definite

Simple Feelings.

7.

85

influence on the succeeding state; this influence can be distin-

guished in
3)

It

ing state

forms as excitation and inhibition.

opposite

its

determined in

is

essential

its

feeling in the forms of strain

render

also

character by the preced-

determining influence shows

this

improbable

it

and
that

relaxation.

other

itself in

the given

These conditions

chief

directions

of

feeling exist.

Of the three

9 a.

mentioned, only that of

aifective directions

pleasurable and unpleasurable feelings has generally been recogthe

nized;
as

we

it is

emotions.
But the emotions,
come from combinations of feelings;

others are reckoned as

shall

see

in

13,

obvious, therefore, that the

must have

their

psychologists

antecedents

fundamental forms of emotions

the

in

affective

elements.

Some

have regarded pleasurable and unpleasurable

feel-

ings, not as collective terms including a great variety of simple

but as entirely uniform,

feehngs,

concrete states

so

that,

for

example, the unpleasurableness of a toothache, of an intellectual

failure,

and of a tragical experience are

their affective contents.

Still

all

regarded as identical ia

others seek to identify the feelings

with special sensations, especially with cutaneous sensations and

muscle-sensations.
criticism.

They

Such entirely untenable assertions require no

however, the uncertain state of the

indicate

doctrine of feelings, even at the present time.

0.

The question has been

raised whether or not particular

physiological processes correspond to

is

the case for the sensations.

the simple feehngs, as

Older psychology was inclined

to answer this question in the negative,

and

to contrast the

feehngs as inner, purely psychological, states with sensations

as processes aroused from without.

contrary, the

In modern times, on the

affirmative answer has

generally been given,

but for the most part without the support of adequate empirical proof.

Obviously, our assumptions in regard to the physiological

phenomena accompanying the

feelings

must be based

on

86

Psychical Elements.

demonstrable physiological

actually

our

as

processes, just

assumptions in regard to the physiological conditions of sen-

were deduced from the structure and functions of

sations

In looldng for such processes,

the sense-organs.

from the subjective nature of the

feelings,

it

follows

we should

that

not expect to find them among the processes produced in

the organism

by external agents, as the sensations

directly

are,

but rather in reactions which arise indirectly from these

first

processes.

observation of compounds

elements, that

affective

easily

The

is,

of

of

emotions and volitions, whose

concomitants

perceptible

made up

are

always external

move-

ments or changes in the state of the organs of movement,

also points in the

The
derived

same

direction.

analysis of sensations,

and of the psychical compounds

from them, makes direct use

method; while the investigation of simple

of

the

feelings,

impression-

and

of the

processes resulting from their combinations, can employ this

method only
method, that

indirectly.
is,

the other hand, the expressitm-

the investigation of the physiological reactions

of psychical processes,
of feelings

On

is

especially adapted to the examination

and processes made up

of them, because as

by experience, such reactions are regular symptoms of

processes.

shown

affective

All the phenomena in which the inner state of

the organism

is

outwardly expressed,

for the expression-method.

Such

may be

utiUzed as aids

are, besides the

of the external muscles, especially the respiratory

movements
and cardiac

movements, the contraction and dilation of the blood-vessels

in particular organs, the dilation

of the eye, etc.

and contraction

The most dehcate

of these

is

of the pupil

the beating

which can be examined as exactly reproduced

the pulse of some peripheral artery. All other phenomena

of the heart,
in

are generally wanting in the case of a simple feeling.

It

is

only for high intensities, where the feelings always pass into


emotions, that

7.

we have

Simple Feelings.

,87

added symptoms, especially

other,

changes in respiration, and mimetic expressive movements.

Of the

11.

chief

directions

especially that of pleasurable

shown

of

feeling

mentioned above,

and impleasurable

feelings can

to stand in regular relation to the pulse.

feeling

pleasurable, the pulse

is

is

When

be

the

retarded and intensified,

when unpleasurable, the pulse is accelerated and weakened.

For the other directions, the accompanying changes can only
be inferred with some degree of probability, from the
of the corresponding emotions (

effects

Thus, exciting feelings

3, 5).

seem

to betray their presence only through stronger pulse-

beats,

and subduing through weaker, without a change

For feehngs

in either case.

weakened

pulse, for those

of strain,

of relaxation, accelerated

several of these directions at the

action of the pulse

is

in

many

that can be concluded

is

is

not

same time;

in-

confirmed by

is,

as a result, the

complex that the most

cases so

the predominance

The conclusion

other direction.
it

and

Single feelings belong for the most part to

tensified pulse.

long as

of rate

we have retarded and

of one or the

however, uncertain so

direct

observation

the

of

feehng.

The relations that seem probable from experiments on

symptoms of feelings and emotions as found in pulse- activity,

11a.
the

may be

presented

in.

the following scheme.

Pulse

weak

strong
accelerated

retarded

accelerated

retarded

pleasurable
feeling

exciting
feeling

feeling of
relaxation

feeling of
strain

subduing

unpleasura-

feeling

ble feeling.
I

Exciting and subduing feelings,

then,

show themselves by
But

simple changes in the pulse, the others by double changes.

Psychical Elements.

I.

88
this scheme,

which

of complex

emotions,

derived for the most part from the effects

needs confirmation from experiments in

is

which attention is paid to the isolation of these various affective

etc.,
also
Changes in respiration muscle-tension
directions.
from
the
equivocal
obvious
It is
need further investigation.
,

character of each symptom, that

vations

when

we can

in psychical experience,

a particular feeling

infer particular

is

given

resulting inner-

from the symptoms which appear, but that we can never

presence of particular feelings from the physiological

infer the

symptoms.

expression-method can not be as

It follows that the

highly valued from a psychological point of view as the impressionFrom the very nature of the case, the impressionmethod.

method

is

the only one that can be used in arousing and varying

psychical processes at will.

The expression-method gives results

phenomena which accompany

that explain only the physiological

not the psychological nature of the feelings themselves.

observed in the pulse must be regarded as

feelings,

The

variations

changed innervation of the heart, coming from

Physiology shows that the heart
organs by two kinds of nerves:
is connected with the central
eaxitatory nerves, which run through the sympathetic system and

the

results of a

the cardiac centre in the brain.

the medulla, and inhibitory nerves, which

originate indirectly in

nerve (vagus) and also have their

The normal regularity of the pulse
depends on a certain equilibrium between excitatory and inhibitory
influences.
Such influences come not only from the brain, but
from the centres in the ganglia of the heart itself Thus, every

belong to

the

tenth

source

the

medulla.

in

cranial

may be

increase and every decrease of the heart's energy

preted in two different ways. The

first

may

excitatory, or to a decrease of inhibitory innervation,

may

inter-

be due to an increase of

and the second

be due to a decrease in excitatory or to an increase in inhibitory

innervation, or in both cases the

two influences may be united.

We

have no universally applicable means of investigating these possibilities, still,

the circumstance that the stimulation of the inhibitory

nerves has a quicker effect than the stimulation of the excitatory,

gives us good ground in

the one or the other.

many

cases for conjecturing the presence of

Now, the changes

in the pulse always follow

very quickly the sensations that cause them.

probable

that

in

the

case

of feelings

It

is,

therefore,

and emotions, we

have

7.

Simple Feelings.

chiefly changes in inhibitory innervation,

and conducted along the vagus.

may

It

the affective tone of a sensation on

its

89
originating in the brain
veell

assumed that

be

physiological side, corre-

sponds to a spreading of the stimulation from the sensory centre

other central regions which are connected with the sources

to

of the

are

inhibitory nerves

thus affected,

of

we do

the physiological substrata for

experience,
cortex,

are

leads

true for the

in

all

the

heart.

all

Which

central regions

But the circumstance

not know.

that

the elements of our psychological

probability to be found in

the

cerebral

very naturally to the assumption that the same"

centre of these

inhibitory innervations.

is

Further-

more, the essential differences between the attributes of feelings

and those of sensations, make it probable that this centre is not
identical with the sensory centres.
If a special cortical region
is assumed as the medium for these effects, there is no reason
for

supposing a special one for each sensory

complete
to

centre,

uniformity in the physiological symptoms

but

the

goes more

show that there is only one such region, which must then
same time serve as a kind of central organ for the con-

at the

nection of the various sensory centres.

of such

central

compare

15, 2 a.)

region,

and

its

(For the further significance

probable anatomical position,

PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.

11.

8.

DEPENITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF

PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.
compound" we mean any composite
component of our immediate experience which is marked off
from the other contents of this experience by particular
].

By

"psychical

characteristics,

demands

in such a

way

designated

it,

by a

is

apprehended as a

when

practical necessity

that

independent unity and

relatively

it

is,

In developing

name.

special

these names, language has followed

general rule

the

that

only classes and the most important species into which phe-

nomena may be grouped,

shall

the discrimination of concrete

have special designations, while

compounds

is left

to immediate

Thus, such expressions as ideas, emotions,

perception.

voli-

tional acts, etc., designate general classes of psychical com-

pounds, such expressions as visual ideas,

etc.,

designations,

are based

anger, hope,

So

far as these

which have arisen from practical experience,

upon actual distinguishing

be retained by science.

But

characteristics, they

science

of the nature of these characteristics

iar

joy,

special species included in these classes.

each of the

contents of

chief-

must
and

give

may

an account

also of the pecul-

forms of psychical com-

pounds, in order to give every single term an exact meaning.

In doing
sitions to

this,

we must avoid from the

first

two presuppo-

which the existence of these names might

naislead us.

The

first is

the view that a psychical

easily

compound


is

an

The second
example,

for

truth

and

is

Classification of Psychical Cojnpounds.

independent

absolutely

rience.
as,

Definition

8.

is

content of immediate expe-

the opinion that certain compounds,

have

ideas,

compounds

that

91

the

nature

only

are

of

The

things.

independent

relatively

Just as they are made up of various elements, so they

units.

themselves unite to form a complete interconnection, in which

compounds may continually combine

relatively simple

more composite

ones.

Then,

compounds,

again,

psychical elements contained in them,

processes which change from
is

moment

moment,

which

many

so that

it

indeed, in-

is,

cases,

can be thought of as constant at any moment

that

they

( 2, p. 13 sq.).

All psychical compounds may be resolved into psychi-

2.

cal elements, that

The two kinds

different

is,

into pure sensations

and simple

of elements behave, however, in

feelings.

an essentially

manner, in accordance with the peculiar properties

of simple feelings as described in

The

7.

sensational ele-

ments found by such a resolution, always belong

the

the

are never things, but

to

only through deliberate abstraction,

dispensable for the investigation in

form

to
like

systems

sensational

already

elements, on the other hand,

to

The

considered.

one of
affective

include not only those which

correspond to the pure sensations contained

in the

compounds,

but also those due to the interconnection of the elements into

a compound. The systems of sensational

qualities, accordingly,

always remain the same, no matter how great a variety of

compounds
ities

while the systems of simple affective qual-

arises,

continually

actual

nature

Connected with

increase.

another attribute which

of

is

this

psychical

processes.

The

psychical compounds are never limited to those

ments that enter into them, but new

the

compounds themselves, always

bination of these elements.

increase

is

thoroughly characteristic for the

attributes
of the

of
ele-

attributes, peculiar to

arise as a result of the

com-

Thus, a visual idea has not only

n. Psychical Compounds.

92

and

the attributes of the light-sensations

of the sensations of

ocular position and movements contained in

of the

spacial

{irrangement

not only

made up
may be

single acts

of

the

characteristic

Again, a volition

and

the ideas

feelings into

new

affective elements

of the complex

which

its

which are

specif-

Here, again,

vohtion.

combinations of sensational and affective elements

In the

different.

first case,

the sensational systems,

on account

no new sensations can

of

but

arise,

These forms are

When, on

the extensive spacial and temporal manifolds.

other hand, affective elements combine,

are

of the constancy

only peculiar forms of their arrangement.

new

the

simple feelings

which unite with those originally present to make

arise,

is

from the combi-

resolved, but there result

nation of these acts,

ically

the sensations, which these

of

do not have.

elements in themselves

but also that

it,

w-

tensive affective units of composite character.

The

3.

classification of psychical

compounds

is

naturally

based upon the character of the elements that make them

Those composed

up.

called ideas,

the

those

case

of

the

among
is

chiefly

elements.
of

of

sensations are

of affective elements,

limitations

corresponding

pounds are more the products

there

or

consisting mainly

The same

processes.

affective

entirely

hold here

as in

Although

com-

immediate discrimination

actual psychical processes than the elements are,

at

still,

bottom no pure ideational process and no pure

affective process,

but in both cases we can only abstract

a certain extent from one or the other component.

-

As

to
in

the case of the two kinds of elements, so here

the accompanying subjective states

we can neglect
when dealing with ideas,

but must always presuppose some idea for the

cesses.

Still,

these ideas

may be

affective pro-

of very different kinds for

the single species and varieties of affective processes.

We

distinguish,

accordingly,

three chief forms of ideas:


1)

intensive ideas,

Intensicc Ideas.

9.

spacial ideas,

2)

three forms of affective processes:

temporal ideas; and

3)

1)

binations, 2) emotions, 3) volitions.

93

com-

intensive afEective

Temporal ideas constitute

a sort of link between the two kinds of processes

for

cer-

tain feelings play an important part in their formation.

1.

is

INTENSIVE IDEAS.

combination of sensations in which every element

connected with any second element in exactly the same

way

as with any other,

an intensive

called

is

Thus,

idea.

compound clang made up of the tones d f a

For the immediate apprehension,

for example, a
is

9.

such an intensive idea.

each of the partial combinations into which

clang can be resolved, as

df, da, fd, fa, ad, nf,

are all entirely

equivalent, in whatever order they are thought

obvious at once

if

we compare

the

compound

this

different

We

ideas.

is

compound clang with any

succession of the same tones, where df, da, fd, fa,

essentially

This

of.

may

etc.,

define intensive

are

ideas,

accordingly, as combinations of sensational elements, in ivhicJi

the order

of

flie

It follows

eletnents

be indefinitely varied.

from their nature, that intensive ideas do not

have, arising from the

any

may

characteristics,

into separate parts.

way

which their elements are united

in

by means

of

which they can be resolved

Such a resolution

possible only through

is

the differences in the constituent elements themselves.

Thus,

we discriminate the elements of the compound clang d f

only because we hear in it the qualitatively different tones
f,

and

a.

idea are
state.

Still,

less

This

a,
d,

the separate components in such a unitary

clearly distinguishable
fact,

that the

elements

background by the impression

than in their isolated

are

of the whole,

pushed into the

is

of great

im-

94

11,

portance for
it

Psyehieal Compounds.

intensive

ideas,

with others

and
the

If

fusion.

so close that

is

"We

forms of ideational combination.

all

the fusion of sensations,

call

for intensive

in -particular,

connection of one element

can be perceived as a part of

it

the whole only through unusual concentration of the attention

aided by experimental variation of the conditions,

fusion compute.

If,

in

into

background in comparison with

the

is

we

call

the fusion incomplete.

elements are more prominent in their

characteristic qualities
eleme^its.

proper qualities, and merely

their

the impression of the whole,

If certain particular

dominating

call the

on the other hand, the elements are im-

mediately recognized
recede somewhat

we

than

others,

The concept

a psychological concept.

elements of the idea are

It
really

we

call

them the pre-

of fusion as here

defined

presupposes that the fused

subjectively distinguishable.

must not be confounded with the

entirely

different

and

purely physiological concept of the fusion of

external

im-

It

pressions into a

single resultant stimulation.

when complementary
is,

colors unite

and

For example,

give white, the fusion

of course, not psychological.

In

every intensive idea always enters into certain

reality,

and temporal

spacial

compound clang
and

is

other,

at the

is

combinations.

Thus, for example, a

always a process having a

cei'tain duration,

same time localized by us in some direction or

though often only very

temporal and spacial

indefinitely.

attributes

But

since

these

can be indefinitely varied,

while the intensive character of the ideas remain the same,

we may

abstract from the former in investigating the inten-

sive attributes.
2.

Among

ideas of the general sense

we have

intensive

fusions in the form of combinations of sensations of pressure

with those of hot or cold, or combinations of pain-sensations

with those of

temperature or pressure.

All these fusions

dominating element.

and

Intensive Ideas.

and very often there

are incomplete,

of smell

9.

taste

95
is

no decidedly pre-

The combination of certain

are more intimate.
This is

sensations

obviously

favored on the physiological side by the proximity of the

sense-organs, on the physical side by the regular connection

between certain stimulations of the two senses.

In such cases

more intense sensations are generally the predominating

elements, and when these are the sensation of taste, the

the

composite impression

is

usually regarded as

a taste-quahty

Thus, most of the impressions known in ordinary

only.

as "tastes", are in reality combinations of tastes

The

life

smells.

greatest variety of intensive ideas, in all possible grada-

of complexity, are presented by the sense of hearing.

tions

The

and

relatively

most

most simple

of these ideas

closely related to simple tones

and those which are

are the single clangs.

As

more complex forms, we have compound clangs. Comple.r, noises

may arise from the latter when they are united with sensations of simple noises,
3.

sijigle

of a series

clang

and under certain other circumstances.

is

an intensive idea which

is

made up

sensations regularly graded in

of tonal

quality.

These elements, the partial tones of the clang, form a complete

fusion, in

which the sensation of the lowest partial tone be-

comes the predominating element.

The pitch

determined by this principal tone.

The

of the tone

other elements

higher and are, accordingly, called overtones.

are

all

The

is

are

overtones

grouped together under the name clang-color as a

second determinant of the clang, added to the predominating

All the partial tones that go to determine the clang-

tone.

color are placed along the tonal line at certain regular intervals

from the principal

tone.

The complete

overtones in a clang consists of the

first

series of possible

octave of the prin-

cipal tone, the fifth of this octave, the second octave of the

principal

tone,

and

the major third and the

fifth

of this

//.

9g
second octave,

Psychical Compotmds.

This series corresponds to the following

etc.

number

proportions between the

1

of objective tonal waves:

(principal tone), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,

When

...

(overtones).

the pitch of the principal tone remains constant, only

the second determinant of the tonal quality, the clang-color,

can vary according to the number, position, and relative inIn this way we can explain the
tensity of the overtones.
great

clang-colors

of

variety

musical

in

instruments,

as

well as the fact that for every instrument the clang-color

changes somewhat

the pitch; for in the

with

case of low

tones the overtones are generally relatively strong,

of high relatively weak,

while they

Even the

they are too high to be audible.

in

single instruments

clang-color in

to be explained in the

From

in that

disappear entirely when

slight differences

same kind,

of the

are

same way.

a psychological point of view the chief condition

for the rise of a single clang,

is

the complete, or approxima-

tely complete, fusion of several tonal sensations with only one

predominating

element.

distinguish with

As

the unaided

They can be made

rule,

it

is

impossible

to

ear the overtones in a clang.

perceptible

by the use

of resonators (re-

sonator-tubes tuned to the overtones sought), and after they

have been isolated

in this

experimental

way, the stronger

ones can be successively heard in the clang,

the aid of the resonators,
4.

if

the attention

directed to them.

is

There are three conditions necessary

even without

if

there

is

to be

only one predominating element in a tonal fusion. First, one

tone must be relatively more intense.

Secondly, in

its

quah-

tative relations to the other partial tones, the principal tone

must be the fundamental

harmonious.
coincident.

of

series

whose members are

Thirdly, all the partial tones

This

coincidence

is

all

must be uniformly

objectively

guaranteed by

deriving the clang from a unitary source, (that

is,

producing

9.

Intensive Ideas.

97

the clang through the vibrations of one string,

The

result

is

07ie reed-pipe, etc.)

that the objective vibrations of the partial tones

always stand in the same relation to one another

result

which can not be secured when clangs from several sources are

The

united.

first

the third to the

two of these conditions relate to the elements,

form

of their combinations.

essential to the idea of a single clang.

fulfilled,

first is

the least
is

not

compound clang when the

wanting, or a noise when the

the combination becomes a

predominating fundamental
series of tones is

is

not harmonious, or a mixed form between a

when both

clang and a noise

parts of the condition are un-

If the third condition, of constancy in the phases of

fulfilled.

the partial tones,

when

The

If the second

the

first

is

not met, the clang becomes compound even

two conditions are compKed with.

of simple clangs from a

member

of tuning-forks

unite to a single clang so far as intensity

series

which should

and quality are

of

a com-

an intensive combination

of single

concerned, always produces in

reality the

idea

pound clang 1).

5.

clangs.

compound
It

is

in

clang

is

general an incomplete fusion with sevetal

predominating elements.

There

are,

as a rule,

possible

all

case is different when the fundamental itself contains

1) The
overtoaes of noticeable intensity, which are also repeated as independent clangs in the compound tone. The single clangs of such
a series arrange themselves in the same phases as these overtones,

and the compound clang has the character

of a single clang, with

Helmholtz concluded from experiments in
which he combined in various ways simple clangs from tuning-forks,
that differences in phase have no influence on the clang-color. But
as the idea of a single clang can not be produced in this way, it is
probable that an entirely constant relation of the phases of different
tonal vibrations from independent sources can never be brought
about with this method. Experiments by R. Koenig tell for the influence on the clang-color, of the form of the clang as determined

very strong overtones.

by the

relation of the vibration-phasee.

Wdndt, Psychology.

98

II-

Psyehiml Compdunds.

grades of fusion in a compound clang, especially

when

made up

In such a

composite quality.

of single clangs of

it is

not only does every single clang form a complete fusion

case,

in itself,

but these single clangs fuse the more completely

with one another the more their fundamentals approach the

relation of elements of a single clang.

a compound clang

made up

So

components whose fundamentals

those

comes that in

it

of single clangs rich in overtones,

correspond

the

to

overtones of some other single clang in the compound, fuse

more completely with

The

of overtones.

and

c'

form a nearly complete

clangs

the

clang than with others.

more completely the more

approaches that of the first members of a series
Thus, in the compound clang c e g e' the clangs

their relation

related

this

other clangs, in turn, fuse the

complete

is

and g,

the degree of fusion

and

the fusion

fusion, while the fusions of

are incomplete.

e,

between

may be

which he

only one clang or several.

and the

times,

relative

unity of the clang

is

is

these cases by

all

for a very

whether he perceived

This experiment
of

less

Still

measure for

compound clang

to decide

number

e^.

obtained in

allowing an observer to hear the

brief interval, after

and

is

repeated

many

judgments in favor of the

a measure for the degree of fusion.

Besides the elements contained in the single clangs of

6.

a compound, there are always, arising from the combination

of vibrations in the auditory organ, additional elements which

new tonal sensations, characteristic

kinds of compound clangs. These may also
cause

completely with the original clang.

They

difference-tones; they correspond, as their

the difference between the

mary

tones.

number

for the different

fuse

more or

sensations of

name

indicates, to

of vibrations in

They may have a twofold

less

are

origin,

two

either

pri-

from

the interference of the vibrations in the outer ear, especially

in

the

tympanum

or chain

of

ossicles (Helmholtz's combi-

9.

Intensive Ideas.

99

from the interference of the vibrations

nation-tones), or

the auditory nerve-fibres (Koenig's beat-tones).

The

in

first are,

from the very character of their origin, weak tones; especially in

comparison with the original tones, they are always

The second

relatively very

weak.

are generally

stronger

tones in intensity.
in the case of

It

class,

on the other hand,

and may even surpass the

is

probable that the

first

original

appear only

harmonious compound clangs, while the second

appear also in dissonant compound clangs.

The fusion of
compound is the
the former are, and the more

difference-tones with the chief tones of the

more complete the

less intense

they tend to form a simple harmonious tonal series with the

original

As

components of the clang.

butes, the difference-tones are to

overtones are to single clangs.

a result of these attri-

compound clangs what the

They are, however, almost

entirely independent of the clang-color of the

components of

the compound, but vary greatly with the relation in which

the principal tones of these components stand to one another.

This explains the relative uniformity in the character of a

given

compound clang even when the

clang-colors of

its

com-

ponents vary.
7.

compound clang may pass through

all

possible inter-

mediate stages into a third form of intensive auditory ideas,

that of noises.

within a series

"When two tones are no longer included

of harmonious tones and when at the same

time the difference between the number of their vibrations

does not exceed certain limits, for higher tones about sixty
vibrations

and

disturbances

number

for

lower thirty or even fewer, there arise

in the

compound

to the difference

clang,

which correspond

in

between the number of vibrations

in the primary tones, and are due to the alternating coincidence of like and opposite phases of vibration. These dis-

turbances

are

either

interruptions

of

the

clang-sensation,

II. Psyehical

IQQ
beats, or, especially

Compounds.

in the case

of

deep tones, intermittent

sensations of a difference-tone, tonal beats.

in the

number

the tones at

made up

dissonance.
,

we have pure

Later the harshness

dissonance.

of a mixture of beats or

The

If the differences

numbers mentioned,

sound continuous, for the interruptions

first

but they are harsh.

disappear,

appears and
is

of vibrations exceed the

first

dis-

Ordinary dissonance

and pure

harshness

two are due to perceptible or

just

disappearing interruptions of the sensation, the latter to the

entire absence of the unity of the clang, that

sonance that would have arisen

had taken

of the con-

a complete or partial fusion

This lack of accord in tones, due to the

place.

relation of their pure qualities,

If

if

is,

may

be designsited bisonance.

through the simultaneous sounding of a great number of

various conditions for an ordinary

non-accordant tones the

dissonance, beats, tonal beats, harshness,

and "bisonance, are

added together, a noise

Qn

side this

is

the result.

all

the psychological

means that the predominating tonal elements disappear

entirely or become mere modifying elements in the total idea.

For our apprehension of noises, in the case of those which
last a short interval only, the

tense elements
longer, the

is

general pitch of the most in-

determinative, in the .case of those which last

form of the disturbance resulting from the rapidity

of the beats,

from the accompanying tonal beats,

etc.,

also

has an influence.

Human

articulations are characteristic examples of different

forms of noise.

and

The

vowels are intermediate between clangs

noises with predominantly clang character; the resonants

are noises of long duration,

of

short

"lioises.

duration.

and the proper consonants' noises

In whispers the vowels become simply

The circumstance

that the differences in vowels are

perfectly distinct in whispers, goes to prove that the character

of vowel depends essentially

on their noise-elements.

It

is


probable that simple
all

9.

Intensive Ideas.

101

sensations of noise

the numerous tonal elements that

noises together with

go to make them up.

The

ii-regular air-vibrations

from the disturbances in the tonal waves,

nervous elements

enter into

49)

(p.

in the

vestibule

are sensitive to such stimulations,

the

of

arising

both the

excite

labyrinth,

which

and the auditory nerve-

fibres themselves.

Helmholtz's resonance hypothesis has aided us materially

7 a.

in understanding the physiological substratum of intensive auditory

ideas, especially those of clangs (p. 51).

It is

assumed that certain

parts of the auditory organ are so tuned that tonal waves of

given

rate

always

correspondingly

in

set

This

tuned.

explains

in

way

general

the

we

analyzing ability of the auditory sense, as a result of which

can distinguish the elements not only

to

some extent even

sympathetic vibration only the part

in.

compound

clang,

but

The resonance hypothesis,

in a single clang.

however, accounts physiologically for only one side of tonal fusion,

the persistence of the single sensation in the total intensive idea,
side, the more or less intimate combination of
The assumption of an imaginary "organ of fusion"

not for the other

the elements.
in the brain

for this

purpose,

is

one of those

that produce

elements

sensations and

the

total

idea.

still

give

an

intensive

up

their independence

Tonal fusion

is,

made to
The tonal

is

clang-idea persist

then,

requires a psychological explanation.

as

more or

real

in

less

a psychical process and

But

since this

very different under different objective conditions,

when

that are

fictions

more harmful than helpful, in which the attempt

satisfy a demand for explanation with an empty word.

as,

fusion

is

for example,

the impressions are due to the combined vibrations from a

from several distinct sources; these

must have some physiological and physical grounds
explanation.
The most natural way to attempt such an

single source or to vibrations

differences

for their

explanation
If

is

we assume

properly to supplement the resonance

that besides

the

organ, the resonant membrane,

by the

total,

substratum

unresolved clang,

analyzing

still

hypothesis.

parts of the auditory

others exist which are effected

we have

a sufficient physiological

for the different effects of the various conditions.

The

observations
it

Compounds.

!! Psychical

102
(p.

on birds deprived of

41)

possible to infer that the

of the labyrinth

of beat-tones

make

may

Then, too, the existence

be such organs.
which sometimes surpass the primary tones in

99),

(p.

their labyrinths

auditory nerve-fibres in the canals

and the observation that the interruptions of a single

tone may unite to form a second sensation when sufficiently
rapid, both seem to require a similar supplementation of the
intensity,

resonance hypothesis.

SPAOIAL IDEAS.

10.

Spacial and temporal ideas are immediately distinguished

1.

from intensive ideas by the fact that

an

in

that

their parts are united, not

arbitrarily variable, but in a definitely fixed order, so

when

the order

thought of as changed the idea

is

itself

Ideas with such a fixed arrangement are called in

changes.

general extensive ideas.

Of the

possible forms

distinguished

are

extensive ideas, spacial ideas

of

by the

fact

spacial

compound holds only

of the parts of a

that the

lation of the parts to one another,

as indefinitely varied.

The

torsibility

may be thought

of

is

called the movability

of spatial compounds. The number of directions

in which such
limited.

for the re-

objective independence of spacial

compounds from the ideating subject

and

arrangement

not for their relation to

This latter relation

the ideating subject.

fixed

movement and

They may

each of which

it

all

is

torsion

may

take

place,

is

be reduced to three dimensions, in

possible

to

advance in two

opposite

The number of directions in which the parts of

compound may be arranged as well as the number

directions.

a single
in
to

which various compounds

one another,

is

directions in which
is

what we

may be arranged

the same

as

movement and

the

with reference

maximal number

torsion are possible.

call the three-dimensional character of space.

of

This

10. Spacial
single spacial idea

103

Ideas.

may, accordingly, be defined

as a

three-

dimensional compound whose parts are fixed in their location

ivith regard to one another, hut capable

in their location with regard

of course,

definition neglects,

arrangement of the

parts,

to

of indefinite variation

the ideating subject.

the

This

frequent changes in the

which occur in

reality.

When

these

changes take place, they are to be regarded as transitions from

one idea to another.

spacial ideas

must

This three-dimensional arrangement of

of necessity include

one-dimensional and

two-dimensional arrangements as special cases.

In such

cases,

however, the wanting dimensions must always be added in

thought as soon as the relation of the idea to the ideating

subject
2.

is

taken into account.

This relation to the ideating subject, which

present in

all spacial ideas,

renders

it

from the

first

is

really

psycho-

logically impossible that the arrangement of the elements in

such an idea should be an original attribute of the elements

themselves, analagous to the intensity or quaUty of sensations
it

requires rather that this arrangement should result from the

bringing together of these elements, and should arise from

some new psychical conditions that come with

If this

is

not admitted,

it

this coexistence.

becomes necessary not only to

at-

tribute a spacial quality to every single sensation, but also to

postulate for every sensation, however limited, a simultaneous

idea of the whole of three-dimensional space in

with regard to the ideating subject.

acceptance of an a priori space-perception prior to

sensations, which

is

its

location

This would lead to the

not only contradictory to

periences as to the conditions for the rise

all
all

concrete

our ex-

and development of

psychical compounds in general, but also contradictory to

all

our experiences as to the influences that affect spacial ideas

in particular.
3.

All spaoial ideas are arrangements either of tactual

II- Psychical

104

Compounds.

Indirectly, through of connection of

or of visual sensations.

other sensations with either tactual or visual ideas, the spacial relation

may be
and

cases of touch

In the

carried over to other sensations.

obvious that the extended sur-

sight, it is

face of the peripheral sense-organs,

and

equipment with

their

organs of movement, which render possible a varying location

of the impressions in regard to the ideating subject, are both

favorable conditions for an extensive, spacial arrangement of

The

the- sensations.

here in

question,

it

coarser, but for that reason in

form than the more

Still,

it

the earlier of the two

many

much

respects

where vision

from touch are

greatly

is

much

in

plainer,

organ

does..

present,

the

influenced by those

sight.

A.

The

4.

SPACIAL TOUCH-IDEAS.

simplest possible touch-idea

mately punctiform impression on the skin.

sion

relations

delicately organized visual

to be noted that

ideas

spacial

from

is

is

appears earlier in the development

and shows the structural

organisms

of

tactual sense

for

is

presented even

when

is

an impres-

Introspection shows

called the localization of the stimulus,

under the normal condition where vision

mediate, as

approxi-

single,

If such

the eyes are turned away, there

arises a definite idea of the place touched.

that this idea, which

is

we we should expect

it

to

be

is

present

if

the spacial quality

were an original attribute of sensations, but that

not im-

is

it

depends

upon a secondary, generally very obscure, visual idea

region touched.

Localization

is,

therefore,

bounding Unes of the touch- organs than on the

intervening surfaces,

since

these

prominent in the visual images.

through the tactual impression,
away,

is

possible because

of the

more exact near

bounding

The arousal
even when the

lines

uniform
are more

of a visual idea

eyes are turned

every point of the organ of touch

10. Spacial
gives to the touch-sensation

which

105

a pecuHar qualitative coloring,

independent of the quality of the external impres-

is

and

sion

Ideas.

probably due to the character of the structure

is

of the skin, which varies

from point to point and

is

never

exactly the same in two separate regions.

This local coloring

called the local sign of the sensation.

is

It varies in different regions of the skin at very different rates

rapidly on the tip of the tongue, on the ends of the fingers, and

on the

lips;

trunk.

slowly on the broader surfaces of the limbs and

measure for the rate of this variation may be ob-

tained by applying two impressions near each other to any region

So long

of the skin.

as the distance of the impressions

is less

than that of distinguishable local signs they are perceived as a

single one, but so soon as they pass this Umit they are perceived

as spacially separate.

The

tween two impressions

It varies

smallest, just noticeable distance be-

called the spaee~fhreshold for touch.

is

from one or two millimetres

fingers) to sixty-eight millimetres (back,

On

the pressure-spots

applied,

still

(p. 47),

and
leg).

(tips

the stimuli are favorably

shorter distances can be perceived.

the threshold

is

is

Then,

too,

dependent on the condition of the tactual

As

organ and on practice.

the threshold

when

of tongue

upper arm, and

a result of the

first,

for example,

smaller for children than for adults, since

the differences in structure that condition the local signs, are

obviously more crowded together.

the threshold
those

is

who have

As

a result of practice,

smaller in the case of the

vision,

bHnd than

of

especially at the ends of the fingers,

which are most used for touching.

5.

The

influence of visual ideas of the regions touched,

where vision

is

as just described,

present,

localization of tactual impressions

ment

of a

original

number

spacial

of

and the

such impressions

quality

of

cutaneous

is

teaches that the

spacial arrange-

not due to an

points

or

to

any

Compcmnds.

II- Psychical

106

On

primary space-forming function of the tactual organ.

contrary,

made

presupposes spacial ideas of sight, which can be

it

use

however, only because the various parts of the

of,

tactual organ have certain qualitative attributes,

local signs,

which arouse the visual image of the part touched.

is

the

There

no reason for attributing an immediate spacial relation

the local signs themselves;

act as

qualitative

to

obviously enough that they

it is

arouse the appropriate visual

signals to

images. This connection with vision depends upon the frequent

The keenness

union of the two.

be aided by

fore,

all

of localization will,

there-

the influences that increase either the

clearness of the visual images

or the quaHtative differences

in local signs.

We

may

describe the formation of spacial ideas in this

case as the arrangement of tactual' stimuli in visual images

The whole process

already present.

consta.nt connection of these

visual

images

of

the

a consequence of the

images with the qualitative local

The union

signs of the stimuli.

is

of the local signs

corresponding region

and

may, then, be

regarded as an incomplete, but very constant, fusion.

fusion

The

incomplete because both visual image and tactual

is

impression retain their independent character; but

constant that,
the

the

same,

it

when the

it

is

so

state

of the tactual organ remains

seems invariable.

This last fact explains the

The predominating elements

For many persons

relative certainty of localization.

of this fusion are the tactual sensations.

the visual images are pushed so far into the backgroimd that

they can not be perceived with any certainty, even with the
greatest attention.
is

The apprehension

of space, in such cases,

perhaps an immediate function of tactual and motor sen-

sations, as for the blind

(v. inf.

careful observation shows that

position

and distance

6).

it

is

As a

rule,

however, more

possible to recognize the

of the impressions only

by attempting

10. Spacial
to

make

more

Ideas.

107

the indefinite visual image of the region touched

distinct.

The

6.

when

conditions that hold

essentially

different

from those found

vision

present, are

is

in cases of blindness,

especially congenital or early acquired blindness.

sons retain for a long time

memory images

objects, so that the spacial ideas of

some

extent, products of a fusion

and visual images.

tinally renewed,

But these

Blind per-

of familiar visual

touch always remain, to

between tactual sensations

visual images can not be con-

come more

so that the persons in question

make use

and more

to

movement

that arise from the joints and muscles in passing

The

of movements.

from one tactual impression to another

measure for the movement executed and,

(p.

sensations

serve as

46),

same

at the

of
a

time,

as a measure for the distance between the two impressions.

These sensations of movement, which in acquired bhndness

are additions
in part

the
of

the

to

for them,

substitutes

only

fading

are,

means present from the

an idea of the

single

gradually

impressions.

relative

We

in

observe in

images and

congenital blindness,

first

position

visual

for

the

formation

and distance of the

the latter case contin-

ual movements of the touch -organs, especially the fingers,

over the object.

Added

to

these movements

are

more

concentrated attention to tactual sensations and a greater

practice in their discrimination.

Still,

the low grade of devel-

opment

of this sense, in comparison with sight, always shows

itself in

the fact that the apprehension of continuous Hnes ^nd

surfaces

is

much

less

perfect

than that of approximately

punctiform impressions arranged in various ways. The necessity

of

making a blind-alphabet

by various combinations

of arbitrary figures formed

of raised points,

is

a striking proof

of this. Thus, for example, in the ordinary alphabet (Braille's)

one point represents A, two points in a horizontal line B,

H-

J 08

two points in a

most

all

vertical line

C,

With

etc.

points at

six

the letters can be formed, but the points must be

enough

far

Psychical Oamponrnds.

to

be perceived

finger.

The way

apart

end of the index

in

as

with the

separate

which

this alphabet is

read is characteristic for the development of the space-ideas

of the blind.

used for

As

a rule the index fingers of both hands are

this purpose.

The

right finger precedes

and appre-

hends a group of points simultaneously (synthetic touch), the

left finger follows

somewhat more slowly and apprehends the

Both the syn(analytic touch).

points successively

single
thetic

and analytic impressions are united and referred

same

object.

to the

This method of procedure shows clearly that

the spacial discrimdnation of tactual impressions

no more

is

immediately given in this case than in the case where vision

was present, but that here the movements by means

the finger that

is

to point, play the

of which

used for analytic touch passes from point

same part

as the

accompanying visual

ideas

did in the normal cases with vision.

An

idea of the extent and direction of these movements

can arise only under the condition that every movement

accompanied by an inner tactual sensation

46,

(p.

6).

is

The

assumption that these inner tactual sensations are immediately connected with

an idea of the space passed through

the movement, would be highly improbable, for

only presuppose the existence of a connate

it

in

would not

perception

of

surrounding space and of the position of the subject in respect

to the

same

assumption.

(p.

103),

This

is

but

it

would include another

the assumption that

inner

particular

and outer

touch-sensations, although they are otherwise alike in quahty

and physiological substrata,

sations give,

still

differ

in

that inner

sen-

along with the sensation, an image of the po-

sition of the subject

and

of the spacial

arrangement of the

immediate environment. This would really necessitate a return

10. Spaeial

memory

to the Platonic doctrine of the

the

sensations

movements

of

109

Ideas.

arising

of innate ideas,

for

from touch are here

thought of as the mere external occasional causes for the

revival of innate transcendental ideas of space.

Apart from

7.

psychological improhabihty, such an

its

hypothesis as that just mentioned can not be reconciled with

the influence exercised by practice on the discrimination of

local signs

and

of

There

differences in movements.

other

way except

as in

normal cases with

is

no

to attribute the rise of spaeial ideas here,

vision

106),

(p.

to the combinations

of the sensations themselves as presented in experience.

These

combinations consist in the fact that in passing from one

outer tactual impression to another, any two sensations, a and
b,

with a certain difference in

local

corresponding inner touch-sensation,

movement; while two

sensations,

a and

signs,

c,

always have a

accompanpng

a,

the

with a greater dif-

ference in local signs, have a more intense sensation of move-

ment,

y.

bination
strictly

For
of

bhnd

the

inner

arid

there

outer

is

always such a regular com-

touch-sensations.

empirical point of view

it

From

the

can not be affirmed that

either of these sensational systems, in itself, brings the idea

of spaeial arrangement;

ment

results regularly

we can

only say that this arrange-

from the combination

of the two.

On

this basis the spaeial ideas of the bhnd, arising, as they do,

from external impressions, may be defined as a product of

the fusion of external tactual sensations and their qualitatively

graded

local

graded according

signs,

with internal

to intensity.

their attributes as determined

The

tactuM sensation

external sensations with

by the external stimulus, are

the predominating elements in this fusion.

These push the

local signs with their quahtative peculiarities,

sations

of

movement

with their intensive

and the sen-

attributes,

so far

into the background, that, like the overtones of a clang, they

no

II. Psyehieal Compounds.

can be perceived only when the attention

especially con-

Spacial ideas from touch are, accord-

centrated upon them.

ingly,

due to a complete

arity,

in contrast,

is

is

fusion.

Their characteristic peculi-

for example, with intensive tonal fusions,

and supplementary elements are difand at the same time related to one

that the subordinate

ferent in character,

another according to definite laws.

They

are different, for

the local signs form a pure qualitative system, while the iimer

touch-sensations which accompany the movements of the tac-

form a series of intensities. They are

motor energy used in passing through an

interval

between two points, increases with the extent of the

interval,

organs,

tual

for the

so that,

in proportion

related,

to the qualitative difference between

the local signs, there must also be an increase in the intensity

of the sensations of

The

8.

movement.

spacial arrangement of tactual impressions

the product of a twofold fusion.

ments

fuse,

system,
to

in that the various qualities

which

is

is

thus

First, the subordinate ele-

of the local sign

spread out in two dimensions, are related

one another according to the grades of intensity of the

sensations of movement.

Secondly, the tactual impressions as

determined by the external stimuli, fuse with the product

the

first

union.

Of

course,

of

the two processes do not take

place successively, but in one and the same act, for the local
signs

and movements must both be aroused by the

stimuli.

Still,

of the objective stimulus, while

the local signs and internal

tactual sensations are subjective elements,

tions

external

the external sensations vary with the nature

whose mutual

rela-

always remain the same even when the external im-

pressions vary.

This

is

the psychological condition for the

constancy of attributes whiclv,we ascribe to space

itself, in

contrast wich the great changeableness of the quaHtative

butes of objects in space.

attri-

10. Spaeial Ideas.

After the fusion between local signs and internal tac-

9.

tual sensations has once been effected,

elements by

itself,

either one of these

though perhaps in a limited degree,

to bring about a localization of the sensations,

arouse complex spaeial ideas.

In

is

able

and even

to

way not only normal

this

individuals with vision, but also the blind, even the congen-

have an idea of the place touched, and can per-

itally blind,

ceive as spacially separate

even when the touch-organs remain perfectly quiet.

apart,

Of

two impressions that are far enough

course,

the congenitally blind can have no visual image

of the region touched, but they have instead of this an idea

of a

movement

of the part touched and, where several im-

pressions are received, the idea of a

The same

the other.

here

the

to

fusion takes place injdeas thus formed

movements are

as in the ordinary ones, where

only

movement from one

one factor,

inner

the

really present,

tactual

sensation

is

merely a memory-image.
10.

The

In the same way, we may have the reverse process.

real contents of experience

tual sensations which arise

of the body,

may be a sum

of inner tac-

from the movement of some part

while no noticeable external tactual sensations

whatever are given, and yet these internal sensations which

accompany the movement may

idea.

This

is

still

regularly the case

be the basis of a spaeial

when we have pure

ideas

of our own movements. If, for example, we shut our eyes

and then raise our arm, we have at every moment an idea
of the position of the arm.

To be

sure, external tactual

sensations that arise from the torsion and folding of the skin,

play some part here too, but they are relatively unimportant
in comparison with the internal sensations

from the

joints,

tendons, and muscles.

It can

be easily observed that where vision

is

present, this

idea of position comes from an obscure visual image of the

II- Psychical Compounds.

112
limb with

surroundings, which

its

This connection

eyes are closed or turned away.

that

it

may

arise

aroused even when the

is

is

so close

between the mere memory-image of the inner

and the corresponding visual

tactual sensation

idea,

as

is

observed in the case of paralytics, where sometimes the mere

to execute a

will

movement

certain

really executed.

movements depend, when

movement arouses the idea

of

Evidently, the ideas of one's

own

present,

on incomplete

fusions, just as the external spacial ideas of

touch do, only

vision

is

here the internal sensations play the

part that the

This leads to the assump-

sensations play in the former case.

tion that the inner tactual sensations also have local

that

is,

seems

signs,

the sensations in the various joints, tendons, and mus-

show certain

cles

outer

to

series

knee-joint, hip-joint,

Introspection

of local differences.

confirm this view.

we move

If

alternately

the

and shoulder-joint, or even the correspond-

ing joints on the right and left

sensation seems each time a

little

quality of the

the

sides,

different^

even

if

we

neglect

the connection with a visual image of the limb, which can

never be entirely suppressed.

see

how accompanying

out such differences.

Then, too,

it is

impossible to

visual images could arise at all with-

That would require not only a connate

idea of space in the mind, but also a connate knowledge of

the position and movements of the

Hmbs

in space for every

moment.
11.
vision,

Froni the relations that exist in the normal cases with

we can understand the way

own movements

arise in the

in

which the ideas of

their

case of the congenitally bhnd.

Here, instead of a fusion with a visual image, there must

be a fusion of sensations of movement

mth

Outer tactual sensations also act as aids in

fact,
is

much more important

The ideas of the blind

they are

present.

the local signs.

this

as to

case.

In

when vision
their own move-

here than

10. Spaeial

Ideas.

113

ments are exceedingly uncertain so long as they are unaided

by contact with external objects. When, however, they touch
such objects, they have the advantage of greater practice
with the external tactual sense and a keener attention for

The

the same.

proof of

some

so-called

"distance-sense of the blind"

It consists in the ability to

this.

from

perceive

distance, without direct contact, a resisting object, as,

for example,

Now,

a neighboring wall.

can be experi-

it

mentally demonstrated that this distance -sense

of

is

made up

is

two factors: a very weak tactual stimulation of the fore-

head by the atmospheric

sound of the

The

step.

resistance,

latter acts as

and a change

in the

a signal to concentrate

the attention enough so that the weak tactual stimulations

The

can be perceived.
ingly,

when

"distance- sense" disappears, accord-

the tactual stimulations are prevented by binding

a cloth around the forehead or when the steps are rendered

inaudible.

Besides our ideas of the position and movements of

12.

the various parts of our body,

position

we have

and movement of our whole

also

body.

an idea of the

The former can

never have anything but a relative significance;

it

is

only

when

that

they

considered

in

The organ

become

absolute.

idea

the head.

is

position

of

the

connection

We

head;

with

the

latter

of orientation for this general

always have a definite idea of the

the

other

organs

are

localized

in

our ideas, generally, indeed, very indefinitely, with reference

to

it,

according to the particular complexes of inner

outer tactual sensations in each case.

orientation in the head
to which are

is

The

and

organ of

specific

the system of semicircular canals,

added as secondary aids the inner and outer

tactual sensations resulting from the action of the muscles

of the head.

The

function of these canals as an organ of

orientation can be most easily understood

Wdkbt,

Paycliology.

by assuming that
8

114

Psychical Compounds.

II-

marked

inner tactual sensations with especially

local signs, arise in

them through the

ing pressure of the fluid medium,

probahle

highly

that

rotation of the head,

movements

violent

which

This

of this fluid.

is

is

from rapid

in

same

in accord with the

of the

observations that partial derangements

of the

It

due to the sensations caused by the

is

about constant illusions

rangement

them.

fills

comes

which

dizziness,

differences in

influence of the chang-

localization,

canals bring

and complete

de-

followed by an almost total sus-

is

pension of the ability to localize.

12

The antagonistic

a.

formation

of

empirism.
space

spacial

The

from

nativistic

connate

theories

ideas,

are

theory

properties

in

regard to

generally

the

called

influences of experience.

and

seeks to derive localization in

of the sense-organs and

while the empiristic theory seeks to derive

centres,

psycHcal

nativism

it

sense-

from the

This discrimination does not give proper

expression to the actual opposition that exists, for the assumption

of connate spacial ideas

may

be attacked without affirming that

these ideas arise through experience.

above,

space-perceptions

are

regarded

This
as

is

the case when,

as

products of psychical

fusions due both to the physiological properties of the organs of

sense and of

movement, and to the general laws for the rise of

Such processes of fusion and the arrange-

psychical compounds.

ments of sense-impressions based upon them, are everywhere

substrata of our experience, but for this very reason it is
inadmissible to call them "experience" itself.
It is much more
proper to poiat out the opposition that really exists, as that of

the

and genetic theories. It is to be noted that the widespread nativistic theories contain empirical elements, while, on the
other hand, empirical theories contain nativistic elements, so that

nativistic

the difference

is sometimes very small.

Supporters of the nativview assume that the arrangement of impressions in space
corresponds directly to the arrangement of sensitive points in the
skin and retina.
The special way in which the projection out-

istic

ward

is

effected,

tude of objects,

especially the ideas of the distance and magnir

and the reference of a

plurality

of

spacially

10.

Spacial Ideas.

115

separated impressions to

a single object, are all regarded as

dependent upon "attention", "will", or even "experience".
Sup-

on the other hand, generally

presuppose space as given in some way or other, and then inporters of the empirical theory,

terpret each

idea

single

some empirical motive.

tactual space

sight,

space;

localization

In the theory

in

of

space due to

this

spacial

ideas

from

generally regarded as this origiaally given

is

the theory

in

as

of tactual ideas,

original

spacial

have sometimes been attributed to motor sensations.

qualities

Thus,

in

empirism

and nativism are very

ill defined concepts.
They agree in the use of the complex concepts of popular psychology, such as "attention", "will", and

the

concrete

actual

theories

"experience", without any examination or analysis.

In this respect

they are different from the genetic theory, which seeks to show
the

elementary processes from which the ideas

of a psychological analysis of the ideas.

the

nesses,
set

us,

and empiristic theories have served to

problem that exists here, clearly before

nativistic

psychological

the

and

to

bring

by means

rise,

In spite of their weak-

light

to

great

number

of

facts

for

its

solution.

B.

13.

The general

in the visual

SPACIAL SIGHT -IDEAS.

properties of the touch-sense are repeated

sense,

but in a more highly organized form.

Corresponding to the sensory surface of the outer

have here the retina with

its

skin,

we

rods and cones arranged in

rows and forming an extraordinarily

fine

mosaic of sensitive

Corresponding to the movements of the tactual organs,

points.

we have

the movements of both eyes in fixating objects and

following their bounding

lines.

Still,

while tactual impressions

are perceived only through immediate contact with the objects,

the refractive media in front of the retina throw inverted,

reduced images upon

space

is

pressions,

it.

These images are

allowed for a large

and the

possible for both

number

of

so

small that

simultaneous im-

ability of light to traverse space

neighboring

and distant objects

makes
to

it

yield

116

II.

impressions.

Bsyehical Cdmpoimds.

much

Vision thus becomes a distance-sense in a

Light can be perceived from

higher degree than hearing.

incomparably greater

than

distances

Furthermore,

sound.

only visual ideas are directly localized at different distances

from the subject; for auditory ideas

ways

indirect,

this locaKzation

is al-

through the aid of visual ideas of space.

With regard to its spacial attributes, every

may be resolved into two factors: 1) the location

visual

14.

idea

and

single elements in relation to one another,

Even

tion in relation to the ideating subject.

of the

2) their loca-

the idea of

one single point of Mght, contains both these factors, for we

must always represent a point in some spacial environment,
and also in some direction and at some distance from our-

These factors can be separated only through dehb-

selves.

erate abstraction,

never in reality,

point in space to

its

the analysis

determines

its

As a result of this dependmay better start with the

relation to the ideating subject.

ence,

for the relation of any

environment, regularly

of visual ideas

location of the elements in relation to one another, and then

take up later the location of the

compound

in regard to the

subject.

a.

Tfie

15.

In

Location of the Elements of a Visual Idea in

Relation to One Another.
the

between elements

apprehension
of

of

the

a visual idea,

reciprocal

relations

the attributes of the

tactual sense are all repeated, only in a

much more

highly

organized form,, and with a few modifications significant for

the visual ideas. Here, too,

we immediately connect

simplest possible, approximately punctiform,

idea of

its

place in space; that

is,

we

give

it

a certain

rdte position in relation to the parts of space about

localization

is

not effected, however,

as

in

with the

impression the

touch,

it.

defi-

This

by the

10. Spaeial Ideas.

direct reference of the impression to the corresponding point

of the sense-organ
vision,

which

itself,

but we project

Here too we have a measure,

subject.

touch, for

into

it

a field of

at some distance outside of the ideating

lies

the accuracy of localization,

as in the case of
in the

distance at

which two approximately punctiform impressions can be

The

distinguished as spacially different.

in

this

the

case

distance

is

a directly measurable linear extension

as

sensory surface

vision

may be thought

of

placed

as

whatever from the subject, so that

measure for the fineness of

sion,

on

but as the shortest perceptible

itself,

interval between two points in the field of vision.

of

just

not given

it

is

at

The

any

field

distance

best to use as

localization, not

a linear exten-

but an angle, the angle formed by the intersection of

the lines passing through the nodal point of the eye, from
the points in the field of vision to the corresponding retinal
points.
size of

This angle of vision remains constant so long as the

the retinal image

is

between the points in the

unchanged, while the distance

of vision increases in pro-

field

portion to their distance from the subject.

linear distance

can be found in the

may be reckoned

If an equivalent

sought in place of the angle of vision,

is

diameter of the

directly

retinal image.

it

This

from the angle and the distance

of

the retina from the nodal point of the eye.

16.

the eye,

The measurements of the keenness of localization with

made according to this principle, show that there is

a great difference for different parts of the

just as
(p.

was found

ceptible

intervals

again, there are

of vision,

for different regions of the tactual organs

StUl, the distances that

105).

field

here

many

are

all

measure the smallest per-

very

much

smaller.

Then,

regions of finer discrimination scattered

over the tactual organ, but only one region of finest discrimination

in

the field

of vision.

This

is

the middle,

which

118

//.

Psychical Compounds.

From

corresponds to the centre of the retina.

this

region

towards the periphery the fineness of localization diminishes

very rapidly.
surface,
as,

is,

The whole

field of

vision or the

whole

for example, that of the index finger, except that

much

retinal

accordingly, analogous to a single tactual region,

very

it

surpasses the latter in fineness of localization, especially

at the centre, where two impressions at

sponding to 60"

guishable, while two degrees

the smallest perceptible

degrees

it

a distance corre-

90" in the angle of vision, are just distin-

and a half toward the periphery,

extension

3' 30",

is

and

at

eight

1.

increases to

In normal vision we turn the eye towards objects of which

we wish

to gain

that they

lie

more accurate

spacial ideas, in such a

way

in the middle of the field of vision, their images

"We speak

falhng, accordingly, on the centre of the retina.

of such objects as

seen directly, of

all

others, which he in

the eccentric parts of the field of vision, as seen indireetly.

The

centre of the region of direct vision

The

of regard, or the ficcation-point.

is

called the point

line

that unites the

centre of the retina with that of the field of vision

is

known

as the line of regard.

we reckon

If

the distance on the retina that corresponds

to the smallest angle of vision at

it

will

equal

be found to be .004
to

the

diameter

of

which two points in the

may be perceived
to .006 mm.
This

centre of the field of vision

a retinal cone,

as separate,
distance

and

since

is

the

cones are so close together in the centre of the retina that

they

are

in

direct

contact,

it

probability that two impressions

different retinal elements

arate in space.

This

if

view

may be concluded
must

fall

upon

with

at least two

they are to be perceived as sepis

supported by the fact that

in the peripheral regions of the retina the rods

which are the two forms of elements

and

cones,

sensitive to Hght, are

10.

Spaeial Ideas.

separated by greater intervals.

It may, then, be
assumed that the keenness of vision, or the ability to distinguish two distinct points in the field of vision, is directly de-

really

pendent on the proximity of

the retinal elements to one

another, for two impressions can be distinguished as spacially

different only

16

when they

Because of

upon

act

different elements.

between the keenness of

it has often been
concluded that every such element has from the first the property
of localizing any stimulus that acts upon it, in that position in
space which corresponds to its own projection in the field of
vision.
In this way the attempt has been made to reduce the
a.

interrelation

this

vision and the arrangement of retinal elements,

property
its

the

of the visual

objects
subject,

in

sense

an external

to

a connate

by virtue of which it represents

of vision at some distance from

field

energy of the retinal elements or of

their central connections in the visual centre in the brain.

are certain pathological disturbances of vision that

sight

confirm this

to

When some

assumption.

seem
region

There
at

first

of the

retina is pushed out of place as a result of inflammation under-

neath,

certain distortions in the

phopsia, arise.

The extent and

be fully explained when

it is

images,

so-caUed metamor-

the

direction of these distortions can

assumed that the displaced

retinal

elements continue to localize their impressions as they did when

in their

But

normal positions.

tions of the images when, as in

tinually

it

is

obvious that these distor-

most

cases,

they appear as con-

changing phenomena during the gradual formation and

disappearance of the excretion, furnish us with no more evidence

for a connate energy of localization in

readily observed

when one

fact

that

the retina than does the

distorted images

looks through prismatic glasses.

a stationary condition

is

gradually reached,

of objects are seen

If,

on the other hand,

the metamorphopsia

disappear, and that, too, not only in cases where

sumed

it

may be

as-

that the retinal elements return to their original position,

but even in those cases where such a return is entirely iniprobIn cases like
able on account of the extent of the affection.
the latter, the development of a new connection between the
single retinal elements and their corresponding points in the

.field

Psychical Compounds.

11-

120

must be assumed >). This conclusion is supported' bymade with normal eyes on the gradual adaptation to
distorted images which are produced by external optica,l appliances.
If a pair of prismatic glasses are worn before the eyes,
of vision,

observations

marked and disturbing distortions of the images are the regular

results'.
The straight bounding lines appear bent and the forms
These disturbances gradually

of the objects are thus distorted.

worn some time. When the

removed the distortions may appear in the opposite
All these phenomena can be understood if we pre-

disappear entirely
glasses

are

direction.

if

the glasses are

suppose that the spaoial localizations of vision are not

but acquired.

17.

Besides the fetinal sensations there are other psychical

elements

that

always take

part

arrangement of light-impressions.
ties

original,

of the eye point

in

the

The

reciprocal

spacial

physiological proj)er-

a priori to the sensations that accom-

pany ocular movements, as such elements. These movements

obviously play the same part in the estimation of distances
in the field of vision as

the tactual movements do in the

estimation of tactual impressions.

touch

are,

The

grosser conditions of

however, here reproduced in a

The

and hightly developed form.

delicate

eye can be turned in

directions about its centre of rotation,

relation to the head,

much more

which

is

fixed in

all
its

by means of a most admirably arranged

system of six muscles.

It

is

thus well suited to following

continuously the bounding lines of objects or to passing each

1) A process analogous to this elimination of the metamopTiopsia

sometimes observed in "binoeula/r vision when the disturbances
arising from sqidnting are gradually oirercome. When the squiiiting
begins,' the two lines of regard no longer meet in the field of vision,
These may gradually disso that double images of Objects arise.
appear, however, if the condition of the eyes remains perfectly
stationary; a new set of relations is developed for the retinal elements of the squinting eye.

is

'

10. Spacialldeas.

121

time in the shortest line from a given fixation-point to another.

The movements

in the

directions wliich correspond

position of the objects most frequently

and

the

to

closely observed,

namely, downward and inward movements, are favored above

the others by the arrangement of the muscles.

Furthermore,

the movements of the two eyes are so adapted to one another

through the synergy of their innervation, that normally the

two

lines of

In

point.

regard are always turned upon the same fixation-

this

way a cooperation

of the

two eyes

is

more perfect apprehension

possible which not only permit a

of the position of objects in relation to one another, but,

especially, furnishes the

mination

of the

most

made

essential

spacial relation

means

objects

of

more

for the deter-

to the

subject

(24 seq).
18.

The phenomena

of

vision

teach that the

the relative distance of two points from each other

on the motor energy

ent

through

this distance,

of the

depend-

two

dis-

depends on the arrangement

The motor energy becomes a com-

ponent of the idea through

wliich

of

eye employed in passing

just as the discrimination of

tinct points in the field of vision

of the retinal elements.

is

idea

its

connection with a sensation

can be perceived, especially in extensive movements

and by comparing ocular movements in various directions.

Thus, for example, the upward movement of the eyes is
clearly accompanied by more intense sensations than the

downward movements; and the same is

movements of one eye as compared with

true
its

of

outward

inward move-

ments.

The

influence

of sensations of

movement on the

locali-

zation are most apparent in the cases of disturbance arising

from
ances

partial paralysis of single ocular muscles.

correspond

exactly

of energy required to

to

the

move the

changes

eye.

These disturbin

the

The general

amount
principle

122

II'

of such disorders

PsyeMeal Compotmds.

that the distance between two

is

seems greater when they

points

more

the direction of the

in

The more

movement.

difficult

lie

difficult

movement has

correspondingly more intense motor sensation, which under

normal conditions accompanies a more extensive movement.

As

a result, the distance passed

Furthermore, the same illusion

lie

in the

same

direction,

may appear

for distances that

but have not been actually passed

for the standard found

through,

through appears greater.

during a movement deter-

mines the motor impulse in the eye even when

it is

not moved.

Similar differences in the estimation of distances can

19.

Although the ocular

be demonstrated for the normal eye.

muscles are so arranged that their movements

directions require about the

not exactly

this is

same amount

The reasons

so.

various
still,

are apparently closely

connected with the adaptation of the eye to

The neighboring

in

of exertion,

objects of our immediate

its

functions.

environment, on

which the hnes of regard must be converged, are the ones

most often looked

at.

For

this reason, the muscles of the

eye have so adapted themselves that the movements for the

convergence of the lines of regard are the

sible

movements

convergence.

of

obHque)

and compensatory muscles

to

downwards

the

(superior

the upward and

is

and

inferior recti).

of muscular activity

and

special
inferior

downward movements

As

a result of the

thus necessary for

of the eyes, the exer-

greater in these directions than towards the two

where only the internal and external

ease

(superior

of

pos-

facilitation

muscles that move the eye upwards and

greater complexity

tion

This general

been acquired by the addition of

of convergence has

auxiliary

easiest, particu-

downwards as compared with other

larly those directed

downward movements

of

recti act.

convergence

The

sides,

relative

shows

itself

partly in the differences in the intensity of sensations accom-

10. SpacialMeas.

123

panying the movements, as already remarked

downward convergence

partly in the fact that

upward too

too great and

(p.

is

121),

and

involuntarily

small.

There are certain constant

ilkmons depending on

optical

of
of vision, which correspond to these differences in the motor mechanism. They
the object in the field

the direction

are of two kinds: illusions of direction, and those of

mag-

nitude.

Both eyes are

of

subject to an illusion as to the direction

of vision. Such a line whose upper

3 outward, appears vertical, and one

vertical lines in the field

end

is

incUned 1

really vertical,

seems inclined inward.

two

in opposite directions for the

ular vision.

It

noted, that the

Since the illusion

is

eyes, it disappears in binoc-

can obviously be explained by the fact just

downward movements

of the eyes are con-

nected with an involuntary increase, and the upward move-

ments with a decrease, in the convergence.

movement from the

of

the

we

refer it

to

the

vertical

object as

is

This deflection

not

a deflection

in

noticed,

but

the opposite

direction.

An

equally regular illusion in magnitude appears

we compare

distances extending in different directions in the

field of vision.

the

asymmetry

arises

when

This, too,
in

the

is

very probably to be referred to

arrangement of the muscles which

from the adaptation of the eye to the ordinary

tion of objects in space.

straight line

vertical

is

posi-

judged

on the average Ye too long as compared with an equal horizontal hne.

whose base

^
is

square,

accordingly,

shorter than

its

appears as a rectangle

sides,

and a square drawn

This illusion is explained

by the eye is always too low.
of the highly developed
result
a
remember
that,
as
we
when
tendency to convergence, the muscular activity for upward and

downward movements

is

much more complex than

for inward

!!

24

Psychical Compounds.

The consequence

and outward movements.

in

the

case

partially

of

direcfiion of the

more

paralyzed

difficult

is

the same as

distances

eyes,

movement appear

in

the

greater.

Besides this difference between vertical and horizontal

19 a.

most noticeable because it is so large, there

between upward and downward, as
The upper half
well as between outward and inward distances.
of a vertical line is overestimated on the average by '/i 6 of i^
length, and the outer half of a horizontal line by Y40. The first
may be due to a slight asymmetry in the arrangement of the
upper and lower muscles, or it may be due to the involuntary
convergence of the lines of regard in downward movement, or,
finally, to a combination of both influences.
The effect of convergence is due to the fact that it corresponds to an approach
which

distances,

are

marked

less

is

differences

of the object, so that

half of the line nearer.

we

are generally inclined to see the lower

In accordance with certain conditions of

association to be described later ( 16,

9),

when

the angle of vision

judged as nearer is judged to be

smaller, so that the lower half of a line seems shorter than the
upper.
This explanation by the perspective can not be applied

remains constant, whatever

to the

is

greater illusion in the overestimation of vertical as com-

ilines,
for if it were applicable, the illusion
most be about equal to that found in the comparison
of the two halves of a vertical line, while in reality it is approximately three times as great. The fact that this greater illusion

pared with horizontal

would

at

appears only when straight distances are compared, not in the

case of objects

bounded by curved

the explanation by perspective.

lines,

is

circle,

appear as an ellipse with a longer vertical

circle.

The

slight overestimation

also a proof against

for example, does not

axis,

but as a

real

of the outer half of a hori-

due most probably to the asymmetrical activwhich arises from the relative ease of convergence-movements.
zontal line

is

also

ity of the muscles,

20.

Added

to these

two

illusions,

which

arise

from the

special structure of ocular muscles in their adaptation to the

purposes of

vision,

there are certain

other

variable optical


illusions

tliat

10. Spaeial Ideas.

are due to

movements and have

25

certain attributes of all voluntary

their analoga in the

These

tactual organs.

may

illusions

movements

also

those of direction, and those of magnitude.

be

of the

divided into

The former

follow

the rule that acute angles are overestimated, obtuse underestimated,

and that the

the

of

dii'ection

For the

varies correspondingly.

illusions of

intersecting

lines

magnitude we have

the rule, forced or interrupted movements require more exertion

Any

than free and continuous ones.

sitates fixation

with an open distance

marked

straight line interrupted by

straight line that neces-

overestimated in

accordingly,

is,

several

dividing lines

estimated in comparison with an uninterrupted

The
dency

overestimate

underestimate

large

small

ones.

articular

is

over-

line.

tactual analogon of the illusion in angles

to

comparison

by two points, and a

off

is

the ten-

movements and

to

comes under the general

This

principle that a relatively greater

expenditure of energy

is

movement than for a more extensive

one, because it is more difficult to begin a movement than
The tactual pheto continue it after it is already started.
required for a short

nomenon analogous
is

to the overestimation of interrupted lines,

that a distance estimated by a movement of one of the

limbs always seems shorter

single continuous
is

when

movement than

several times interrupted.

it

it

is

passed through in a

does when the movement

Here, too, the sensation corre-

sponds to the expenditure of energy, which

is,

of

course,

greater for an interrupted than for a continuous movement.

The overestimation of interrupted lines by the eye, takes place,

we can easily understand, only so long as no motives
arise from the way in which the division is made, to hinder
Such a
the movement of the eye over the interrupted line.
line
interthe
is
example,
when
is
present,
for
hindrance
as

rupted only once.

This one point of division makes fixation

^^-

;^26

necessary.

If

we tend

one,

Psychical Compotmds.

we compare such a
estimate the

to

with a continuous

line

without any movement,

first

with the point of division as a fixation-centre, while the sec-

ond

apprehended by a movement of the

is

As a

eye.

the continuous line seems longer than the interrupted

to the immediate depend-

phenomena point

21. All these

result
line.

ence of the apprehension of spacial directions and magnitudes

on ocular movements. As further evidence pointing in the same

direction, we have the negative fact that the arrangement of
the retinal elements, especially their proximity to one another,

normally

has no

This

magnitude.

influence

on the ideas of direction and

most strikingly evident in the fact that

is

the distance between two points appears the same whether

observed in direct or indirect vision.

clearly distinguished in direct vision,

eccentric

Two points that

may become one in

parts of the field of vision, but

are distinguished at

all,

are

the

so soon as they

they will appear just as far apart in

one region as in the other.

This independence of the prox-

imity of the retinal elements, in our perception of magnitude,

holds even for a part of the retina that

light at all

for the blind spot,

into the eye.

Objects whose images

are not seen.

The

size

of this

is

not sensitive to

where the optic nerve comes

spot

fall

on the bHnd spot

about

is

and

6,

located 15 inward from the point of fixation.

considerable

size,

distance of six

when

as,

feet,

for example, that of a

may

human

disappear entirely

points appear at the right

and

left or

it is

Images
on

of

face at a
it.

Still,

below and above

we locaUze them just as far from each other as

we should in any other, uninterrupted part of the field of
vision.
The same fact is observed when some part of the
retina becomes blind through pathological conditions.
The
this region,

resulting

in the

break

in

the

fact that images

field

falling

of

on

vision
it

shows

are

itself

only

not seen, never

10. Spaoial

any changes in the locaHzation

through,

127

Ideas.

of objects lying

on

opposite sides of the blind region.')

22. All these phenomena teach that the keenness of vision
and the apprehension of directions and distances in the field of
tision, are two different functions, which depend upon different
conditions the first depends on the prommity of the retinal ele:

ments

to

one another, the second on ocular movements. It follows

directly that

as original

spacial ideas

from

sight

and given immediately

of light with their spacial arrangement,

the spacial ideas of touch.

can not be regarded

in the action of impressions

The

any more than can

spacial order

is,

here too,

developed from the combination of certain sensational com-

ponents which, taken separately, have no spacial attributes

whatever.

Other conditions also indicate that the sensational

elements are related here in the same way as in the case of

touch,

and that the development

of visual space under normal

conditions runs entirely parallel to the development of space

in congenital blindness, the only condition under which touch
attains

a similar independence.

Retinal impressions corre-

spond to impressions of contact, and ocular movements to

touch-movements.
qualities

connected with them

ner,

Tactual

the local signs

we must presuppose
22 a.

impressions

can gain

only through the local coloring of

To be

sure,

spacial

the sensations

and

in like

man-

the same for retinal impressions.

qualitative

gradation

of local signs on

1) In this connection, we have the fact that the blind spot does
not appear as a break in the field of vision, without sensational contents, but as a continuation of the general brightness and color of the
whole field; for example, as white when we are looking at a white
surface, as black when we look at a black one. This filling out of
the blind spot is possible only through reproduced sensations, and
is to be considered as one of the phenomena of association to be

discussed later

( 16).

H. Psychical Gompounds.

128

the retina can not be demonstrated with the same evidentness as

for the skin.

Still,

by the use of

colors

it

can be established in

general that for greater distances from the retinal centre the sensational quality gradually changes. The colors are not so saturated

and the color-tone also changes; for example,

There is, indeed, in these properties of
the retina no strict proof for the existence of pure local differences ia the sensations, at least not in the fine gradations that
in indirect vision,

yellow appears orange.

must be assumed in the retinal centre, for example. Still, they

show that local differences in sensations do exist, and this seems
to justify the assumption of such even beyond the limits of demonstration.
This is all the more justifiable because here, where
gradations

the

are

much

finer,

tendency to translate

the

sen-

which has already

the case of touch, will be much more apt to

sational dififerences directly into local differences,

been noticed in

destroy their specifically qualitative character.

of this view
sational

we have

differences

As

a confirmation

the fact that the clearly demonstrable sen-

at

greater distances from the retinal centre,

can be observed only under the favorable conditions of limited

impressions,

and disappears

color are looked

which are
at least

such

when

so

relation to local

great

that

surfaces

of

uniform

must be attributed in part

When, however,

in themselves considerable,

to their

relatively

relation,

entirely

This disappearance of qualitative differences

at.

differences

special

differences.

disappear

as

a result of this

methods are required for their demon-'

stration, it can not be expected that very small differences will

be demonstrable at all.

23.

"We assume, accordingly,

qualitative local signs, which,

judging from the data derived from the keenness

are graded in the finest stages

more slowly
space

may then be

intensive sensations of
will

the retinal centre and

The formation

of visual

described as a combination of this system

of local signs arranged in

and b there

at

in the eccentric parts.

of" vision,

two dimensions, with a system

movement.

For any two

of

local signs a

be a corresponding sensation of movement

a arising from the movement through the distance a b and

129

a measure of the same.

serving as
will

10. Spacial Ideas.

longer distance a c

have a more intense sensation of movement,

the point of finest discrimination on the finger

so in the

of reference,

same way the

In

a point of reference for the eye.

Just as

y.

the centre

is

retinal centre is
this

fact,

such

from the

is

laws of ocular movements more obvious for the eye than

is

for the tactual

of vision

luminous point in the

field

a stimulus for the centre of ocular innervation,

is

and tends to turn the

relation

reflex

Any

organ.

it

upon

line of regard reflexly

of eccentric

This

itself.

the retinal centre

stimuli to

is

probably an essential condition for the development

of the

synergy of ocular movements mentioned above, and

at the

same

time,

an explanation of the great

ing objects

due to the greater

vision
less

This difficulty

in iadirect vision.

when the

reflex impulse

attention

As

favored points.

it,

evidently

is

toward a point

concentrated upon

is

is,

of observ-

difficulty

in indirect

than toward

a result of the preeminent impor-

tance which the retinal centre has for ocular movements, the
point of fixation necessarily becomes the centre of reference
in the field

and

of vision,

distances

all

in

this

field

are

brought under a unitary standard by being determined with

reference to the fixation-point.
is

due to

The

excitation of local signs

gether cause the

movement towards the

thus due to the

is

fusion of three different sensational elements:

sational quahties depending

nal stimulus,

second the

on the places where the stimuh

and

motor sensations determined by the

stimulated points

elements
is

act,

local

may

to

either

the original case

W0NDT,

Psycliology.

the sen-

first,

upon the character

qualitative

of the exter-

signs

depending

third,

the inten-

relation

the centre of the retina.

or,

when the eye remains

of

The

accompany actual movements

to-

The

retinal centre.

whole process of visual space-arrangement

sive

and both

the action of external impressions,

the

latter

this

at rest, are
9

130

JI-

Psychical Compounds.

mere motor impulses of a particular

the regular connection between
intensive sensations of

Because

intensity.

qualitative

local

signs

movement, they may both together be

The

regarded as a single system of complex heal signs.

spacial localization of a simple visual impression,

two interconnected elements be-

external stimulus with the

The

longing to this system of complex local signs.

of

arrange-

a number of simple impressions in space consists

in the combination of a great

are graded in quality

of the

a pro-

is

caused by the

duct of a complete fusion of the sensation

ment

of

and

and

number

of such fusions, which

intensity according to the elements

The predominating elements

system of local signs.

in these fusions are the sensations due to the external stimulation.

In comparison with

so obscure,

of local signs are

and

ity

these, the elements of the system

even in their original qual-

that for the immediate apprehension of

intensity,

objects they are entirely lost except as spacial quahties.

Connected with
determines the
is

still

complex process

fusion,

which

order of the elements in the field of

vision,

another.

this

of

This latter process, which takes place

in

the formation of every spacial idea, arises from the relation

of the object seen

to

the subject.

We

now

pass

to the

consideration of this second process.

b.

The Location of Visual Ideas in Relation

to

the

Ideating Subject.
24.

sion

The

simplest case of a relation between an impres-

and the

subject,

that can appear

evidently that in which the impression

point.

If a single point of

vision,

both

lines

hght

is

is

a visual idea,

reduced to a

presented in the

of regard are turned

of the reflex impulse exerted

in

upon

by the stimulus

it

(p.

is

single

field of

as a

i-esult

129), in such

10. Spacial

way

that in

At

centres.

Ideas.

131

both eyes the images

upon the

fall

retinal

the same time the organs of accommodation are

adapted to the distance of the point.

The point thus

sented on the centres of both retinas

is

repre-

seen as single and

and

as situated in a certain particular direction

at a certain

particular distance from the ideating subject.

The

subject

may be

by a point that

as a rule,

represented,

is

middle point of the straight

the

defined as

connecting the centres of rotation of the two eyes.

call this the

point of wientation for the

the straight line drawn from

two

lines of regard, that is to the

line
is

to

it

of orientation.

When

line

"We

will

and

field of vision,

the intersection of the

extemaL fixation-point,

a point in space

is

the

fixated, there

always a fairly exact idea of the direction of the hne of

This idea

orientation.

is

produced by the inner tactual sen-

sations connected with the position of the two eyes.

when
They

very noticeable because

are

sensations

much

the eyes are rotated

of

their

Such

intensity,

out of the central position.

are just as perceptible for a single eye, so that locali-

zation in direction

is

as perfect in monocular as in binocular

In the former

vision.

case, however, the line of orientation

generally coincides with the line of regard i).

The

25.

much more

always
really

1)

distance

of the

from the

objects

or of the absolute length of the Hne of orientation,

subject,
is

idea of the

indefinite

inclined
is,

as

to

than that of

ideate

this

its

may be shown by comparing

The habit of seeing

-with

two eyes

"We are

direction.

distance

shorter
it

results

than

it

with a standard

in exceptions to

Often when one eye is closed, the line of orientation remains the same as in binocular vision and does not coincide with the
line of regard. In such cases the closed eye usually makes the corresponding movements of convergence upon a common fixation-point
this rule.

with the open eye.

9*

132

Psychical Compounds.

II-

placed somewhere in the

line

field of vision

In

of orientation.

this

way we

perpendicular to the
that the distance

find

on the standard judged to be equal to the line of orientation,

is

always

difference

much

The

shorter than the real length of this line.

between the two increases the further away the point

of fixation moves, that

The only

becomes.

is,

the longer the hne of orientation

sensational components that can produce

this idea of distance, are those inner tactual sensations con-

nected with the position of the two eyes, that arise particularly from the convergence of the Hues of regard

and

somewhat

of a

this con-

vergence.

In

measure for the absolute extent of

the outer,
sations

26.

the

a given position

to

inner

of all the sen-

convergence

of

completely from aU other positions.

it

an idea of a

orientation

of

definite, absolute length

can be developed

only through

the influences of experience, where in addition to

sational elements a great

This explains

why they

angle

increased, from

is

The sum

decreased.

is

it

It follows that

the Hne

mainly from

the degree of convergence

corresponding

distinguishes

of

changed;

is

when
when

of the eye

observe sensations when

fact, it is possible to

the convergence

give

why

many

the sen-

associations also have a part.

these ideas always remain indefinite and

are sometimes aided, sometimes interfered with by

by

other components of visual ideas, especially

retinal images of

have a relatively

On

famihar objects.

fine

the size of the

the other hand, we

measure in the sensations of convergence

for differences in the

distances of objects seen, that

is,

for

the relative changes which the length of the line of orientation undergoes

For

positions in

when

the fixation-point approaches or recedes.

which the

changes in convergence
to

lines of

may be

regard are nearly

perceived

an angle of vision of 60" or 70".

increases,

this

least

that

parallel,

correspond

"When the convergence

perceptible change in convergence also

10. Spacial

Ideas.

133

increases considerably, but, in spite of that, the corresponding

the length of the hne of orientation become

differences in

Thus the purely

smaller and smaller.

intensive

sensations

which accompany movements of convergence, are translated

directly into ideas

fixation-point

of changes in the

and the point

distance between the

of orientation of the subject.

This translation of a certain particular sensational complex into an idea of distance,

energy,

shown by a great number

Among

a development.

improved

greatly

inclined

these

by

is

distant

as

is

which point to such

the fact that the apprehen-

and

of differences in distance,

Children

practice.

to localize very

development,

of experiences

sion both of absolute distances

is

not due to any connate

is

but to a particular psychical

objects

in

are

the

generally

immediate

neighborhood: they grasp at the moon, at the slater on the

tower, etc.

In the same way,

congenitally

bUnd

are,

it

unable to distinguish near and

27.

It

is

has been observed that the

immediately after an operation, entirely

far.

of importance for the development of this dis-

crimination between far and near, that under

conditions

mere

of vision not

but extended three-dimensional

of points at different depths,

isolated
objects,

to

the

natural

points are presented,

or at least a

number

which we assign relatively

different distances along their respective lines of orientation.

Let us consider

first

the simplest case, where two points

a and b are presented, lying at

by a
is

straight line.

always

secondly,

first,

local

signs

corresponding to the line ab,

convergence

gives us here,

too,

convergence,

and

the passage through a continuous series

a sensation of movement,

difference in

and connected

change in the fixation from a to 6

accompanied by a change in

brings about,
of retinal

different depths

a,

and,

corresponding to the

between these two points.

the elements of a spacial fusion.

This

The

J 34

II-

this fusion

product of
in both its

Psychical Compounds.

is,

however, peculiar in kind

in the -concomitant sensations of

and

when a

fusions that arise

over

(p.

it differs

components, in the successive series of local signs

In

128).

and sensations

of

movement, from the

line in the field of vision is passed

the latter case the

changes in local signs

are alike for both eyes, while

movement

in changing the point of fixation from far to near or the

reverse they

two

in the

are opposite

eyes.

For when

convergence gives the right eye a rotation towards the

it

will

and

produce a rotation towards the right in the

vice versa.

of the retinal

versa.

it

The

left,

eye,

The same must also hold for the movement

images: when the image of the point as it

leaves the point of fixation,

right eye,

left

the

moves towards the right

moves towards the

when

takes place

first

left in

the

eyes

nearer to a more distant point, the latter,

the opposite direction.

Such

in the

the left eye, and vice

turn from a

when they move

fusions arising

in

from movements

of convergence have, so far as their qualitative

and

intensive

components are concerned, a composition analagous to that

on which the arrangement

of

the elements in the field of

vision with regard to one another

way

in

in the
28.

depends; but the special

which these elements are united

two

is

entirely

different

cases.

Thus, the fusions between local signs and sensations

of convergence

form a system

of

complex heal signs which

analogous to that deduced above

in its composition.

(p. 130),

but

still

This system, differing in composition from

the system of local signs in the field of vision,

mentary to the

latter in that it

tion between the

ideating subject

is

pecuhar

objective

supplerela-

elements a relation between the

and these elements.

subject divides into two

is

adds to the reciprocal

ideational

by peculiar sensational elements

The

relation to

elements,

the

characterized

the idea of direction and

that of distance.
tation

the

in

Both

10. Spacial Ideas.

refer primarily to the point of orien-

head of the ideating

secondarily applied to the relations

regard to one another.

which

135

external ohjects

of

in

Thus, we come to assign to two points

at different distances along the

lie

and are then

subject,

hne

of orientation

a direction and distance in relation to each other.

All such

ideas of spacial distance referring to various positions along

the hne of orientation,

depth, or

when they

when taken

together, are called ideas of

are also ideas of particular single objects

ideas of three dimensions.

An

29.

way described
The

idea of depth arising in the

according to objective and subjective conditions.

varies

deter-

mination of the absolute distance of an isolated point in the

field

of vision,

is

Even the

always very uncertain.

deter-

mination of the relative distance between two points a and b

lying at different depths

is

generally certain only under the

condition assiuned above, that they are connected by a line

along which the points of fixation for the two eyes can move
in

changing the convergence from a to

We

b.

may

call

such lines which connect different points in space with one

another lines of fixation.

The

principle

may

then be for-

mulated: points in space are apprehended in their true relations only

which

when they

are connected by hues of fixation, along

the point of fixation

plicable

may move.

This principle

on the ground that the condition of

is

ex-

regularly

connected change in the local signs of the retina and in

the accompanying sensations

of

convergence,

that

is,

the

we found before
when impressions are pre-

condition for the rise of ideas of depth as

(p. 133),

is

obviously fulfilled only

sented which can arouse the appropriate local signs.

30.

When

arises either

the condition mentioned

an imperfect and

relative distances of the

is

not

fulfilled,

there

indefinite idea of the different

two points from the subject, or

else

^I-

136

Psyohical Compounds.

the two points seem to the equally distant -^ a

which can appear only when one of the

ways

arises

only the fixated point

in the idea;

is

rigidly

change

latter condition still another

Under the

fixated.

phenomenon

points

is

al-

seen as

The same thing happens in

looking at extended objects when they are not connected
with the binocular fixation-point by means of lines of fixation.
Double images that arise in this way are uncrossed
the other

single,

is

double.

i.

the right belongs to the right eye, the left to the

e.,

left

when the fixated point is nearer than the observed

object, and crossed when the point is beyond the object.
Binocular localization in depth and binocular double
images are, accordingly, phenomena directly interrelated;
where the former is indefinite and imperfect, we have double
eye

images, and. where, on the other hand, the latter are absent,
the localization in depth

phenomena stand
that,

when

it

is

when a

definite

in such a relation
present,

images removed.
for

is

point

to

The two

exact.

the line of fixation

localization is

aided

and double

is

not without exception,

rigidly fixated

with both eyes, double

Still,
is

and

this

rule

images arise easily in spite of any lines of fixation that may

be present.

This

is

explained by the general necessary con-

ditions for ideas of depth as

mentioned above

(p.

133).

Just

as the absence of Hnes of fixation results in the lack of the

required succession of the local signs, so in a similar man-

ner the sensations of convergence connected with movement,

are absent in rigid fixation.

c.

Relations between the Location of the Elements in Regard

to

one another and their Location in Regard

31.

When

the field of vision

is

to the Subject.

thought of as merely a

location of visual impressions in relation to one another,

represent

it

to ourselves as a surface,

and

we

call the single ob-


jects

10. Spaeial Ideas.

137

lying in this surface ideas of two dimensions, in con-

the ideas

trast to

But even an idea

depth.

of

two

of

dimensions must always be related to the seeing subject in

two ways.
in a

every point in the field of vision

First,

on the subjective

particular direction

tation mentioned above

of vision
subject,

The

is

(p.

Secondly,

131).

locahzed at some distance

though

may be

this distance

line

seen

is

of

orien-

the whole field

or other from the

very indefinite.

location in a particular direction results in an

an inverted

ideational object corresponding to

eu'ect

retinal image.

This relation between the objective localization in direction and

the retinal image
as

as necessary a result of ocular

is

the inversion of the image

is

the external line

middle

of regard

from the combined

upward on

ocular rotation, and vice versa.

image must be inverted

The

if

location at

we

effects of

fine

this

of

movements
orientation

a direction downward in

external space corresponds to

the space where the retinal image

32.

for binocular vision, the

or,

direction

a result of the op-

is

line of orientation in space

line resulting

of fixation.
in

itself

Our

tical properties of the eye.

movements

lies,

behind the centre of

It follows

that the retinal

are to see the object erect.

some distance or

other,

never absent, brings about the result that

all

which

is

also

the points of

the field of vision seem to be arranged on the surface of a

ccmcave hemisphere whose centre

or,

in

monocular

is

the point of orientation,

vision, the point of the eye's rotation.

Now,

small areas of a large curved surface appear plane, so that the

two-dimensional

idea,s of single objects are as

thus, for example,

plane geometry.

a rule plane;

drawn upon a plane, as those of

soon as some parts of the general

figures

But

as

field of vision separate from

it

localized before or behind, that

in such a
is

way

that they are

in different planes, the idea

of two dimensions gives place to one of

tln-ee.

^- Psychical Compounds.

138
32

The fusions formecl between qualitative local signs and

when we change from the fixation of

a.

sensations of convergence

more

signs

local

of

Such

depth.

is

signs

local

be called

form for every

behind the fixation-point, or for

series of points lying before or

an extended body which

may

or the reverse,

distant point to a nearer,

complex

nothing but a series of such points,

a regularly arranged system in which a stereometric form located

at

distance is always

a particular

a particular fusion.

When

distances

the

fixated,

is

unequivocally represented by

one of two points lying at different

other

is

by the

characterized

different

images in the two eyes, and by the correspondingly

different direction of the complex local signs in the two cases.

position of

The same

its

true

is

When we

bodies.

two eyes that are

We may

eyes.

a certain

difi'erent

other

extended

from each other on account of the

image in the two eyes

points

as the binocular

zero for the point fixated and for those

is

points which are equally

all

or

throws images in the

it

designate the difference between the positions of

point in the

This parallax

parallax.

of points

series

of the object with regard to the two

position

relative

different

connected

for

look at a solid object,

distant

on the line of orientation;

for

has some real positive or negative value ac-

it

cording as they are more or less distant than the fixation-point.

If

we

fixate solid

objects with both eyes, only the point fixated,

together with those points which are equidistant and

borhood in the
in

field of vision, will give rise to

position in the

two

eyes.

All points

at different distances, give images

in.

its

neigh-

images corresponding
of the object located

varying in position and

size.

These differences in the images are just what produce the idea
of the

solidity

are present.

of the

For

in the

when the proper Unes of fixation

way above described, the angle of binoc-

object

ular parallax for the image of any point lying before or behind

the point of fixation and connected with the same by a line of

furnishes, according to its direction and magnitude, a
measure for the relative distance of. this point in depth through
the complex local signs connected with the angle of parallax.
fixation,

This

angle

of parallax

for

given objective

depth,

decreases

proportionally to the distance of the solid object, so that the impression of solidity diminishes, the further off the objects are,

and when the distance

is

so

great that

all

angles

of parallax


disappear, the

body

discussed later (

33.

The

10. Spacial Ideas.

will appear

flat,

I39

unless the associations to be

produce an idea of depth.

16, 9)

of binocular vision

influence

on the idea of

depth

may

cope.

This instrument consists of two prisms with their angles

be investigated experimentally by means of a stereos-

of refraction turned toward each other in such

it

renders

possible

a binocular

combination

way

that

two plain

of

drawings which correspond to the retinal images from a threedimensional object.

The

influence of the various conditions

that underlie the formation of ideas of depths, may, in this

way, be studied

much

better than

at actual three-

may vary the conditions

dimensional objects, for here we

To

by looking

give a concrete illustration,

it is

at will.

observed that complex

stereoscopic pictures generally requirg several

movements

convergence back and forth before a clear plastic idea

Furthermore, the

effect

at stereoscopic pictures

the

relief

arises.

parallax appears in looking

whose parts are movable in respect

Such movements are accompanied by changes

to each other.
ia

of the

of

which answer

on the distance

of

the

exactly to

changes in binocular parallax.

corresponding

This parallax

dependent

is

the two eyes from each other,

so that

ideas of depth can be produced even in the case of objects

too distant in reality to give a plastic

in the

ther apart than the two eyes are.

in
is

effect,

by combining

stereoscope pictures taken from positions

This

is

much

fur-

done, for example,

making stereoscopic photographs of landscapes. The result

that these photographs when combined do not look like

real

landscapes,

but like plastic models regarded

from a

short distance.
34.

In monocular

vision

all

the conditions

are

absent

which are connected with movements of convergence, and with

binocular differences in the retinal images, and which

may be

^^-

140

Psychical Compounds.

reproduced with the stereoscope.

artificially

not

Still,

all

the

influences are wanting eren here to produce a localization in

the third dimension, although this localization

in

more imperfect.

is

The direct influence of movements of accommodation have

comparison with other conditions a relatively small, per-

haps entirely insignificant influence.

Still,

movements

like

accompanied by sensations which

of convergence, .they too are

can he clearly perceived in the case of greater changes of

accommodation from

distant

neighboring

to

For

points.

smaller changes in depth these sensations are very uncertain.

As

a result the movement of a point in the direction of the

hue of regard, when

is

it

looked at with only one

eye, is

generally not clearly observed until a change in the size of

the retinal image appears.

For the development

35.

of

monocular ideas of depth

the influences which the components

of the

so-called per-

These are

spective exercise, are of the greatest importance.

the relative magnitude of the angle of vision, the trend of

limiting liaes, the direction of shadows, the change in colors

due to atmospheric

absorption,

etc.

which act in exactly the same way

ular vision,
fore,

depend on associations of

be treated in a later chapter

35

a.

in

"We have in general the

All these influences,

monocular and biaocideas,

and

will,

there-

16).

same opposing theories

the explanation of visual ideas as for tactual ideas

114).

(p.

for

The

empirical theory has sometimes committed the fallacy of limiting

itself to

optics and turning the real

over to touch.

In such cases

it

problem of space perception

has tried to

explain

only

how

a localization of visual ideas can take place with the aid of experience, on the basis of already existing spacial ideas

Such an interpretation
it

also

conflicts

is,

with experience, which shows that in normal per-

sons with vision, visual

the reverse

(p.

from touch.

however, not only self-contradictory, but

104).

space-perception determines tactual,

The

not

fact of general development, that touch

10. Spacial

141

Ideas.

the more primitive sense, can not be applied to tlie development of the individual. The chief evidences in support of nativis

istic

theories are,

first,

retinal elements (p.

1 1

the metamorphopsia after

9) and,

dislocation of

secondly, the position of the line of

which indicates united functioning of the two

It has been noted already (p. 120) that the
metamorphopsia and other related phenomena prove the exact
opposite as soon as the changes to which they are due become
orientation

(p.

eyes from the

1 ),

first.

Furthermore, the fact that in long continued use of

only one eye the line of orientation comes to coincide with the

stationary.

line of regard (p. 131), proves that the position of

not given from the

first,

but that

ence of the conditions of vision.

it

this

line

is

has arisen under the influ-

Still

another fact against the

and in favor of the genetic theory is the development

in the child of the synergy of ocular movements under the influnativistic

ence of external stimuli and the organization of space-perceptions

which apparently accompanies it. Here as in many other respects
the development of most animals is diiferent. In the latter cases
the reflex connections of retinal impressions with movements of the
eyes and head function perfectly immediately after birth,

19,

(v. inf.

2).

theory has gained the ascendency over older

and empirical views primarily through the more thorough
Nativism
investigation of the phenomena of binocular vision.

The

genetic

nativistic

with the question why we generally see objects

although they produce images in each of the two eyes.
The effort is made to avoid the difficulty by assuming that two
identical retinal points are connected with the same optic fibre
which divides in the chiasma, and that in this way they reprehas

difficulty

single

sent in the sensorium only a single point.

"identity of the

This doctrine of the

two retinas" was, however, untenable

as soon as

the actual conditions of binocular vision in three dimensions began to be investigated. Especially the invention of the stereoscope thus brought with
vision.

it

new

era for

the genetic theory of

42

//.

Psychical Compounds.

TEMPOEAL

11.

IDEAS.

All our ideas are at once spacial and temporal.

1.

Just

as the conditions for the spacial arrangement of impressions

belong originally only to the tactual and visual senses, and

just

spacial relations

as

from these to

so

other sensations,

all

carried over

secondarily

are only

there are oiily two

kinds of sensations, namely, the inner tactual sensations

from

movements and the auditory sensations, vfhich are the primary

sources

in the

Still, there is a characteristic

temporal ideas.
between spacial and temporal ideas in the fact that

of

difference

first

the two senses mentioned are the only ones which

can develop an independent spacial

ond the two most important kinds
those in which the conditions
rise

for

are merely

are most favorable for the

These conditions

of temporal ideas.

wanting, however,

order, while in the secof sensation

any sensations.

are not entirely

This indicates that

the psychological bases of temporal ideas are more general,

and that they are not determined by the special

It follows from this

of particular sense-organs.

structures
fact that

even when we abstract from the ideas that enter into any
series

of psychical processes,

and take account only

of the

phenomena accompanying the ideas, such as feelings and emotions, we still ascribe to the affective processes
thus isolated through abstraction exactly the same temporal
subjective

In philosophy the conclusion has

attributes as to the ideas.

generally been

form

drawn from

of perception", that

this fact that

is,

there

is

time

is

content that does not have a position in time,

content

may

exist without spacial attributes.

that time-perception

is

more

a "universal

absolutely no psychical

though such

This conclusion

universal, arising, as

it

does, from

the greater universality of the conditions of such perception,

erroneous and

is

is

not confirmed by psychological observation.

Temporal Ideas.

11.

143

In the same way that we carry over spacial

attributes

from

the two senses that give us space-perception to other kinds

we

of sensations,

affective processes

also give

them secondarily

rably connected with them.

doubted whether
their related ideas,

to feehngs

and

through the sensations and ideas insepa-

affective

may

It

processes

with

would have temporal

equal

right

themselves,

in

attributes, for

among

the conditions of a temporal order are certain attributes

The

the sensational elements of ideas.

are that our ideas

spacial

and temporal.

spacial order arises

particular sensational elements

is

enter into

ideas

psychical contents are at once

all

The

of

real facts in the case

and, therefore, since

every psychical experience,

be

without

in

from certain

normal cases where vision

present from visual, in blindness, from tactual impressions

while time-ideas can arise from

Temporal compounds

2.

all possible sensations.

like spacial

iatensive ideas, are characterized

able order of their

and

by the

contrast to

in

definite,

component elements.

unchange-

If this

order

is

changed, the given compound becomes another, even though

the quality of

its

components remains the same.

In spacial

compounds, however, this unchangeableness of the order refers

only to the relation of the elements to one another, not to
the relation of the elements to

temporal compounds,
of one element
is

at the

is

subject.

In

on the other hand, when the relation

changed with regard to other elements,

same time changed with regard

There

ject.

is

the ideating

it

to the ideating sub-

no change of position in time analogous to

that possible in the case of space-compounds.

2

a.

able,

ment,

This property of the absolute, strictly speaking unchange-

relation

however

of every temporal
short,

the flow of time.

tent whatever

has,

to

the

compound and every

ideating subject,

Every moment
on account of

in

time

this flow,

is

filled

time-ele-

what we call
by any con-

such a relation to

n. Psychical Compoimds.

144

ideating subject that no

the
for

it.

of

ity

With

space the case

other

moment can be

substituting any spacial

element in

any other element whatever,

subject for

substituted

just reversed: the very possibil-

is

is

its

relation

what gives

to

the

rise to

we express it, by
The idea of absolute dura-

the idea of Constance^ or absolute duration, as

applying a time-idea to a space-idea.

that

tion,

of time in which no change takes place,

is

speaking impossible in time-perception

the subject must

so

far

differ

tion
cept.

as

their

We

change continually.

when

sion as lasting,

The

itself.

sensational

strictly

speak of an impres-

single periods in time are

its

is

relation to

exactly alike

contents are concerned, so that they

only in their relation to the subject. The concept of durawhen applied to time is, therefore, a merely relative conOne time-idea may be more lasting than another, but

no time-idea can have absolute duration, for without the double

relation of different sensations to one another and to the ideating subject, no such ideas at all could arise. Even an unusually
long unchanging sensation can not be retained. We interrupt it
continually with other sensational contents.

We

may, however, separate the two temporal relations always

united in actual experience, that of the elements to one another

and to the ideating subject, since each

particular attributes of time-ideas.

two

relations

forms

found

its

of occurrence

one another
to

the

is

in

alone

subject,

connected with certain

is

fact,

this separation of the

expression in particular words for certain

time

logical analysis of time-ideas.

tion

In

even

prior to

an exact psycho-

If the relation of the elements to

attended

to,

without regard to their relar

temporal modes

come

to be discriminated,

such, for example, as brief, long, regularly repeating, irregularly

changing,

etc.
If,
on the contrary, the relation of the subject
attended to and the objective forms of occurrence abstracted
from, we have as the chief forms of this relation the temporal
is

stages past, present,

A.
3.

touch.

The

and future.

TEMPORAL TOUCH-IDEAS.

orginal development of temporal ideas belongs to

Tactual sensations, accordingly, furnish the general

substratum for the

rise

of both the

spacial

and temporal

11. Temporal Ideas.

145

arrangements of ideational elements

The spacial
(p. 104, 3).
come from the outer tactual
while the inner sensations which accompany movehowever,

of touch,

functions
sensations,

ments are the primary

contents

of

the earliest

temporal

ideas.

The mechanical

properties

limbs

of the

are

important

The arms and

and hip-joints by

physiological bases for the rise of these ideas.

can be moved in the shoulder-joints

legs

their muscles,

and are at the same time subject

of gravitation drawing

As

them downward.

to the action

a result there

are two kinds of movements possible for them.

we

First,

have those which are continually regulated by voluntary activity of the

ried

we

at every

to the existing needs

movements.

Secondly,

those in which the voluntary energy of the muscles

operative only so far as

rhythmical movements.
consideration the

required to set the limbs

it is

and to maintain

oscillating in their joints

We

may

this

neglect

for

arhythmical movements

various uses of the limbs.

aU

moment

will caU. these the arhythmical

we have
is

muscles and may, therefore, be indefinitely va^

and accommodated

movement

our present

exhibited in the

Their temporal attributes are in

probability derived from the rhythmical movements,

and

only a very indefinite comparison of the duration of irregular

movements
4.

is

possible.

With rhythmical movements

the case

is different.

Their

significance for the psychological development of time-ideas

is

due to the same principle which gives them their importance

as physiological organs, namely, the principle of the isochron-

ism of osciUations of

like

amplitude.

In walking, the regu-

lar oscillations of our legs in the hip-joints

the muscular energy expended

less,

not only make

but reduce to a minimum

Further-

the continual voluntary control of the movements.

more, in natural walking the arms are supplementary

WosDT, Psychology.

10

aids.

146

II-

Their oscillation

Psychical Compounds.

not interrupted at every step like that of

is

the legs by the placing of the foot on the ground, so that

they furnish

because

more uniform regulation

Every

made up

a means for the

continuity

of their

of the movements.

single period of oscillation in such a

a continuous

of

movement

is

succession of sensations that are

repeated in the following period in exactly the same order.

marked by a complex of
outer tactual sensations: the beginning by the impression
accompanying the removal of the foot from the ground, the

The two

limits of the period

accompanying

end by that

tween these there

sensations

They

of inner

series

arise

return to the ground.

its

Be-

a continuous series of weak inner tactual

is

and muscles. The beginning and end

sensations from the joints

of this

are

coincide with the

sensations

outer

and are more intense than those between them.

from the impulse of movement coming to the

muscles and joints and from the sudden inhibition of the

same, and serve also to

Connected with

mark

this

off

the periods.

regular succession

of

a regular and exactly parallel series of feelings.

sider a single period in a series

there

always at

is

expectation.

with the

If

movement,

is

its

rising

maximum

and sinking

to

zero,

make

to

of a rhythmical

touch-movement

again repeated.

of

moment

place for the rapidly

feeling of fulfillment.

is

qualitatively

fulfilled

a gradually growing feeling

the same series

of two

is

con-

limits of the period, beginning

strained expectation, which suddenly sinks at the last

from

we

of rhythmical movements,

beginning and end a feeling of

its

Between the two

first

sensations

From

this point on

Thus, the whole process

consists,

on

antagonistic feehngs.

its affective side,

In their general

character these feelings belong to the direction of straining

and relaxing
that

is,

feelings

one that

rises

(p. 83).

One

is

very rapidly to

a momentary
its

feeling,

maximum and

then

11.

Temporal Ideas.

sinks with equal rapidity; the other

is

147

a feeling of long duration

which gradually reaches a maximum and then suddenly disappears.

As a result, the most intense affective processes
are crowded together at the extremities of the periods, and
are

made

all

the more intense through the contrast between

the feeling of satisfaction and the preceding feeling of expectation.

Just in the same way that this sharply marked

hmit between the single periods has

and inner

in the strong outer

at this instant,

its

sensational substratum

tactual impressions that arise

as above mentioned,

correspondence between the gradual

so

we have a complete

rise

of the

feehng of

expectation and the continuous series of weaker inner tactual

sensations

accompanying the oscillatory movements of the

hmbs.
5.

The

made up

simplest temporal ideas of touch are

of

the rhythmically arranged sensations that follow one another

with perfect uniformity in the manner described, when like

oscillatory

in

movements are repeatedly carried

out.

But even

ordinary walking a slight tendency toward a somewhat

greater complication arises

successive periods

accompanying

is

this case the

In

fact,

the beginning of the

first

of tico

emphasized, both in the sensation and in the

feeling,

In

more than the beginning

rhythm

of

movement begins

of the second.
to be metrical.

such a regular succession of accented and unaccent-

ed ideas corresponds to the simplest measure,

^/s-time.

It

arises easily in ordinary walking because of the physiological

superiority of the right side,

and appears very regularly when

several persons are walking together

latter case even

one rhythmical

in marching.

In the

more than two periods may be united

unit.

The same

is

rhythmical movements of the dance.

into

true of the complicated

But

in such composite

tactual rhythms the auditory temporal ideas have a decided

influence.
10*

148

-^'

TEMPORAL AUDITORY

B.

The

6.

adapts

almost perfect fidehty in the

reproduced with

is

corresponding

succession

of

In close connection with this we have certain

psychological properties
first place,

stimulation; so

sensations after the external

of its

all

of the temporal

the exceedingly short per-

is

that any temporal succession of sounds

sensations.

which most of

more accurate apprehension

relations in external processes,

sistence

IDEAS.

attribute of tlie auditory sense

to the

it

Psychical Compounds.

they

differ

of temporal auditory ideas.

from temporal ideas

of

In the

touch in that

often only the extremities of the single intervals that go to

make up

the total idea, are

a case the relations of

marked by

In such

sensations.

such iatervals to

one another are

estimated essentially by the apparently empty or heteroge-

neously

filled

intervals

that

lie

between the limiting sen-

sations.

This

is

especially noticeable in the

case

of

rhythmical

There are in general two possible forms

auditory ideas.

of

such ideas: continuotis or only rarely interrupted successions

of relatively lasting sensations,

and discontinuous successions

which only the extremities of the rhythmical

of strokes,

in

periods are

marked by external sounds. For a discontinuous

succession of entirely uniform sounds the temporal attributes

of the ideas are in general

more apparent than

for lasting

impressions, since in the former case the influences

tonal

are entirely wanting.

qualities

consideration to

may

of the

confine our

discontinuous series, because the principles

that apply here hold for

fact,

We

continuous

successions

the rhythmical division in the latter

easily observed, is

made by means

case,

of certain

also.

as

single

may

In
he

accents

which are either given in the external impression or abitrarily

applied to

it.

A series

7.

Temporal Ideas.

11.

of regular strokes

form of temporal auditory

plest

made

149

way

in this

ideas, is

as the sim-

distinguished from

the simplest form of temporal touch-ideas, described above

(p.

mainly by the absence of

147),

The

content in the intervals.

all

objective

sensational

external impressions here do

nothing but divide the separate intervals from one another.

the intervals of such a series are not entirely empty,

Still,

but are

by subjective

filled

which correspond

Most emphatic
These

vals.

course

and sensational contents

those observed in tactual ideas.

of all are the affective contents of the inter-

feelings in their successive periods of gradually

and suddenly

rising

the

fully to

affective

satisfied expectation, are the

a rhythmical tactual movement.

of

sensational substratum for these feehng

sent

it is

the sensations of tension of the

intensities.

Then again

tympanum

as in

Even

the

not entirely ab-

is

merely more variable. Sometimes

same

it is

nothing but

in their various

the accompanying sensations of

it is

tension from other. organs, or finally other sensations of move-

ment

where an involuntary rhythmical movement

in cases

connected with the auditory

But on account

series.

is

of the

changeable character and generally small intensity of these

motor sensations, the

very

much more

It follows

affective processes in auditory ideas are

clearly perceptible.

from the conditions described that the influence

of the subjective elements on the character

the easiest to demonstrate.

First of

all,

of time-ideas

this

shows

is

itself in

the effect which different rates of the sensations have on the

formation of temporal ideas.

certain

medium

able for the union of a

pressions.

Now,

It

is

found that there

rate of about 0.2 sec. which

it

is

number

is

is

most favor-

of successive auditory im-

easy to observe that this

is

the rate

at which the above mentioned subjective sensations and feel-

ings are most emphatic in their alternation.

If

the rate

is

150

II'

made much

Psyehieal Compov/nds.

slower, the strain of expectation

is

too great and

passes into an unpleasurable feeling which becomes more and

more unendurable.

on the contrary, the rate is accelerated, the rapid alternation of feehngs becomes fatiguing.
Thus, in both directions Hmits are approached where the
If,

synthesis of the impressions into a rhythmical time-idea

The upper

longer possible.

lower about 0.1

Then

8.

and

sations

is

influence of the course of our sen-

this

upon our apprehension

of temporal inter-

clearly in the changes that our idea

itself just as

such an interval undergoes when the conditions of

of

apprehension are varied without changing

Thus,

it

is

estimated as longer than one not so divided.

"We have here a phenomenon analogous

the illusion with interrupted lines
generally

viously

much

(p.

125).

to that observed in

The

overestimation

greater for temporal intervals.

This

is

ob-

due to the fact that the oft repeated alternation

sensations

greater

its

objective length.

its

has been observed that in general a period divided

into intervals

is

no

is

about one second, the

sec.

again,

feelings

shows

vals,

limit

and

feelings in

influence

than

an

the

interval of time

interruption

of

in

have a much

the

movement

through points of division in the case of the similar spaceiUusion.

Furthermore,

single impressions

are

if

a long series of regular beats

in

emphasized by their greater intensity

or by some quaMtative peculiarity,

the uniform result

is

the

overestimation of the intervals preceding and following the

emphasized impression,
vals

of the

same

in

comparison with the other

inter-

however,

a certain rhythm is
produced successively with weak and then with strong beats,
series.

If,

the rate appears slower in the

These phenomena
ence of the
sion

are

sensational

distinguished

and

from the

first

also

case than in the second.

explicable

from the

affective changes.
rest,

An

demands a change

influ-

impresin the

11. Temporal Ideas.

151

course of the sensations, and especially of the feelings, preceding

its

apprehension, for there must be a more intense strain of

expectation and a correspondingly stronger feeling of rehef

or

The

satisfaction.

feeling of

expectation

interval preceding the impression,

The

following.

made up

case

different

is

at one time of

weak

lengthens

the

the feeling of relief that

when the whole

impressions,

and

series

is

at another of

In order to perceive a weak impression we

must concentrate our attention upon it more. The sensations
of tension and the accompanying feelings are, accordingly,
more intense, as may be easily observed, for weaker beats than
strong ones.

Here

for stronger ones.

too, then, the different intensities of

the subjective elements that give rise to them are reflected

therefore, not only lost, but even reversed,

The effect is,

when we compare

not weak with strong but strong with

stronger beats.

in the

between temporal

differences

The tendency found

9.

ideas.

still

in the case of rhythmical touch-

ideas for at least two Hke periods to unite

gular metrical unit shows

itself in

much more marked

degree.

in

where the sensations that

the influence of the
series

shows

stronger impressions.

In tactual

movements,

under

tendency to form a rhythmical

actual alternation of weaker

With

re-

auditory ideas also, only

limit the single periods are

will, this

in the

itself

and form a

and

auditory sensations, on the other

hand, where the single impressions can be dependent only

on external
alike,

this

illusion.

conditions,

tendency

In a

and

may

are, therefore, objectively exactly

lead to the following characteristic

series of beats

which are exactly alike in

tensity and are separated by equal periods

of time,

in-

certain

single beats, occurring at regular intervals, are always heard

as stronger than the others.

arises

that

when

is,

there

is

The time

that most frequently

nothing to determine

it,

is

the 2/s-t^,

the regular alternation of arses and theses.

A slight

152

Psychical Compounds.

II-

modification of this,

the 3/8-tie, where two unaccented fol-

This tendency
is also very common.
mark time can be overcome only by an effort of the will,

low one accented heat,

to

from

for very fast or very slow rates, where,

and then only

the very nature of the series, the limits of rhythmical perception are nearly reached.

For medium

which are

rates,

a sup-

especially favorable to the rise of rhythmical ideas,

pression of this tendency for any length of time

If the effort

possible.

made

is

to unite as

the

as possible in a unitary time-idea,

more complicated. "We have accents

many

and

hardly

phenomena become

of different degrees which

alternate in regular succession with unaccented

the series

is

impressions

members

of

through the resulting divisions of the

thus,

whole into groups, the number of impressions that may be

comprehended

The presence
and

in

of

-Yg-thne, the

and

74-time,

a single idea

two

presence of three grades gives Y4-time and

as forms with three feet

More than

^"^l^-iime.

the unaccented note

we have

is

counted,

and

^/s-time

three grades of accentuation

or,

when

more than four grades

of

are not to be found in either musical or poetical

intensity,

rhythms, nor can

rhythmical ideas.
tion

considerably increased.

is

different grades of accent gives 74-tinie

mark

ideas, in a

we produce more by

voluntarily formation of

Obviously, these three grades of accentua-

the limits of the possible complexity of temporal

way analogous

ber of included beats

to that in

( 15,

6)

which the maximal num-

marks the

limits

of

their

length.

The phenomenon
fluence

of subjective

on the sensation

of

accentuation and

rhythms,

its

in-

shows clearly that

temporal ideas, like spacial ideas, are not derived from objective
impressions alone, but that there are connected with these,
subjective elements,

hension

of the

whose character determines the appre-

objective

impressions.

The primary cause

11. Temporal Ideas.

I53

of the accentuation of a particular beat

always to be found

is

in the increased intensity of the preceding

and concomitant
and sensations of movement. This increase in the in-

feelings

tensity of the subjective elements

objective impression,

The

intense.

then carried over to the

is

and makes the

seem more

latter also

may

strengthening of the subjective elements

be voluntary, through the increase of the muscular strain

which produces sensations of movement, and in this way,
finally results in

a corresponding increase in the feelings of

expectation;

this

or

strengthening

out volition, when the

effort

may

take

to perceive

place

with-

a nxmiber of im-

pressions together brings about an immediate articulation of

the temporal idea through the corresponding subjective sen-

and

sational

C.

10.

If

affective variations.

GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR TEMPORAL

we seek

IDEAS.

to account for the rise of temporal ideas

on the basis of the phenomena

just

and

discussed,

of the

regular combination of subjective sensational and affective ele-

ments with objective impressions, as

must

there apparent

it is

start with the fact that a sensation thought of

can no more have temporal than

butes.

it

by

could have spacial

Position in time can be possible only

when

we

itself,

attri-

single

psychical elements enter into certain characteristic relations

with other such elements.

number
as

much

of psychical

This condition of the union of a

elements holds for temporal ideas just

as for those of space, but the kind

characteristic,

and

essentially

different

of

union

is

from that in space-

ideas.

The members

of

a temporal series a b c d e

f,

can

be immediately presented as a single whole, when the

has reached
in space.

/,

just as well as

In the

latter

case,

if

all

series

they were a series of points

however, they would, on ac-

^- Psychical Compounds.

154

count of original ocular

be arranged in relation to

reflexes,

the point of fixation, and this fixation-point could, at different

be any one of the impressions a to

times,

on the other hand,

moment

When

in relation to

In time-ideas,

f.

alwa-ys the impression

it is

which

all

of the present

the rest are arranged in time.

a new impression becomes, in a similar manner, the

present impression, even though

exactly the same

prehended as

sensational contents are

its

as that of the earlier,

for

subjectively different,

still,

will

it

though the

be ap-

affective

accompanying a sensation may, indeed, be related

state

to

the feelings of another moment, the two can never be identical.

Suppose, for example, that following the series a h

there

/",

is

a second series of impressions,

b, c'
a, b'
f, in which a
sational elements are concerned.

companying

feelings

Then a and

a',

'bj

^ and

jS
fi',

c,

y 6

etc.,

V d

a'

d'

so far as their sen-

Let us represent the

and

s cp

y and

y',

c
e'

'

/?'

y'

ac<p'.

s'

be similar

will

etc.,

8'

feehngs, because the sensations are the same; but they will

not be identical, because every affective element depends not

only upon the sensation with which

it is

immediately con-

nected but also upon the state of the subject as determined

by the

totality of its experiences.

different for each of the

from what
c

.,

it

was

members

The

of the series a'

for the corresponding

because when the impression

been present, and so

a'

member

series

the affective states

when

repeated.

These

much the subjective

feelings may agree, for
ever

istic

relation to

c'

a,

.,

while no

Analogous

differ-

show themselves in composite

states are never identical,

how-

conditions of the momentarily present

every one of them has

its

character-

the totality of psychical processes.

assume, for example,

d'

a has already

can be referred back to

a.

is

of the series a b

a' arrives,

such thing was possible in the case of

ences in

state of the subject

If

we

a succession of a number of similar

abed,

series
a'

and

a",

b equals

contents

al

a'

11.

b",

concerned,

are

affective conditions,

155

a" h" c" d", etc., in

d',

and

b'

Temporal Ideas.

etc.,
still,

a"

it

true that other

is

like in themselves

from

differs

a'

in its

can be referred back only to

for a'

while a" can be referred back to both

this,

which a equals

so far as their sensation-

differences

and

a'

between

a,

Besides

a.

impressions

always arise from some chance accompany-

ing sensations which influence the affective state.

Since every element of a temporal idea

11.

in relation

remarked,

it

is

arranged

the impression immediately present, as above

to

that this present impression will have

follows

one of the attributes of the fixation-point in spacial compounds.

It

will

more

be

clearly

than other elements of the same

difference

in

and

distinctly perceived

But

idea.

there

is

a great

the fact that this most distinct perception

is

not connected, as in the case of spacial ideas, with the physof the sense-organ, but

iological organization

due entirely

is

to the general attributes of the ideating subject, as expressed

in the

affective

processes.

The momentary

panying the immediately present

to

clearest

its

the

part

of

apprehension.

feeling

impression

We

may,

a temporal idea which

accom-

what helps

is

accordingly,

forms

the

call

immediate

impression the fixation-point of the idea or in general, since

it

does not depend on external structure, as does the fixation-

we may

point of spacial ideas,

The

fixation-point.

inner fixation-point

of a temporal idea which

ideated

and

he outside

have

preceded

They

the

of clearness,

temporal idea

is

present,

a regular

from the

are

the inner

then, that part

this point of fixation, that

are arranged in

degrees

is,

most

corresponds to the

the immediately present impression.

sions that

that

call it figuratively

clearly

The impres-

is,

impressions

indirectly perceived.

gradation

of diminishing

fixation -point.

unitary

possible only so long as the degree of clear-

156

II-

ness for each of

its

the clearness of any

into

elements has some positive yalue.

When

idea divides

element sinks to zero, the

components.

its

fixation-point of the temporal senses differs

The inner

12.

essentially
in that its

from the outer fixation-point of the spacial senses,

character is primarily determined, not by sensa-

but by

tional,

Psychical Compounds.

Since these affective

elements.

affective

ele-

ments are continually changing, in consequence of the varying

conditions

point
flow
is

is

and that no
This fact

a).

character

dimensional

time,

of

By

of time.

is

inner fixationcontinuous

moment of time
moment can return

that no

to express the fact

any other,

sup. p. 143, 2

(cf.

This change of the

called the continuous flow

we mean

like

the inner fixation-point

of psychical Hfe,

changing.

always

also

such
is

connected with the one-

which

due to

is

very

this

circumstance, that the. inner fixation-point of temporal ideas

is

continually

never recur.

moving forward,

so

The arrangement

that a single point can

of time in

one dimension,

with reference always to a changing point of

which the subject represents

itself,

is

what

fixation,

gives rise to

in

the

result that the elements of time-ideas have a fixed relation,

not only with respect to one another, but also with respect
to the ideating subject
13.

If

we

try

(p.

143,

2).

an account

give

to

of the

means

the formation of this reciprocally interdependent

the parts of an idea,
to

and

the ideating subject,

it

for

order of

of their determination in regard

is

obvious that these means can

be nothing but certain of the elements of the idea

itself,

which, considered in themselves, have no temporal attributes,

but gain such attributes through their union.

We

may

call

these elements temporal sigms, after the analogy of local signs.

The

characteristic conditions for the development of temporal

ideas indicate from the

first

that these temporal signs

are.

11. Temporal Ideas.

In the course

in the main, affective elements.

mical

series

every impression

by the concomitant
tion

may be

This

feeling of

are never absent

as

of

any rhyth-

characterized

arouses the feeling.

it

when a rhythmical

series is

Furthermore, the only sensations that

components of

sensations of movement.
sensations

of

expectation, while the sensa-

clearly perceived

suddenly interrupted.

of

is

immediately

of influence only in so far as

is

157

In the case

movement belong

the ideas themselves,

to

time-ideas are the

all

of tactual

ideas these

immediate elements

the

auditory and other compounds

in

that are brought into the time form, they are always present
as

may, accord-

regard the feelings of expectation as the qualitative,

ingly,

the sensations of
of

We

subjective accompanying phenomena.

movement

a temporal idea.

upon as a fusion

as the intensive, temporal signs

The idea

of the

itself

must then be looked

two kinds of temporal signs with

each other and with the objective sensations arranged in the

temporal form. Thus, the sensations of movement, as a
of intensive

sensations,

quality

13

a.

by the concomitant
The

sensations of

formation of both

measure for the ar-

give a uniform

rangement of the objective sensations

series

as

characterized

in

feelings.

movement play

time-ideas

a similar part in the

and space-ideas.

This like

sen-

substratum leads very naturally to a recognition of a

relation between these two forms of perception, which finds its
expression in the geometrical representation of time by a straight
Still, there is an essential difference between the complex
line.
sational

system of temporal signs and the systems of local signs in the

fact that the former is based primarily, not on the qualitative
attributes of sensations, connected with certain special external
sense-organs, but on feelings which may come in exactly the

same way from the most widely differing kinds of sensation, since
they are not dependent on the objective content of these senThese characteristics
sations, but on their subjective synthesis.

^- Psychical Compounds,

1^58

of time-ideas account for

tlie

universal significance that

we

attribute

This was what was improperly expressed in the Kantian

to them.
This exprinciple, that time is a "form of the inner sense".
pression is to be criticised on the ground of its erroneous presupposition of an inner sense

(p.

8 sq.)

Here again we have the same opposed

case of spacial ideas

(p. 114, 12 a).

and

nativistic

theories on the psychological origin of time-ideas, as

we had

genetic
in the

In this case, however, nativism

It usually
developed a theory in any proper sense.
the general assumption that time is a "connate

has never

limits itself to

without attempting to give any account

form of perception",

of the influence of the elements and conditions of temporal ideas

which can be actually

older psychology,

as,

The genetic

demonstrated.

for example,

theories

of

that of Herbart, seek to de-

duce time-perception from ideational

elements

only.

This

is,

however, pure speculation and loses sight of the conditions given

in actual experience.

12.

COMPOSITE PEELINGS.

In the development of temporal ideas

1.

ly that the discrimination

ponents

of sensational

immediate experience

in

is

it

and

purely

appears clearafEective

For time-ideas the abstraction proves

ahstraction.

com-

product

of

impossible,

because, in this case, certain feelings play an essential part

in the rise of the ideas.

ideas only

ment
the

when

Time-ideas may, therefore, be called

the final results of the process, the arrange-

of certain sensations in relation to one another and to

subject, are considered;

looked
feelings.

into,

when

their real composition

they are complex products of

They

is

sensations and

are thus to a certain extent transitional forms

between ideas and those psychical compounds that are made

up

of affective elements,

name

affective p7vcesses.

and are designated by the general

These affective processes resemble

time-ideas especially in the impossibility of an abstract sepa-

12.

Composite Feelings.

159

ration of the affective from the sensational

This

investigation of their rise.

elements in the

due to the fact that in

is

the development of all kinds of affective processes, sensations

and ideas are determining

factors, just as feelings are

among

the essential factors of temporal ideas.

2.

Intensive affective combinations,

must be the

them the

affective

first

the

momentary

In

state.

requires only the

therefore,

momentary

cesses

or composite feelings,
discussed,

characteristic attributes of a single

the products of a
feeling,

processes

The

because in

cordpound are

description of the

exact comprehension of

condition, not a combination of several pro-

occurring in time and proceeding from one another.

the composite feehngs stand in the

respect,

this

relation to emotions

extending

processes

affective

intensive

ideas

and vohtions, which always

through periods

do to extensive.

Intensive

of

same

consist of
time,

psychical

as

com-

pounds, in the broadest sense of the term, include, accordingly, intensive ideas

pounds include as

and composite

special forms

feelings.

of temporal

Extensive comarrangements,

besides the temporal ideas, also emotions and volitions.

3.

Composite

feelings,

then, are intensive states of uni-

tary character in which single simple affective

are to

be preceived.

We

may

distinguish in

components
every

such

component feelings and a resultant feeling. The last

component feehngs are always simple sense-feehngs. Several

feeling

of these

may

unite to form a partial resultant which enters

into the whole as a

compound component.

1)

Every composite feehng may, accordingly, be divided,

into a total feeling made up of all its components, and

2)

into

single

total feeling.

partial feelings which go

These

to

make up

the

partial feelings are in turn of different

grades according as they are simple sense-feehngs (partial

feehngs of the first order) or feehngs which are themselves

^- Psychical Compounds.

160

composite (partial feelings of the second or higher orders).

Where we have

partial feelings of higher orders, complicated

combinations or interlacings of the component elements

take place.

partial feehng

interlacings

may

feelings of higher order.

render the nature of the total feeling

The whole may sometimes change

exceedingly complicated.
character,

its

order may, at the

of lower

same time, enter into several partial

Such

may

even when

elements remain the same, ac-

its

cording as one or the other of the possible combinations of

partial feelings takes place.
3

Thus, the musical chord c e g has a corresponding total

a.

feeling

the
c,

harmony whose

and

Between these two kinds of

g.

may have

total feeling

partial

feelings

sity of its sensational

of the

one of

e,

intensified,

hold for c

g.

e g.

or

may

all

of

be either the greater inten-

components, or the influence of preceding

while

Similarly,

ent effect according

g and

of the second order predominates,

for example, c e

If,

par-

as

The character

complex partial feelings

feelings.

feeling stand,

The cause of the predominance of one

are equally strong.

will be

of

four different shades according as

from the double clangs

these

feelings

second order, the three feelings of harmony

of the

feelings

these

or partial

elements,

last

order, are the feelings corresponding to the single clangs

first

6,

tial

of

as

c^ e g the effect of c e
g follows e e a the same will
a number of colors may have a differii

one

g follows

c e

or the

other

partial

combination

predominates.

In the last case, however, because of the extensive arrangement of the impressions, the spacial proximity has

an influence antagonistic to the variation in the manner of combination and, furthermore, the influence of the spacial form with
all

its

accompanying conditions

is

an

essentially

complicating

factor.

4.

The

structure of composite feeHngs

exceedingly complicated.
of

Still,

there

is,

thus, in general

are different

degrees

development even here. The complex feelings arising from

impressions of touch, smell, and taste are essentially simpler

12. Composite Feelings.

161

in character than those connected with auditory

and

visual

ideas.

The

total feeling connected with outer

sensations

and inner tactual

designated in particular as the

is

common

feeling

regarded as the feeling in which our total state of

sensible comfort or discomfort expresses itself.
From this
since

it is

smM

point of view, the two lowest chemical senses, those of

and

iaste.,

must

also be regarded as contributors to the sen-

sational substratum

of the

common

from touch to form inseparable

to be sure,

cases,

for the partial

feeling,

that arise from these two senses unite with those

feelings

In

affective complexes.

single

one or the other of these feelings

may

play such an important part that the others disappear entireStill,

ly.

in the midst of all this change in

substratum,

the

common feehng

is

always

its

sensational

the

immediate

expression of our sensible comfort and discomfort, andT

therefore, of all

is,

our composite feelings most closely related

to the simple sense-feelings.

Auditory and visual sensations,

on the other hand, contribute to the sensational substratum

of the

when

4 a.

was

common

feeling

the intensity

The combination of

first

is

partial feelings to a composite feeling

common feeling. The psycombination were indeed misunderstood,

noticed in the case of the

chological laws

and, as

only in exceptional cases, especially

unusually great.

is

of this

usually the case in physiology,

distinguished from

the feeling was not

Common

underlying sensations.

its

feeling

was, thus, sometimes defined as the "consciousness of our sensational

state",

or again as the

of sensations" which

come

As

the

a matter of fact,

of partial feeling.
it

the

is

rather a

same time

But

to

common

it is

from

is,

possible composition,
WosDT, Psychology.

all

feeling

not the mere

resultant total feeling

it

however,

made up

or unanalyzed

"totality,

us

parts

consists of a

sum

chaos

of our body.

number

of these feelings

of unitary character.

a total feeling
of partial

of the

feelings

of the
11

At

simplest
first

162

Psychical

II-

order, tliat

is,

of single

Compmmds.

sense-feelings

do

which generally

not

unite to form partial feelings of the second or of higher orders.

In the resultant feeling a single partial feeling is usually predominant.

This is regularly the case when a very strong local sen-

On the other hand,

sation is accompanied by a feeling of pain.
weaker sensations may determine the predominant affective tone
This is especially
through their relatively greater importance.
frequent in the case of sensations of smell and taste, and also
in the case of certain sensations connected with the regular functioning of the organs, such as the inner tactual sensations accom-

panying the movements of walking. Often the relatively greater

importance of a single sensation is so slight that the predominating feeling
attention

to

by

can not be discovered except

own

our

subjective

concentration of the attention

upon

it

directing

In such

state.

case

our
the

oan generally make any

partial feeling whatever predominant.

The common

5.

feeling

is

the source of the distinction be-

tween pleasurable and unpleasurable

is

feelings.

This distinction

then carried over to the single simple feelings that com-

pose

it,

and sometimes even to

all feelings.

Pleasurable and

unpleasurable are expressions well adapted to the indication

of the chief extremes

between which the common

feeling, as

a total feeling corresponding to the sensible comfort or

comfort of the subject,
feeling
in

an

infrequently

indifference-zone.

may be
to

may not

lie

though to be

dis-

sure, this

for a longer or shorter period

In the same way, these expressions

or,

as

On

of the total feelings.

entirely uniustifia,ble to

feelings,

oscillate;

applied to the single constituents so far as they go

make up one

it is

may

is

the other hand,

apply these names to

sometimes

done,

make

to

all

their

other

appH-

cabiHty a necessary factor in the general definition of feeUng.

"Even for the

common

feeHng, pleasurable

and unpleasurable

can only be used as general class-names which include a

number

of qualitatively different feehngs.

This variety among

^S

feelings of the

same

12.

Composite Feelings.

Ig3

from the very great varia-

class results

tions in the composition of the single total feelings that

we

have included under the general name

(cf.

p.

82

common

feeling

sq.)-

6.

The composite

there are

common

character mentioned

feelings

is

which can not,

the reason

v^rhy

strictly speaking,

be called pleasurable or unpleasurable, because they contain

elements belonging to both classes, and under circumstances
either the
feelings

may

one kind or the other

made up

deriving their characteristics from this

called contrast-feelings.

common

feehngs

is

and

Such

It

is

of feehngs connected with

among the
of a weak

made up

weak external

and

may be

combination,

simple form of such

that of Uclding.

pleasurable feeling accompanying a

sation,

predominate.

of partial feelings of opposite character

tactual sen-

muscular sensations

aroused by the strong reflex impulses from the tactual stimuh.

These

reflex

impulses

cause inhibitions of

may

spread more or

respiration

phragm, so that the resultant

and often

less,

when they reach

feeling

may vary

the

dia-

greatly in

and composition.

single cases in intensity, scope,

The composite feelings from sight and hearing are

commonly called elementary aesthetic feelings. This name
includes aU feelings that are connected vdth composite per7.

ceptions
cial

As

a spe-

to this class defined

by the

and are therefore themselves composite.

form of feehngs belonging

broader meaning of the term

are the elements of aesthetic

aiad-tjaig,

effects in the

The term elementary does not apply

feelings themselves, for they are
is

The

in

this

relative

those which

narrower sense.

by no means

merely intended to express the

tween these and

we have

case

to

the

simple, but
distinction

it

be-

more composite higher

aesthetic feelings.

perceptive, or elementary aesthetic,

feelings of sight

still

and hearing may

serve

as

representatives

of

all

the com-

11*

54

II-

Psychical Compounds.

posite feelings that arise in the

course of intellectual pro-

cesses, such as the logical, moral,

For

feelings.

complex

and higher

aesthetical
of these

the general psychological structure

affective

forms

is

exactly that of the simpler per-

ceptive feelings, except that the former are always connected

with feelings and emotions that arise from the whole interconnection of psychical processes.
"While the extremes between which the

move

are chiefly the affective qualities that

common
we

feelings

call pleasur-

able and unpleasurable in the sense of personal comfort and

discomfort, the elementary aesthetic feelings belong to the

same

affective direction,

agreeable

but in the more objective sense of

and disagreeable

feelings.

These terms express the

relation of the object to the ideating subject rather than

any

is still more apparent here than in the case

and unpleasurable feeUngs, that each of these

personal state. It
of pleasurable

terms

not the name of a single feeling, but indicates a

is

general direction, to which belong an endless variety of feelings

with individual pecuHarities for each single idea.

cases, too,

but more variably, the other

single

affective directions

those of the arousing and subduing, of the straining

(p. 83),

and relaxing
8.

In

If

we

feelings,

neglect

may show themselves.

for the moment this general

classification

mentioned, according to which the single forms are brought

under the chief

affective directions, all perceptive feelings

may

be divided into the two classes of intensive and extensive

feelings,

according to the relations which exist between the

sensational elements

By

intensive feelings

and determine the quality of the feeUngs.

we mean

those that depend on the re-

lation of the qualitative attributes of the sensational elements

of the ideas,
spacial

by

extensive feelings those that arise

from the

and temporal arrangement of the elements.

The
"intensive" and "extensive" do not refer to the

expressions

12. Composite Fedings.

165

character of the feelings themselves, for they are in reality

always intensive, but to the conditions for the rise of these

feehngs.

Intensive

and extensive

feeling are, accordingly, not mere-

subjective concomitants

ly the

since every idea consists usually of elements

but,

and

qualitatively different

of

of both intensive

made up

feeling

may be

and extensive

of

at once the substratum

Thus, a visual ob-

feelings.

of different colored parts arouses

an intensive

through the mutual relation of the colors and an

extensive feeling through

is

that are

some extensive arrangement

these impressions, the same idea

ject

corresponding ideas,

of the

form.

its

succession

of clangs

connected with an intensive feeling which corresponds to

the qualitative relation of the clangs,

feeling

sive

coming from

In

temporal succession of the same.

and extensive

sive

and auditory
one form

may push
is

this

or

but, of course,

under certain conditions

the other into the background.

for just

an

the intensive feeling.

it

noticeable.

is
is

Thus,

instant, the only feeling

Or when, on

hand, a rhythmical series of indifferent sounds

the extensive feeling
chological analysis

arhythmical

way, both inten-

feelings are always connected with visual

ideas,

when we hear a clang

perceived

and with an exten-

rhythmical

the

is

the other

heard, only

For the purpose

of psy-

obviously of advantage to produce

conditions under which one particular affective form

is

pres-

ent and others so far as possible excluded.

9.

When

intensive feditigs are observed in this way,

it

appears that those accompanying the combination of colors

follow the rule that a combination of two colors whose qualitative

difference

agreeable

has

its

feelings

is

feeling.

Still,

maximum,

also

gives

a maximal

every particular color- combination

character

specific

affective

from the

single colors,

and

made up

of

the partial

of the total feeling arising

166

Psyehical Compounds.

I^'

as a resultant of the same.

simple

the

color-feelings,

and the complex

associations

Then,

effect

is

feelings

as in the case of

too,

by chance

complicated

coming from them

(p. 76).

Combinations of more than two colors have not been adequately investigated.

The

connected with combinations of clangs are

feelings

They

exceedingly numerous and various.

ive

sphere in which

partial

feelings

we

see

constitute the affect-

most clearly the formation

of different orders discussed above

(p.

of

160),

together with their interlacings varying under special conditions.

is

The

investigation of the single feelings that thus arise

one of the problems of the psychological aesthetics of

music.
10.

Extensive feelings

temporal.

Of

mainly to

vision,

these, the

may be

first,

subdivided into spacial and

or the feelings of form, belong

and the second, or the

feelings

of rhythm,

to hearing, while the beginning of the development of both

are to be found in touch.

The

optical feeling of

preference

of regular

preference

among

form shows

itself first of all in

to irregular forms

different regular

and then in the

forms of those which have

The most im-

certain simple proportions in their various parts.

portant of these proportions are those of symmetry, or

of the golden section, ora:;+l:a:;

greater part as the greater part

symmetry
figures

is

= a;:l

(the

whole

to the smaller).

is

1,

and

to the

The fact that

generally preferred for the horizontal dimensions of

and the golden section

to associations,
of the

is

the

human

especially

body.

for the vertical,

is

probably due

vnth organic forms, such as that

This preference for regularity and cer-

tain simple proportions can have

no other interpretation than

that the measurement of every single dimension

ed with a sensation

of

movement and

is

connect-

an accompanying

sense-feeling which enters as a partial feeling into the total

12.

The

optical feeling of form.

ment

that

arises

Composite Feelings.

167

total feeling of regular arrange-

sight of the whole

at the

form,

is

thus

modified by the relation of the different sensations as well as

As

of the partial feelings to one another.

which also fuse with the total

nents,

secondary compo-

we may have

feeling,

here too associations and their concomitant feelings.

The feding of rhythm

is

entirely dependent

ditions discussed in considering temporal ideas.

and

feelings are here the feelings of strained

on the con-

The

fulfilled

partial

expec-

which in their regular alternation constitute the rhyth-

tation,

The way

mical time-ideas themselves.

feelings are united, however,

of special

and

ones in the total feehng,

momentary character

of

in

which these partial

especially the
is,

an intensive

predominance

even more than the

dependent on

feeling,

the relation in which the feeling present at a given instant

stands to the preceding feelings.

This

especially apparent

is

in the great influence that every alteration in rhythm exer-

on the accompanying

cizes

For

feeling.

this

reason as well

particular tem-

as because of their general dependence on

poral form of occurrence, the feelings

direct

transitions

to

of

To be

emotions.

rhythm are the

sure,

an emotion

may

develop from any composite feeling, but in no

case

is

other

the condition for the rise of a feeling, as here, at the

same time a necessary condition

degree of emotion. The emotion

for the
is,

rise

of a certain

however, usually moder-

ated in this case, through the regular succession of feelings

(cf.

11.

13,

1,

7).

The immense

variety of

equally great variety of their

composite feelings and the

conditions,

render any such

comprehensive and at the same time unitary psychological

theory as that which was possible for spacial and temporal
ideas, entirely out of the question.

Still,

there are even here

some common attributes, through which composite feelings

168

II-

Psychical Compounds.

may be brought under

certain general psychological heads.

There are two factors which go to make up every

the relation of the combined

first,

and second,

another,

The

ing.

the second in extensive

sive,

are

more prominent

is

But

feelings.

Thus, a figure which

is all

in inten-

in reality they

and determine each other

always united,

one

their synthesis to a unitary total feel-

these factors

first of

feeling:

partial feelings to

the time agreeable,

reciprocally.

may be more

and more complex the more the relations of its parts accord
with certain rules, and the same holds for a rhythm. On the
other hand, the union to a single whole helps to emphasize
the

separate

In

components.

affective

these

all

respects

combination of feelings show the closest resemblance tp intensive

The

ideas.

on the contrary,

much more

extensive

arrangement of impressions,

especially the spacial arrangement,

tends,

to favor a relatively independent coexistence of

several ideas.
12.

The

close intensive union of all the

components of

a feeling, even in the case of those feelings whose corre-

sponding ideas are spacial or temporal,

is

connected with a

principle that holds for all affective processes, including those

which we shall have to discuss

call that of the

This principle we

later.

unity of the affecUve

It

state.

may be

mulated as follows: In a given moment only mie total

ing

is

possible,

or in other words,

moment

present at a given

states

is

obviously

immediate content
belong to
expresses

it,

partial

forfeel-

feelings

form a

This principle of the unity of affective

single total feeling.

between idea and

all the

unite, in every case, to

will

connected

feeling.

of

with

For

experience

the

the

general

and the properties that

without regard to the subject;

the relation that

content and the subject.

relation

"idea" deals with an

invariably

exists

the "feeling"

between this

13. Emotions.

EMOTIONS.

13.
1

Igg

Feelings, like all psychical phenomena, are never per-

manent

In the psychological analysis

states.

we must always

feeling, therefore,

of a composite

think of a momentary af-

fective state as held constant.

This is easier the more slowly

and continuously the psychical processes occur, so that the
word feding has come to be used mainly for relatively slow
processes and for those which in their regular form of oc-

curence never pass beyond a certain

as the feelings of

succeeding one

series of feelings

an interconnected process which

and following processes

ing

we

call the

is

as

has in general a more intense

single feeling,

medium

intensityj such

Where, on the other hand, a

rhythm.

another in time unite to

distinguished from preced-

an individual whole,

and

on the subject than a

effect

unitary succession of feelings an

emoUon.
This very

name

indicates that

feeling,

but rather the

it is

not any specific sub-

which distinguish emotion from

jective contents of experience

effect

which comes from a special

In

combination of particular affective contents.

comes that there

feeling

and

is

this

way

it

no sharp

line of

demarcation between

Every

feeling

of

emotion.

greater

intensity

passes into an emotion, and the separation between the two

depends on a more or

In the case

less arbitrary abstraction.

of feelings that have a certain particular form of occurrence,

that

is

feelings

of rhythm,

speaking impossible.

The

most by the small

subject, which is what
at

this distinction is

such an abstraction

feeling of

rhythm

intensity of its

gives "emotion" its

by no means

fixed,

strictly

distinguished

is

moving

is

effect

name.

on the

StiU, even

and when the

feelings

produced by rhythmical impressions become somewhat more

Mense,

as

is

usually the case, especially

when

the rhythm

^- Psychical Compowids.

170
is

connected with sensational contents that arouse the feelings

become

greatly, they

are

for

this

Feelings of rhythm

in fact emotions.

important

reason

poetry for portraying emotions

both

aids

in

music

and arousing them

in

and
the

auditor.

The names

2.

of different emotions, like those of feelings,

do not indicate single processes, but classes in which a large

number

of single affective processes are

of certain

common

of joy, hope,

characteristics.

anxiety,

care,

grouped on the ground

Emotions such as those

and anger, are accompanied

in

any concrete case by peculiar ideational contents, while their

and even the way in which they occur

affective elements also

may

vary greatly from time to time.

a psychical processes

is,

The more composite

the more variable will be

its single

concrete manifestations; a particular emotion, therefore, will

be

less

apt to recur in exactly the same form than will a

Ijai-ticidar feeling.

Every general name fore motions

indicates,

accordingly, certain typical forms in which related affective

processes occur.

Not

3.
is

every interconnected scries of affective processes

an emotion or can be classed as such under one of the

typical forms discriminated

unitary whole which

by language.

is

only through the two characteristics that

poral course and that

An

emotion

distinguished from a composite

it

exercises a

it

is

feeling

has a definite tem-

more intense present and

subsequent effect on the interconnection of psychical processes.

The
tion

first
is

characteristic

feeling, for it

The second
it

arises

from the fact that an emo-

a process of a higher order as compared with a single

is

always includes a succession of several feeUngs.

closely connected with this first characteristic;

depends on the intensification of the

effect

produced by a

summation of the feehngs.

As

a result of these characteristics emotions have in the

13. Emotions:

midst of

form a regularity in the manThey always begin with a more or

all their variations in

ner of their occurrence.

less intense iticeptive feeling

in

istic

11 j

which

immediately character-

is

and direction for the nature of the

due either to an idea produced by an ex-

quality

its

emotion, and

is

ternal impression (outer emotional stimulation) or to a psychical

process arising from associative or apperceptive con-

After

ditions (inner stimulation).

an

This process shows

ings.

feehng comes

this inceptive

ideational process accompanied

by the corresponding

characteristic

differences

feel-

the

in

cases of particular emotions both in the quality of the feel-

and

ings

in the rapidity of the process.

'

Finally, the emotion

closes with a terminal feeling which continues even after the

emotion has given place to a quiet

W'hich

the

directly

type

(cf.

4.

emotion gradually fades away, unless

into

the inceptive feeling of a

occurs

case

last

inf.

The

affective state,

especially

feelings

in,

new
of

and

it

passes

emotion.
the

in

This

intermittent

13).

intensification of the effect

which may be observed

in the course of an emotion, relates not merely to the psychical contents

physical

compose

of the feelings that

concomitants

as

For

well.

it,

but to the

feelings

single

these

accompanying phenomena are Mmited to very slight changes

in the innervation of the heart

and respiratory organs, which

can be demonstrated only by using exact graphic methods

(p.

As

86

sq.).

"With emotions the case

is

essentially different.

a result of the summation and alternation of succesive

affective

stimuli there

is

here not only an intensification of

the effect on heart, blood-vessels,

external

manner.

mitscles

are

Movements

always
of

the

and

affected
oral

respiration, but the

in

muscles

an

unmistakable

appear at

first

{mimetic movements), then movements of the arms and of

the whole body (pantomimetic movements).

In the case of

172

JI-

Psyohieal Compounds.

stronger emotions there

ances

of

such as

innervation,

tractions of the

may be

still

more extensive

trembling,

diaphragm and of the

disturb-

convulsive

con-

and

facial muscles,

paralytic relaxation of the muscles.

Because of their symptomatical significance for the emotions, all these movements are called expressive movements.

As a

rule they are entirely involuntary, either reflexes follow-

ing emotional excitations, or impulsive acts prompted by the

components of the emotion. They may be modified,

however, in the most various ways through voluntary intensification or inhibition of the movements or even through
affective

intentional production of the same, so that the whole seriea

of external reactions
volitional acts,
( 14).

may

which we shall have to discuss under

take part in these expressive movements

These different forms of movement may be

alike in external character and

may

entirely

pass into each other

without sharp limitations on their psychical

so that for

side,

the outside observer they are as a rule indistinguishable.

5.

According to their symptomatical character, expressive

movements may be divided

into

three

classes.

1)

Purely

symptoms these are always expressive movements for

more intense emotions, and consist of stronger movements
for emotions of middle intensity, and of sudden inhibition and
intensive

paralysis bf

movement

expressions of feelings;

most important
cles,

of

for

violent emotions.

these are

Qualitative

2)

mimetic movements,

which are the reactions of the

oi'al

the

mus-

resembling the reflexes following sweet, sour, and bitter

impressions of taste; the reaction for sweet corresponds to

pleasurable emotions, those for sour and bitter to unpleasurable, while the

other modifications of feeling,

citement and depression, strain and

a tension of the muscles.

3)

relief,

such as ex-

are expressed

Expressions of ideas

by

these are

generally pantomimetic movements that either point to the

13. Emotions.

173

object of the emotion (indicative gestures) or else

describe

the objects as well as the processes connected with them by

movement

the form of the

(depicting gestures).

Obviously

these three classes of expressive movements correspond ex~

elements of emotions aiid their fun-

actly to the psychical

damental attributes: the

first to

to the quality of the feelings,

tional content.

three forms in

all

of ideas,

is

of

The

6.

for

(cf.

21,

3).

and respiraUmi that accompany

three kinds.
1) They may consist of the

emotions are of

as,

in pulse

effects of the

example,

feehngs that

lengthening

when

respiration-ciu-ve

make up

of

the

the feelings are

the emotions,

pulse-curve

(cf.

sup.

This holds only for relatively quiet emotions, where

When

the single feelings have sufficient time to develop.

this is

and

and a

pleasurable,

shortening of the same for unpleasurable feelings

p. 87).

unite

third class, that of expressions

special psychological significance because of

The changes

immediate

the second

third to their idea-

movement may

concrete expressive
itself.

genetic relations to speech

its

their intensity,

and the

not the case, other phenomena appear which depend

not merely on the quality of the feelings, but

also,

mainly, on the intensity of the innervations due

summation.

2)

Such summations may

and that
to

theii-

consist of intensified

innervation, which arises from an increase in the excitation

resulting from a
is not too rapid.

summation when the succession of

This increase shows

itself in

feelings

retarded and

strengthened pulse-beats, since the intenser excitation effects

most the inhibitory nerves

is

of the heart.

Besides these there

usually an increased innervation of the mimetic and panto-

mimetic muscles.

These are called sthenic emotions.

3) If

the feelings are very violent or last an unusually long time

in a single
less

direction

the emotion brings about a more or

extended paralysis of the innervation of the heart and

n. Psychical Compoimds.

174

Under

of the tension of the outer muscles.

stances

certain circum-

disturhances in the innervation of special groups of

muscles appear, especially those of the diaphragm and the

sympathetic
ralysis

The

symptom of the pacardiac nerves is a marked acceler-

muscles.

facial

of the regulative

first

and a corresponding acceleration

ation of the pulse

of the

accompanied by a weakening of the same, and a

respiration,

relaxation of the tension of the external muscles to a degree

equal to that in paralysis.

There

is

another

still

These are the asthenic emotions.

which

distinction,

not important

is

enough, however, to lead to the formation of an independant

of physical

class

effects

of emotions, since

we have

to do

here only with modifications of the phenomena characteristic

of sthenic

and asthenic emotions.

It

is

the distinction between

rapid and sluggish emotions, based upon the greater or

rapidity with which the increase or inhibition

less

of the inner-

vation appears.
6 a.

mous

Older psychology, following the method of Spinoza's

doctrine of emotions, generally offered all kinds

reflections

fa-

of logical

about emotions, for a theory of emotions or even for

In recent times, on the other hand, the

a description of them.

expressive

the

movements and the other concomitants of emotion

changes

of innervation in

pulse

respiratory

organs

in

and

have attracted the most attention.

Still,
these
phenomena, which are indeed valuable when rightly interpreted,
are often used in a very wrong way as a means for the investiblood-vessels,

gation of the

has

in

turn

psychological nature
led to

of affective

a classification of emotions

processes.

based

This

entirely

on their physical
gained

characteristics, and the strange theory has

adherence that emotions are nothing but the results of

expressive movements.
The emotion of sorrow, for example, is
regarded as made up entirely of the sensations that come from
the mimetic movements of weeping.
In a somewhat more moderate

way

lilovements

the attempt
as

general

has

been made

characteristics

to

whose

use

the

presence

expressive

may' be

13.

Emotions.

I75

regarded as a mark to distinguisli emotions from feelings.

This
is, however, unjustifiable since similar physical
expressive phenomena appear even for the feelings, and the minor circumstance
that

symptoms are

these

in

one

case

ference between emotion and feeling

is

made up

Expressive

is

more or

externally

clearly visible, evidently can not be decisive.

less

The

essential dif-

psychological.

The emotion

of a series of feelings united into a unitary whole.

movements are the results, on the physical side, of

the

increase which the

preceding parts of such a

on

those

It

succeeding.

follows

directly

that

characteristics for the classification of emotions

have

series

deciding

the

must be

psyclio-

logical (cf. inf. 9).

7.

Though important
concomitants

sical

constituents of emotions, the phy-

stand

in

psychical quality of the same.

effects

no

constant

relation

on pulse and respiration, but also for the pantomimetic

expressive

movements

of stronger emotions.

may some-

It

times happen that emotions with very different,

site

kinds of affective contents,

class so

manner

Thus,

may belong

even oppo-

to

the

same

accompanying physical phenomena are

far as the

concerned.
like

the

to

This holds especially for the

for'

may be

example, joy and anger

sthenic emotions.

Joy accompanied by

may, on the contrary, present the appearance, on

cal side, of an asthenic emotion.

The

general

in

surprise

its

physi-

phenomena

of

innervation which give rise to the distinction between sthenic

and

asthenic,

the

character

and rapid and sluggish emotions, do not show

affective

of

only the formal attributes

the feelings.

This

is

contents

ences in involuntary innervation analogous

mere succession

to

those

It

is

as,

of

differ-

wliich

may be produced by

of indifferent impressions,

by the strokes of a metronome.

and rapidity

by the fact that

clearly proved

accompany the different emotions,

emotions, but

of these

of the intensity

for example,

observed in such a

case that especially the respiratimi tends to adapt

itself to

H- Psyekical Gompcnmds.

176

the faster or slower rate of the strokes, becoming more rapid

when

As

the rapidity of the metronome increases.

rule, too,

certain phases of respiration coincide with particular strokes.

To be

the hearing of such an indifEerent rhythm

sure,

not unattended by emotion.

When

and

serve at first a quiet, then a sthenic,

rapidity is greatest

an asthenic emotion.

in this case have to a certain extent a

they

ter;

easy,

finally

Still,

a great indefiniteness in their contents.

exhibit

we

think into them

emotions of like formal attributes.

and

is

the emotions

mere formal charac-

This indefiniteness disappears only when

concrete

This

is

very

the condition of the great utility of rhythmical

impressions for describing and producing emotions.

is

is

we obwhen the

the rate changes,

necessary to arouse an emotion in

mere hint of

all

its

All that

fulness,

qualitative affective content, such as it

sible to give in

is

is

po8-

music through the clangs of a musical com-

position.

7 a.

It

follows from this relation of the physical effects to

the psychical content of emotions, that the former can never be

put in the place of the psychological observation of the emotions.

They are general symptoms, but of such equivocal character that,

though they are of great value when connected with

by experimental methods, alone they have

introspection controlled

no value whatever.

They

are

experimental introspection.
of psychical

course

processes

of life

emotions.

is

In the

The

especially useful

as

principle that the

checks

for

observation

which present themselves in the natural

entirely inadequate,
first place,

holds especially for

the

emotions come to the psychologist

by chance, at moments when he is not in a condition to subject

them to scientific analysis and secondly, in the case of strong
emotions whose causes are real we are least of all able to obThis can be done much more
serve ourselves with exactness.
successfully when we arouse in ourselves voluntarily a particular

emotional
estimate

state.

how

In such a case, however,

it is

not possible to

nearly the subjectively aroused emotion agrees in

13. Hmotions.

mode

intensity and

of occurrence with one of like character due

For

circumstances.

external

to

177

purpose the

this

simultaneous

investigation of the physical effects, especially of those most re-

moved from
respiration,

the

influence

furnishes

of the

wiU, those on the pulse

and

a check for introspection.

psychological quality of emotions

For when the

we may infer from their

is alike,

like physical effects that their formal attributes also agree.

Both

8.

and

in natural

in voluntarily aroused emotions,

the physical concomitants have, besides their symptomatica!

the important psychological attribute of inten-

significance,

sifying the emotion.

This attribute

due to the fact that

is

the excitation or inhibition of certain particular groups of

muscles

accompanied by inner tactual sensations which

is

produce certain

sense-feelings.

These feelings unite with the

other affective contents of the emotion and increase

tensity.

From

we have such

may
in

indeed

in-

its

the heart, respiratory organs, and blood-vessels

where they

feelings only for strong emotions,

be very intense.

moderate emotions the

On

other

the

hand,

even

state of greater or less tension of

the muscles exercises an influence on the affective state and

thereby on the emotion.

9.

The great number

consideration

for

the

of factors that

investigation

must be taken
emotions

of

is

the

more

so because each

guishing names marks

off

a whole

of

the

class,

numerous

This

psychological analysis of the single forms impossible.

all

into

renders

distin-

within which there

is

a great variety of special forms, including in turn an endless

number

of single cases of the

All we can do

is

most various modifications.

to take a general survey of the

The general

principles

fundamenof

farms of
here employed must, of course, be psychological, that
tal

em-otions.

division
is,

such

as are derived from the immediate attributes of the emotions

themselves, for the accompanying physical

Wu.vDT, Psychology.

phenomena have
12

178

Psychical Compournds.

II-

only a symptomatica!

and are eyen then,

value

noted

as

above, equivocal in character.

Three such psychological principles of

be made the basis for the discrimination of emotions

cording
emotions,

quality

the

to
2)

the

of

according to

entering

feelings

intensity

the

may

classification

of

these

ac-

the

into

feelings,

3) according to the form of occurrence, which is conditioned

by the character and rate of the affective changes.

On

10.

the basis of quality

we may

distinguish certain

fundamental emotional forms corresponding to the chief

before

distinguished

directions

fective

us pleasurable and unpleasurable,

and relaxing emotions.

straining

exciting

af-

gives

and depressing,

must be noted, however,

It

more composite character the emotions

that because of their

are always, even

This

83).

(p.

more than the

mixed forms. Generally

can be called the primary

feelings,

only a single affective direction

There are

tendency for a particular emotion.

ments belonging to other

affective ele-

directions, that enter in as secondary

elements.

Their secondary character usually appears in the

fact that

under different conditions various sub-forms of the

primary emotion

may

Thus, for example, joy

arise.

marily a pleasurable emotion.

since

intensifies the feelings,

it

strong,

it

Ordinarily

it is

is

pri-

also exciting,

but when the feelings are too

Sorrow

becomes a depressing emotion.

an un-

is

pleasurable emotion, generally of a depressing character;

when

the intensity of the feelings becomes somewhat greater, however,

it

may become

comes maximal,

Anger
in

its

is

it

sity

of the feelings

into

rage,

it

and when the

depression.

emphatically exciting and unpleasant

characteristics,

but

becomes greater, as

may become

tendencies

intensity be-

marked

passes again into very

much more

predominant

depressing

exciting,

are

depressing.

always

when
when

Thus,

the
it

inten-

develops

exciting

mere secondary

and

qualities

13. Emotions.

179

connected with pleasurable and unpleasurable emotions.

and

ings of strain

Feel-

on the contrary, may more

relaxation,

fre-

quently be the chief, or at least the primary components of

Thus, in expectation, the feeling of strain peculiar

emotions.

to this state

When

the primary element of the emotion.

is

the feeling develops into an emotion,

ciated with unpleasurable feelings

may

it

which are

circumstances either exciting or depressing.

be asso-

easily

according to

In the case

of

rhythmical impressions or movements there arise from the

alternation

of

feelings

of

pleasurable emotions which

with those

strain

may be

according to the character of the rhythm.

depressing

we may even have unpleasurable

mingled with them, or they may

cially

when

of

relaxation

either exciting or depressing

all

When

they are

feelings inter-

be of this kind, espe-

other affective elements cooperate, for example

feelings of clang or harmony.

Language has paid the most

11.

names

opment

of

feelings,

and among these

and unpleasurable.
classes.

we

First

tively distinguished,

tive state itself,

for

attention in

its

emotions to the qualitative

devel-

side

of

qualities particularly to pleasurable

These names may be divided into

three

have those of emotions that are subjecchiefly

through the nature of the

affec-

such as joy and sorrow and, as subforms of

sorrow in which either depressing, straining, or relaxing tendencies of the feeling are also exhibited, sadness, care, grief,

and

fright.

referring to

Secondly, there are names of objective emotions

some external

pleasure and,

object,

such as delight and dis-

as subforms of the latter in which,

as above,

various tendencies unite, annoyance, resentment, anger, and

rage.

Thirdly,

we have names

of objective emotions that refer

rather to outer events not expected until the future, such

as

hope and fear and, as modifications

and

anxiety.

They are combinations

of the latter,

of feeUngs

of

12*

worry
strain

180

II-

Psychical Compounds.

with pleasurable and unpleasurable feelings and, in different

ways, with exciting and depressing tendencies as well.

Obviously language has produced a

of

names

fact,

much

greater variety

for unpleasurable emotions than for pleasurable.

observation renders

it

In

probable that unpleasurable emo-

tions exhibit a greater variety of typical forms of occurrence

and that

their different forms are really

On

12.

distinguish

more numerous.

we may

the basis of the intensity of the feelings

weak and strong emotions.

rived from the psychical properties

coincide with those of sthenic

These concepts, dedo not

of the feeHngs,

and asthenic emotions, based

upon the physical concomitants, for the

relation of the psy-

chological categories to the psycho-physical

dependent not

is

only on the intensity of the feeKngs, but on their quality

as

Thus,

well.

weak and moderately strong pleasurable

emotions are always sthenic, while, on the contrary, unpleasemotions

urable

even when they

become asthenic

example, care and anxiety.

such as

fright, worry, rage,

The

asthenic.

emotions

is

after a longer

duration,

are of a low degree of intensity,

and even excessive

discrimination

of

joy, are

always

the psychical intensity

since emotions that agree in all other respects,

on the same occasion vary from moment

too,

of

accordingly of subordinate significance, especially

may

not only

have different degrees of intensity at different times, but

tially

for

as,

Finally, the strongest emotions,

since this

variation from

moment

to

to

moment.

moment

determined by the sense-feehngs that

arise

is

may

Then
essen-

from the

accompanying physical phenomena, in accordance with the

principle of the intensification
(p.

177),

it is

esis of sthenic

fluence even

of emotions

discussed above

obvious that the originally physiological antith-

and asthenic often has a more

decisive in-

on the psychological character of the emotion

than the primary psychical intensity

itself.

The

IS.

third

distinguishing

the form of occurrence,

guish three classes.

181

characteristic

more important.

is

First,

there

of

emotions,

Here we

They

rage.

all

maximum

reach their

then gradually sink to a quiet affective

have gradually arising

mournfulness,

care,

emotions,

rise

time a

modification

of the

Secondly,

state.

anxiety,

we

doubt,

many cases joy,

maximum gradually and

to their

As

sink in the same way.

fright,

very rapidly and

such as

and

expectation,

These

anger, worry.

distin-

are sudden, irruptive emo-

such as surprise, astonishment, disappointment,

tions,

and

Emotions.

13.

in

a third form and at the same

class

just

mentioned

we have

intermittent emotions, in which several periods of rise and

follow one another

fall

duration belong here.

ness,

and the most various forms

tions,

come

in

All emotions

alternately.

Thus, especially

joy,

of

long

anger, mournful-

of gradually

arising

emo-

waves and often permit a distinction between

periods of increasing and those of decreasing emotional in-

The sudden,

tensity.

emotion

the

may

emotions,

irruptive

are seldom intermittent.

on the contrary,

This happens only in cases in which

belong to the second

also

class.

emotions of a very changeable form of occurrence

They may sometimes

ample, joy and anger.

irruptive.

rage.

In

this case, to

|3e

Or they may gradually

rise

and

fall;

they are then

In their psycho-physical

concomitants, the sudden irruptive emotions are

13 a.
it

may

may be

is

all asthenic,

either sthenic or asthenic.

The form of occurrence,

be in single cases,

are, for ex-

sudden and

be sure, anger generally becomes

generally of the intermittent type.

those gradually arising

Such

just as

then,
little

however

characteristic

a fixed criterion for the

of emotions as is the intensity of

Obviously such a classification can be based only
on the quality of the affective contents, while intensity and form

psychological

classification

the feelings.

of occurrence

may

furnish the means of subdivision.

The way

Ig2

11.

Psychical Compounds.

in wHch these conditions are connected with one another and

with the accompanying physical phenomena and through these
with secondary sense-feelings, shows the emotions to be most

highly composite psychical processes which are therefore in single

A classification that is in any degree
cases exceedingly variable.
exhaustive must,

subdivide such varying emotions as

and anxiety into their subforms, according to

therefore,

joy,

anger,

their

modes of occurrence, the

fear,

intensity of their

component

feel-

and finally according to their physical concomitants which

Thus,
are dependent on both the psychical factors mentioned.
for example, we may distinguish a strong, a weak, and a variings,

able form of anger, a sudden, a gradually arising, and an inter-

mittent form

of its

and

occurrence,

a sthenic, asthenic,

finally

For the psy-

and a mixed form of

its

chological explanation,

an account of the causal interconnection

single forms

of the

ui

expressive movements.

each particular case

portant than this mere classification.

we have
first,

the

case

of the

succession

factor determines the general

second

its

curence,

intensity in part and

while

much more im-

of every emotion to do with two factors:

quality and intensity

the rapidity of the

second,
first

in

the

is

In giving such an account,

component
of

these

feelings,

feelings.

and

The

character of the emotion, the

more

especially its

both together determine

its

form of oc-

physical accompani-

ments and the psycho-physical changes resulting from the senseaccompanying phenomena (p. 177).

feelings connected with these

It

is

for this very reason that the physical concomitants are as

a rule to be called psycho-physical.

ical"

The expressions "psycholog-

and "psycho-physical" should not,

as absolute opposites in this case,

with symptoms of emotion.

We

however, be regarded
where we have to do merely

speak of psychological emotional

phenomena when we mean those

can be demonstrated with exact apparatus

ges ia the

pulse and

in

show any immewhen such symptoms

that do not

diately perceptible physical symptoms, even

respiration).

(as,

On

for example, chan-

the

other

hand we

speak of psycho-physical phenomena in the case of those which

can be immediately recognized as two-sided.

14. Volitional Processes.

1.

VOLITIONAL PEOOESSES.

14.

183

Every emotion, made up, as

of a series

it is,

of in-

terrelated affective processes having a unitary character,

terminate in one of two ways.

may

It

may

give place to the

ordinary variable and relatively unemotional course of feehngs.

Such

processes that fade out without any special

affective

result,

constitute the emotions in the strict sense as discussed

The process may,

in the last paragraph.

of

pass

cases,

into

sudden

in a second class

change in

sensational

and

which brings the emotion to an instantan-

affective content,

such changes in the

and

eous

close;

state

which are prepared for by an emotion and bring about

sudden end, are called

its

together vrith

result

its

related to a feehng.

one

part

of

the

thus related to an emotion as a

Volitional act

process,

out of emotions

connection
(p. 1

with

especially true
care,

train

etc.

is

is

that an emotion

the

the

to

name

of only

development of

prepared by those emotions in

external

pantomimetic

These movements appear

73) appear.

of the process

which

way

that part which distinguishes

The way

voHtion from an emotion.

volitions

itself

a volitional process.

is

process of a higher stage, in the same

is

affective

The emotion

volitional acts.

is

volitional process

sensational

movements

chiefly at the

end

and generally hasten its completion;

of anger, but to some extent also

of joy,

mere emotions, the changes

in the

Still,

in these

of ideas which are the immediate

causes

this is

of the

mo-

mentary completion of the emotion in vohtions, and also the

characteristic feehngs attending these changes, are all wanting.

This close interconnection of volitional acts with panto-

mimetic movements necessarily leads us to look upon those

volitions

which end

in

certain bodily

movements

from the preceding train of ideas and feelings, that

resulting
is,

those

n. Psychical Compounds.

Ig4

ending in external volitional acts, as the earliest stages in

The

the development of volitions.

acts,

so-called internal volitional

on the other hand, or those which close simply with

on ideas and

effects

feelings,

appear in every case to be

products of a more highly developed intelligence.

2.

may be

process that passes into an external act

volitional

an emotion which closes with a panto-

defined as

mimetic movement that has, in addition to the characteristics

belonging to
intensity of

an

all

such movements and due to the quality and

the special property of

the emotion,

external effect which removes the emotion

effect is

not possible for

which the very

feelings

produdng
Such an

emotions, but only for those in

all

succession of

component feehngs produces

and ideas which are able to remove the preceding

This

emotion.

of course,

is,

most commonly the case when

the final result of the emotion

for volitional acts

is

is,

direct opposite of the

the

The fundamental

preceding feelings.

and the

itself.

psychological condition

therefore, the contrast between feelings,

origin of the first

volitions is

most probably in

all

cases to be traced back to unpleasurable feelings that arouse

external

movements whose

The

feelings.

seizing of

results are contrasted pleasurable

food to remove hunger, the struggle

against enemies to appease the feeling of revenge, and other

similar processes are original volitional processes of this kind.

The emotions coming from

spread social emotions,
venge, are thus both for
of will.

A volition

tion only
tional

by the

is

sense-feelings,

and the most wide-

such as love, hate, anger, and re-

men and

animals the

origin

distinguished in such cases from an emo-

fact that the former has

added to

components an external act that gives

which, through contrast with the feelings

emotion, bring the emotion
of the volitional act

common

itself to

may then

an end.

rise to

its

emo-

feehngs

contained in the

The execution

lead directly, as was originally

14. Voliiional Processes.

Ig5

always the case, or indirectly through an emotion of contrasted

content,

into

the

richer the ideational

and

affective

ordinary

quiet flow of

feelings.
3.

The

perience, the

affective contents of ex-

greater the variety of the emotions and the

wider the sphere of volitions.

There

is

no feehng or emotion

that does not in some

way prepare for a volitional act or

have some part in such a preparation. All feelings,

at least

even those of a relatively indifferent character, contain in

some degree an
effort

may be

tenance or
volitions

effort

towards or away from some end.

very general and aimed merely at the main-

removal of the present

affective

appear as the most complex form of

cesses, presupposing all others

This

as their components,

that

is,

affective pro-

feehngs and emotions

we must not overlook

still,

While

state.

the fact

that single feelings continually appear which do not unite to

form emotions, and emotions appear which do not end

tional acts.

In the

in voh-

total interconnection of psychical processes,

however, these three stages condition one another and form

the related parts of a single process which

when

becomes a

it

thought of

as

In

volition.

the beginning

this sense

is

complete only

a feeling

of a volition,

or

may be

a volition

may be

thought of as a composite affective process,

emotion

may be regarded

and an

as an intermediate stage between

the two.

The

single feelings in

an emotion that closes with a

volitional act are usually far

from being of equal importance.

4.

Certain ones
are

among them,

together with their related ideas,

prominent as those which are most important in pre-

paring for the

act.

Those combinations of ideas and

which in our subjective apprehension of the

immediate antecedents of the
lition.

act, are

Every motive may be divided

feelings

volition are the

called motives of vo-

into

an ideational and

186

an

Psychical Compounds.

II-

The

component.

affective

first

we may

the moving

call

"When a

reason, the second the impelling force of action.

beast of prey
sight

seizes

his victim,

the same, the

of

the

moving reason

impelling force

may

the

is

be either the

unpleasurable feeling of hunger or the race-hate aroused by

the sight.

The reason

for a criminal

murder may be

theft,

removal of an enemy, or some such idea, the impelling force

the feehng of want, hate, revenge, or envy.

"When the emotions are

of composite character, the rea-

sons and impelling forces are generally mixed, often to so

great an extent that
the act himself to

This

is

it

would be

author of

difficult for the

decide which was

leading motive.

the

due to the fact that the impelling forces of a voh-

tional act combine, just as the elements of a composite feel-

ing do, to form a unitary whole in which

subordinated

are

feelings

under a single

of like direction strengthening

binations of ideas

and

feelings

one;

the

and accelerating the

it.

In the com-

call

motives, the

those of opposite direction weakening

effect,

other impulses

all

predominating

which we

deciding importance in preparing for the act of will belongs

to the feelings,
to the ideas.

that

is,

to the impelling forces, rather than

This follows from the very fact that feelings

are integral components of the volitional process

itself,

while

the ideas are of influence only indirectly, through their connections with the feelings.
arising

from pure

The assumption

intellectual

considerations,

opposed to the inclinations expressed in the

psychological
stract

contradiction in

ideas

It rests

concept of a transcendental will

from actual psychical

5.

itSelf.

feelings

a volition

of

a decision

feelings,

is

upon the ab-

absolutely

distinct

volitions.

The combination
and

of

of a

number

of motives, that

is,

of

which are distinguished in the composite

train of emotions to which they belong, as those determining

Volitional Processes.

14.

187

the discharge of the act, furnish the essential conditions for

the development of will, and also for the

discrimination of

the single forms of volitional action.

The

simplest case

volition

of

is

that in which a single

feeUng in an emotion of suitable constitution, together with

its

accompanying

a close with

cesses to

Such

idea,

becomes a motive and brings the procorresponding external movement.

its

volitional processes determined

be called simple
terminate

by a

single motive,

The movements

volitions.

designated impulsive

are often

in

may

which they
In popular

acts.

parlance, however, this definition of impulse by the simplicof the motive,

ity

element,

impeUing

is

not sufficiently adhered

to.

Another

namely, the character of the feeling that acts as

force, is here usually

brought

All acts that are

in.

determined by sense-feelings, especially common

feelings, are

generally called impulsive acts without regard to whether only

a single motive or a plurality of motives

basis

of

discrimination

is

operative.

This

psychologically inappropriate and

is

the complete separation of impulsive from volitional acts as

a specifically distinct kind of psychical processes, which

lows very naturally from

By
that

is,

is

it,

impulsive act, then,

fol-

entirely unjustifiable.

we mean a

simple volitional act,

one resulting from a single motive, without refer-

ence to the position of this motive in the series of affective

and

ideational processes.

Impulsive action, thus defined, must

necessarily be the starting point for the

volitional acts, even

though

it

with the complex volitional

may

acts.

development of

To be

sure,

the earliest

impulsive acts are those which come from sense-feeling.

this

sense most of the

acts

all

continue to appear along

of animals

In

are impulsive, but

such impulsive acts appear continually in the case of man,

partly as the results of simple sense-emotions, partly as the

188

II-

Psychical Compounds.

products of the habitual execution of certain voUtional acts

which were originally determined by complex motives.

When

6.

several feelings

and ideas

in the

same emotion

tend to produce external action, and when those components

of

an emotional train which have become motives tend at

the same time toward different external ends, whether related

or antagonistic,

then there arises out of the simple act a

complex volitional process.

In order to distinguish

the impulsive acts that precede

we

a voluntary

call it

it

this

from

in the line of development,

act.

Voluntary and impulsive acts have in common the characteristic

proceeding from single motives,

of

They

unequivocal impelling force.

single

or from com-t

and operate

plexes of motives that have fused together

as a

differ in the fact

that in voluntary acts the decisive motive has risen to pre-

dominance from among a number of simultaneous and antagonistic

motives.

When

a clearly perceptible

these antagonistic motives precedes the act,

lition

by the particular name

preceding

a choice.

it

selective act,

The predominance

strife

we

between

call the vo-

and. the process

of one over other

when we preBut we perceive this

and now not at all. Only

simultaneous motives can be understood only

suppose such a
strife

now

clearly,

in the first

case

The

proper sense.
ive

acts

strife

is

now

in

every case.

obscurely,

can we speak of a selective act in the

distinction

between voluntary and

by no means hard and

voluntary acts the psychical state

is

fast.

Still,

more Uke that

pulsive acts, while the difference between the latter

select-

in ordinary

and

in imselect-

ive acts is clearly recognizable.

7.

in

The

psychical process immediately preceding the act,

which the

final

called in the
of

selective

case

motive suddenly gains the ascendency,

of voluntary acts resolution,

acts decision.

The

first

word

is

in the case

indicates merely

14. Volitional Processes.

that action

is

189

be carried out in accordance with some

to

consciously adopted motive; the second implies that several

courses of action have been presented as possible and that

a choice has finally been made.

In contrast to the

first stages

of

volition,

which can

not be clearly distinguished from an ordinary emotional pro-

They

the last stages are absolutely characteristic.

cess,

marked by accompanying

especially

anywhere but in

volitions,

and must therefore be regarded

as the specific elements pecuUair to will.

of all those

first

of resolution

from the former only

differs

are

appear

feelings that never

and

These feehngs are

of decision.

The

latter

in its greater intensity.

They

may be

united

are both exciting and relaxing feelings, and

under various circumstances with pleasurable or unpleasur-

The

able factors.

relatively greater intensity of the feeling

of decision is probably

ing feeling of

motives.

different

feeling of

when

due to

doubt which
Its

relaxation a

its

contrast with the preced-

attends

opposition

to

the wavering between

doubt gives the

this

At

greater intensity.

moment

the

the voHtional act begins, the feelings of resolution and

decision give place to the specific feehng of activity, which

has

its

sensational substratum, in the case of external voli-

tional acts, in the inner tactual sensation

movement.
character,
volition,

This feeling of activity

and

is,

is

accompanying the

clearly exciting in its

according to the special

motives of the

accompanied now by pleasurable, now by unpleas-

urable elements,

which may in turn vary in the course of

the act and alternate with one another.

a total

feehng of activity

cess

extending through the whole act

into

the most various feelings,

and

finally

passing

such as those of fulfilment,

satisfaction, or disappointment, or into the feelings

tions

feeling,

a rising and falling temporal pro-

this

is

As

connected with the special result of the

act.

and emoTaking

90

II-

PsycMeal Compov/nds.

the process as seen in voluntary and selective acts as complete

we must

volitional acts,

essentially

by the absence of the antecedent

and

solution

distinguish impulsive acts

decision.

from them
of re-

feelings

The feehng connected with the motive

passes in the latter case directly into that of activity, and

then into those which correspond to the effect of the

The

8.

brings with

transition

from simple

a number of other changes which are of great

it

importance for the development of

changes

is

to

act.

complex volitional acts

to

The

will.

first

of these

be found in the fact that the emotions which

introduce the volitions lose their intensity more and more,

as a result of the counteraction of different mutually inhibit-

ing feelings, so that finally a volitional act

an apparently unemotional
tion

never entirely

is

which

arises

in

affective state.

wanting;

order that

in

an ordinary train

about a resolution or decision,

it

may result from

To be sure, emo-

feehngs

of

easily

the more

short emotion of this kind,

action of the motive,

bring

This can, how-

be so weak and transient that we overlook

the more

this

may

must always be connected

with some degree of emotional excitement.

ever,

motive

the

we

it.

We

do

are inchned to unite a

attending merely the rise and

with the resolution and execution in

This weakening of the

the single concept of a vohtional act.

emotions results mainly from the

combinations of psychical

we call intellectvxil development and of which

we shall treat more fully in the discussion of the interconnection of psychical compounds ( 17).
Intellectual processes
can, indeed, never do away with emotions; they are, on the
contrary, in many cases the sources of new and characterprocesses which

istic

emotions.

mined by a purely
(p.

186),

volition entkely

without emotion,

intellectual motive,

a psychological impossibility.

is,

deter-

as already remarked

Still,

intellectual

de-

velopment exercises beyond a doubt a moderating influence

14. Volitional Processes.

191

on emotions, particularly on those that prepare the way for

volitional acts wherever intellectual motives enter into them.

may be due

This

which

intellectual

of

partly to the counteraction of the feelings

generally present,

is

motives,

more rapidly

stronger the

Connected with

9.

partly to the slow development

for

this

general

in

emotions

component

their

are

the

feelings rise.

moderation of the emotional com-

ponents of volitions under the influence of intellectual motiyes

is

another change.

still

which closes the

It consists in the fact that the act

volition

does not show

process that

symptom whatever.

ternal

tional act.
so

is

The

transition

is itself

itself directly

Such an

ceptible for objective observation

acts

effect

called

is

a psychical

through any ex-

which

is

imper-

an internal

development that the

intellectual

themselves

are

be explained to a great extent by the influence of voK-

tions

on the train

of ideas

the volition ia such a case

ideas,

15,

The

act that closes

is

some change

ia the train of

9).

which follows the precediag motives as the result of

some resolution or

decision.

The

feelings that

these acts of unmediate preparation,

tivity

connected with the change

and the

itself,

accompany

feeling of ac-

agree entirely with

Fur-

those observed in the case of external volitional acts.

thermore, action

is

followed by more or less marked feeUngs

of satisfaction, of removal of preceding emotional

ive

voli-

from external to internal vohtional

bound up with

very character of the intellectual processes

to

The

not an external movement.

is

which removes the exciting emotion

effect

strain,

so

that obviously

the

only

and

difference

affect-

between

these special volitions connected with the iatellectual devel-

opment and the earHer forms,

that here
in

is

to

be found in the fact

the final effect of the volition

does not show

itself

an external bodily movement.

Still,

we may have a

bodily

movement

as the secondary

192

Psyohieal Compotmds.

II-

result of

an internal

volitional act,

when the

an external act to be executed at some

to

a case the act

whose

volition

from the

first,

consider as a

an act in the future under certain

an internal voHtion, while the

is

is

but requiring

it

an external action
as a necessary

among

decision after a conflict

which

in

tween

the

in

it

is

two kinds

of

to

volition,

from

different

distinguish

It is

from a

we have a

the motives,

impossible

later

antecedent.

evident that where an external volitional act arises

sition

in-

new process

Thus, for example, the formation

earlier.

performance of the act

the

come from the preceding

we must

of a resolution to execute

expected conditions,

In such

always results from a special external

itself

decisive motives

ternal voKtion, but which

distinct

resolution refers

later time.

tran-

clearly be-

namely that consisting

a single unitary process and that made up of two such

processes, an internal

form,

the

if

act itself,

it

decision

and an

external.

In such a transitional

at all separated in time from the

is

may be regarded

an internal volitional act

as

preparatory to the execution.

10.

These two changes connected with the development

of will, namely, the moderation of emotions

and the render-

ing independent of internal volitions, are changes of a progressive order.

In contrast with these there

or one of retrogradation.

When

is

a third process

complex voUtions with the

same motive are often repeated, the

conflict

between the

motives grows less intense; the opposing motives that were

overcome in earher cases grow weaker and

entirely.

The complex

or impulsive act.

processes

into

This retrogradation of complex volitional

impulsive processes shows

inappropriateness of the limitation

sive" to acts of will arising

of

finally disappear

act has then passed into a simple,

the gradual elimination

from
of

of

the

clearly

the

utter

concept "impul-

sense-feelings.

opposing motives,

As

a result

there

are

and

intellectual, moral,

Volitional Processes.

14.

193

aesthetic, as well as simple sensuous,

impulsive acts.

This retrogradation

is

but

one

a process that

step in

unites all the external acts of a Uving being, both the voli-

and the automatic

tional acts

habituating practice of

movements.

reflex

certain

When

determining motives finally become, even in impulsive

weaker

and more

transient.

nally aroused a strongly

motive, but

now

it

The

finally

origi-

which operated as a

causes the discharge of the act before

can be apprehended as an idea.

movement

acts,

stimulus

external

affective idea

the

carried further, the

acts is

In

way

this

it

the impulsive

becomes an automatic movement. The more

often this automatic

turn, becomes, even

movement is repeated, the easier it,

when the stimulus is not sensed, as,

in

for

example, in deep sleep or during complete diversion of the

attention.

The movement now appears

and the

reflex,

volitional process has

as a pure physiological

become a simple

reflex

process.

This gradual reduction of volitional

which depends

cesses,

mechanical pro-

to

on the elimination

essentially

the elements between the physical beginning

may

act,

and end

of

all

of the

take place either in the case of movements that

were originally impulsive or in that of movements which

have secondarily become such through the retrogradation of
voluntary

acts.

It

is

not improbable that

all

ments of both animals and men originate

evidence for this
acts

we

the reflex move-

in this way.

As

have, besides the reduction of vohtional

to pure mechanical processes

through practice, as de-

scribed above, also the appropriate character of reflexes, which

points to
motive.
of

the

acts,

the presence at some time of a purposive idea as

Furthermore, the circumstance that the movements

lowest

animals

not reflexes,

Wdkdt, Psychology.

tells

are
for

aU

evidently

simple

the same view,

so

volitional

that
13

here

^- P^ehical Oompounds.

194
too there

made

no

is

that acts

movements.
point

of

will

have been developed from reflex

we can most

Finally,

may

are

voluntary acts
into reflex

to

impulsive

movements

pantomimetic

this

that

172),

(p.

belong to any one of the forms

possible in th'e scale of external acts.

movements

from

easily explain

view the facts mentioned in 13

expressive 'movements

frequently

for the assumption

justification

of

first

many

came

probably

which passed

Obviously the simplest

while

acts,

complicated

from

originally

and then

into impidsive

movements. Observed phenomena make

it

necessary

assume that the retrogradations that begin in the

in-

dividual Hfe are gradually carried further through the trans-

mission of acquired dispositions, so that certain acts which

were originally voluntary may appear in

from the

first

as impulsive

or reflex

later

descendants

movements (19 and

20).
For reasons similar to those given in the case of emocome into experience by chance, is an inadequate and easily misleading method
for establishing the actual facts in the case.
Wherever internal
10 a.

tions,

the observation of volitional processes that

or external volitional

acts

theoretical or practical

taken up in the action

are performed in

demands of
itself to

life,

meeting either the

our interest

is

too

much

allow us at the same time to

observe with exactness the psychical processes that are going on.

In the theories of voHtion given by older psychologists

theories

that very often cast their shadows in the science of to-day

have a clear

reflection of the

of psychological observation.

we

undeveloped state of the methods

External acts of will are the only

ones in the whole sphere of volitional processes that force themselves emphatically

on the attention of the observer. As a result

the tendency was to limit the concept will to external volitional

and thus not only to neglect entirely the whole sphere so

important for the higher development of will, namely, internal
volitional acts, but also to pay very little attention to the components of the volition that are antecedent to the external acts.

acts,

Volitional Processes.

more

or at most only to the

motive.

14.

It followed

that

195

striking ideational components of the

the

close

genetic interconnection be-

tween impulsive and voluntary acts was not observed, and that
the former were regarded as not belonging to will, but as closely
related to reflexes.
Will was thus limited to the voluntary and
Furthermore, the one-sided consideration of the

selective actions.

ideational components of the motives led to a complete oversight

of the development

of volitional

singular idea found acceptance

acts

that

from emotions,

volitional

and the

are not the

acts

products of antecedent motives and of psychical conditions which

upon these motives and bring one of them into the ascendency,
but that volition is a process apart from the motives and inact

dependent of them, a product of a metaphysical volitional faculty.

This faculty was, on the ground of the limitation of the concept
volition to

voluntary

of the mind, or as
different

motives

its

that

acts,

even defined as the choosing faculty

faculty for preferring one

influence

Thus,

it.

from among the

instead

of deriving

from the antecedent psychical conditions, the final result

alone, the volitional act, was used to build up a general concept
which was called ^Dill and this class-concept was treated in
accordance with the faculty-theory as a first cause from which

volition

all

concrete volitional acts arise.

It was only a modification of this abstract theory when

Schopenhauer and, following him, many modern psychologists and

philosophers declared that volition in itself

occurrence which comes to consciousness

volitional act.

is

an "unconscious"

only in

its

result, the

In this case, obviously, the inadequate observation

of the volitional process preceding the act, has led to the assertion
that no such process exists.

Here, again, the whole variety of con-

crete volitional processes is supplanted

unconscious

will,

by the concept of a single

is the same as

and the result for psychology

in place of a comprehension of concrete psychical processes

and their combination, an abstract concept is set up and then

before

erroneously looked upon as a general cause.

Modern psychology and even experimental psychology

is still

to a great extent under the ban of this deep-rooted abstract doctrine of will.

plaining

an

In denying from the

act

first

the possibility of ex-

from the concrete psychical causality of the

antecedent volitional process,

it

leaves

as the only characteristic

13*

^- Psyehieal Compounds.

196

sum

of an act of will tke

external act, and

images

in

cases

of the sensations

may immediately

precede

th.at

accompany the

as

it

memoryThe

pale

often been repeated.

where the act has

system are regarded

physical excitations in the nervous

as

the

the question of the causality is

taken out of psychology and given over to physiology instead of

Here, then,

causes of the act.

to metaphysics,

as

however,

here

it

is

the

in

too

theory
lost

In

before.

discussed

reality,

metaphysics in attempting to

in

cross to physiology. For physiology must, as an empirical science,

abandon the attempt to give a complete causal explanation of a
complex volitional act from its antecedents, not only for the
present, but for all time, because this leads to the problem of
an infinite succession. The only possible basis for such a theory
is,

therefore, the principle of materialistic metaphysics, that the so-

called material processes are all that

make up

the reality of things

and that psychical processes must accordingly be explained from

But it is an indispensable principle of psymaterial processes.
chology as an empirical science, that

it shall

investigate the facts of

psychical processes as they are presented in immediate experience,

and that it shall not examine their interconnections from points

of view that are entirely foreign to them ( 1 and p. 17, sq.).
It is impossible to find out how a volition proceeds in any other
way than by following it exactly as it is presented to us in immediate experience.

Here,

however,

it

is

not presented as an

abstract concept, but as a concrete single volition.

ticular volition, too,

perceptible

in

we know

the process.

nothing except what

We

can

Of
is

know nothing

this par-

immediately
of an un-

conscious or, what amounts to the same thing for psychology, a

material process which

is not immediately perceived but merely

assumed hypothetically on the basis of metaphysical presuppositions.
Such metaphysical assumptions are obviously merely devices to
cover up an incomplete or entirely wanting psychological obser-

vation.

The psychologist who pays

attention

to

only the ter-

whole volitional process, will very easily hit

upon the thought that the immediate cause of volition is some
mination

of the

unconscious immaterial or material agent.

11.

The exact

observation of volitional processes

is,

for

the reasons given above, impossible in the case of volitional

Volitional Processes.

14.

come naturally

acts that

197

way

in the course of Hfe; the only

in which a thorough psychological investigation can be made,

is,

processes which

which serve

the

of every kind

sure,

at will,

observation of certain

this

The experiments

in external acts.

purpose are the so-called reaction- experi-

They may be described

ments.

acts

can be easily influenced through external

means and which terminate

To be

therefore, that of experimental observation.

we can not produce volitional

but we must limit ourselves to

in their essentials- as follows.

simple or complex volitional process

ternal sense-stimulus

and then

incited

is

by an ex-

after the occurrence of certain

psychical processes which serve in part as motives,- the volition

is

brought to an end by a motor reaction.

a second and more general

Reaction-experiments have

They

significance besides that mentioned.

furnish

means

for

the measurement of the rate of certain psychical and psychophysical processes.

made

Li

fact,

in these experiments.

however,

experiments,

such measurements are always

The primary

the fact

in

consists

includes a volition and that

significance of the

that

each

one

therefore possible, in this

it is

way, by means of introspection to follow with exactness the

succession of psychical processes in such a volition, and at

the same time, by the dehberate variation of the conditions,

to influence this succession in a systematic manner.

The

simplest reaction-experiment

as follows.

short interval (2

can be made

that

after

sec.)

serves to concentra;te the attention, an external stimulus

At

allowed to act on some sense-organ.

the

stimulus

determined

movement
ditions

in

is

perceived,

the

movement

is

a signal that
is

moment when

that

has

been

upon and prepared before, as, for example, a

The psychological conis executed.

of the hand,
this

experiment correspond

of a simple volition.

The

sensible

essentially

to

those

impression serves as

198

II-

Psychical Compounds^

simple motive, and this

particular act.

If

followed invariably by

by means

of

objectively

chronometric apparatus, the interval

either graphic or other

that

to be

is

now we measure

between the action of the stimulus and the

elapses

execution of the movement,

it will

be

possible,

by frequently

repeated experiments of the same kind, to become thoroughly

acquainted with the subjective processes that

make up

the

whole reaction, while at the same time the results of the

objective

measurement

check for the constancy

will furnish a

or possible variations in these subjective processes. This check

is

especially useful in those cases

where some condition

in

the experiment and thereby the subjective course of the volition itself is intentionally modified.

Such a modification may, indeed, be introduced even in the

simple form of the experiment just described, by varying the

way in which

the reactor prepares, before the appearance of the

When

stimulus, for the execution of the act.

directed toward the stimulus which

the form of reaction

known

is

the expectation

to serve as the motive,

as sensorial results. "When, on the

other hand, the preparatory expectation

is

directed toward

the act to be executed in response to the motive,

In the

the so-called rmiscular reaction.

tional factor of the expectation

the famiHar sense-impression.

tion

is

more extended,

clearness
of

and

this

obscurity.

expectation

that

is

oscillates

the period of prepara-

oscillates

affective

in

we have

case the idea-

a pale memory-image of

When

image

The

is

first

between alternating

element

is

a feeling

a similar manner and

is

connected with sensations of strain from the sense-organ to

be affected,

as,

for example, with tension of the

tympanum,

or of the ocular muscles of accommodation and movement.

In the second case, on the other hand, where the reaction

is

muscular,

we may observe during the period

expectation a pale,

wavering

of preparatory

memory-image of the motor

organ that

14. Volitional Processes.

to react

is

sensations of

(e.

g.,

199

the hand) together with strong

and a

strain in the same,

fairly

continuous

feeling of expectation connected with these sensations.

on the average 0.210

sorial reaction-time is

time

shortest

mean

is

variation

0.020 sec.

Muscular reaction-time

is

for

0.120

The

variation of 0.010 sec.

variation in the

Sen-

sec. (the

sound, the longest for Hght), with a

for

of

0.290

the

chiefly

observations.

a mean

sec, with

values of the

different

two cases are

single

0.190

mean

important as objective

checks for the discrimination of these forms of reaction').

By

12.

introducing special conditions

and muscidar reactions the

sorial

we may make

for the

points

starting

sen-

study of the development of volitions in two different direcSensorial reactions furnish the

tions.

simple

to

complex

easily insert

volitions

means

because we

different psychical processes

of passing from

can in

this

case

between the per-

ception of the impression and the execution of the reaction.

Thus we have a voluntary act of relatively simple character

when we allow an act of cognition or discrimination to follow
the perception of the impression

ment depend on

and then
In

second process.

this

immediate impression but the idea that

of

cognition or discrimination

be performed.

This

motive

is

is

let

the move-

this

case not the

resiilts

from the act

the motive for the act to

only

one

of

a greater or

smaller number of equally possible motives that could have

come up

in place

of

it;

as a result the reaction-movement

takes on the character of a voluntary act.

1)

The reaction-times

In

fact,

we may

for sensations of taste, smell, temperature,

and pain are not reckoned in the figures given. They are all longer.
The differences are, however, obviously to be attributed to pure physconditions (slow transmission of the stimulation to the
nerve-endings, and in the case of pain slower central conduction),
80 that they are of no interest for psychology.

iological

H. Psychical Compownds.

200

observe clearly the feeling of resolution antecedent to the

and

act

perception

the

and connected with

This is still more em-

also the feelings preceding that

the impression.

of

the case,

phatically

processes

affective

when we bring
example, an

is

in

and the succession of ideational and

at the same time more complicated,
another psychical process, as, for

still

motive for

decisive

association, to serve as the

Finally, the voluntary pro-

the execution of the movement.

becomes one of choice when, in such experiments, the

act is not merely influenced by a plurality of motives in
such a way that several must follow one another before one
cess

determines the

number

act,

but when, in addition to that, one of a

of possible different acts

made

for different movements, for example, one with the

another with the

right,

decided upon according

This takes place when preparations

to the motive presented.

are

is

left

hand, or one with each of the

and the condition

ment that an impression of a
ten fingers,

is

prescribed for each move-

particular quality shall serve

as its motive, for example, the impression blue for the right

hand, red for the

13.

Muscular

left.

reactions,

on the contrary, may be used

to

foUow out the retrogradation of volitional acts to reflex moveIn

ment.
is

directed

this

form of reaction the preparatory expectation

entirely

towards the

voluntary inhibition or

external

execution of the

so

act,

with the special character of the impression, that

from simple to complex acts of

sition

impossible.

On

the other hand,

it is

will, is

fades

out more and more

the motor impulse,

like

reflex

and

movement.

finally the

This

is,

a tran-

easy by practice so to

and. a particular movement, that

perception

in this case

habituate one's self to the invariable connection

pression

that

act in accordance

the

of

an im-

process of

or takes place after

movement becomes

reduction

of

volition

just

to a

14.

Volitional Processes.

201

mecliaiiical process, wliich in the case of sensorial reactions

is

never possible from the very nature of their conditions,

shows

itself in

the shortening of the objective time to that

observed for pure reflexes, and in the subjective coincidence

and

in point of time of impression

while the char-

reaction,

feeling of resolution gradually disappears entirely.

acteristic

The chronometric experiments

13 a.

familiar in experimental

psychology under the name of "reaction-experiments", are important for two reasons:

as aids in the analysis of volitional

first,

and secondly, as means for the investigation of the

processes,

temporal course of psychical processes in general.

importance of reaction-experiments

On

of volitions.

the one hand,

This twofold

reflects the central

importance

the simpler processes, feelings,

and their related ideas, are components of a complete

on the other, all possible forms of the interconnection
of psychical compounds may appear as components of a volition.
emotions,

volition;

Volitional processes are,

to the interconnection

an appropriate transition

consequently,

between psychical compounds to be

dis-

cussed in the next chapter.

For a "reaction-experiment" which

is

to be the basis

of an

component psychical
exact and sufficiently fine

analysis of a volitional process or any of its

processes,

we must have
with

(reading

exactness

of all

first

to

toVt

(electric clock or graphic register).

arranged that
the

we can determine

stimulus acts

dhronometrie

^^'^)

apparatus

The apparatus must be

exactly

the

moment

and that at which the subject

so

at

which

reacts.

This

can be accomplished by allowing the stimulus itself (sound, light,

or tactual stimulus) to close an electric current that sets an
electric clock, reading to

xrJW

ing the observer, by means

wliich raises a telegraph-key,

^^^-i

^"^

motion,

of a simple

and then allowof the hand

movement

to break the current again at the

which he apprehends the stimulus. In this way we

may measure simple reactions varied in different ways (sensorial
and muscular reactions, reactions with or without preceding

moment

in

signals),

chical

or

acts

processes)

we may

bring into the process various other psy-

(discriminations,

cognitions,

which may be regarded

associations,

selective

either as motives for the volition

H- Psychical Compoimds.

202

as components of the general interconnection of psychical

compounds. A simple reaction always includes, along with the

or

volitional process, purely physiological factors (conduction of the

sensory excitation to the brain and of the motor excitation to the

muscle).

If,

we

now,

insert

further

psychical processes

(dis-

criminations, cognitions, associations, acts of choice), a modification

which can be made only when sensorial reactions are employed,

may be gained
by subtractiQg the interval found for simple reactions from those
In this way it has been
found for the compound reactions.
determined that the time required for the cognition and for the
the duration of clearly definable psychical processes

of

discrimination
short words)

movements

is

relatively

0.03

simple impressions

0.05";

left

0.4",

etc.

these figures

not their absolute magnitude,

is

hand)

utility as checks for introspection,

may

letters,

is 0.06", between ten movements

As already remarked, the value of

and

(the ten fingers)

(right

(colors,

the time for choice between two

but rather their

same time we

while at the

apply this introspective observation to processes subject to

conditions

perimental
pleasure.

which are prescribed with exactness by means of exmethods and which may therefore be repeated at

INTERCONNECTION OF PSYCHICAL
COMPOUNDS.

III.

15.

1.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND ATTENTION.

Every psychical compound

is

composed of a number

of psychical elements which do not usually all begin or end

at exactly the

same moment. As a

result, the interconnection

which unites the elements to a single whole always reaches

beyond the individual compounds, so that

simulta-

different

neous and successive compounds are united, though indeed

somewhat more
psychical

We

loosely.

compounds

call

this

to the

sum

marked

this

faint,

is

it

off as

is

which the single compounds

interrupted, as deep

called an unconscious

"disturbances of consciousness"

how they

expresses the general syn-

It

more intimate combinations.

interconnection

that

refer merely

of these processes without reference to

thesis of psychical processes, in

are

mean anything

from psychical processes, nor does

are related to one another.

which

of

consciousness.

Consciousness, accordingly, does not

exists apart

interconnection

state;

state in

sleep

or

and we speak of

when abnormal changes

in

the combination of psychical compounds arise, even though

these

compounds themselves

Consciousness in this
connection of simultaneous

shows

itself in

experience

shovt^

sense,

no changes whatever.
as

a comprehensive inter-

and successive psychical

first

processes,

of all in the psychical life of

204

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

-27.

But we have an

the individual as individiud consciousness.

analogous interconnection in the combination of individuals,

although

we may

limited to certain sides of mental Hfe, so that

it is

further include under the

For

consciousness, etc.

we

that

all

these broader forms, however, the

the individual consciousness, and

is

of social

concepts of collective consciousness,

sciousness the

foundation

more general concept con-

vrill first

it is

to this

turn our attention. (For collective conscious-

ness see 21, 14.)

Individual consciousness stands under the same external

2.

phenomena

conditions as psychical

to the

more

As

the substratum

for the

manifestations

an individual consciousness we have in every case an

men and

In the case of

dividual animal organism.

higher animals the cerebral cortex, in the cells

of

it is,

particularly

mutual relations of the components of these phenomena

to one another.
of

which

in general, for

indeed, merely another expression, referring

which

all

in-

similar

and

fibres

the organs that stand in relation to psychical

processes are represented, appears as the immediate organ

The complete interconnection of the

looked upon as the physiological

consciousness.

of this

may be

elements

cortical

correlate

of

interconnection of

the

consciousness,

and the

psychical

processes

in

the

functions

of

differentiation

in

different cortical regions as the physiological correlate of the

great variety of single conscious processes.

tion

of

differentia-

central organ is, indeed,

in the

functions

The

always

merely relative; every psychical compound requires the cooperation of numerous elements and

When
definite

the

destruction

disturbances

sations, or

when

it

classes of

ideas,

it

of

in

movements,

or

produces
in

sen-

which the formation of certain

perfectly

is

central regions.

certain cortical regions

voluntary

interferes

this region furnishes

many

justifiable

to

conclude that

certain links in the chain of psychical

15.

and

Conseiotisness

Attention.

205

elements that are indispensable for the processes in question.

The assumptions
ena,

faculties

of

made on

often

that there

is

the

in

the basis

brain

of these

phenom-

a special organ for the

speech and writing, or that visual, tonal, and

verbal ideas are stored in special cortical

cells,

are not only

the results of the grossest physiological misconceptions, but

they are absolutely irreconcilable with the psychological analysis

of these functions.

Psychologically regarded, these as-

modem

sumptions are nothing but

revivals

unfortunate form of faculty-psychology

2 a.

The

localization

facts

that have been

known

of

most

that

as phrenology.

discovered in regard to the

of certain psycho-physical

functions

in

the

cortex,

are derived partly

from pathological and anatomical observations

on men and partly from experiments on animals. They may be

summed up

as follows:

1)

Certain cortical regions correspond to

certain peripheral sensory and muscular regions.

of the occipital lobe

is

Thus, the cortex

connected with the retina, a part of the

parietal lobe with the tactual surface, and a part of the temporal

with the auditory organ.

of muscles generally

lie

The

central ganglia of special groups

directly next to or

centres functionally related to them.

ances have been demonstrated

when

2)

between the sensory

Certain complex; disturb-

certain cortical regions

which

are not directly connected with peripheral organs, but are inserted

between other central regions,

The

only

certainty,

relation
is

to carry

fail

of this kind which

has

out their functions.

been

proved

with

that of a certain region of the temporal lobe to the

The front part of this region is connected

words (its disturbance results
in interference with motor coordination, so-called ''ataxic aphasia,"),
the part further back is connected with the formation of word-ideas
functions of speech.

in particular with the articulation of

(its

way

disturbance hinders sensorial coordination and produces in this

the so-called "amnesic aphasia")

It is a,lso

observed that these

functions are as a rule confined entirely to the

left

temporal lobe

and that generally apoplectic disturbances in the right lobe do not

interfere with speech, while those in the left lobe do. Furthermore,
in all these cases, in both simple and complex disturbances, there

206
is

III-

Interconnection of Psychical Compotmds.

usually a gradual restoration of the functions in the course of

This is probably effected by the vicarious functioning of

time.

some, generally a neighboring

which

is

disturbed

(in

region in place of that

cortical

perhaps

disturbances of speech,

it

is

the

comes into play). Localization

opposite, before untrained, side that

of other complex psychical functions, such as processes of

memory

has not yet been demonstrated with certainty.

The name "psychical centres", applied to certain cortical regions
by many anatomists, is for the present at least based exclusively

and

association,

on the very questionable interpretation of experiments on

or else on the mere anatomical fact that no motor or
sensory fibres running directly to these regions can be found, and
that their connective fibres in general are developed relatively
either

animals,

late.

human

The cortex of the

brain

it

is

such a region.

In the

large development.

It has

frontal brain

noticeable for

its

is

been observed in many cases that disturbances of

the brain soon
attention

or

result

marked

in

to

inability

other intellectual

in

defects

this part of

concentrate the

which

possibly

are

and from these observations the hypothesis

has been made that this region is to be regarded as the seat of
the function of apperception which will be discussed later (4),
reduceable to this;

and of

all

those components of psychical experience in which, as

in the feelings, the unitary interconnection of mental life finds

expression
a firmer

empirical foundation than

be noted that those cases where,

it

has

its

however,

This hypothesis requires,

(comp. p. 89).

at present.

It is to

in contrast with the first ones

mentioned, a partial injury of the frontal lobe

is

sustained without

any noticeable disturbance of intelligence, are by no means proofs

against this hypothesis.
There is much evidence to show that
just here, in the higher centres, local injuries

any apparent

may occur

without

probably due to the great complexity of the connections and to the various ways in which the
results.

different elements can,

The expression "centre"

in the sense that

This

therefore,

take the place of one another.

is,

of course, employed

by the general

relation of psychical

in all these cases

is justified

to physical functions, that

tween the two

is

classes of

is,

in

the sense of a parallelism be-

elementary processes, the one regarded

from the point of view of the natural

that of psychology (comp.

1,2

sciences,

and 22,

9).

the

other

from

15.

Gonscioitsness

mid

Attention.

207

The interconnection of psychical processes, which constitutes what we understand under the concept consciousness,
3.

is

in part a simultaneous, in part a successive interconnection.

The sum

moment

of all the processes present at a given

is

always a unitary whole whose parts are more or less closely

united.

This

is

the simultaneous interconnection.

state is derived directly

A present

from that immediately preceding

either

through the disappearance of certain processes while others

change their course and

others begin, or,

still

of unconsciousness intervenes, the

into

relation

In

state

processes are brought

with those that were present before.

are successive interconnections.

of the single

new

when a

all these cases

These

the scope

combinations between preceding and following

processes determines the state of consciousness. Consciousness

when this interconnection is comis more incomplete the looser the

of the moment with those preceding.

gives place to unconsciousness

pletely interrupted,

and

it

connection of the processes

Thus, after a period of unconsciousness the normal state of

consciousness

is

generally only slowly recovered through a

gradual reestablishment of relations with earlier experiences.

So we come

to distinguish grades of consciousness.

lower limi t, or zero grade,

is

unconsciousness.

which consists in an absolute absence of aU psychical

connections,

is

essentially

different

of single psychical contents from

is

inter-

from the disappearance

consciousness.

The

latter

continually taking place in the flow of mental processes.

Complex ideas and feehngs and even

single elements of these

compounds may disappear, and new ones take

This continuous appearance and

and composite processes

its

The

This condition,

in consciousness

successive interconnection.

their places.

disappearance of elementary

Without

is

such an

Any

psychical

interconnection would, of course, be impossible.

element that has disappeared from

what makes up

this change,

consciousness,

is

to

be

HI- Interconnection of Psychical Compoimds.

208

called unconscious in the sense that

of its renewal, that

connection

its

is,

psychical

of

we assume

the possibility

reappearance in the actual inter-

Our knowledge

processes.

of

an

element that has become unconscious does not extend beyond

components

future

of

with

coimected
the

to

others

of

as

before

therefore,

the

rise

which

are

for

disposition

psychical

processes

Assumptions

present.

"unconscious" or

the

of

state

For psychology,

renewal.

its

no meaning except

has

it

of

possibility

this

as

to

as

"unconscious

processes" of any kind which are thought of as existing along

with the conscious processes of experience, are entirely unproductive for psychology.

There

of course, physical

are,

concomitants of the psychical dispositions mentioned, of which

some inferred from various

some can be

directly demonstrated,

experiences.

These physical concomitants are the

effects

which

practice produces on all organs, especially those of the nervous

As a

system.

universal residt of practice

we

observe a facil-

of action which renders a repetition of the process

itation

To be

easier.

we do not know any

sure,

details in regard to

the changes that are effected in the structure of the nervous

elements through practice,

through

ourselves

processes,
resulting
4.

It

member

such,

but we can represent them to

very natural

for

example,

analogies

with mechanical

as the reduction

of

friction

from the rubbing of two surfaces against each

was noted

in the case

of temporal ideas,

of a series of successive ideas

which

is

other.

that the

immediately

present in our perception, has the most favorable position.

Similarly in the simultaneous interconnection of consciousness,
for

example in a compound clang or ia a

objects,
others.

certain

single

series of spacial

components are favored above the

In both cases we designate the differences in the

perception as differences in clearness and distinctness. Clearness

is

the relatively favorable comprehension of the object in

itself.

sharp

the

distinctness

which

Consciousness and Attention.

15.

from

discrimination

connected

generally

is

with

209
other

objects,

The

clearness.

state

which accompanies the clear grasp of any psychical content

and

The

we

characterized by a special feeling,

is

process through which any such content

call attention.

we

clear comprehension

which

perception

this,

we

attention,

not

is

accompanied by a state

of

Those contents

of

apprehension.

designate

consciousness upon which the attention

spoken
point,

concentrated are

is

after the analogy of the external optical fixation-

of,

the fixation-point of consciousness,

as

brought to

is

In contrast with

call apperception.

fixationr-point.

On

the other hand,

consciousness at any given

When

seiousness.

moment

is

or the

whole

the

irvriier

content

of

called the field of covr-

a psychical process passes into an uncon-

we speak of its sinking below the threshold of

consciousness and when such a process arises we say it appears

scious

state

above the threshold of consciousness.

useful,

These are

and must not be understood

expressions

all figurative

They

literally.

are

however, because of the brevity and clearness they

permit in the description of conscious processes.

5.

If

we

in their interconnection with

pressions,

we may say

coming and going. At

of consciousness
point,

first

the aid of these figurative ex-

is made up of a continual
compound
comes into the field
some

that

it

and then advances

from which

it

returns to

before disappearing entirely.

of

others

the inner fixation-

into

the field of consciousness

Besides this train of psychical

compounds which are apperceived, there

going

compounds

try to describe the train of psychical

which are merely

is

also a

coming and

apprehended,

that

is,

enter the field of consciousness and pass out again without

reaching the inner fixation-point.

the

Both the apperceived and

apprehended compounds may have

clearness.

In the case of the

Wdnot, Psychology.

first

different

class

this

grades of

appears
14

in

lH- Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

210

the fact that the clearness and distinctness of apperception

in general

To

is

variable according to the state of consciousness.

can easily be shown that when one and the

illustrate: it

same impression
if

other

the

is

apperceived several times in succession,

conditions

apperceptions

remain the same,

different degrees of clearness in

apprehended,

merely

may be

the impressions are composite.

when
where

all

the components

instant,

when

easily

especially

that even here,

are obscure from the

Some seem

above the threshold of consciousness, some

6.

successive

then found,

is

different gradations.

still

most

observed
It

the impressions last but an

there are

the

and more, distinct. The

the case of compounds that

usually clearer

are

that

first,

to rise

more

less.

These relations can not be determined through chance

introspections, but only by systematic experimental observations.

The

best kinds of conscious contents to use for such obser-

vations are ideas because they can be easily produced at any

Now,

time through external impressions.

idea,

as already

remarked

p. 155),

( 11,

in

any temporal

those components

which belong to the present moment are in the fixation-point

Those of the preceding impressions which

of consciousness.

were present shortly before, are

ness, while those
'

which were present longer before, have

appeared from consciousness

other

hand,

when

it

apperceived at once in

then

its

in the field of conscious-

still

has
its

A spacial

entirely.

only

totahty.

limited extent,
If

it

is

dis-

on the

may be

more composite,

parts too must pass successively through the inner

fixation-point

if

they are to be clearly apprehended. It follows,

therefore, that composite spacial ideas

visual

idea,

impressions)

are peculiarly

(especially

momentary

well suited to furnish

measure of the amount of content that can be apperceived

in a single act, or of the scope of attention; while composite

temporal ideas

(for

example, rhythmical auditory impressions.

hammer-strokes)
all

15.

Consciousness and Attention.

may be used

for

21

measuring the amount of

the contents that can enter into consciousness at a given

moment, or the scope of cmisciousness. Experiments made in

this way give, under different conditions, a scope of from
6 to 12

simple

impressions for attention

such impressions for consciousness.

for those impressions

combinations,

and

of

The smaller

which do not unite at

16 to 40

figures are

all to ideational

or at most very incompletely,

the larger for

those in which the elements combine as far as possible to

composite ideas.
6
is

a.

The most accurate way of determining the

to use

spacial impressions

of sight,

for in

scope of attention
such cases it is

very easy, by means of an electric spark, or the fall of a screen

made with an opening in the centre, to expose the objects for
an instant and in such a way that they all lie in the region
of

clearest

This gives us physiological conditions

vision.

that

do not prevent the apperception of a greater number of impressions than

it

is

scope of attention.

possible to apperceive because of the limited

In these experiments there must be a point

for fixation in the middle of the surface on

lie,

before

the momentary illumination.

experiment,
the

if it

number of

sense,

is

of the

properly arranged,

the observer

knows

that

objects which were clearly seen in a physiological

greater

than

When,

of attention.

made up

is

which the impressions

Immediately after the

of letters,

impression,

number included within the scope

a momentary impression is
is possible, by calling up a memory-image
read afterwards some of the letters that
the

for example,

it

to

were only indistinctly apprehended at the moment of illumination.

This memory-image, however, is clearly distinguished ia time
from the impression itself, so that the determination of the scope
Careful introspection easily
of attention is not disturbed by it.
succeeds in fixating the state of consciousness at the

moment

the

impression arrives, and in distinguishing this from the subsequent

acts of

are always separated from it by a noticeExperiments made in this way show that the scope
by no means a constant magnitude, but that, even

memory, which

able interval.

of attention

is

14*

212

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

III-

wken tlie concentration of the attention is approximately at its

maximum, its scope depends in part on the simplicity or complexity of the impressions, in part on their familiarity.
The
simplest spacial impressions are arbitrarily distributed points. Of
these a

maximum

the impressions

somewhat more complex but of a familiar

simple lines, figures, and letters, three or four

character, such as

of

them

generally

are

When

of six can be apperceived at one time.

are

apperceived

simultaneously,

under

or,

The figures just given hold for

touch the same limits seem to hold only in the case

favorable conditions, even

vision; for

such

Six

of points.

five.

simple

impressions

under favorable

can,

be apperceived in the same instant. When the impressions are familiar but complex, even for vision, the number
of ideas decreases, while that of the single elements increases
conditions,

Thus, we

very markedly.

can

apperceive

two

even three

or

familiar monosyllabic words, which contain in all ten or twelve

,

Under any circumstances,

single letters.

then, the assertion often

made, that the attention can be concentrated on only one idea at

a time,

false.

is

Then, too, these observations overthrow the assumption sometimes accepted, that the attention can sweep continuously and
with great rapidity over a great number of single ideas. In the

experiment described,

memory

clear consciousness

of objects

number

attempt

The
is,

is

made

to

fill

up

frcyn

clearly perceived an instant after the

is

required to

bring into

an impression that was not apperceived at

and in the process the

attention.

is

a very noticeable interval

impression,

first;

the

if

the image which

first

image always disappears from

movement

successive

accordingly,

number
made up of

of attention over a

a discontinuous process,

of separate acts of apperception following one another.

This discontinuity

made up

is

due to the

jfact

that every single apperception

by a period
The period of maximal tension between the two,
may vary considerably in its duration. In the case of momentary

is

of a period

of increasing followed of

decreasing strain.

and rapidly changing impressions,

other hand,

we

even when the attention

stant character,

it

is

very brief; when, on the

concentrate on particular objects,

is

it is

longer.

But,

thus concentrated on objects of a con-

a periodic interruption,

due to the alternating

relaxation and renewed concentration, always appears.

This

may be

15.

Consciousness and Attention.

213

easily observed, even in the ordinary action of attention.

we

too,

we

But

here,

gain more detailed information through experiments.

If

allow a weak, continuous impression to act on a sense-organ

and remove so far as possible

when

the attention

other stimuli,

all

concentrated upon

it

next moment.

will be observed

that at certain, generally

even appears to fade out entirely,

or

again the

it

becomes for a short time in-

intervals the impression

irregular,
distinct,

is

This wavering begins,

only to appear

when

the

im-

6"; when they are somewhat

very weak, after 3
24". These variations are readily distinguished
stronger, after 18
from changes in the intensity of the impression itself, as may be

pressions are

easily demonstrated

stimulus

when, in the course of the experiment, the

There are essen-

purposely weakened or interrupted.

is

two characteristics that distinguish the subjective variations

First, so long
to the changes in the stimulus.

tially

from those due

merely passes back and forth from the obscure

inner fixation-point, there is always

as the impression

field of consciousness to the

an idea of

its

continuance, just as there was in the experiments

with momentary impressions an

the

components

which

were

indefinite

not

and obscure idea of

apperceived.

Secondly,

the

by characteristic feelings and

absent when the changes are ob-

oscillations of attention are attended

which are entirely

sensations
jective.
activity,

tion

The characteristic feelings are those of expectation and

which regularly increase with the concentration of atten-

and decrease with

its

relaxation.

These will be discussed

come from the sense-organ

affected, or at least emanate indirectly from it. They consist in
sensations of tension in the tympanum, or in those of accommodation and convergence, etc. These two series of characteristics

more

fully

later.

The

sensations

distinguish the concepts of the clearness and distinctness of psychical contents from that of the intensity of their sensational

elements.
clear.

cepts

The
is

to

strong impression

may be

obscure and a weak one

two different con-

only causal relation between these

be found in the

fact

that in general

the stronger

impressions force themselves more upon the apperception. Whether

or not they are really more clearly apperceived, depends on the
other conditions present at the moment. The same is true of the

advantages which those parts of a visual impression have that

As a rule, the fixated
fall within the region of clearest vision.

m.

214

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

objects are also the ones apperceived.

with

that this interconnection

we

voluntarily

eccentric

may be broken
our

concentrate

regions

of the field

experiments

But, in the

momentary impressions described above,

This happens when

up.

attention

of vision.

can be shown

it

on

point

the

in

The object which

is

becomes the one which is clearly ideated.

6 b. In the same way that momentary spacial impressions are
used to determine the scope of attention, we may use those which
succeed one another in time, as a measure for the scope of conobscurely seen then

In this

sciousness.

case

we

start

with the assumption that a

series of impressions can

when they

are all

moment.

we

If

be united in a single unitary idea only

together in consciousness, at least for one

listen to a series of

that while the present sound

preceding

it

are

still

is

hammer-strokes,

it

is

obvious

those immediately

apperceived,

in the field of consciousness.

Their clearness

diminishes, however, just in proportion to their distance in time

from the apperceived impression, and those lying beyond a certain

limit disappear from consciousness entirely.
If we can determine
this Hmit,

we

shall

have a direct measure for the scope of con-

sciousness under the special conditions given

As

in the experiment.

a means for the determination of this limit

we

rnay use the

compare temporal ideas that follow one another immediately.

So long as such an idea is present in consciousness
as a single unitary whole, we can compare a succeeding idea
with it and decide whether the two are alike or not.
On the
ability

to

other hand, such a comparison

preceding temporal series

ness,

that

is,

when

is

a part

is

absolutely impossible

when

the

not a unitary whole for consciousof

unconsciousness before the end

its
is

constituents have passed into

reached.

If,

then,

we

present

two series of strokes,, such as can be produced, for example, by

a metronome, one immediately after the other, marking off each
series by a signal at its beginning, as, for example, with a bellstroke, we can judge directly from the impression, so long as
they can be grasped as single units in consciousness, whether the
two series are alike or not. Of course, in such experiments
counting of the strokes must be strictly avoided. In making the
judgments it may be noticed that the impression of likeness is
produced by the affective elements of the temporal ideas mentioned
Every stroke in the second series is preceded
before (p. 156).

by a

Consciousness and Attention.

15.

215

feeling of expectation corresponding to the analogous stroke

first series, so that every stroke too many or too few

produces a feeling of disappointment attending the disturbance

of the

of the expectation.

two successive
time

order

in

quired

it is not necessary for the

be present in consciousness at the same

that they

may

but what

compared;

be

is

re-

the union of all the impressions of one series together

is

The

unitary idea.

in a single

scope

follows that

It

series to

of consciousness

boundary of the

relatively fixed

shown

clearly

is

in

the

that

fact

the

two temporal ideas is always recognized with certainty

so long as they do not pass the bound that holds for the conditions
under which they are given, while the judgment becomes absolutely
uncertain when this limit is once crossed. The extent of the scope
of consciousness as found in measurements made when the conditions of attention remain the same, depends partly on the rate
of the successive impressions and partly on their more or less
likeness of

When

complete rhythmical combination.

of succession

the rate

becomes impossible to combine sucessive

impressions to a temporal idea; by the time a new impression
arrives, the preceding one has already disappeared from consciousWhen the rate passes the upper limit of about 0.18", the
ness.
formation of distinctly defined temporal ideas is impossible because
The
the attention can not follow the impressions any longer.
most favorable rate is a succession of strokes every 0.2 0.3".
With this rate, and with the simplest rhythm, which generally
arises of itself when the perception is uninfluenced by any
is

slower than about

4", it

special

objective conditions,

impressions

can

be just

for the apprehension

impressions
stroke

and

maximum
at once.

is

the Yg-time 8 double or 16 single

grasped

together.

The

best

measure

of the greatest possible number of single

the ^/^-measure with the strong accent on the

the

medium

accent

on

the

fifth.

In this

first

case

of five feet or forty single impressions, can be grasped

If these figures are

compared with those obtained when

the scope of attention was measured, putting simple and

temporal

impressions

pressions,

we

equal

to

the

corresponding

find that the scope of consciousness

times as great as that of attention.

is

compound

spacial

im-

about four

ni- Inierconnection of Psychical Compounds.

216
7.

Besides the properties

of

and

clearness

distinctness

which belong to conscious contents in themselves or in their

mutual relations to one another, there are regularly others

which are immediately recognized as accompanying processes.

These are partly

processes that are characteristic

affective

for particular forms of apprehension

sensations

of

somewhat

and apperception, partly

variable

Especially

character.

ways in which psychical contents

the

the field and

eiiter

fixation-point of consciousness vary according to the different

may

conditions under which this entrance

any psychical process

rises

soon as they are strong enough,

ness, the affective elements, as

are

what

selves

first

become

is

noticeable.

They begin

energetically into the fixation-point

before anything

is

mind which we

them-

to force

consciousness

of

perceived of the ideational elements.

the case whether the impressions are

This

earher processes.

When

take place.

above the threshold of conscious-

is

new

This

or revivals of

what causes the peculiar

states of

are not exactly able to account for, some-

times of a pleasurable or unpleasurable character, sometimes

predominantly states

of

strained expectation.

In

this

last

case the sudden entrance of the ideational elements belonging

to the feelings, into the scope of the attention,

by feehngs of
recall

state

relief or satisfaction.

is

When we

accompanied
are trying to

something that has been forgotten, the same affective

may

arise.

Often there

is

vividly

present in such a

case, besides the regular feeling of strain, the special affective

tone of

the

forgotten

although the

idea,

idea

remains in the background of consciousness.

manner, as we shall see later

of

ideas

in

acts

of

preceded by special

( 16),

still

In a similar

the clear apperception

and recognition

is

always

Similar affective states

may be

cognition

feelings.

itself

produced experimentally by the momentary illumination

of a

field of vision in which there are impressions of the strongest

Consciousness and Attention,

15.

217

possible affective tone in the region of indirect vision.

these experiences seem to

partly

own

in its

show that every content

some influence on

sciousness has

attention.

partly in

coloring,

affective

regularly connected with acts of attention.

of con-

shows

It

All

this

the feelings

The whole

effect of

these

obscure

fuses,

according to the general law of the synthesis of affec-

contents

components

tive

(p.

on the

consciousness

of

with the feelings

159),

attention

attending

the

apperceived contents to form a single total feeUng.

When

8.

psychical content enters

new and

consciousness,

the fixation-point of

peculiar affective processes are added

to those that have been described.

These new feelings may

be of a variety of kinds, according to the different conditions

attending this entrance into the fixation-point.

The

conditions

are of two classes, and are interconnected for the most part

with the above described preparatory affective influences of

the content not yet apperceived.
First,

new content

the

forces

on the attention

itself

suddenly and without preparatory affective influences;

we

call passive apperception.

ness

is

becoming clearer both

elements, there

first of all

is

which

receptivity,

is

rapid

its

gives place to

rise.

in its ideational

this

of conscious-

and

affective

a concomitant feehng of passive

depressing

stronger the more intense

more

While the content

feehng,

and generally

the psychical processes, and the

This

feeling

soon

an antagonistic, exciting

sinks

feeling

and then
of

activity.

There are connected with both these feeHngs characteristic

sensations in the muscles of the sense-organ from which the
ideational

components of the process proceed.

of receptivity
of relaxation,

is

The

feeling

generally accompanied by a transient sensation

that of activity by a succeeding sensation of

strain.

Secondly, the

new content

is

preceded by the preparatory

m-

218

Intercormection of Psychical Compounds.

affective influences

attention

we

is

mentioned above

concentrated upon

call active apperception.

the content

is

it

even before

to

its

result the

arrives; this
of

preceded by a feeling of expectation, sometimes of

one of strain and

This feehng

may

at the

same time be one

have pleasurable or unpleasurable

also

it

In such a case the apperception

longer, sometimes of shorter duration.

may

and as a

(7),

ideational

generally

of excitement;

it

factors, according

This feeUng of

elements.

is

expectation

is

usually accompanied by fairly intense sensations of tension

in the muscles of the sense-organ affected.
in

which the content

gives place to a feehng of fulfillment which

short and

the

moment

is

generally very

always has the character of a feehng of rehef.

Under circumstances

it

may

pleasurable or unpleasurable.

we have

At

arises in clear consciousness, this feeling

be depressing or exciting,

also

After

at once that of activity

this

the

at the close of passive apperception,

feehng of fulfillment

and

same that appeared

is

here, too, united

with an increase in the feehngs of strain.

8 a.

The experimental observation of the

different

forms of

apperception can be carried out best with the aid of the reaction-

experiments described in 14,

11 sq.

be studied by the use of unexpected,

Passive apperception

may

and active by the use of

expected impressions. At the same time it will be observed that

between these typical differences there are intermediate stages.
Either the passive form will approach the active because of the
weakness of the first stage, or the active will approach the passive

form because in the sudden relaxation of the expectation the

contrast between the expectation and the relief and depression which
come in the succeeding feeling of fulfillment, is more marked than
usual.

In reality we have everywhere continuously interconnected

processes which are opposite character only in extreme cases.

9.

more

If the affective side of these processes of attention are

closely examined,

it

is

obvious that they are exactly

the same as the affective content of

all volitional processes.

15.

At

the same time

it

Consoirmsness and Aitmtion.

is

219

clear that in its essential character

passive apperception corresponds to a simple impulsive act, while

the active form corresponds to a complex voluntary act.

first

we may
itself upon

case

forces

Li the

evidently regard the psychical content that

attention without preparation, as the single

motive which, without any conflict with other motives, gives

to the

rise

act of apperception.

The

act

is

here too con-

nected with the feeling of activity characteristic of

all volitional

In the case of active apperception, on the other hand,

acts.

other psychical contents with their affective elements tend to

force themselves

upon the

attention during the preparatory

affective stages, so that the act of apperception

is

performed

is

when

it

finally

often recognized as a voluntary process

or

even as a selective process when the conflict between different

comes clearly into consciousness.

contents

The

existence of

such selective acts under the circumstances mentioned was

recognized even in older psychology where "voluntary attention"

was spoken
litional acts,
it

by

its

namely,

of.

But here

too, as in the case of external vo-

will stood alone;

there was no explanation of

antecedents, for the central point in the development,

the fact that so-called involuntary attention

is

only

a simpler form of internal voHtion, was entirely overlooked.

Then,

too, in full accord with the

methods of the old faculty-

theory "attention" and "will" were regarded as different, sometimes as related,

forces,

sometimes

as mutually excluding psychical

while the truth evidently

refer to
difference

the
is

same

class

of

is

that these two concepts

psychical processes.

The only

that processes of apperception and attention are

those which occur only as so-called

have no external

effects

internal

except indirectly

acts,

that

when they lead

is,

to

other processes.
10.

we

Connected with these internal

volitional acts,

call processes of attention, there takes place

which

a formation

220

III-

Interoormeciion of Psyehieal Compounds.

of certain concepts of the highest importance for all psychical

development.

This

formation of the concept svhject

the

is

and the correlate presupposition

of

objects

out in

its

still it

has

Even

logical
its

form only with the aid of

of'

scientific reflection,

substratum in the processes of attention.

immediate experience there

in

components

independent

This can be carried

standing over against the subject.

realities

as

is

a division between

On the one hand are those which

this experience.

are arranged in space with relation to the point of orientation

mentioned above

(p.

131),

and are called

something outside the perceiving subject,

the

mode

either objects, that

is,

when we attend

to

or,

of their rise in consciousness, ideas, that

something

is

which the subject perceives.

On

those contents of experience

which do not belong to

the other hand, there are

this

spacial order, though they are continually brought into relation

with

it

through their quaKty and intensity.

we saw

tents, as

in 12

These

latter con-

14, are intimately interconnected.

Feelings are parts of emotions and emotions are to be considered as components of voliUonal processes.

may end

before

it

is

The^ process

fuUy completed, as often when a feeling

no noticeable emotion, or when an emotion fades

out without really causing the volitional act for which it
prepared the way. All these affective processes may, accordgives rise to

be

ingly,

p^vcess.

subsumed under the

This

is

general

the complete process of which the two others

more complex

are merely components of simpler or

IVom

this

voliUonal

concept

character.

point of view we can easily understand how

it

is

that even simple feelings contain, in the extremes between which

they vary, a volitional direction

and

express, in the

same way,

the amount of volitional energy present at a given moment;

and

finally,

correspond to certain particular phases of the

volitional process

itself.

The

direction of volition

is

obviously

indicated by the pleasurable or unpleasurable directions

of

Consciousness and Attention.

15.

which correspond directly

feelings,

reach something or to avoid

its

expression

it.

the arousing

in

some

sort of effort to

The energy of

volition finds

and subduing

directions

of

phases of a Yolitional process are

feelings, while the opposite

and

related to the directions of strain

relaxation.

Thus, volition proves to be the fundamental fact from

11.

which

to

221

all

made up

those processes arise which are

Then, too, in the process of apperception^

through psychological analysis to have

we have a

of a volitional act,

which

arise

found

is

the characteristics

all

direct relation between this

fundamental fact and the ideational contents

which

of feelings.

from the spacial arrangement

of experience

of sensations.

Now,

apprehended as unitary processes and

volitional processes are

as being uniform in character in the midst of all the variations

As

in their components.

a result there arises an immediate

feeling of this unitary interconnection, which

is

most intimately

connected with the feeling of activity that accompanies

and then

volition,

is

carried over to

because of their relation to

as

will,

all

all

conscious contents

mentioned above.

This

feeling of the interconnection of all single psychical experiences

is

called the "ego".

called.

Like

sensations

is

all feelings,

and

a feeling, not an idea as

however,

The

ideas.

related to the ego

of one's

It

are the

separates

it

is

often

connected with certain

ideational components most closely

common

off

affective

sensations

and the idea

from the

and ideational contents which

totality

of consciousness

closely with the feeling of the ego,

is

is

own body.

That part of the

It

it is

it

no more a

made

up,

reality,

than

is

is

and fuses

called self-consciousness.

apart from the processes of which

consciousness in general,

but merely

points out the interconnection of these processes, which further-

more, especially in their ideational components,

can never

be sharply distinguished from the rest of consciousness.

This

222

-27.

shows

itself

Iniercormection of Psy(^iecd Oompotmds.

most of

own body sometimes

times

distinct

is

all

in the fact that the idea of one's

fuses with the feeling of the ego, some-

from

it

as the idea of an ohject,

and that

in general self-consciousness in its development always tends

to reduce itself to its affective basis.

This separation of self-consciousness from the other

12.

contents of consciousness also gives rise to the discrimination

and

of subject
to

be

sure,

objects.

by the

This discrimination was prepared

contents of consciousness, but

consequence

of

this

meanings of

different times

the subject

is

is

separation.

accordingly as a result of
different

among

characteristic differences

its

fully carried out only as a

The concept

it

different scope,

has

be the one employed.

each of which

In

its

may

at

narrowest sense

the interconnection of volitional processes which

In the next wider

includes the real content of these voHtional processes

together with the feeUngs

way.

sidyeet

psychological development three

finds expression in the feeling of the ego.

sense

for,

the original

Finally,

in

its

and emotions that prepare

widest

significance

it

embraces

their

the

constant ideational substratum of these subjective processes,

that

is,

the body of the individual as the seat of the

common

development the widest significance

is

the oldest, and in actual psychical experience the narrowest

is

sensations.

In the

continually giving
it

line of

way

to a return of one of the others because

can be fuUy attained only through conceptual abstraction.

This highest form

is,

then,

in reaUty merely a kind of limit

towards which the self-consciousness

may approach more

or

less closely.

This discrimination of subject and objects, or the ego

and the outer world as it is commonly expressed by reducing the
first concept to its original affective substratum and gathering

12

a.

this discrimination
the second together in a general concept
is the basis of all the considerations responsible for the dualism

15.

Consciotisness

and

Attention.

223

which first gained currency in the popular view of things and

was then carried over into the philosophical systems. It is on
this ground that psychology comes to be set over against the
other sciences, in particular the natural sciences, as a science of
the subject ( 1, 3 a.) This view could be right only under the
conditions that the discrimination of the ego from the outer

world were a fact preceding all experience and that the concepts
subject and objects could be unequivocally distinguished once
for

But

all.

which
are,

it

neither of these

is

fulfilled.

the product, not the producer.

is

therefore,

lutely

conditions

Self-con-

depends on a whole series of psychical processes of

sciousness

different

Subject and object

neither originally nor in later development abso-

contents

of

but they are concepts

experience,

which are due to the refiection resulting from the interrelations

of the various components of the absolutely unitary content of
our immediate experience.

The interconnection

13.

up consciousness,

of psychical processes which

necessarily has

its

processes of combination which are

makes

deepest spring in the

continually taking place

between the elements of the single contents of experience.

Such processes are operative in the formation

chical compounds and they are what give rise

of single psyto the simul-

taneous unity of the state of consciousness present at a given

moment and

also to the continuity of successive states.

processes of combination are of the most various kinds

one has

its

individual coloring,

produced in any second

case.

ences are those exhibited

which

Still,

is

These
;

each

never exactly re-

the most general differ-

by the attention

in

the passive

reception of impressions and the active apperception of the

same.

As

short

names

for these differences

we use

the term

association to indicate a process of combination in a passive

state of attention,

and apperceptive combination

a combination in which the attention

is

active.

to indicate

224

III'

Interconnection of Psychical Compotmds.

ASSOCIATIONS.

16.

The concept

1.

association has undergone, in the

development of psychology,

a necessary

To be

change in meaning.

sure,

and the

accepted everywhere,

modem

and very radical

change has not been

this

original

meaning

is

still

re-

by those psychologists who support, even

tained,

especially

to-day,

the fundamental positions on which the association-

psychology grew up
is

predominantly

p.

( 2,

13

This psychology which

sq.).

intellectualistic,

pays attention to nothing

but the ideational contents of consciousness and, accordingly,

limits the concept of association to the combinations of ideas.

Hartley and

Hume,

two founders

the

of

association-psy-

chology, spoke of "association of ideas" in this limited sense, i)

Ideas were regarded

that

could

same character
(p.

13,

8).

as

objects,

or

at

least

as

processes

be repeated in consciousness with exactly the

as that in

This led

to

which they were present at

the

view

that

association

first

was a

principle for the explanation of the so-called "reproduction"

Furthermore,

of ideas.

it

was not considered necessary to

account for the rise of composite ideas with the aid of psychological analysis,

since

it

was assumed that the physical

union of impressions in sense-perception was

sufficient

to

explain the psychological composition and so the concept of

association
tion in
time.

was Hmited

to those forms of so-called reproduc-

which the associated ideas succeed one another in

For the

discrimination of the chief forms of successive

associations Aristotle's logical

was accepted, and

fication

[1)

scheme for the memory-processes

in accordance with the principle of classi-

by opposites the following forms were discriminated:

The author remarks that the English word idea

German VorsteUung.

corresponds to the

as here used
Tr.]

by

association

and

similarity

and

simultaneity

16. Associations.

225

contrast,

and

by

association

These class-concepts gained by

succession.

a logical dichotomic process were dignified with the name

"laws

sought

Modern psychology has

associations".

of
to

reduce

the niimber

Contrast

these laws.

of

generally
is

regarded as a special form of similarity, for only those contrasted concepts are associated which belong

general class

and

associations

by simultaneity and succession

are both included under contiguity.

outer association and

as

by

Some

similarity.

Contiguity

then regarded

is

contrasted with imner association

psychologists believe

these two forms to a single,

still

it

possible to reduce

more fundamental, "law

by making association by contiguity a

association"

what

of similarity, or,

larity as a result of

association

special

of

form

more common, by explaining simiassociation by contiguity. In both cases

is still

generally

is

the same

to

brought

under

the

more

general

principle of practice or habituation.

2.

The whole foundation

destroyed by two facts

upon us
tally.

the

we begin

as soon as

The

of

first

psychological

posite ideas,

for this

kind of theorizing

which force themselves

these

analysis

to study the matter experimen-

facts
of

ia

irresistibly

is

the

general

sense-perceptions,

result

of

that com-

which association-psychology regards as

irre-

ducible psychical units, are in fact the results of synthetic

processes which are obviously in close interconnection with the

complex processes commonly called

fact

comes from the experimental investigation

processes.

It

strict sense of

is

The second
of memory-

found that the reproduction of ideas in the

a renewal in

idea, never takes place at

in

associations.

an act of memory

is

all,

its

unchanged form of an

earlier

but that what really does happen

the rise of a

new idea

always differing from the earlier idea to which

in consciousness,
it is

referred,

and

deriving its elements as a rule from various preceding ideas.

WuiiDT, Psychology.

226

Interconneetion of Psychical Compounds.

III-

from the

It follows

processes

of

first fact

that there are elementary

between the components

association

of ideas

preceding the associations of composite ideas with one another,

to which

name

the

The second

generally limited.

is

fact

proves that ordinary associations can be nothing but complex

products of such elementary associations.

show the utter unjustifiableness

These conclusions

of excluding

the elementary

processes whose products are simultaneous ideas rather than

successive,

from the concept

Then,

association.

too, there is

no reason for limiting the concept to ideational processes.

The

existence of composite feehngs, emotions,

etc.,

shows, on

the contrary, that affective elements also enter into regular

combinations, which

may

in

turn unite with associations of

sensational elements to form complex products,

in the rise of temporal ideas ( 11, p. 156
relation

as

we saw

The

intimate

between the various orders of combining processes

and the necessity

to

sq.).

of

elementary associations as antecedents

complex combinations, furnishes further support for

all

the observation

made on

of conscious processes,

the general

that

it

is

mode

of the occurrence

never possible to draw a

sharp boundary line between the combinations of the elements

that compose psychical compounds,

and the interconnection

of the various psychical compounds, in consciousness

3.

and

in

any particular case unequivocal,

association

shows

(p.

203).

It follows that the concept of association can gain a fixed,

is

significance, only

when

regarded as an elementary process which never

itself in

the actual psychical processes except in a more

or less complex form,

so that the only

character of elementary association

products to a psychological analysis.

is

way

to find out the

to subject its

The

complex

ordinarily so-called

associations (the successive associations) are only one,

loosest at that, of all the forms of combination.

and the

In contrast

with these we have the closer combinations from which the

16. Associations.

different kinds of psychical

227

compounds

and to which

arise

yve

apply the general name fusions, because of the closeness of the

The elementary processes from which the

various compounds, the intensive, spacial, and temporal ideas,
the composite feelings, the emotions, and the vohtional processes
union

(p.

94, sq.).

arise, are, accordingly, to

Por

be considered as associative processes.

the purpose of practical discrimination, however,

it

will

be well to limit the word "association" to those combining

processes which take place between elements of different com-

association

contrast

in

with fusion,

approach to the meaning that

(p.

we

This narrower meaning which

pounds.

224),

psychical

for

it

refers

compounds

it

is

had

give

the term

one respect an

in

older psychology

in

exclusively to the interconnection of

in consciousness.

It

differs

from the

older concept, however, iu two important characteristics. First

it is

here regarded as an elementary process,

dealing with complex phenomena,

mentary processes.

when we are

as a product of such ele-

we

Secondly,

or,

recognize,

just as

in the

case of fusions, simultaneous associations as well as successive.

In

fact,

the former are to be looked upon as the earlier.

A.

4.

Simultaneous associations made up of elements from

different
classes:

ments

SIMULTANEOUS ASSOCIATIONS.

psychical

compounds

into assimilations,
of like

may be

divided

into

two

or associations between the ele-

compounds, and complications, or associations

between elements of unlike compounds. Both may take

place,

in accordance with our limitation of the concept association,

between those compounds only which are themselves simultaneous combinations, that
ideas

is,

and between composite

between intensive and spacial

feelings.

15*

228

Interconnection of Psychical Gompoimds.

III-

Assimilations.

a.

Assimilations are a form of association that

5.

met

inually

with,

spacial ideas.
of

It

especially
is

an

in the

case

is

of intensive

con-

and

supplement to the process

essential

formation of ideas by fusion.

In the case of composite

feehngs this form of combination never seems to appear except where

we have

at the

ideational elements.

It

is

same time an assimilation

most

clearly

of the

demonstrable when

certain single components of the product of an assimilation are

given through external sense-impressions, while others belong

In such a case the assimilation may be

to earlier ideas.

demonstrated by the fact that certain components

idea which

of

the

are wanting in the objective impression or are

there represented by components

present in the idea

itself,

other than those actually

can be shown to arise from

earlier

Experience shows that of these reproduced components

ideas.

those are most favored which are very frequently present.

Still,

certain single elements of the impression are usually of

more importance
are, so that

may be

in

when

determining the association than others

these dominanting elements are altered, as

the case especially with assimilations

sense, the

of the visual

product of the assimilation undergoes a corresponding

change.
6.

Among

intensive

compounds

it is

especially the auditory

ideas which are very often the results of assimilation.

also furnish the

most

striking examples

frequency mentioned above.

Of

They

for the principle of

the auditory ideas the

all

most familiar are the readily available ideas of wards, for

these are attended to more than other sound-impressions. As
a result the hearing of words
assimilations;

is

continually accompanied by

the sound-impression

entirely filled out

by

is

incomplete,

earlier impressions,

so that

but

it

is

we do not

16. Associations.

So

notice the incompleteness.

it

'

229

comes that not the correct

hearing of words, but the misunderstanding of them, that

is,

the erroneous filling out of incomplete impressions through

incorrect assimilations,
process.

what generally leads us to notice the

of the same fact in the

is

"We may find an expression

ease with which any sound whateyer, as, for example, the cry
of an animal, the noise of water, wind, machinery,

he made to sound
7.

In the case

like

words almost at

of intensive feelings

can

etc.,

will.

we note

the presence

of assimilations in the fact that impressions which are accom-

panied by sense-feeHngs and [elementary aesthetic

very

feeling,

often exercise a second direct affective influence for which

we can account only when we recall certain ideas of which

we are reminded by the impressions. In such cases the
association
tion,

is

and only

simultaneous.
effect

usually at

is,

first

so long

The

only a form of affective associa-

as this

on the contrary, a

true

the assimilation

is

later process belonging

forms of successive association.

possible,

is

ideational association which explains the

when we have

For

this

reason

it is

to the

hardly

clang-impressions or color-impressions

accompanied by particular feehngs, or when we have simple

spacial ideas, to decide

what the immediate

of the impression itself

is

As

and what

is

affective influence

that of the association.

a rule, in such cases the affective process

upon

as the resultant of an immediate

factor which unite to form a single,

is

to

and an

be looked
associative

unitary total feeling in

accordance with the general laws of affective fusion

8.

Association in the case of spacial ideas

comprehensive character.
sphere of touch

when

It

vision

is
is

is

(p.

159).

of the

most

not very noticeable in the

present,

on account of the

small importance of tactual ideas in general and especially

for memory.
essential

For the bHnd, on the other hand,

means for the rapid orientation

in

it

is

the

space which

is

230

III-

Interconnection of Psychical Compoimds.

necessary, for example, in the rapid reading of the blind-

The

alphabet.

when
cases

effects of assimilation are

most strikingly evident

several tactual surfaces are concerned, because in such

its

arise in

presence

is

easily betrayed

by the

illusions

which may

consequence of some disturbance in the usual interThus, for example, when

relation of the sensations.

we touch

a small ball with the index and middle fingers crossed, we

have the idea of two

The explanation

balls.

is

In

obvious.

the ordinary position of the fingers the external impression

here given actually corresponds to two

balls,

and the many

perceptions of this kind that have been received before, exercise

an assimilative action on the new impression.

In visual sense-perceptions assimilative processes play a

9.

very large part.

Here they

aid in the formation of ideas of the

magnitude, distance, anij three-dimensional character of visual

objects.

In

they are essential supplements of

this last respect

immediate binocular motives for projection into depth.

Thus,

the correlation that exists between the ideas of the distance and

magnitude of
in

objects, as, for example, the apparent difference

the size of the sun or

zenith, is to

moon on

be explained as an

the horizon

and

effect of assimilation.

at the

The

perspective of drawing and painting also depends on these

influences.

A picture drawn or painted

on a plane surface can

appear three-dimensional only on condition that the impression

arouses earMer three-dimensional ideas which are assimilated

with the new impression. The influence of these assimilations

most evident

in the case of

is

unshaded drawings that can be seen

either in relief or in intaglio. Observation shows that these differ-

ences in appearance are by no means accidental or dependent

on the so-called "power of imagination", but that there are

always elements in the immediate impression which determine
completely the assimilative process.

thus operative are, above

all,

The elements

that are

the sensations arising from the

16. Associations.

position
linear

and movements of the

231

Thus, for example, a

eye.

design which can be interpreted as either a sohd or

a hollow prism,
according

as

seen alternately in relief and in iatagHo

is

we

the two cases the parts of the

fixate in

drawing which correspond ordinarily to a

object.

solid angle represented

plane appears in relief

one of the

when

when

lines, starting

movement

the

end of the

line

the assimilation

is

same

moved along

appears in intaglio

from the

direction,

In these and

towards the apex.

is

it

in the opposite

is

lines in the

the fixation-point

from the apex,

a hoUow

solid or to

by three

determined by the rule that in

all like
its

cases

movement

over the fixation-Hnes of objects the eye always passes from

nearer to more distant points.

In other

cases the geometric optical illusions ( 10, 19

and

which are due to the laws of ocular movements, produce

20)

secondarily

ideas

certain

of

and

distance,

not in-

these

frequently eliminate the contradictions brought about in the

picture by the illusions.

Thus, to

an interrupted

illustrate,

straight line appears longer than an equal uninterrupted line

(p.

125); as a result

depth than the

we tend to project
Here both lines

latter.

the

first to

a greater

cover just the same

distances on the retina in spite of the fact that their length

is

perceived

as

because

different,

of

energy connected with their estimation.

contradiction
distance, for
like,

is

effected

when one

by means

of two hues

appears longer than the other,

conditions of vision, belong to a

when one

straight line

another, the result

is

is

it

the

An

motor

different

elimination of this

of the different ideas of

whose

retinal images are

must, under the ordinary

more

distant object.

Again,

intersected at an acute angle

by

an overestimation of the acute angle,

which sometimes gives

rise,

when the

line

is

apparent bending near the point of intersection

long,

(p. 125).

to

an

Here

too the contradiction between the course of the line and the

232

I,

III-

Iniereonnection of Psyehioal Compoimds.

increase in the size of the angle of intersection,

often elim-

is

by the apparent extension of the line in the third

dimension. In all these cases the perspective can be explained

inated

only

as

the

assimilative

effect

of

ideas

earlier

of

corre-

sponding character.

In none

10.

of the assimilations discussed

is

it

possible

to

show that any former idea has acted as a whole on

the

new

must

Generally this

impression.

attribute the assimilative

of ideas, differing in

many

is

impossible because

influence to a large

respects from one another.

for example, a straight line

which intersects a

we

number
Thus,

vertical at

an

acute angle, corresponds to innumerable cases in which an inclination

of the

hne with

its

accompanying increase

of the

angle appeared as a component of a three-dimensional idea.

But

may have been

these cases

all

to the size of the angle,

attending circumstances.

the length

We

very different in regard

of the hues,

and other

must, accordingly, think of the

assimilative process as a process in which not a single definite

idea or even a definite combination of elements from earlier

but as a rule a great number of such combinations

ideas,

These need agree only approximately with the

are operative.

new impression
-

We

may

in

gain

oMer

to affect consciousness.

some notion

of the

way

in

which

this

produced from the important part that certain

effect is

ments connected with the impression play in the process,

for

example,

ments

in

the

visual

sensations
ideas.

of

ocular

Obviously

it

position
is

these

eleas,

and moveimmediate

sensational elements that serve to pick out from the great

mass

which react upon the impression,

of ideational elements

certain particular ones that

correspond to themselves, and

then biing these selected factors

that of the
pression.

At

rest, of

ihe.

into,

a form agreeing with

the components of the immediate im-

same time

it

appears that not. merely the

elements

memory -images

our

of

and therefore

16. Associations.

233

are

relatively

indefinite

but that even the perception of an

variable,

may

immediate impression

vary

under

special

conditions

within fairly wide limits. In this vyay the assimilative process

starts

primarily from elements of the immediate impression,

chiefly

from particular ones which are

tance for the formation of the idea,

tions of ocular position

of preeminent impor-

as, for

and movement

example, the sensa-

in visual ideas.

These

elements call up certain particular memory-elements corre-

These memories then

sponding to themselves.
assimilative

effect

pression in turn reacts in the

These separate acts

elements.

exercise an

on the immediate impression, and the imsame way on the reproduced

are,

like

the whole process,

not successive, but, at least for our consciousness, simultaneous.

For

reason the product of the assimilation

this

an

as

immediate,

unitary

idea.

characteristics of assimilation are,

made up
that

is,

The

two

apperceived

is

distinguishing

accordingly,

that

1)

it is

of a series of elementary processes of combination,

processes that have to do with the components of ideas,

not with the whole ideas themselves, and

components

modify one

another

2) that

the united

through reciprocal assim-

ilations.
11.

main

On

this

differences

basis

we can explain without

difficulty the

between complex assimilative processes, by

the very different parts that the various

factors necessary

to such

a process play in the various concrete cases.

ordinary

sense-perceptions

the

direct

In

elements are so pre-

dominant that the reproduced elements are as a rule

overlooked, although in reaUty they are never

entirely

absent

and

are often very important for the perception of the objects.

These reproduced elements are much more noticeable when

the

assimilative effect

through

of

the

direct

elements

is

hindered

external or internal influences, such as indistinctness

234

III-

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

of the impression or affective

cases where

all

and emotional excitement. In

the difference between the impression and

the idea becomes, in this way,

at once

so great that

we

on closer examination,

call

it

is

apparent

the product of the

assimilation an illusion.

The

makes

universality of assimilation

it

certain that such

processes occur also between reproduced elements, in such a

way

that any memory-idea which arises in our

mediately modified by
elements.

demonstration.

of
is

interaction

its

in such a case

Still,

we

with

mind

is

im-

memory-

other

have, of course, no means

All that can be established as probable

that even in the case of so-called "pure memory-processes"

form of sensations and sense-feelings

direct elements in the

aroused by peripheral stimuli, are never entirely absent.

reproduced visual images, for example,

present

in the

In

such elements are

form of sensations of ocular position

and

movement.
ComplieaUons.

b.

12.

Complications,

the

or

combinations

between unlike

psychical compounds, are no less regular components of consciousness than are assimilations.

Just as there

is

hardly an

intensive or extensive idea or composite feeHng which

way through

modified in some

the processes

assimilation with memory-elements,

these compounds

is

In

all cases,

of

which

it

not

reciprocal

almost every one of

same time connected with

at the

dissimilar compounds, with

tions.

so

is

other,

has some constant rela-

however, complications are different from

assimilations in the fact that the unlikeness of the

compounds

makes the connection

may

that

looser,

when one component

is

however regular
direct

it

the latter can be readily distinguished at once.

is

be, so

and the other reproduced,

Still,

there

another reason which makes the product of a compUcation

^S

appear unitary

between

16. Assoeiatiotis.

of the

in spite

components.

its

S^g
recognized difference

easily

This cause

the predominance of

is

one of the compounds, which pushes the other components into the obscurer field of consciousness.
If the complication unites a direct impression with

ory-elements
with

its

ponent,

assimilations

speak,

the

com-

sometimes

have

affective

tone.

their

word-ideas

auditory

the

predominant

elements

through

only

influence

when we

regularly

is

mem-

the direct impression

character,

reproduced

the

while

a noticeable

Thus,

disparate

of

are

the

predominant components, and in addition we have as obscure factors direct motor

sensations

the visual images of the words.

and reproductions

of

In reading, on the other

hand, the visual images come to the front while the rest

become weaker.

In general

of a complication

may be

it

said that the existence

frequently noticeable only through the

is

peculiar coloring of the total feeling that accompanies the

predominant

This

idea.

is

due to the

to have a relatively intense

their

tones

affective

(p.

216).

characteristic impression of a

or a gun,

arises

effect

ability of obscure ideas

on the attention through

Thus,

for

example,

the

rough surface, a dagger-point,

from a complication

of visual

and tactual

impressions, and in the last case of auditory impressions as

well; but as a rule

such comphcations are noticeable

through the feelings they

B.

13.

excite.

SUCCESSIVE ASSOCIATIONS.

Successive association

differs essentially

ciation,

is

by no means a process that

from the two forms

assimilation

due to the same

only

and complication.

of simultaneous assoIt

general causes as these,

is,

on the contrary,

and

differs

only in

the secondary characteristic that the process of combination,

^-

236

Interconneetion of Psychical Oompoimds.

which in the former cases consisted,

introspection was concerned,
is

here protracted and

two

The

acts.

first

may

of

so

far as immediate

a single instantaneous

act,

therefore be readily divided into

of these acts corresponds to the appearance

of the reproducing elements, the second to the appearance of

the reprodticed

introduced

Here

elements.

by an external

too,

the

first

sense-impression,

act

a rule immediately united with an assimilation.

productive

is

which

often
is

Other

as
re-

elements which might enter into an assimilation

or complication are held back through some inhibitory influence or other

as,

for example, through other assimilations

that force themselves earlier on apperception

begin to exercise an influence untU

later.

have a second act of apperception clearly

and

In

and do not
this

distinct

way we

from the

from it in sensational content the more

more numerous the new elements are which
are added through the retarded assimilation and complication
and the more these new elements tend to displace the earlier

flrst,

differing

essentially the

because of their difEerent character.

14.

In the great majority of cases the association thus

formed

is

limited to

two

processes connected, in the

or complications.

ilations

successive ideational or

manner

New

apperceptive combinations ( 17)

with the second

it

member

affective

described, through assim-

sense-impressions

may

or

of the association.

Less frequently

happens that the same processes which led to the

may be

repeated with the second or even with the

third member, so that in this

tional series.

Still,

way we have a whole

especially

when

apperception has been disturbed,

''flight

associa-

this takes place generally only under ex-

ceptional conditions,

called

flrst

complication into a successive

division of an assimilation or

process,

some

then connect themselves

as,

of ideas" of the insane.

the normal course of

for example, in the so-

In normal cases such


that

serial associations,

16. Associations.

237
with more than two

associations

is,

members, hardly ever appear.

1

Such

4 a.

under the

apperceptiTe

be produced most easily

when

conditions of experimentation,

made

purposely

is

may

associations

serial

artificial

suppress

to

combinations.

new

But the process

the effort

and

impressions

sensible

resulting

in

such

cases differs from that described above in that the successive

members of the series do not connect, each with its immediate

predecessor, but all go back to the

until

first,

new

sense-im-

pression or an idea with an especially strong affective tone furnishes

new

tions

starting point for the succeeding associations.

in the

"flight of ideas"

same type of returning to certain predominant

a.

The way

15.

made up

and

Sensible Recognition
in

of two

Cognition.

may be most

served, is in the simultaneous assimilations

is

and

cognition.

added when referring

indicate,

cess

The

to these

on the one hand, that the

always

is

centres.

which the ordinary form of association,

partial processes,

sensible recognition

The associashow the

generally

of the insane

clearly ob-

and complications

associative processes,
first

member

and,

sense-impression,

of

qualification "sensible"

to

of the pro-

on the other, to

distinguish these from the logical processes of cognition.

The

psychologically simplest case

of recognition

is

that

for example, seen

in which an object has been perceived
only once and is recognized as the same when met a second

If this second perception follows very soon after the

time.
first,

or

if

the

first

was especially emphatic and

exciting,

the association usually takes place immediately as a simul-

taneous assimilation.
lations,

This process differs from other assimi-

which take place in connection with every sense-

perception,

only in the characteristic accompanying feeling,

the feeling of familiarity.

except when there

is

Such a

feeling

is

never present

some degree of "consciousness" that the

238

Intereonmedion of Psychical Gompoimds.

III-

impression has already been received before.

evidently one

of those

therefore,

is,

The psychological

obscurely present in consciousness.

between

It

which comes from the ideas

feelings

difference

and an ordinary simultaneous assimilation must

this

be looked for in the fact that at the moment when, in the

apperception of the impression, the assimilation takes place,
there

in

arise

the

obscure

regions

of

some

consciousness

components of the original idea which do not enter into the

Their relation to the elements of the idea that

assimilation.
is

apperceived finds expression in the feeling of famiharity.

The unassimilated components may be elements

impression that were so different from
the

new

certain elements

that they could not be "assimilated,

especially often the

case,

may be

they

for example

object,

how

it is

the proper

that the

names

and

or,

of

this is

complications

were clear before, but now remain unobserved.

of complication explains

of the earlier

that

This influence

name

of a visual

of persons,

and often

other auditory quahties, such as the tone of voice, are very

great

helps

in

the

To

recognition.

serve

as

such helps,

however, they need not necessarily be clear ideas

sciousness.

When we

nition of the

man

the next time

by the name without our

1

5 a.

con-

we meet him may be aided

calling it clearly to mind.

may be demonstrated
take a number of disks that are alike in

This influence of complications

experimentally.
all

in

have heard a man's name, the recog-

If

we

other respects, but differ in color from white through various

shades of grey to black, and present

as only five

them

to view once, so long

shades are used (white, black,

and three shades of

grey) each disk can be easily recognized again.

shades are used,

this

is

no longer possible.

But when more

It is

very natural

to surmise that this fact is related to the existence of five familiar

names, white, light grey, grey, dark grey and black. This view
is confirmed by the fact that by purposely using a larger number
of names

more shades

(even as

many

as nine)

are recognized.

In

16. Associations.

such experiments the complication

it

is

As

not necessarily

name

a rule the

proper

is

16.

may
for

be clearly observed, but

five ordinary shades.

here thought of after the act of recognition

so,

tlie

passed.

The observations discussed

show what the con-

also

under which a recognition may pass from a simul-

ditions are

taneous

is

expecially

239

a succcessive association.

to

If a certain interval

elapses before the elements of the earher idea which gradually

rise

in

consciousness,

the

familiarity,

the perception

can

produce

distinct

feeling

whole process divides into two acts:

and the

The

recognition.

first

is

of

into

connected

with the ordinary simultaneous assimilations only,

while in

the second the obscure, unassimilated elements of the earlier

idea show their influence.

more

accordingly,

The

division

between the parts

distinct the greater the difference

is,

between the

earher impression and the new one. In such a case, not only
is

there usually a long period of noticeable inhibition between

perception

and recognition, but certain additional

ceptive processes,

namely the processes

of voluntary attention

that take place in the state of recollection, also

of the association.

As

come

to the aid

a special form of this kind of process

we have the phenomenon

called "mediate recognition".

consists in the recognition of

attributes,

apper-

an

object, not

through

This

its

own

but through some accompanying mark or other,

which stands in a chance connection with

when a person

is

it,

as,

for example,

recognized because of his companion.

Be-

tween such a case and a case of immediate recognition there

is

no

essential psychological difference.

teristics that
still

For even those charac-

do not belong to the recognized object in

itself,

belong to the whole complex of ideational elements that

help in the preparation and final carrying out of the association.

And

yet, as

we should

naturally expect, the retardation which

divides the whole recognition into

two ideational processes,

m-

240

Intercotmeotimi of Psychical Compmrnds.

and often leads

to the cooperation of voluntary recollection,

appears

generally

in

most

its

form

evident

in

mediate

recognitions.
17.

This simple process of recognition which takes place

when we meet again an

before,

is

object that has been perceived once

a starting poiat for the development of various

other associative processes, both those which hke itself stand

on the boundary between simultaneous and successive asso-

and those

ciations,

of assimilations
processes,
of

is

which the retardation in the formation

in

and complications that leads

still

more

clearly marked.

to the successive

Thus, the recognition

an object that has often been perceived

therefore,

more

as

like the

familiarity

is

generally but
jects.

The

is

easier and,

a rule an instantaneous process, which

ordinary assimilation because

much
little

less

of

of

single familiar ob-

between the two concepts consists

in the fact that recognition

individual identity

also

is

feeling

Sensible cognition differs

intense.

from the recognition of

logical distinction

the

means the establishment

of the

the newly perceived with a formerly

perceived object, while cognition

object under a familiar concept.

is

the subsumption of
there

Still,

is

an

no real logical

subsumption in a process of sensible cognition any more than

there

is

a fully developed class-concept under which the sub-

sumption could be made.

such a subsumption
process

of

relating

is

definitely large

number
various

particular properties,

The psychological equivalent

be found in

this case in the

impression in

the

perception

of

to

of objects.

objects

question

to

an

in-

This presupposes an earlier

which agree only in certain

that the process of cognition ap-

so

proaches the ordinary assimilation more and more in

chological character the

of

mere

more

perceived object belongs,

its

psy-

familiar the class to which the

and the more

general characteristics of the class.

it

agrees with the

In equal measure the

16. Associations.

241

feelings peculiar to the processes of cognition

and recognition

decrease and

that

disappear entirely,

finally

so

meet very famiHar objects we do not speak

at

all.

The process

the assimilation

the single

has become

in question

shows some unique

object

In such a case the simultaneous association

characteristics.

successive

by the separation of perception and

cognition into two successive processes.

as this happens,
is

when

hindered in some way, either because the

is

or because

may become

of a cognition

of cognition hecomes evident only

perception of the class of objects

unusual,

when we

Just in proportion

we have a

specific feeling of cognition which

indeed related to the feeMng of familiarity, but, as a result

of the different conditions for the rise of the two, differs from
it,

especially in its temporal course.

b.

18.

Memory-processes.

Essentially different

is

the direction along which the

simple process of recognition develops,

when the hindrances

to immediate assimilation which give rise to the transition from

simultaneous to successive association are great enough, so

that the ideational elements which do not agree with the

perception unite

when

new

either after the recognition has taken place

to

form

a special idea referred directly to an earher impression.

The

or even

there

is

no such recognition whatever

process that arises imder such circumstances

process and the idea that

is

perceived

is

is

a memory-

a memory-idea, or

memory-imMge.
18

a.

Memory-processes were the

psychology generally
ciation.

ones to which association-

limited, the application of the

concept asso-

But, as has been shown, these are associations that take

place under especially complicated conditions.

An

understanding

of the genesis of association was thus rendered impossible from

Wdndt, Psychology.

16

m.

242
the

first,

and

Intercormeetion of Psychical Compounds.

it

is

easy to see that the doctrine accepted by the

than a psy-

associationists is limited essentially to a logical rather

chological classification of the different kinds of association that are

A knowledge

to be observed in memory-processes.

of these

more

however, only through a study starting with the simpler associative processes, for the ordinary simultaneous assimilations and simultaneous and successive recognitions

complex processes

is possible,

present themselves very naturally as the antecedents of memoryassociations. But even simultaneous recognition itself is nothing but

an assimilation accompanied by a feeling which comes from the unassimilated ideational elements obscurely present in consciousness.

In the second process these unassimilated elements serve to retard

the process,

into the primitive

that the recognition develops

so

form of successive

association.

The impression

is

at first assimi-

and then again in a second act with

an accompanying feeling of recognition which serves to indicate
In this
the greater influence of certain reproduced elements.
lated in the ordinary way,

simple form of successive association the two successive ideas are

referred to one and the same object, the only difference being that

each time some different

apperceived.
different.

ideational

affective

the

case

elements
is

Here the heterogeneous elements of the

pressions predominate, and the

is

and

With memory-associations
first

are

essentially
earlier

im-

assimilation of the impression

followed by the formation of an idea made up of elements of

the impression and also of those belonging to earlier impressions,

that are suitable for the assimilation because

of certain of their

The more the heterogeneous elements predominate,

the more is the second idea different from the first, or, on the
other hand, the more the like elements predominate, the more
the two ideas will be alike.
In any case the second idea is
always a reprodiMed idea and distinct from the new impression as
an independent compound.
components.

19.

may

The general

exhibit shades

conditions for the rise of memory-images

and

differences

which run parallel to the

forms of recognition and cognition discussed above. Various

modifications
different

of the memory-processes

kinds

of

ordinary

may

assimilation

arise

that

from the

we become

acquainted with above

16. Associations.

243

as the recognition of an object

(15, 17),

perceived once and that of an object familiar through frequent

perceptions,

and

familiar in

is

its

also

from the cognition

of

a subject that

general class-characteristics.

Simple recognition becomes a memory-process when the

immediate assimilation of the impression

ments that belong not to the object

that attended

its

earlier perception.

is

hindered by ele-

but to circumstances

itself,

Just because the former

perception occurred only once, or at least only once so far

as the reproduction

may be

is

concerned, these accompanying elements

relatively clear

and

distinct

and sharply distinguished

from the surroundings of the new impression.

we have

first

this

way

of all transitional forms between recognition

and

remembering: the object

is

recognized,

and

In

at the

same time

referred to a particular earlier sense-perception whose accom-

panying circumstances add a

relation to the memory-image.

definite

spacial

and temporal

The memory-process is

especially

predominant in those cases where the element of the new impression that gave rise to the assimilation

by the other components

relation between

is

entirely suppressed

of the image, so that the associative

the memory-idea and the impression

may

remain completely unnoticed.

19 a.

Such

been spoken of as "mediate memories",

just as with "mediate recognitions"
here too, dealing with processes that are fundamentally
cases have

or "mediate associations".

we

are,

Still,

Take, for example,

the same as ordinary associations.

of a person who,

sitting

in

his

room

at evening,

the case

suddenly re-

members without any apparent reason a landscape that he passed

through many years before examination shows that there happened
to be in the room a fragrant flower which he saw for the first
time in that landscape.
The difference between this and an
ordinary memory-process in which the connection of the new im;

pression with an earlier experience

is

clearly recognized,

consists in the fact that here the elements

which

obviously

recall the idea

16*

in. Intercormeatim of P$yehical Gompmrnds.

244

background of consciousness by
The not infrequent .experience, commonly known as the "spontaneous rise" of ideas, in which a
memory-image suddenly appears in our mind without any assignable
puslied

are

the

into

obscure

other ideational elements.

cause,

in all probability reducible in every case to such latent

is

associations.

Memory- processes

20.

that

from

develop

recognitions

which have been often repeated and from cognitions, are in

consequence of the greater complexity of their conditions,
different

from those connected with the recognition of objects

perceived but once.

either in its

the

class,

greater,

own

"When we perceive an object that is familiar

individual characteristics or in those of

range

possible

of

and the way

in

associations

is

which the memory-processes

shall

on the

single

arise from a particular impression depends less

experiences that give rise to the association, than

the general disposition and

and

especiajlly

momentary mood

When

connected with them.

and emotions that are

the conditions are so various,

easy to see that as a general thing

calculate beforehand

as the

does on

it

of consciousness

on the interference of certain active apperceptive

processes and the intellectual feelings

it is

its

incomparably

act of

what the association

memory

is

it is

impossible to

will be.

ended, however,

As soon

the traces of

its

associative origin seldom escape careful examination, so that

we

are justified in regarding association as the universal and

only cause of memory-processes under

21.

circumstances.

all

In thus deriving memory from association,

to be forgotten

that

every

concrete

no means a simple process, but

of elementary processes, as

is

is

memory-process

made up

of a large

these

is

elementary processes

is

by

number
it is

simple ante-

its

cedents, namely, the simultaneous assimilations.

of

never

apparent from the fact that

produced by a psychological development of

portant

it is

The most im-

the

assimilative


interaction between

16. Associations.

245

some external impression and the elements

of an earlier psychical compound, or between a memory-image

already present and such elements.

Connected with

this there

are two other processes that are characteristic for memoryprocesses: one

is

the hindrance of the assimilation by unlike

elements, the other the assimilations and complications con-

nected with these

elements

and giving

rise to

a psychical

compound which differs from the first impression and

more or less definitely to some previous experience,
through

its

perience

itself

through a characteristic

feding of remembering, which

familiarity,
different,

but

is

in

its

referred

especially

This reference to the earlier ex-

complications.

shows

is

is

related

feeling,

the

to the feehng of

temporal genesis characteristically

probably in consequence of the greater number of

obscure complications that accompany the appearance of the

memory-image.
If

we

try to find the elementary processes to which both

memory-processes and

we

In general the

first

class

is

predominant when

an ordinary assimilation and recogwhile the second appears more prominently the more

the process
nition,

complex associations are reducible,

two kinds, combinations from identity and from

shall find

contiguity.

all

is

more

like

the processes approach mediate

memory

in character, that

is,

the more they take on the semblance of spontaneous ideas.

21a.
all
is

It is obvious that the usual classification,

which makes

memory-processes associations by either similarity or contiguity,

entirely unsuitable if we attempt to apply it to the modes of

psychological genesis that these processes manifest. On the other

hand, it is too general and indefinite if we try to classify the
processes logically according to their products, without reference
to their genesis. In the latter case the various relations of subordination, superordination, and coordination,

succession

and

existence,

and

of cause

the

and end,

various kinds

of temporal
of spacial connection, find only inadequate expression in the very

^^- Iriierconnection of PsycMeal Gompotmds.

246

general concepts

and "contiguity".

"similarity"

other hand, the manner of origin

is

is

studied, every

When, on the
memory-process

found to be made up of elementary processes that

may

be called

by similarity, partly associations by contiguity.

which serye to introduce the process and also those

partly associations

The

assimilations

which serve to bring about the reference to a particular earlier experience at its close, may be called associations by similarity. But
the term "similarity" is not exactly suitable even here, because it is
identical elementary processes that give rise to the assimilation, and
when such an identity does not exist, it is always produced by the
In

reciprocal assimilation.
similarity"

fact,

concept of "association by

the

based on the presupposition that composite ideas

is

are permanent psychical objects and that associations take place

between these finished

when once

to psychical

the same.

The concept itself must be rejected

up as entirely contr0,dictory

ideas.

this presupposition is given

experience and fatal to a proper understanding of

When

certain products of association, as, for example,

two successive memory-images, are

reducible

to

combinations

similar, this likeness is always

processes

of assimilation

through

identity

or

made up

of elementary

The

contiguity.

association

through identity may take place either between components that

were originally the same, or between those that have gained this
character through assimilation.
Association by contiguity is the

form

of

combination between

assimilation, thus dividing the

elements

those

that

hinder

the

whole process into a succession of

and also contributing to the memory-image those

components which give it the character of an independent compound different from that of the impression which gave rise to it.
two processes,

22.

The character

memory-ideas

of

is

intimately connected

with the complex nature of the memory-processes.

scription

as weaker, hut otherwise

of these ideas

copies of the direct sensihle idea,

as

it

not

only

emphatically

in

their

as far out

Memory-images and

could possibly be.

ideas "differ

is

in

quality

elementary

and

The

de-

faithful,

of the

way

direct sensible

intensity,

composition.

diminish the intensity of a sensible impression as

but most

may
much as

"We

we

but so long as

like,

16. Associations.

it is

247

perceptible at all

of

pleteness

than tbe small intensity of

example,

its

sensational

wben I remember an acquaintance,

and

of bis face

wbat I bave

figure are not

cbaracteristic

elements.

Por

mere obscure reproductions

but most of tbe features do not exist at

duced

Tbe incom-

tbe image I bave

wben I look

in consciousness

an essen-

it is

compound from a memory-idea.

tbe memory-idea is mucb more

tially different

of

directly at bim,
all in

tbe repro-

Connected with tbe few ideational elements

ideas.

that are really present and that can be but

little

increased

number even wben tbe attention is intentionally concentrated upon the task, are a series of combinations through
contiguity and of compUcations, such as the environments in
which I saw my acquaintance, his name, finally and more

in

especially, certain affective elements that

were present at the

These accompanying components are what make

meeting.

tbe image a memory-image.

23.

There are great individual differences in tbe

tiveness of these

accompanying elements and in the

ness of tbe sensational elements of the memory-image.

persons locate their memory-images in space and time

more

precisely than others do

and tones

is

seem to bave
of these

we

also

bave,

These various

to

name

of the nose

"memory/".

still,

it is

in place

and taste-organs.

different functions connected with the pro-

and remembering are

all

included under

This concept does not, of course, refer

any unitary psychical

(p. 11),

Very few persons

memories for odors and tastes

as substitute complications, accompanying

cesses of recognition

tbe

Some
mucb

the abibty to remember colors

exceedingly different.

distinct

motor sensations

effec-

distinct-

force, as faculty-psychology

assumed

a useful supplementary concept in empha^

sizing the differences

between different individuals. "We speak

of a faithful, comprehensive,

and easy memory, or of a good

^-

248

Inierconnection of Psychical Com/poimds.

spacial, temporal,

and verbal memory,

These expressions

etc.

serve to point out the different directions in which, according

to the original disposition or habit of the person, the' elemen-

tary assimilations and complications occur.

One important phenomenon among

referred

The

to,

is

the various differences

the gradual weakening of memory with old age.

disturbances resulting from diseases of -the brain agree

in general with this

phenomenon.

Both

are

of special

im-

portance to psychology because they exhibit very clearly the

One

influence of complications on memory-processes.

most

and

striking

symptoms

pathological cases,

It generally appears

as

of failing
is

memory,

in

of the

both normal

the weakening of verbal memory.

a lack of ability to remember,

first

proper names, then names of concrete objects in the ordi-

nary environments,

later

still

particles that are entirely

abstract

and

words,

finally

This suc-

abstract in character.

cession corresponds exactly to the possibility of substituting

in consciousness for single classes of words other ideas that

^re regularly connected with them through complication. This

possibility it

obviously greatest for proper names,

and

least

ior abstract particles^ which can be retaiaed only through their

^rerbal signs.

17.
1.

APPERCEPTIVE COMBINATIONS.

Associations in aU their

4-elated processes of

forms and also the closely

fusion that give rise to psychical

com-

pounds, are regarded by us as passive experiences, because

the feeUng of activity,
icesses

of

volition

and

which

is

characteristic

attention, never

for all pro-

appears

except in

connection with the apperception of the completed p'oduct,

presented as a result of the combination

fCiations are,

(cf.

p. 217).

Asso-

accordingly, processes that can arouse volitions.

17. Appereepiive Combinations.

249

but are not themselves directly influenced by

is,

volitions.

This

however, the criterion of a passive process.

The

case

essentially different with the

is

combinations that

compounds and

formed between

are

second kind of

different

psychical

their elements, the apperceptive combinations.

Here the feehng

of activity with its

accompanying variable

sensations of tension does not merely

foUow the combinations

as an after-effect produced by them, but

so that the combinations themselves are

it

precedes them

immediatdy recognized

as formed with the aid of the attention. In this sense they are
called active experiences.
2.

Apperceptive combinations include a large number of

psychical processes that are distinguished in popular parlance

under the general terms

understanding,

thinking,

These are

etc.

all

reflection,

regarded as higher psy-

chical processes than sense-perceptions

cesses,

still,

another.

they are

Especially

all
is

imagination,

or pure memory-pro-

looked upon as different from one

this true

of the

so-called

functions

of imagination and understanding. In contrast with this loose

view of popular psychology and of the faculty-theory, which

followed in

its

tracks, association-psychology sought to find

a unitary principle by subsuming the apperceptive combinations of ideas also

at the

same time

under the general concept of

to successive association.

effected either

association,

limiting the concept, as noted above

by neglecting the

jective distinguishing

marks

(p.

224),

This reduction to association was

essential subjective

and ob-

of apperceptive combinations, or

by

attempting to avoid the difficulties of an explanation, through

the introduction of certain supplementary concepts taken from

popular psychology.

Thus, "interest" or "intelhgence" was

credited with an influence on associations.

Very often

this

view was based on the erroneous notion that the recognition

of certain distinguishing features in apperceptive combinations

250

-H^-

Iniercormection of Psychical Gonvpownds.

and associations meant the assertion

dence of the former from the

an absolute indepen-

Of

latter.

course, this is not

All psychical processes are connected with associations

true.

as

of

much

as with the original sense-perceptions.

Yet, just as

associations always form a part of every sense-perception and

in

that appear

of

spite

in memory-processes

as relatively

independent processes, so apperceptive combinations are based

entirely on associations, but their essential attributes are not

traceable to these associations.

3.

If

we

account for the essential attributes of

try to

we may

divide

the

psychical processes that belong to this class into simple

and

apperceptive combiuations,

first

of

all

complex apperceptive functions. The simple functions are those

and comparing, the complex those

of relating

and

of synthesis

analysis.
A.

SIMPLE APPERCEPTIVE FUNCTIONS.

(Relating

and Compaiing.)

The most elementary apperceptive function is the

The grounds

4.

relating of two psychical contents to each other.

for such relating

always given in the single psychical com-

is

pounds and their

associations,

of the process itself

which the relation

distinct

is

but the actual carrying out

a special apperceptive activity through

itself

becomes a special conscious content

from the contents which are

inseparably

connected with them.

related,

though indeed

For example, when ^we

recognize the identity of an object with one perceived before,

or

when we

are conscious

of

a definite relation between a

remembered event and a present impression, there

cases

a relating apperceptive

activity

connected

is

in

both

with the

associations.

So long

as the recognition remains a pure association, the

process of relating

is

limited to the feeling of familiarity that

17. Apperceptive Oombmatiom.

follows the assimilation of the

or after a short interval.

ception

is

added to

new impression
When, on the

association,

either immediately

feehng

this

251

contrary,
is

apper-

suppHed with

a clearly recognized ideational substratum.

The earlier perand the new impression are separated in time and
then brought into a relation of identity on the basis of their
ception

The

essential attributes.

case

when we

similar

is

scious of the motives of a memory-act.

are con-

This also presupposes

that a comparison of the memory-image with the impression

that occasioned

which gave

it,

be added to the merely associative process

rise to the image.

This, again,

is

a process that

can be brought about only through active attention.

5.

Thus, the relating function

is

brought into activity

through associations, wherever they themselves or their products

made

are
is

the objects of voluntary observation.

This function

always connected, as the examples mentioned show, with

the function of comparing, so

as interdependent partial

thg-t

the two must be regarded

Every act

functions.

of relating

includes a comparison of the related psychical contents, and

a comparison

is,

of the contents
is

that in

many

in turn,

possible only through the relating

compared with one another. The only

cases the comparison

is

difference

completely subordinated

to the end of reciprocally relating the contents, while in others

it is

in itself the end.

We

speak of a process of relating in

the strict sense in the

first case,

paring in the second.

call it

and

of a process

relating

of

when I think

comof a

present impression as the reason for remembering an earlier

experience; I call

it

comparing,

on the other hand, when

I estabhsh certain definite points of agreement or difference

between the earher and the present

event.

The process of comparing is, in turn, made up of two

elementary functions which are as a rule intimately inter6.

connected

of the perception of agreements on the one hand.

'

m.

252

and

Int&reomiection of Psyehical Gomtpmmds.

on the

of differences

other.

The erroneous view

still

finds

frequent acceptance that the existence of psychical elements

and compounds

The two

is

the same as their apperceptive comparison.

Of

are to he held completely apart.

course, there

must

he agreements and differences in our psychical processes themor

selves,

we could not

perceive them;

by which we perceive,

activity

the comparing

still

from the agree-

different

is

ments and differences themselves and additional to them.

Psychical elements, the sensations and simple feelings,

7.

are compared in regard to their agreements

and thus brought

and

differences

which contains

into definite systems, each of

such elements as are closely related. Within such a system,

especially a sensational system,

Then,

intensity.

possible

is

and that

that in respect to quality,

possible:

ness

two kinds of comparison are

when

attention

is

paid to the

the elements appear in consciousness.

parison

is

in respect to

a comparison between grades of clear-

too,

way

which

in

In the same way com-

apphed to intensive and extensive psychical com-

pounds. Every psychical element and every psychical compound,

in so far as

it is

a member of a regular graded system, con-

a psychical qimntity.

stitutes

of such

a quantity

is

possible

determination of the value

only through

its

with some other quantity of the same system.

comparison
Quantity

is,

accordingly, an original attribute of every psychical element

and compound.

It

extensive (spacial

and temporal)

states

of

is

of various kinds, as intensity, quality,

value, and,

consciousness are considered,

when

the different

clearness.

But

the

determination of quantity can be effected only through the

apperceptive function of comparison.
8.

ment
acts

Psychical measurement differs from physical measurein

of

because

the fact

that

comparison
its

objects

the

latter

separated

may be

carried

out in

almost indefinitely in

are relatively constant.

time,

For example,

we can determine

17. Apperceptive Combinations.

253

the height of a certain mountain to-day

with a barometer and then

of another mountain,

and

a long time the height

after

no sensible changes iu the con-

if

we

figuration of the land have taken place in the interval,

can compare the results of our two measurements.

Psychical

compounds, on the other hand, are not relatively permanent

but continually changing processes, so that we can

objects,

compare two such psychical quantities only under the condition that they are presented in

condition has as

its

immediate succession.

immediate corollaries:

first,

This

that there

is

no absolute standard for the comparison of psychical quanbut every such comparison stands by

tities,

itself

and

is

of merely relative value; secondly, that finer comparisons are

possible only between quantities

of the

same dimension,

so

that a transfer analogous to that by which the most widely

such as periods

separate physical quantities,

physical

forces,

are reduced

spacial

to

of time

quantities

of

and
one

dimension, are out of the question in psychical comparisons.

It foUows that not every relation between psychical

9.

by

quantities can be estabHshed

is

direct comparison,

but

this

possible only for certain particularly favorable relations.

These favorable cases are

chical quantities,

and

two such quantities,

sities

2) the

as,

same dimension.

the equality between

sensational inten-

qualities of like intensity belonging

As

a somewhat more complex case

stUl Kes within the limits of

which

two psy-

ju^t noticeable difference between

for example, two

of like quahty, or two

to the

1)

immediate comparison we

of two differences between quantities,

especially when these quantities belong to contiguous parts

have

3)

of the

the equality

same system.

It

is

obvious

that

in each

of

these

three kinds of psychical measurements the two fundamental

functions in apperceptive comparison, the perception of agree-

ments and of

differences, are

both applied together.

In the

HI- Interconneetion of Psychical Compounds.

254

the second of two psychical quantities

first case
is

gradually varied until

and then

first

it

and

changed until

is

are taken

case

third

it

appears

equal at
just

either

noticeably greater or just noticeably smaller than A.

the

and

agrees for immediate comparison

In the second case

with A.

Finally,

used to the greatest advantage when a

is

whole Mne of psychical quantities, as, for example, of sensational intensities, extending

upper

limit,

is

so divided

from

as a lower to

as

an

by a middle quantity B, which

has been found by gradual variations, that the partial distance

AB

is

apperceived as equal to

The most

BC.

and most

easily utihzable

results

derived from these methods of comparison are given

by the

10.

direct

second method, or the method of minimal differences as

The

called.

it is

between the physical stimuli which

difference

corresponds to the just noticeable difference between psychical

quantities

The

called the

is

difference-threshold of the stimulus.

stimulus from which the resulting psychical process, for

example, a sensation,

can be just apperceived,

Observation

stimulus-threshold.

shows

that

is

the

called the
difference-

threshold of the stimulus increases in proportion to the distance

from the stimulus-threshold, in such a way that the relation

between the difference-threshold and the absolute quantity
of the

stimulus,

constant.
is

be

for example,

must be increased

-J-

just noticeably greater,

increased

This law
It

If,

or the relative difference-threshold,

is

-|,

is

one

3, f,

etc.,

a certain sound whose intensity

in

order that

the sensation

one whose intensity

is

understood when we look upon

apperceptive comparison.

From

obviously be interpreted to

mean

compared according

may

2 must be

to reach the difference-threshold.

called Weber's law, after its discoverer E.

easily

remains

this

it

H.Weber.

as a law of

point of view

it

must

that psychical qua/nUUes are

to their relative values.

17. Apperceptive Combinations.

This view that Weber's law

law of

the psychical

is

an expression

of psychical

relaUvity

the

quantities

255
of the general

assumes that

quantities.,

that are compared,

themselves in-

crease in proportion to their stimuli withia the limits of the

It has not yet

validity of the law.

strate the truth of this assumption

on account of the

physiological side,

Still,

we have

evidence

in the psychological experience that in certain

it

where the conditions of observation lead very

special cases,

a comparison of absolute differences in quanr

naturally to
tity,

its

measuring exactly the stimu-

and sense-organs.

lation of nerves
in favor of

difficulties of

been possible to demon-

on

the absolute difference-threshold, instead of the relative

threshold,

is

found to be constant.

"We have such a

case,

for example, in the comparison, within wide limits, of minimal

Then,

differences in pitch.
differences

third

in

sensations

are

method described above

differences,

too,

in

many

compared

(p.

cases where large

according

to

the

254), equal absolute stimuli-

not relative differences, are perceived as equal.

This shows that apperceptive comparison follows two different

principles

under

different conditions:

comparison that finds

its

a principle of relative

expression in Weber's law and must

be regarded as the more general, and a priuciple of absolute

comparison of differences which takes the place of the first under

which favor such a form of apperception.

special conditions

10 a.

Weber's law has been shown to hold,

of

first

all,

for the

and then, within certain limits, for the comparison of ea;fensie compounds, especially temporal ideas, also, to
some extent, for spacial ideas of sight and for motor ideas. On
intensity of sensations

the other hand,

it

does not hold for the spacial ideas of external

touch, obviously on account of the complexity of the local signs

(p.

105); and

fact,

it

can not be verified for sensational

qualities.

In

for the comparison of pitches the absolute, not the relative

difiference-threshold is constant within wide limits.

of tonal intervals

is

Still,

the scale

relative, for every interval corresponds to a

m.

256

between the number of vibrations (for example,' an

fifth 2:3, etc.).
This is probably due to the

certain ratio

octave

Intercofmeetion of Psyehieal Gompoimds.

1:2, a

due to the relation of the

Even
(comp. p. 95 sq.).
where an absolute comparison takes place instead of a comparison
according to Weber's law of relativity, we must not, of course,
confuse this with the establishment of an absolute measure. That
between clangs which

relationship

fundamental

tone

to

is

overtones

its

would presuppose an absolute

unit,

that

the possibility of

is,

finding a constant standard, which, as noted above

the

of

form,

recognition

This

differences.

equality

the

of

in

is

absolute

of equal

single cases without

possible -in the various

is

253),

(p.

Absolute comparison must take

the psychical world impossible.

Thus, for example, we compare two sensational

and
according to their relative values, when we
think in both cases of the relation of the upper to the lower
a constant imit.

lines

AB

BG

In such a case

extreme sensation.
equal

pare

when

AB

difference

B
-;

and

G
(Leber's law)

BG

according to

between

and

we judge

On

B= B A

BG

and

the other hand,

absolute values

their

in the single

in question appears equal to that between

AB

(law of proportionality).

sensational

B and

that

J.,

to be

we eomwhen

the

dimension
is,

when

Weber's law has some-

times been regarded as the expression of the functional relation

between sensation and stimulus, and it has been assumed that the
law holds for infinitely small changes on both sides. On this
basis there has been given to

logarithmic

function:

it

sensation

the

mathematical form of the

increases

in

proportion

the

to

logarithm of the stimulus (Eechner's psycho-physical law).

The methods for the demonstration of Weber's law, or of other

between psychical quantities, whether elementary or
compound, are usually called psycho-physical methods. The name
is unsuitable, however, because the fact that physical means are
here employed is not unique, but holds for all the methods of
experimental psychology.
They could better be called "methods
for the measurement of psychical quantites". With these methods
relations

it

is

possible

relations
direct

mode

quantities

follow

to

mentioned

as

of procedure

and 5,

as,

one

of

favorable
is

as

two
for

follows:

for example, A,

is

courses

in

judgment.
one

of

the

finding

first

or

two psychical

kept constant, and

is'

17. App&'cepHve Combmaiions.

gradually varied
that

is,

-until it

either equals

stands in one of the relations mentioned^

or

is

just noticeably greater or smaller,'

Among

These are the adjitstment-methods.

etc.

257

we have

these

method most frequently applied and that which leads

most directly to conclusions, the "method of minimal changes",
as

the

and then as a kind of modification of this for the case of adjustment until equality is reached, the "method of average error".

The second mode of procedure is to compare in a large number

of cases any two stimuli, A and B, which are very little different,
and to reckon from the number of cases in which the judgment^
are A
B,
B, A<CB, the position of the relations men-

A^

These are the reckoning-

tioned, especially the difference-threshold.

The chief of these is the method known as that of

"right and wrong cases". It would be more proper to call it the
"method of three cases" (equality, positive difference, and negative

methods.

Details as to this and the other methods belong in a

difference).

special treatise on experimental psychology.

still

met

with besides the psychological interpretation given above; they

may

be called the physiological and the psycho-physical theories.

The

There are two other interpretations of Weber's law

first

derives the law from hypothetic ally assumed relations in the

conduction of excitations in the central nervous system. The second

regards

the law

body and

as

mind".

a specific law of
The physiological

hypothetical and in certain cases,

and

ideas,

spacial

interpretation

must be

11.

is

for example,

inapplicable.

entirely

"interaction between

by the psychology of to-day

special cases

in the

class

comparison of quantities that are the

sational differences

The phenomena
in the

entirely

The psycho-physical
(cf.

or,

when

22,

8).

of apperceptive

parisons generally falling under Weber's law

up

is

for temporal

based upon a view of the relation of mind which

rejected

As

as,

the

interpretation

com-

we have

relatively greatest

the
serir-

dealing with feelings, opposites.

that appear in such cases are usually gathered

class-name contrasts.

In the department where

contrasts have been most thoroughly investigated, in visual

sensations, there
WoMDT, Psyohology.

is

generally an utter lack of discrimination

17

258

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

-2?.

between two phenomena which are obviously entirely different

in origin,

though the results are to a certain extent

"We may

distinguish these

Physiological contrasts are closely connected with

contrasts.

phenomena

the
(p.

68

related.

and psychological

as physiological

of after-images,

perhaps they are the same

Psychological contrasts

sq.).

are essentially different;

they are usually pushed into the background by the stronger

physiological contrasts

They

when the impressions

are

are distinguished from the physiological

characteristics. First, they

when

the brightness

they are at the

sitive to

intense.

do not reach their greatest intensity

and saturation are

medium

more

by two important

stages,

but when

greatest,

where' the eye

changes in brightness and saturation.

most sen-

is

Secondly, they

can be removed by comparison with an independent object.

Especially the latter characteristic shows these

be unqualifiedly the products

of

example, when a grey square

laid

by a

close

aU

is

contrasts to

Thus, for

comparisons.

on a black ground and

similar grey square is laid

on a white ground and

covered with transparent paper, the two squares appear

is

entirely different; the one

nearly white,
black.

Now

on the black ground looks bright,

that on the white ground looks dark,

after-images

and

irradiations are very

the brightness of the objects

is

small,

assumed that the phenomenon described

contrast.

If,

that

so
is

nearly

weak when
it

may be

a psychological

again, a strip of black cardboard

which

is

also

covered with the transparent paper, and therefore appears

same grey

exactly the

way

that

removed

it

as the

two squares,

held in such a

connects the two squares the contrast will be

entirely, or, at least, very

experiment a colored ground

is

much

color.

But

diminished.

If in this

used instead of the achromatic,

the grey square will appear very clearly

plementary

is

m the appropriate com-

here, too, the contrast

can be made to

disappear through comparison with an independent grey object.

I?

n.

Apperceptive Combmations.

259

Psychical contrasts appear also in other spheres of

12.

sensation so far as the conditions for their demonstration are

They

favorable.

and may

feelings

of

spacial

relatively

are

also

and temporal

most

free,

especially

for

in the case of

Sensations

ideas.

pitch

of

are

most persons have a well developed

and

ability to recognize absolute pitch

contrast.

marked

under proper conditions in the case

arise

In the case of

the effect

feelings

overcome

this tends to

of contrast

is

intimately connected with their general attribute of develop-

ing toward certaia opposites.

Pleasurable feelings especially

are intensified by unpleasant feelings immediately preceding,

and the same holds for many

feelings of strain,

as,

after expectation.

The

and temporal ideas

or temporal interval

and with a shorter

for

feelings of relaxation following

a feeling of fulfilment

example,

effect of contrast in the case of spacial

is
is

most obvious when the same spacial

compared alternately with a longer

interval.

In the two cases the interval

appears different, in comparison with the shorter

greater, in comparison with the longer, smaller.

it

appears

Here too the

contrast between spacial ideas can be removed by bringing

an object between the contrasted

figures in such a

way

that

them both to it.

the
phenomena
that result from the
13. We may regard
apperception of impressions whose real character differs from

it is

possible easily to relate

that expected,

as

special modifications of psychical contrast.

For example, we are prepared

to lift

the actual liftiag of the weight

it

a heavy weight, but in

proves to be lighter, or

the reverse takes place and we lift a heavy weight instead

of a light one as we expected: the result is that in the first
case we underestimate, in the second overestimate the real
weight.

are

If a series of exactly equal weights of different sizes

made

from a

so that they look like a set of weights varying regularly

lighter .to a heavier, they will appear to be different in

17*

HI- Interconnection of Psychical Compounds.

260

The

weight when raised.

and the largest

the greater volume

is

The varying

contrast.

smallest will seem to be the heaviest

The famihar

to be the lightest.

association that

connected with the greater mass aids the

estimations of the weight, however,

result of the contrast between the real

is

the

and the expected sen-

sation.
B.

COMPLEX APPEECEPTIVE FUNCTIONS.

and

(Synthesis
14.

When

are repeated

the simple processes of relating and comparing

and combined

primarily the product

ception, analysis of the

As

the complex psy-

several times,

and analysis

chical functions of synthesis

is

Analysis.)

Synthesis

arise.

the relating activity

of

comparing

of

a combining function apperceptive synthesis

upon fusions and

It differs

associations.

apper-

activity.

from the

is

based

latter in

the fact that some of the ideational and affective elements

that are brought forward by the association are voluntarily

emphasized and others are pushed into the background. The

motives of the choice can be explained only from the whole
previous development of the individual consciousness.

As a

result of this voluntary activity the product of this synthesis

is

a complex whole whose components

sense-perceptions

and

associations, but in

all

come from former

which the combination

of these components usually varies more or less from the actual

impressions and the combinations of these impressions that
are immediately presented in experience.

The

ideational elements

of

a compound

thus resulting

from apperceptive synthesis may be regarded as the substratum

for the rest of its contents,

elements

is

peculiar,

that

so we call such a compound

"When the combination of the

and

in general an aggregate idea.

is,

markedly

different

from the

products of the fusion and associations, the aggregate idea

and each

of its relatively independent ideational

components

17. Apperceptive Combinations.

is

called an idea of imagination or image

Since the voluntary synthesis of

or

and

of imagination.

may

vary more

according to the character of the motives that gave

less,

rise to

elements

261

it,

from the combinations presented in sense-perception

association,

it

is

obvious that practically no sharp line

of demarcation can be drawn between images of imagination

and those of memory.

But we have a more

essential

mark

of the apperceptive process in the positive characteristic of

a voluntary synthesis than in the negative fact that the combination does not correspond in character to any particular

This positive characteristic gives also the

sense-perception.

most

striking external difference

and those
sational

more
and

of

memory.

elements

of

like those of

distinctness,

This

is

easily

between images of imagination

It consists in the fact that the sen-

an apperceptive compound are much

an immediate sense-perception

and generally

explained

in completeness

in clearness

and

intensity.

by the fact that the reciprocally

inhibitory influences which the uncontrolled associations exercise

on one another, and which prevent the formation

of fixed

memory-images, are diminished or removed by the voluntary

emphasizing of certain particular ideational compounds. It

is

possible to mistake images of imagination for real experiences.

"With memory-images this

is

images of imagination, that

possible only
is,

when

when they become

the memories are no

longer allowed to arise passively, but are to some extent pro-

duced by the
fications in

will.

Generally, too, there are voluntary modi-

them or a mixing

of real with imagined elements.

All our memories are therefore made up of "fancy and truth" i).

Memory-images change under the

and

influence

volition to images of imagination,

of our

and we generally deceive

ourselves with their resemblance to real experiences.

1)

("Dichtung und Wahrheit.")

feelings

^^- Intercomwciicm of Psychical Gompcnmds.

262

From

15.

the aggregate ideas thus resulting from apper-

ceptive synthesis there arise two forms of apperceptive activity

in the opposite direction of analysis.

The one

is

known

in

popular parlance as activity of the imagination, the second

The two

as activity of the understanding.

are

by no means

might be surmised from these names, but closely

different, as

related and almost always connected with each other.

Their

fundamental determining motives are what distinguish them

first

of all

and condition

all their

secondary differences as well

as the reaction that they exercise

In the case of the

on the synthetic function.

activity of "imagination" the

motive

is

the

reproduction of real experiences or of those analogous to reality.

This
ly

is

from

the earlier form of apperceptive analysis and rises directassociations. It begins with a

aggregate idea

made up

more or less comprehensive

and affective

of a variety of ideational

elements ind embracing the general content of a complex

experience in which the single components are only indefinitely

The aggregate idea is then divided in a series

of successive acts into a number of more definite, connected
compounds partly spacial, partly temporal in character. The
distinguished.

primary voluntary synthesis

which may in turn give

thesis

and thus

to

is

rise

thus followed by analytic acts

to the motives for

a new syn-

a repetition of the whole process with a

partially modified or

more limited aggregate

idea.

The activity of imagination shows two stages of development.

The first is more passive and arises directly from the ordinary
memory-function. It appears continually in the train of thought,
especially in the

form of an anticipation of the future, and plays

an important part in psychical development as an antecedent

of volitions.

It may, however, in

a representation
successions

in thought

of external

stage of development

is

an analogous way, appear as

of imaginary

phenomena.

The

situations

second,

or

of

or active,

under the influence of a fixed idea

17. Apperceptive

of some end,

Combmations.

263

and therefore presupposes a high degree

tary control over the images of imagination,

interference,

partly

inhibitory,

memory-images that tend

to

once formed,

is

more

is

are

the

Even

the

synthesis of

first

An aggregate idea,

systematic.

when

held more firmly and subjected to a more

complete analysis into

selves

with

selective,

push themselves into conscious-

ness without voluntary action.

the aggregate idea

partly

of volun-

and a strong

its parts.

Yery often

subordinate aggregate ideas

process of analysis

is

again applied.

In

these parts them-

to which
this

the

way the

same

principle

of organic division according to the end in view governs all

the products and processes of active imagination.

ductions of art show this most clearly.

Still,

The pro-

there are, in

the ordinary play of imagination, the most various intermediate

stages
directly
is

between

directed
16.

by

which

arises

active imagination, or that

which

imagination,

or

that

fixed ends.

In contrast with

or of such as
the

passive

from memory, and

may

this

reproduction of real experiences

be thought of as

content of the

real,

apperceptive functions

which constitutes

we include

that

under the concept "imagination", the fundamental motive of

the

^understanding'"

differences

and

is

the perception

of agreements

and

other derived logical relations between contents

of experience. Understanding also starts with aggregate ideas

in which a number of experiences that are real or may be
ideated as real, are voluntarily set in relation to one another

and combined

to

a unitary whole.

place in this case, however,

is

motive in a different direction.

The

analysis

turned by

its

that takes

fundamental

It consists not merely

in a

clearer grasp of the single components of the aggregate idea,

but in the estabHshment of the manifold relations in which these

components stand

to each other

through comparison.

As

and which, we may discover

soon as such analyses have been

made

264

III.

Intereonneetkn of Psyehical Comfounds.

and comparing processes

several times, results of the relating

gained elsewhere cam be employed in any particular case.

As

a result of

its

and comparing

relating

follows definite rules

when

more

it

strict application of

functions, the activity of understanding

even in

its

external form,

The

highly developed.

is

the elementary

especially

holds in

principle that

general for imagination and even for mere remembering, that

the relations of different psychical contents which are apperceived are presented, not simultaneously, but successively, so

that in every case

ing

we pass on from one

this principle

becomes for the

relation to a succeed-

activity of understanding,

a rule of discursive division of aggregate ideas. It

in the

is

expressed

law of the dtudity of the logiccd forms of thotight,

to which analysis resulting from relating com-

according

parison divides the content

parts,

subject

and predicate, and may then separate each

of these parts again once or several times.

divisions give rise to

this

way

These secondary

grammatical forms that stand in a logical

relation analogous to that of subject

noun and

two

of the aggregate idea into

attributive, verb

the process of

and

and predicate, such as

object, verb

and adverb.

apperceptive analysis results

In
in a

judgment.

For the psychological explanation

fundamental importance that
thetic,

it

are divided

judgment

it

is

of

be regarded, not as a syn-

but as an analytic function.'

Ideas that

of

by judgment

The
into

original aggregate
their

reciprocally

related components, are exactly like ideas of imagination.

The

products of analysis that result are, on the other hand, not as

in the case of imagination, images of more limited extent and
greater clearness, but conceptual ideas,

is

ideas which

stand, with regard to other partial ideas of the

same whole,

in

some one

of those relations

that

which are discovered through

the general relating and comparing functions.

If

we

call the

17. Apperceptive Combinations.

aggregate idea which

is

subjected to such a relating analysis

a thought, then a judgment

its

Concepts found in

a division of

is

components, and a concept

17.

is

These

and

attributes,

way

this

are arranged in certain

are

classes

of the analyses

the concepts of objects,

Judgment, as a

states.

thought into

this

the product of such a division.

general classes according to the character

that took place.

265

gregate idea, sets an object in relation to

division

its

of the ag-

attributes or states,

or various objects in relation to one another.

Since a single

concept can never, strictly speaking, be thought of by

but

is

itself,

always connected in the whole idea with one or more

other concepts, the conceptual ideas are strikingly different

from the ideas

of imagination because of the indefiniteness

and variableness
tially

by

increased

exist in

This indefiniteness

of the former.

that

fact

the

a single

is

essen-

concept

may

an unlimited variety of modifications, since concepts

which result from

components
characters.

of

differents cases of like judgment,

many

ideas

that

in

differ

Such general concepts

constitute,

may form
concrete

their

on account of

the wide application of relating analysis to different contents

of judgment, the great majority

concepts;

of all

and they

have a great number of corresponding single ideational contents.

It

becomes necessary, accordingly,

to choose a single

idea as a representative of the concept.

This gives the con-

At

the same time there

ceptual idea a greater definiteness.

is

always connected with this idea the consciousness that

is

merely a representative.

the form of a characteristic feeling.

may be
tations

of

the

make them

concept,

we have

which have

suitable to serve as represen-

tend to force themselves into con-

sciousness in the form of variable

of this

This conceptual feeling

traced to the fact that obscure ideas,

the attributes that

it

This consciousness generally takes

memory images. As

the fact that the feeling

is

evidence

very intense so

266

Intereonneetion of Psychical Compounds.

-H?.

long as any concrete image of the concept

when a

representative, as, for example,

stands for the concept man, while

chosen as

particular individual

differs entirely in

portance

and that

condition

this

aids

universal

as

what gives them

is

thought.

to

content

Wordr-ideas

from the objects iacluded under the concept.

fulfil

its

disappears almost entirely

it

soon as the representative idea

so

is

their im-

These

aids

are

furnished to the individual consciousness in a finished state,

so that

we must

leave to

social

psychology the question of

the psychological development of

the processes of thought

active in the formation of language (comp. 21, A).

18.

From

all

has

that

been said

it

appears that the

imagination and understandiug are not specifically

activities of

but interrelated, inseparable in their rise and mani-

different,

festations,

and based

at

bottom

on the same fundamental

What was

functions of apperceptive synthesis and analysis.

true

of the

concept "memory" holds

also

of the concepts

"understanding" and "imagination": they are names, not of

unitary forces or faculties, but of complex

up

phenomena made

of elementary psychical processes of the usual,

specific, distinct kind.

Just as

memory

certain associative processes, imagination

not of a

a general concept for

is

and understanding are

general concepts for particular forms of apperceptive activity.

They have a

certain practical value

classification of
ity of various

thus found
tions

may

for iutellectual

in turn contain

for the

we have

activity.

understanding,

Each

class

an endless variety of grada-

Thus, neglecting the general differences

as the chief forms of individual imagination

the perceptive and the combining forms;

of

means

an endless variety of differences in the capac-

persons

and shades.

in grade,

as ready

the

inductive

as the chief forms

and deductive forms, the

first

being mainly concerned with the single logical relations

and

their

combinations,

the second

more with general con-

18. Psychical

267

Sf,ates.

A person's talent

cepts and their analysis.

is

Ids total capacity

from the special tendencies of both

resulting

his imagination

and understanding.

The normal

1.

PSYCHICAL STATES.

18.

of

state

consciousness

upon which the

discussion of the foregoing paragraphs has been based

may

undergo such a variety of changes that general psychology

must give up the attempt

too, the

more important

to discuss

them

in detail.

of these changes, namely, those

Then,

which

are observed in the various forms of nervous diseases, brain-

and

diseases,

insanity, belong to special

branches of pathology

which border upon psychology and are more or

upon

All that psychology can do

it.

less

dependent

to indicate the

is

main

psychical conditions for such abnormal states of consciousness.

We

may

distinguish in general, in accordance with

what has

been said about the attributes of psychical processes and

interconnection

in

They may

ditions.

consciousness
consist

I)

psychical elements, 2) in the

stituted,

and

3) in

in consciousness.

the

As

way

in the

way

of

their

such con-

abnormal character of the

psychical

compounds are con-

psychical compounds are combined

a result of the intimate interconnection

of these different factors

it

scarcely ever happens that one of

these three conditions, each of which

various concrete forms,
unite.

kinds

three

is

may appear

in the

most

operative alone; but they usually

The abnormal character

of the elements results in the

abnormity of the compounds, and

this

in turn brings about

changes in the general interconnection of conscious processes.

2.

The

psychical elements, sensations, and simple feehngs,

show only such changes

as result from

some disturbance in

the normal relation between them and their psycho-physical

conditions.

For

sensations such changes

may be reduced

to

HI- Intercomketion of Psychical Compoimds.

268

an increase or decrease of

tlie

sensitivity for stimuli

aesthesia aind anaesthesia) resulting especially from

(hyper-

tlie

action

of certain physiological influences in the sensory centres.

most important psychological symptom

increased excitability which

is

case

in this

is

The
the

common com-

one of the most

In similar fashion,

ponents of complex psychical disturhances.

changes in the simple feelings hetray themselves in states of

or exaltation

depression

affective excitabiUty.

as a

These

decrease

or increase

different states

from the way in which the emotions and

may he

volitional processes

Thus, changes in the psychical elements can be demon-

occur.

strated

only

by the influence that they exercise

character of the various psychical compounds.

The

3.

or

eral

in the

recognized

defects in ideational

central

anaesthesia

compounds
are

They have no far-reaching

portance.

connection of psychical processes.

It

effect
is

arising

generally

on the

of

from periphlimited

im-

on the inter-

essentially different

with the relative increase in the intensity of sensations resulting

from central hyperaesthesia.

Its effect is especially important,

because under such circumstances reproduced sensational ele-

ments may become as intense as external sense-impressions.

The

result

may be

that a pure memory-image

a sense-perception.

This

ments

which

united

are

stimulation,

may be

partly from

an hallucination.

is

are

partly

is

objectified as

Or,

when

ele-

from direct external

reproduction, the sense-impression

essentially modified

through the intensity of the re-

produced elements. The restdt

is

then an illusion of fancy^).

"illusions of fancy" is used when this class of

be distinguished from the sense-illusions that appear in
the normal state of consciousness, as, for example, the radiating form
of the stars, which is due to the refraction of light in the crystalline
lens, or the varying apparent size of the sun or moon at the horizon
1)

The expression

illusions is to

and at the

zenith.

18. Psychioal

The two

269

States.

In many

are not always distinguisliable.

cases, to

be sure, particular ideas can be shown to be illusions of

but

fancy,

the

presence

always doubtful because

so easy to overlook

it is

In

sensational elements.

pure hallucinations

of

fact, it is

almost

is

some

direct

by no means improbable

that the great majority of so-called hallucinations are illusions.

These

are in their psychological character nothing

illusions

assimilations

but

in

assimilations

(p.

228

They may be defined

sq.).

as

which the reproduced elements predominate.

Just as normal assimilations are closely connected with successive associations,

fancy are

so

for the

closely related

same reason the

the changes in the associative

to

ideational processes to be discussed later

4.

In the case

of

illusions of

complex

affective

(5).

and

volitional pi'ocesses

the abnormal states of depression and exaltation are clearly

distinguishable

depression
emotions,

is

from

the

state

of

due to the predominance of inhibitory, asthenic

that of exaltation to

a predominance of exciting,

we

sthenic emotions, while at the same time

first

The

normal condition.

observe, in the

case a retardation or complete checking of resolution,

in the second

motive.

the hne

In

an exceedingly

rapid, impulsive activity of the

this sphere it is generally

more

difficult to

draw

between normal and abnormal conditions than in

that of ideational compounds, because even in normal mental

life

the affective states are continually changing.

logical cases

exaltation,

an

the

which are often very

intensified oscillation of

an indifference-condition

and exaltation are

In patho-

change between states of depression and

striking,

(pp. 34,

80).

appear merely as

and emotions about

the feelings

States

especially characteristic

of depression

symptoms of general

psychical disturbances; their detailed discussion must therefore be left to psychical pathology.

General psychical

dis-

turbances are always symptoms of diseases of the brain, so

270

-H?-

Interconnection of Psychical Compounds,

that these abnormities in affective and volitional processes are

doubtless accompanied, like those of the sensations

by physiological changes.
however,

unknown.

still

The nature

We

and

ideas,

of these changes

is,

can only surmise, in accordance

with the more complex character of affective processes, either

more extensive than the changes in central

that they

are

excitability

accompanying hallucinations and

illusions,

or that

they effect the central cortical regions directly concerned in

apperceptive processes.
5. Connected with these changes in the sensory excitability
and with states of depression and exaltation, there are regularly

changes ia the interconnection and course of

simultaneous

Using the concept consciousness that we

psychical processes.

employ to express

this interconnection (p. 203),

we may call
So long as

these changes abnormal changes of consciousness.

the abnormity

is

emotions,

ideas,

limited to the single psychical compounds,

and

volitions,

consciousness

changed because of the changes in

of course

is

components, but we

its

do no speak of an abnormity of consciousness

exhibit

some noticeable abnormities.

not

itself until

merely the single compounds, but their combinations

These always

also

arise,

to

be sure, when the elementary disturbances become greater,

since the combination of elements to

compounds and

of

com-

pounds with one another are processes that pass continuously

into each other.

Corresponding to the different kinds of combination that

make up the

may be

interconnection of consciousness

distinguished in general

of consciousness:

1)

6.

and

3)

from the elementary disturbances.

2)

changes

changes in the re-

two forms of combination to each

Changes in associations are the

there

of abnormities

changes in the associations,

in the apperceptive combinations,

lation of the

three kinds

(p. 223),

other.

first to result directly

The

increase

of sensory

18. Psychical
excitability

and

changes

States.

271

noriifal assimilations into illusions of fancy,

an essential disturbance in the associative

this results in

processes of recognition

237):

(p.

sometimes that which

known appears to be unknown, and then again what

appears famiHar,

is

is

unknown

according as the reproduced elements are

connected with definite earUer ideas,

or

derived from

are

perceptions that have only a remote relation to one another.

Then, too, the increased sensory excitability tends to accelerate the association,

and

on the other hand,

exaltation,

quality

the most

The

that predominate.

the ones

are

that

so

superficial

con-

occasioned by accidental impressions or by habit,

nections,

and direction

states

of depression

determine

inainly

the

of the association.

In a similar manner the elementary ideational and

affective

changes influence apperceptive combinations, either retarding

them,

or accelerating
Still,

in these cases

or

all

affective processes result in

degree,

of

else

determining

marked abnormities
an

their

direction.

in ideational or

increase, to a greater or less

the difficulty of carrying out the processes con-

nected with active attention, so that often only the simpler

apperceptive combiriations are possible, sometimes even only

those which through practice have become simple associations.

Connected with the

last fact

mentioned are the changes that

take place ia the relation between apperceptive and associative

The

combinations.

main favorable
combinations,

influences discussed

and one

of the

of associations.

This

of consciousness

is

many

far

are in

most frequent symptoms

far-reaching psychical abnormity

in

so

the

to associations, but unfavorable to apperceptive

is

is

of a

a great preponderance

most obvious when the disturbance

a continually increasing process, as

cases of insanity.

It

is

then

observed

that

it is

the

functions of apperception upon which so-called imagination

and understanding are based, are more and more supplanted

^-

272

by

Intereonneetion of Psyehical Compov/nds.

until finally the latter are

associations,

If the disturbance progresses

still

become more Hmited

gradually

the associations

further,

and

that remain.

all

confined

certain

to

Finally this state gives

habitual combinations (fixed ideas).

place to one of complete mental paralysis.

diseases in the strict sense of the

Apart from mental

7.

irregularities of consciousness just discussed are to

term the

be found in two conditions that appear in the course of

normal

The

dreams and hypnosis.

in

life:

come, at least to a great extent,

ideas of dreams

from sensations, especially from those of the general sense,

and are therefore mostly

of fancy,

probably only

seldom pure memory-ideas that have become

hallucinations.

The

illusions

decrease, of apperceptive combinations in comparison with

associations

also striking,

is

and goes

and exchanges

modifications

to explain the frequent

of self-consciousness,

The

fusion of the judgment, etc.

the con-

characteristic of

dreams

that distinguishes them from other similar psychical states,

is

much in these
The increase of

to be found, not so

negative attributes.
attested

by the

hallucinations,

as in their

which

is

limited entirely to the sensory

is

while in ordinary sleep and dreams the external

functions,

voKtional activity

When

positive,

excitability

the

is

completely inhibited.

fanciful ideas

of

dreams are connected with

corresponding volitional acts,

we have

phenomena

which are related to certain

of sleep-walking,

the very infrequent

Motor concomitants are generally limited

and appear as talking in dreams.

forms of hypnosis.
to articulations,
8.

Hypnosis

to sleep
nite

is

the

name

applied to certain states related

and dreams and produced by means of certain

Consciousness

psychical agencies.

a condition halfway

main cause

between

of hypnosis

is

waking

is

here generally in

and

suggestion, that

defi-

is,

sleeping.

The

the communi-

18. Psychical

States.

273

cation of an idea strong in affective tQne.

comes in

(outward suggestion), hut

subject himself,

mand

This generally

form of a command from some other person

tlie

when

may sometimes

be produced by the

The com-

called autosuggestion.

it is

or resolution to sleep,

to

make

certain movements,* to

see objects not present or not to see objects that are present,
etc.,

these

are the most frequent suggestions.

Monotonous
Thep,

stimuli, especially tactual stimuli are helpful auxiliaries.

a certain disposition of the nervous system of

too, there is

unknown

still

character, which

the hypnotic state and

is

necessary for the

is

when

increased

the state

is

rise,

of

repeat-

edly produced.

The

first

symptom

plete inhibition

of hypnosis

the more or less com-

connected with a concentration

of volition,

on one thing, generally the conunands of

of the attention

the hypnotizer (automatism).

command, but

is

The

in this

retains

subject not only sleeps at

state

any position

given him, however unnatural (hypnotic catalepsy).

sleep

becomes

still

is

If the

deeper the subject carries out movements

and shows that

as directed, to all appearances automatically,

ideas suggested to him appear

In

that

like real objects

(somnambulism).

this last state it is possible to give either

sory suggestions to go into effect

when

motor or sen-

the subject awakes,

The
or even at some later time (terminal suggestions).
phenomena that accompany such "posthypnotic effects" render
it

probable that the latter are due either to a partial per-

sistence

of the hypnosis

or

(in

the

case of terminal sug-

gestions) to a renewal of the hypnotic state.

9.

It appears

from

these

all

phenomena that

sleep

hypnosis are related states, differing only in that their

of origin

is

different.

They have

the inhibition of volition,

ception,

and a

WuSDT, Psychology.

as

common

and

mode

characteristics

which permits only passive apper-

disposition

toward aroused

excitability
Jg

in

^-

274

Interconnection of Psychical Compotmds.

the sensory centres

that

about an assimilation of

brings

the sense-impressions which results in hallucinations.

that

characteristics

distinguish

The

the complete in-

them are

hibition of volition in sleep, especially of the

motor functions,

and the concentration in hypnosis of the passive attention

on one thing. This concentration is conditioned by suggestion
and

is

at the

of further

same time favorable to the reception

for in

StiU, these differences are not absolute,

suggestions.

sleep-walking the will is not completely inhibited, while

the other

hand

it is

on

inhibited in the first lethargic stages of

hypnosis just as in ordinary sleep.

and hypnosis

Sleep, dreams,

are,

accordingly, in all prob-

ability, essentially the same in their psychophysical conditions.

These conditions are specially modified dispositions to sen-

sational

and

volitional reactions,

and can

therefore,

like all

be explained on their physiological side

such dispositions,

only by assuming changes in the activity of certain central

These

regions.
directly.

changes

have

investigated

psychological symp-

we may assume from the

StiQ,

been

not yet

toms that they consist in the inhibition of the

the regions connected with processes of volition

and

activity in

and

attention,

in the increase in the excitability of sensory centres.

9a.

It

is

then,

strictly

a physiological problem

speaking,

and hypnosis. Apart

from the general assumption based on psychological symptoms,
to formulate

a theory of sleep,

dreams,

of an inhibition of activity in certain parts of the cerebral cortex,

and increase in the activity of other

-one general neurological principle with

That

is

we can apply only

any degree of probability.

parts,

the principle of eompensation of functions, according to

-which the inhibition

'Connected
interrelated

with

with

an
it.

of

the activity

increase

in

of

the

This interrelation

neurodynamic, or indirect, vasomotoric.

to the fact that energy

one

region

activity

may

The

be

first is

is

always

the

others

either

direct,

of

probably due

which accumulates in one region

as the

18. Psychical
result

of inhibition,

is

275

States.

discharged through the connecting fibres

into other central regions.

The second

is

due to contraction of

the capillaries as a result of inhibition and a compensating dilation'

of the blood-vessels in other regions.

due to this dilation

is

The increased blood supply

by an increase in the

in turn attended

activity of the region in question.

Dreams and hypnosis are often made the subjects of mysand fanciful hypotheses, in some cases even by psy-

tical

We

chologists.

of influence
hypnosis.

of

hear of increased mental activity in dreams and

mind on minds

at

distance in dreams

and

Especially hypnotism has been used in modern timeSj

in this way, to support superstitious spiritualistic ideas.

In con-

which may be completely explained by the theory of hypnosis and suggestion, and in connection
with "somnambulism", there are a great many cases of selfdeception and intentional humbug.
In reality all that can stand
the light of thorough examination in these phenomena is in general
readily explicable on psychological and physiological grounds;
what is not explicable in this way has always proved on closer
nection with "animal magnetism",

examination to be superstitious self-deception or intentional fraud.

18*

PSYCHICAL DEVELOPMENTS.

ly.

19.
'

1.

PSYOHICAIi ATTRIBUTES OF Al^IMAJLS.

The animal kingdom

ments which may

be.

exiibits a series of

mental develop-

regarded as antecedents to the mental

The mental life of animals shows

elements and in the general laws of their

development of man.
to be in

itself

its

combination everywhere the same as that of man.

Even the lowest animals (protozoa and coelenterata) manifest vital phenomena that allow us to infer ideational and
volitional processes. They seize their food to all appearances
spontaneously; they
are also to

flee

from pursuing enemies,

be found in the lowest stages

traces of associations
cesses of sensible

and reproductions and

cognition

and recognition

etc.

There

animal Hfe

of

especially pro(p.

237).

They

reach a more advanced stage of development in higher ani-

mals only through the increase in the variety of ideas and in

the length of time through which the memory-processes extend.

From

the like structure

and development of the sense-

organs we must draw the conclusion that the character of

the sense-ideas are in general the same, the only difference

being that in the lowest forms of Hfe the sensory functions

are limited to

the general

sense of touch,

case of the higher organisms in the

dividual development

In contrast whith

and

first

just

as ta the

stages of their in-

(p. 39).

this

uniformity of psychical elements

their simpler combinations there are great differences in

^
all

19.

Psychical Atiribtttes of Animals.

277

the processes connected with the development of apper4

Passive apperception

ception.

impulsive

the simple

for

is

never absent as the basis

that are

acts

found everywhere;

but active apperception in the form of voluntary attention

to certain impressions

and a choice between

different motives

probably never exists except in the higher animals.

here

it

is

and

limited to the ideas

Jjven

associations aroused

immediate sensible impressions, so that we can at most,

all,

only find the

first

if

by
at

beginnings of intellectual processes in

the proper sense of the word, that

of imagination

is activities

and understanding, even in the animals with the highest mental

Connected with

development.

fact

this

other

the

is

that

higher animals have no developed language, though they are

able to give expression to their emotions

when

these

expressive
2.

behind that of

man

of animals

rapidly,

of
is

man.

in general far

in spite of the qualitative likeness of the

fundamental psychical processes,

First,

their ideas,

through various

movements often related to those

Though the development

superior.

and even

connected with emotions,

are

still,

in two

ways

animals reach psychical maturity

and secondly,

favored by the special

certain single

conditions

it is

often

much more

funetiom particularly

under which the

speicies

The fact of more rapid

lives, are more highly developed.
maturity is shown by the early age at which many animals;
some immediately

after birth,

clear sense-impressions

To be

sure,

and

are able to receive relatively

to execute purposive

there are very great differences

For example, the chick

pick up grain, while the pup

animals in this respect.

the shell begins to
birth,

and for a long time

after

movements.

among higher
Just out of
is

blind at

clumsy in his movements.

Yet, the development of the child seems to be the slowest

and the most dependent on help and care from

3.

The

others.

special one-sided development of single funciwns^

^^- Psychical Developments.

278
in

some animals

themselves

with the

is still

certain

in

more

Certain needs,

taiion, reproduction, or protection,

of

the

motives

and

sense -perceptions
for such acts.

and

either

cif

aUmen-

in the development

associations

Such

connected

reguldrly

acts

iinpulsive

of

satisfaction

These functions show

striking.

that

form the

specially developed

impulses

The assumption that instincts belong

animal and not to human consciousness is, of course,
unpsychological, and contradictory to experience. The

are called instincts.

only to
entirely

disposition to manifest the general animal impulses,

the alimentive and sexual impulses,

attribute of

man

characteristic

is

the

special

purposive acts by which

respect.

just as much a connate

The only thing that is

many

animals reach the ends aimed

are very different in this

There are numerous lower and higher animals whose

acts resulting

from connate

characteristics

as those of men.

instincts

It

is

show as few

that animals

may

wild instincts,
especially

had

striking

also remarkable that

away with the instincts

wild state, and to develop new

domestication generally tends to do

ones that

form of the

highly developed

Different animals, however,

at.

is

as of the animals.

namely,

in their

generally be regarded as modifications of the

as,

for example!, those of certain hunting dogs,

The

those of bird-dogs and pointers.

relatively

high development of certain special instincts in animals as

compared with men,

is

simply a manifestation of the general

unsymmetrical development of the former. The whole psychical

life

of animals consists almost entirely of the processes that

are connected with the predominating instinct.

4.

In general,

instincts

may be regarded

as impulsive acts

that arise from particular sensations and sense-feehngs.

The

physiological sources of the sensations chiefly concerned ia

and genital, organs. All animal

may, accordingly, be reduced to aUmentive and

instincts are the alimentary

instincts

19. Psyehieal Attrilmtes of

Anmuds.

279

sexual instincts, though in connection with the latter, espe-

more complex fonns, there are always auxihary

and social impulses which may he regarded, from

cially in their

protective

character

the

of

Among

the sexual impulse.

as

origin,

their

reckoned the impulses of

special

modifications

of

these auxiliary forms must be

many

animals to build houses and

nests, as in the case of beavers, birds,

and nimierous

insects

example, spiders, wasps, bees, ants), then, too, the instinct

(for

found

of animal marriage

chiefly

among

birds

and appearing

both in the monogamic and polygamic forms.

Finally, the

so-called "animal states", as those of the bees,

of ants,

of termites, belong

under

They

this head.

and

are in reality not

but sexual communities, in which the social impulse

states,

that unites the individuals, as well as the

common

protective

impulse, are modifications of the reproduction-impulse.

Li the case of

the particular impulsive acts

all instincts

arise

from certain sense-stimuli partly

The

acts themselves are to be classed

external, partly internal.

as impulsive acts, or

simple voHtions, since they are preceded and accompanied by

particular sensations
tives (p.

85

sq.).

and

feelings that serve as

The complex, connate character

simple

mo-

of these acts

can be explained only from general inherited attributes of

the nervous system,
reflex

as a result of

mechanisms are immediately

stimuli,

which certain connate

set in action

by particular

without practice on the part of the individual.

The

purposive character of these mechanisms must also be re-

garded as a product of gen&ral psycho-physical development.

As

further evidence for this

we have

show not only various individual

certain
practice.

degree

In

nest better

of

higher

the fact that instincts

modifications,

development

through

but even a
individual

this way, the bird gradually learns to

bmld

its

bees accommodate their hive to changing needs

instead of sending out

new

colonies they enlarge the hive

^^- Psychical Denelopments.

280
if

Even abnormal

they have the necessary room.

may

habits

be acquired hy a single community of bees or ants; the

may

for example,

learn to rob a neighboring hive instead of

from the

the honey

gathering

the remarkable habit

acquire

first,

may

or the latter

flowers,

of

making the members of

another species slaves, or of domesticatiag plant-Uce for the

The rise, growth, and transmission of

we can trace them, show clearly the way
complicated instincts may arise.
Such an

sake of their honey.

these habits
in

which

as

all

instinct never appears alone,

but there are always simpler

forms of the same instinct in related classes and species.

Thus the hole that the wall-wasp bores

her eggs

in,

in the wall to lay

a primitive pattern of the ingenious hive of the

is

honey-bee.

Between these two extremes as the natural trans-

ition stage

we have

a few hexagonal

the hive of the ordinary wasp

constructed of cemented

cells

made

of

and

sticks

leaves.

We

may, accordingly,

developed forms

of

explain the complex instincts as

simple impulses

originally

gradually differentiated more

and more

in

the

that

have

course

of

numberless generations, through the gradual accumulation of

habits that have been acquired

Every

mitted.

is

to

be regarded as a stage in

Its gradual

psychical development.
disposition

by individuals and then trans-

single habit is to

this

passage into a connate

be explained as a psycho-physical process of

practice through which complex volitional acts gradually pass

into purposive

movements that follow immediately and

reflexly

the appropriate impression.

5.

If

we

try

genetic relation of

to

answer the general question

man

to the

simplest

likeness

the

animals on the ground of a

comparison of their psychical attributes,

in view of the

of

it

must be admitted,

of psychical elements

and most general forms

and

of combination,

of their

that

it

is

^^^

possible that

Psychical Attributes of Animals.

19.

human

28

consciousness has developed from a lower

form of animal consciousness. This assumption also

finds strong'

support in the fact that the animal Icingdom presents a whole

different stages

series of

every

ment.

of psychical development

and that

human individual passes through an analogous developThe doctrine of psychical development thus confirms ia

general the results of the theory of physical evolution,

we must not overlook the

fact that the differences

man and

the psychical attributes of

as expressed

and

in the intellectual

those of the animals,

processes re-

affective

from apperceptive combinations,

sulting

are

much broader

than the differences in their physical characteristics. Then,

the

great

which undergoes
it

of

stability

little

the psychical

condition

of

too,

animals,

change even in domestication, renders

exceedingly improbal)le

that

any of the present animal

much beyond

forms will develop

still

between

the limits that they have,

already reached in their psychical attributes.

5

The attempts

a.

to define the relation of

man and

animals from

a psychological point of view vary between two extremes.

these

is

"faculties of mind", especially "reason",

animals.

The other

is

were entirely wanting in

the wide-spread opinion of representatives of

special animal psychology, that animals are fully equal to

all respects, in ability to consider, to

moral
first

One of

the predominating view of the old psychology that the higher

feelings,

etc.

With the

man

in

judge, to draw conclusions, in

rejection of faculty-psychology the

of these views becomes untenable.

The second

rests

on the

tendency prevalent in popular psychology to interpret all objective,

phenomena in terms of human thought, especially in terms of logical
reflection.

The

closer psychological investigation of so-called mani-

festation of intelUgence

among animals shows, however,

that they

are in all cases fully explicable as simple sensible recognitions and

associations,

and that they lack the characteristics belonging to con-

cepts proper and

,to

logical operations.

But

associative processes

pass without a break into apperceptive, and the beginnings of the

latter,

that

is

simple acts of active attention and choice, appear

^-

282

Psychical Developments.

without any doubt in the case of higher animals, so that the

difference is after all more one of the degree and complexity of
the psychical processes than one of kind.

Animal instincts presented a very great difficulty to the older

forms of psychology, such as the faculty-theory and the intellectualistic theories ( 2). Since the attempt to deduce these instincts
from the conditions given in each individual case led to an improbably high estimation of the psychical ability of the animal,
especially when the instinct was more complex, the conclusion

was often accepted that instincts are incomprehensible, or, what

amounts to the same thing, due to connate ideas. This "enigma
of the instincts" ceases to be an enigma when we come to look
upon instincts, as we have done above, as special forms of impulsive action, and to consider

impulsive acts

of

men and
This

chological explanation.

them

as analogous

animals,
is

for

to the simple

which we have a psy-

especially true

when we

the reduction of what were originally complicated acts,

pulsive or reflex

movements

in the

observed in the ca^e of man,

as,

phenomena

follow
to im-

of habit, so easily

for example, the habituation to

complex movements in learning to play the piano (comp. p. 192 sq.).

argued against this theory of instinct that it is im-

It is often

possible to prove empirically the transmission of acquired individual

variations which

we have assumed,

no certain observations

that,

for example,

there are

in proof of the transmission of mutilations,

as used to be asserted so frequently. Many biologists accept the

view that all the properties of the organism arise through the
selection resulting from the survival of the individual best adapted
to natural conditions, that all such properties are accordingly
deducible from "natural selection", and that in this way alone
changes can be produced in the germ and transmitted to descendants.
Though it must be admitted that an attribute acquired by a
single individual, generally has no effect on the descendents, stUl,
there is no apparent reason' why habitual acts, which are indeed
indirectly due to outer natural conditions, but depend primarily on
the inner psycho -physical attributes of the organism, may not

cause changes in the nature of the

germ when these

through many generations, just as well

of natural selection.

the

fact

that

in

As
some

as

acts are repeated

the direct influences

further evidence for this view

cases

whole

families

inherit

we have
peculiar

 20. Psychical Development of

expressive

the Child.

283

movements or technical ability in some line (p. 285).

in any case the cooperation of natural

This does not exclude

but is in full agreement with the facts of observation

which show that these influences act in two ways: first, directly
in the changes that natural selection brings about in the organism
while the organism remains passive, and secondly, indirectly in the
psycho-physical reactions that are caused by the outer influences,
and then in turn give rise to changes in the organism. If we neglect
the latter fact, we not only lose an important means of accounting
for the eminently purposive character of animal organisms, but
further, and more especially, we render impossible a psychological
explanation of the gradual development of volition and its retroinfluences,

we

see

of connate expressive movements ( 20,

1).,

gradation into purposive reflexes as

it in

a large

number

PSYOmOAL DBYELOPMENT OF THE

20.

CHILD.
The

1.

fact that

the psychical development of

regularly slower than that of most animals

the

much more

child, to

be

to

is

be seen in

The

gradual maturing of his sense-functions.

sure, reacts immediately after birth to all kinds

of sense-stimuli,
taste,

is

man

most

clearly to impressions

of touch

with the least certainty to those of sound.

Still,

and
it is

impossible to doubt that the special forms of the reaction-

movements
This

is

in all these cases

are due to inherited reflexes.

especially true for the

by cold and

when he

tactual impressions,

child's

and

crying

when

afEected

for the mimetic reflexes

tastes sweet, sour, or bitter substances.

It

is

prob-

these impressions are accompanied

by obscure

sensations and feelings, yet the character of the

movements

able that

all

can not be explained from the feelings whose symptoms they

may be

considered to be,

but must be referred to connate

central reflex tracts.

Probably nothing is clear in consciousness

until the

end of the

284

rF- Psyekieal Developments.

first

month, and even then, as the rapid change of moods shows,

sensations
is

and

feelings

must be

at about this time that

relatively very changeable.

we begin

to observe

It

symptoms of

pleasurable and unpleasurable feelings in the child's laughter

and in Hvely rhythmical movements of

certain

developed at

when we
fibres

first

arms and

his

reflexes are

not

legs after

completely

a fact which we can easily understand

many

learn from anatomy that

of the connecting

between the cerebral centres do not develop untU after

Thus the

birth.

are

Even the

impressions.

wanting.

associative reflex-movements of the

From

the

first

each

the

of

eyes

two eyes

by

itself

generally turns towards a light, but the movements of the

two eyes are entirely

of

the

first

movements

of the

irregular,

months

three

of the

point, begins to appear.

is

and

that

it is

only in the course

normal

the

coordiuation

two eyes with a common fixation-

Even then

the developing regularity

not to be regarded as a result of complete visual per-

a symptom of the gradual

ceptions, but, quite the reverse, as

functioning of a reflex-centre, which then renders clear visual

perceptions possible.
2.

It

is,

generally speaking, impossible to gain any ade-

quate information about the qualitative relations oi psychical

elements in the child's consciousness, for the reason that

have no certain objective symptoms.

number

It

is

we

probable that the

of different tonal sensations, perhaps also the number'

of color-sensations,

is

very limited.

The

fact that children

two

years old not infrequently use the wrong names for colors

ought not however, to be looked upon as unqualified evidence,

that they do not have the sensation in question.

It

is

more probable that lack of attention and a confusion

names is the real explanation in such cases.
Towards the end
feelings

much
of the

of the first year the differentiation of

and the related development

of the various emotions

 20. F^ckical Development of

285

the Child.

take place, and show themselves strikingly in the characteristic

movements that gradually

expressive

pleasurahle feelings
expectation,

and

the dispositions for the

We

have

uri-

then in order, astonishment,

joy,

shame, envy,

anger,

arise.

Even

etc.

in these

cases

combined movements which express

the single emotions, depend

upon

inherited physiological attri-

butes of the nervous system, which generally do not begin

to function until after the first few months, in a

ogous

As

the combined innervation

to

further evidence of this

of the

we have

the

way

anal-

ocular muscles.

fact that not in-

frequently special peculiarities in the expressive movements

are inherited by whole families.
3.

The

physical conditions for the rise of spacial ideas

are connate in the form of inherited reflex-connections which

make a relatively rapid development of these ideas possible.

But for the child the spacial perceptions seem at first to be
much more incomplete than they are in the case of many
animals.
There are manifestations of pain when the skin is
stimulated,

but no clear symptoms of localization.

Distinct

grasping movements develop gradually from the aimless move-

ments that are observed even in the

not, as

rule,

become

certain

aided by visual perceptions,

turning

of the

eye toward

observed very early,

is

true

of the

Still it is

is

first

days, but they do

and consciously purposive

after the

a source of light as

to be regarded as reflex.

gradual coordination

of

ocular

until

The

twelfth week.

generally

The same
movements.

probable that along with these reflexes there are

developed spacial ideas,

so that all

we can observe

is

the

gradual completion of these ideas from very crude beginnings,

for the process

with

its

is

continuous and

the sense of sight shows itself to

its

is

always interconnected

Even in the child

be decidedly more rapid in

original physiological substratum.

development than the sense of touch, for the symptoms

I^- Psychical Developments.

286

of visual localization are

mentioned above,

vision is

much

vision.

The

latter

field for

of ocular

of

field

shows

itself

the

in

of binocular

The beginnings

discrimination

of

of the development of

binocular vision coincide with the

first

coordination

movements and belong, accordingly, to the second

half of the

and

The

sight.

development

full

development than that of monocular

later in its

directions in space.

do not reach their

by the sense of

until aided

than

earlier

and the grasping movements,

those of tactual localization,

as

observable

certainly

year.

first

The perception

vaarious three-dimensional figures

of

of distance,

size,

remains for a long

time very imperfect. Especially, distant objects are

to be near at hand,

thought

all

so that they appear relatively small to

the child.
4.

The

Temporal ideas develop along with the spacial

abiHty to form regular temporal ideas and the agree-

ableness of these to the child shows itself in the

in the
to

ideas.

movements of

and

his limbs

accompany rhythms that are heard, vnth

movements.

Some

first

months

especially in the tendency

similar rhythmical

children can imitate correctly, even before

they can speak, the rhythmical melodies that they hear, in

sounds and intonations.

the ideas of longer intervals

Still,

are very imperfect even at the end of the

so that a child

gives very

irregular

first

year and

later,

judgments as to the

duration of different periods and also as to their sequence.

5.

The development

of associations

ceptive combinations goes

and temporal

ideas.

hand

Symptoms

are observable from the very

in

and

of simple apper-

hand with that

of spacial

of sensible recognition

first

(p.

237)

days, in the rapidly ac-

quired abiUty to find the mother's breast and in the obvious

habituation to the objects and persons of the environment.
StUl, for a long time these associations cover only very short

intervals of time,

at first

only hours, then days.

Even

in

 20. Psychical Development of

the Child.

287

the third and fourth years children either forget entirely or

rememher only imperfectly persons who have been absent

for a few weeks.

The

case with attention

to concentrate

and

time,

it is

it

upon a

At

is similar.

single object only for

affective tone is strongest (p. 217),

show

first

possible

a very short

obvious that passive apperception which always

foUows the predominating stimulus, that

In the

first it is

is

is

the one whose

the only form present.

weeks, however, a lasting attention begins to

itself in

the

way

the child fixates and foUows objects

they are moving; and at the

for a longer time, especially

if

same time we have the

trace of active apperception in

first

the abUity to turn voluntarily from one impression to another.

From

becomes more and more

this point on, the ability

developed;
fatigues

still,

the attention,

more rapidly than

a greater variety

even

in 'later

in the case of adults,

of objects or a

fully

childhood,

and requires

more frequent pause

for

rest.
6.

The development

of sdf-consdousness keeps

that of the associations and apperceptions.

this

pace with

In judging of

development we must guard against accepting as signs

any

of self-consciousness

single symptoms, such as the child's

discrimination of the parts of his

body from

objects of his

environment, his use of the word "I", or even the recognition

of his

own image in the nairror. The adult savage who has

own reflected image before, takes it for some
The use of the personal pronoun is due to
person.

never seen his

other

the child's imitation

of the examples of those

about him.

This imitation comes at very different times in the cases of

different children,

in other respects

even when their intellectual development

is

the same.

It

is,

to be sure, a

symptom

of the presence of self-consciousness, but the first beginnings

of self-consciousness

may have preceded

this

discrimination

I^- Psychical Developments.

288
in speech

by a longer or shorter period of time ^s the case

may

Again, the discrimination of the body from other

he.

objects

a symptom of exactly the same kind.

is

cognition of the body

The

re-

a process that regularly precedes

is

that of the recognition of the image in the mirror, but one

is

as

a criterion of the beginning of self-consciousness

little

They both presuppose the

as the other.

existence of

some

degree of self-consciousness beforehand. Just as the developed

self-consciousness
ditions

(p.

the child

is

based upon a number of different con-

same way the self-consciousness of

221), so in the

from the

is

first

a product of several components,

partly ideational in character, partly affective and volitional.

Under the

first

head we have the discrimination

of a constant

group of ideas, under the second the development of certain

interconnected processes of attention and volitional acts.

The

constant group of ideas does not necessarily include aU parts

of the body,

covered,

for example,

as,

and

it

may,

as

is

the legs, which are usually

more often the

case,

include

external objects, as, for example, the clothes generally worn.

The

and

subjective affective

relations

ponents in external voHtional

the

decisive

by the

especially

to

acts, are

the factors that exercise

influence

fact that strong feelings,

of pain, very often

moment

and the ideational com-

Their greater

influence.

mark

in

But

is

shown

especially those

an individual's memory the

which the continuity of his

reaches back.

and the

volitional components,

that exist between these

first

self- consciousness

there can be no doubt that a

forfia

of

self-consciousness, even though less intercoimected, exists even

before this

first clearly

comes in the

fifth

remembered moment, which generally

or sixth year.

observation of

the child

certain criteria,

it is

when

is

Still,

since the objective

not supplied at

first

with any

impossible to determine the exact

self-consciousness

begins.

moment

Probably the traces of

it

20. Psychical Development of the Child.

begin to appear in the

first

weeks; after this

289
continually

it

becomes clearer under the constant influence of the conditions

mentioned, and increases in temporal extent just as consciousness in general does.

The development

7.

of

that of self-consciousness.

the development of

wiU
It

attention

inferred partly from

described above,

and gradual perfection

the rise

intimately connected with

is

may be

partly from

of external volitimial acts,

whose influence on self-consciousness has

just

been mentioned.

The immediate relation of attention to will appears in the

symptoms of active attention and voluntary action
come at exactly the same time. Very many animals execute
fact that

immediately after birth fairly perfect impulsive movements,

that

is,

simple volitional acts.

These are rendered possible

by inherited reflex-mechanisms of a complex character.

new-bom

child,

The

on the contrary, does not show any traces

of such impulsive acts.

Still,

we observe

in the first

days

the earHest beginnings of simple volitional acts of an impulsive character,

sations

of

as a result of the reflexes caused

hunger and by the sense-perceptions connected

with appeasing

it.

These are to be seen in the evident quest

after the sources of nourishment.

of

by sen-

come the voKtional

attention

pressions of sight

With
acts

the obvious growth

connected with im-

and hearing: the child purposely, no longer

merely in a reflex way, follows visual objects, and turns

head towards the noises that he

his

hears.

Much

later

come

the movements of the outer muscles of the limbs and trunk.

These,

again.

ings

especially

lively

first

the muscles of the limbs,

movements,

generally

repeated

show from the

time

These movements are accompanied by

latter become

characteristic

time

all possible feel-

and emotions, and when the

the movements

and

differentiated,

begin gradually to exhibit certain differences

for

WosDT, Psychology.

the

quality of

the

emotions.-

The
19

chief

290

IT^'

difference

Psychical Developmenis.

movements

fact that rhythmical

the

in

consists

accompany pleasurable emotions, while arrhythmical and,

rule,

movements

violent

when

result

These expressive movements,

pleasurable.

which must be

looked upon as reflexes attended by feeUngs,

occasion offers

soon

as

ordinary voluntary expressive move-

into

Thus, the child shows through the different accom-

ments.

panying symptoms that he not only

anger,

then,

upon the surroundings, pass

as the attention begins to turn

as

as a

the emotions are un-

but that the wishes to give expression to these

etc.,

The

emotions.

annoyance,

feels pain,

cedent motive

movements, however, in which an ante-

first

recognized beyond a doubt, are the

to be

is

grasping movements which begin in the twelfth to the fourteenth week.

Especially at

movements as well
clear

symptoms

the foot takes part in these

first,

We

as the hand.

of sense-perception,

have here also the

as well as the first in-

dications of the existence of a simple volitional process

up

of motive, decision,

movements are

imitative
imitations,
first,

and
to

act.

be

later intentional

observed.

Simple mimetic

and then pantomitnetic, such

etc.

the beginning

of

Very

made

Somewhat

such as puckering the

beating time,

first

gradually,

lips

as
a's

and frowning, come

doubling up the

fist,

a rule not until after

the second half of the first year, complex

volitional acts develop

from these simple ones. The

of decision, the voluntary suppression of

commence

one already begun,

to

oscillation

an intended act or

be clearly observable at

this period.

Learning

to

walk,

which usually begins in the

is

of voluntary acts

in the proper

portance

is

last third

an important factor in the development

of the first year,

sense of the term.

Its im-

due to the fact that the going to certain particular

places furnishes

the occasion for the rise of a

conflicting motives.

The

learning itself

is

number

of

to be regarded as

20. Psychical Development of

the Child.

291

a process in which the developmeiit of the will and the

effect

of inherited dispositions to certain particular combinations of

moTements are continually interacting upon each other. The

first impulse for the movement comes from voUtional motives
the purposive

way

in which

it

is

carried

out,

however,

is

primarily an effect of the central mechanism of coordination,

which in turn

rendered continually more and more purposive

is

as a result of the individual's practice directed

The development

8.

that of his other volitional acts.

cooperation

on the

This, too,

other.

his wUl.

depends on the

of inherited modifications in the

of the nervous system

by

of the child's ability to speak follows

central organ

on one hand, and outside influences

The most important butside influences in this

come from the speech of those about the

case are those that

child.

In

entirely

which

feelings

from

The

reflex

development of speech corresponds

of the other expressive

to that

it is,

classed.

as

this respect the

its

appear

earliest articulations of the vocal organs

phenomena,

and emotions,

especially

accompanying pleasurable

as early as the second month.

that they increase in variety and exhibit

tendency to repetition
etc.).

movements, among

general psycho-physical character, to be

(for

After

more and more the

example, ba-ba-ba, da-da-da-da,

These expressive sounds

differ

from those

of

many

animals only in their greater and continually changing variety.

They

are produced on all possible occasions and without any

by no
Through the in-

intention of conmiunicating anything, so that they are

means to be classed

as elements of speech.

fluence of those about the child these sounds generally

become

elements of speech after the beginning of the second year. This

result is

brought about chiefly by certain imitative movements.

It comes, in the

form

of sound-sensations,

from two

sides.

On

the one hand, the child imitates adults, on the other, adults
imitate the child.

In

fact,

as

rule,

it is

the adults
19*

who

IV- Psyehieal Developments.

292

begin the imitating; they repeat the involuntary articulations

of the child

and attach a particular meaning

for example,
It

"par-pa"

not until

is

later,

for

"ma-ma"

father,

to them, as,

for mother,

etc.

after the child has learned to use these

sounds in a particular sense through intentional imitation,

that he repeats other words of the adults' language also,

even then he modifies them to

he

fit

and

the stock of sounds that

able to articulate.

is

Gestures are important as means by which adults, more

than voluntarily, help the child to understand

instinctively

the words they use.

These are generally indicative gestures

towards the objects;

less

case

walk, sleep,

The

frequently,

words meaning* some

of

child

such

only in the

as strike,

cut,

they take the form of depicting gestures.

etc.,

has

ordinarily

activity

a natural understanding for these gestures,

Even the onomatopoetic words of childbow-bow for dog, etc.) never become intelKgible

but not for words.

speech (such as
to

him

The

until the

child

the adult

is

objects have been frequently pointed out.

not the creator of these words, but

who

seeks instinctively to

it is

rather

accommodate himself in

this respect also to the stage of the child's consciousness.

All this goes to show that the

is

child's learning to

speak

the result of a series of associations and apperceptions in

whose formation both the child and those about him take
part.

Adults voluntarily designate particular ideas with certain

words taken from the expressive sounds made by the

or with onomatopoetic words

of the

first class.

word and idea

The

after it has

been made intelUgible to him

it

with his

own

imitative articu-

movements. Following the pattern of these

ceptions

and associations the child then forms

imitating of his

child,

arbitrarily after the pattern

child apperceives this combination of

with gestures, and associates

lative

made

own accord more and more

first

apper-

others,

the words

by

and

 20. Psychical Development of

the Child.

293

verbal combinations that he accidentally hears adults using,

and by making the appropriate

The whole process

is

associations with their meanings.

thus the result of a psychical interaction

The sounds

between the child and those about him.

are at

produced by the child alone, those about him take up

first

these sounds

The

9.

and make use

final

them

of

for purposes of speech.

development that comes from

processes thus far discussed,

the simpler

all

that of the complex functions

is

the relating and comparing

of apperception, that

is

and the

imagination and understanding

activities of

activities,

made up

of these ( 17).

Apperceptive combination in

and

relating

of

concrete

form

its first

the activity of imagination, that

is

is

exclusively

the combination, analysis,

sensible

Thus,

ideas.

individual

development corroborates what has been said in general about

the genetic relation of these functions
of the

(p.

266).

On

the basis

of immediate

continually increasing association

im-

pressions with earlier ideas, there arises in the child, as soon

as his active attention

is

a tendency to form such

aroused,

combinations voluntarily.

The number

freely combining with the impression

of

memory-elements

and added

to

it,

furnish

us with a measure for the fertiHty of the individual child's

imagination.

As

soon as

this

has once begun to operate,

force that the child

is

combining activity of imagination

it

shows

unable to

with an impulsive

itself

resist,

for there

is

not as

as in the case of adults, any activity of the understanding

yet,

to prescribe definite intellectual ends regulating

and

inhibiting

the free sweep of the ideas of imagination.

This imchecked relating and coupling of ideas in imagination

is

connected with voKtional impulses aiming to find for the

ideas

some

starting-points in immediate sense-perception,

ever vague these starting-points

rise to the child's play-impulse.

may
The

be.

This

earliest

is

what

games

howgives

of

the

294

IT^-

Psychical Developments.

on the contrary,

child are those of pure imagination;

while,

those of adults (cards, chess,

are almost as exclusively

intellectual games.

fluence are the

lotto, etc.)

Only where

aesthetical

demands exert an

in-

games of adults the productions of the imagina-

tion (drama, piano-playing,

hut even here they are not

etc.),

whoUy untrammeled Uke those of the child, but are regulated

by the understanding. When the play of a child takes its natural
course,

it

shows at difEerent periods of

the intermediate stages between the

game

its

development

all

of pure imagination

and that

in

the

years this play consists in the production of rhyth-

first

which imagination and understanding are united. In

mical movements of the arms and

legs,

then the movements

are carried over to external objects as well, with preference

to such objects as give rise

to auditory sensations,

or such

In their origin these movements are

as are of bright colors.

obviously impulsive acts aroused by certain sensational stimuli

and dependent

for their purposive coordination

on inherited

The rhythmical order

and sound-impressions
produced by them, obviously arouse pleasurable feelings, and

traits of the central

of the

this very

ments.

nervous organs.

movements and

of the feelings

soon results in the voluntary repetition of the move-

After

this,

during the

first years,

play becomes gradu-

ally a voluntary imitation of the occupations

The range

the child sees about him.

and

is

no longer limited

reproduction of what

is

to

what

is

of imitation then widens

more

but includes a free

seen,

heard in narratives.

time the interconnection between ideas

follow a

fixed plan.

This

is

and

of later childhood in perscribed rules.

often accelerated through the influence

and through

artificial

At

the same

acts begins

to

the regulative influence of

the activity of understanding, which shows

child

and scenes that

itself in

the games

This development
of those

is

about the

forms of play generally invented

by adults and not always suited

to

the child's imagination;

 20. Psychical Development of

Still,

the development

295

to be recognized as natural and

by tbe reciprocal interconnection of

is

necessarily conditioned

and apperceptive

associative

the Child.

processes,

since

agrees witb

it

the general development of the intellectual functions.

way

in which

the processes

and the functions

curtailed

employed, renders
so

much

probable that the curtaiUng

its

has once set

in,

as to

an

When

because of the predominating exercise

of imagination

may

itself

This view seems to

through lack of use be interfered with.

be supported by the fact that savages usually have

their lives

due not

is

action through abstract thinking.

of abstract thinking, the activity

all

through

an imaginative play-impulse related to that of the child.

From

10.

gradually

are

more and more

to a quantitative decrease of imagination

obstruction of
this

it

imagination

of

of understanding

The

imaginative forms

thought as a starting-

of

point the functions of understanding develop very gradually

in the

way

already described

(p.

Aggregate ideas that are

264).

presented in sense -perception or formed by the combining

activity

of

imagination

are

divided

their

into

conceptual

components, into objects and their attributes, into objects

and
to

their activities, or into the relations of

The

one another.

functions

of

fioneepts.

On

understanding

of the

derived from

different objects

for the rise of the

therefore

of view of the observer

by no means proofs
part

is

symptom

the

formation

of

the other hand, actions that can be explained

from the point

the

decisive

by

of the existence

actor,

for

associations,

logical reflection, are

of

such reflection on

they are very

just

as

often obviously

in the case of animals.

In the same way there may be the first beginnings of sjieech

without abstract thinking in any proper sense, since words
refer originally

the
are

more

only to concrete sensible impressions.

perfect use of language

conceptually

analyzed,

is

related,

Still,

not possible until ideas

and transferred,

even

296

Psyekieal Developments.

IV^.

though the processes are in each case

sensible.

The development

and that

of

latter

and

entirely concrete

of the functions of understanding

and the

speech accordingly go hand in hand,

an indispensable %id in retaining concepts and fixing

is

the operations of thought.

Child-psychology often suffers from the same mistake

10 a.
that

is

made

in animal psychology: namely, that the obserTations

are not interpreted objectively, but are filled out with subjective

Thus, the earliest ideational combinations, which are

reflections.

in

purely associative,

reality

and the

reflection,

earliest

are

regarded

of

acts

as

mimetic expressive movements,

logical
as,

for

example, those of a new-born child due to taste-stimuli, are looked

upon

reactions to feelings,

as

while they are obviously at

first

nothing but connate reflexes which may, indeed, be accompanied

by obscure concomitant

feelings,

demonstrated with certainty.

opment of

volition

because

language,

Closer observation,

about him,

even

these

not be

can

as to the devel-

and of speech, labors under a like miscon-

Generally there

ception.

but

The ordinary view

of

is

a tendency to

peculiarities,

its

however,

consider the child's

as a creation of his

shows that

it

is

created

own.

by those

though in doing

this they use the sounds that the

and conform as far as possible to his
Thus it comes that some of the very

child himself produces,

stage of consciousness.

detailed and praise-worthy accounts of the mental development of

the

child

finding

in

modern

literature

reflective

1.

only

as

sources

for

popular psychology, their psychological deductions require

correction along the lines

21.

can serve

Because they stand on the basis of a

objective facts.

marked out above.

DEVELOPMENT OP MENTAL OOMMUNITIES.

Just as the psychical development of the child

resultant of his interaction with his environment, so

consciousness

stands

cominuhity in which

Among

continually in
it

relation to

is

the

matured

the mental

has a receptive and an active part.

most animals such a conununity

is

entirely wanting.

Development of Mental Communities.

21.

In animal marriage, animal

and

297

incomplete forerunners of mental communities,

we have only
and they are

generally

certain

ends.
falsely

limited

the

to

states,

accompKshment

of

single

The more lasting forms, animal marriage and the

named animal states (p. 279), are really sexual commore

munities; the

transient forms or flocks, as, for example,

flocks of migratory birds, are

these cases

all

flocks,

communities for protection.

certain instincts that have

it is

In

grown more

and more fixed through transmission, which hold the individThe community, therefore, shows the same

uals together.

constancy as instinct, in general, and

is

very Uttle modified

thus,

mere enlargements

by the influences of individuals.

While animal communities

of the individual existence,

human

ends,

development seeks from-i'the

the individual with

is

are,

aiming at certain physical

his

first

so

to

vital

unite

mental environment that the whole

capable of development, serving at once the satisfaction of

the physical needs of Hfe and the pursuit of the most various

mental ends, while permitting also great variations in these

As

ends.

a result the forms of

The more

ingly variable.

fully

human

society

are exceed-

developed forms, however,

enter into a continuous train of historical development which

extends the mental

ties that

connect individuals almost un-

Mmitedly beyond the bounds of immediate spacial and temporal

proximity.
tion

The

of the

final result of this

states,

is

the forma-

notion of humanity as a great general mental

community which
conditions of

development

life

is

divided

into

single

up according

to

civilized societies of various kinds, races,

The mental community

to

the

special

concrete communities, peoples,

and

families.

which the individual belongs

is,

therefore, not one, but a changing plurality of mental unions

which are interlaced in the most manifold ways and become

more and more numerous as development

progresses.

^^- PsyoMcal Developments.

298
2.

The problem

of

developments in their

tracing these

concrete forms or even in their general interconnection, belongs to the history of civilization and to general history,

not to psychology.

cesses

is

at its beginning,

in its further development,

is

some account here

and the psychical pro-

a prime necessity of every mental

and a continually operative factor

is

the function of speech.

what makes the development

of

comes from the expressive movements

form for

development

its

common mental

the

all

it

This

mental communities from

individual existences psychologically possible.

as a result of

social

life.

condition -which

community

give

conditions

from these conditions that distinguish

arising

from individual

The

we must

Still,

of the general psychical

In

origin

its

of the individual,

it

but

becomes the indispensable

These common

contents.

contents, or the mental processes which belong to the whole

community,

may be

divided into two classes, which are merely

interrelated components of social Hfe,

not distinct processes

any more than are the processes of ideation and

volition

The first of these classes is that

where we find especially the accepted

in individual experience.
of the

common

ideas,

conclusions on the questions of the content and significance

of the world
class

consists

these are the mythological ideas.

of

correspond to the

and emotions

the common motives of volition, which

common ideas and their attending feelings
these are the laws of custom.
A.

3.

We

The second

SPEECH.

obtain no information in regard to the general

development of speech frond

the individual

development of

the child, because here the larger part of the process depends

on those about him rather than on himself

the fact that the child learns to speak at

(p.
all,

292

sq.)

Still,

shows that he

21.

Development of Mental Communities.

has psychical and physical

of

language -when

it

assumed that these

is

traits

favorable

communicated.

traits

would, even

to the reception

In
if

299

fact,

it

may he

there were no com-

munications from without, lead to the development of some

kind of expressive movements accompanied by sounds, which

would form

an incomplete language.

This

supposition

is

by observations on the deaf and dumb, especially

deaf and dumb children who have grown up without any

justified

In

systematic education.

spite of this lack of education,

energetic mental intercourse

In such a

case, however,

ceive only visual signs,

may

take place between them.

since the deaf

and dumb can perdepend on the

the intercourse must

development of a natural gesture-language made

combination of significant expressive movements.
general expressed by mimetic movements,

are in

pantomimetic,
finger or

the
(p.

air,

either

by pointing

by drawing some kind

that

is,

an

by means

at

the

object

of picture

of

up

of

Eeehngs
ideas

with

by
the

the idea in

of indicative or depicting gestures

There may even be a combination of such signs

173).

corresponding to a series of successive ideas, and thus a kind

of sentence

may be

by means

formed,

described and occurrences narrated.

of

which things are

This natural gesture-

language can never go any further, however, than the communication of concrete sensible ideas and their interconnection.
Signs for abstract concepts are entirely wanting.
4.

hardly

The

primitive development of articulate language can

be thought of except after the analogy of the

of this natural gesture-language.

The only

difference

in this case the ability to hear results in the addition of

is

rise

that

a third

form of movements to the mimetic and pantomimetic moveThese are the articulatory movements, and since they
are much more easily perceived, and capable of incomparably

ments.

more various modification,

it

must

of necessity

follow that

I^- PsycMcul Devdopmmts,

300
they soon

But

exceed the others in importance.

mimetic and pantomimetic gestures owe their

just

as

intelligibility to

the immediate relation that exists between the character of

movement and

the

suppose

its

meaning, so here also we must pre-

hke relation

movement and

its

between

that articulation was at

and pantomimetic

the

Then,

meaning.
first

not improbable

aided by accompanying mimetic,

As

gestures.

articulatory

original

too, it is

evidence for this view

have the unrestrained use of such gestures by savages,

we
and

the important part they play in the child's learning to speak.

The development
all probability to

language

articulate

of

in which the articulatory

in

differentiation,

movements have gradually gained

the permanent ascendency over a

movements that

expressive

accordingly,

is,

be thought of as a process of

number

of different variable

originally attended them,

and have

dispensed with these auxDiary movements as they themselves

gained a sufficient degree of

cess

may be

the

others

fixity.

Psychologically the pro-

The first consists in the

expressive movements of the individual member of the community.
These are impulsive volitional acts, among which
the movements of the vocal organs gain the ascendency over
divided into two acts.

in the effort

of

associations between sound

more

fixed,

and

consists
idea,

to

communicate

the

in

subsequent

which gradually become

and spread from the centres where they originated

through wider
5.

the individual

The second

with his fellows.

From

circles of society.

the

first

there are other physical and psychical

conditions that take part in the formation of language and

produce continual and unceasing modifications in

ponents.

Such modifications may be divided

into

its

two

com-

classes

those of sound and those of meaning.

The

first

class

have their physiological

cause

in

the

gradual changes that take place in the physical structure of

21.

Development of Mental Communiiies.

the vocal organs.

These changes

3OI

to a great extent at

are,

either physically or psycho-physically conditioned.

least,

They
come partly from the general changes which the transition
from a savage to a civilized condition produces in the physical organism, partly from the special conditions that result
from increased practice in the execution of articulatory
movements.

Many phenomena

go to show that the gradually

increasing rapidity of articulation

fluence.

Then,

too, the

of especially

is

great in-

words that are in any way analogous

one another in a way that indicates the interference

effect

of the psychical factor of association.

As

the change in sound modifies the outer form of words;

so the change in meaning modifies their inner content.

original association
is

modified

between a word and the idea

by the substitution

This process of substitution

with the same word.

of

may be

The change

another

it

The

expresses

different

idea.

several times repeated

in the

meaning

of

words

depends, therefore, on a gradual modification of the associative conditions determining the ideational complication that

shall arise in the fixation-point of consciousness

is

heard or spoken.

It may, accordingly,

when a word

be briefly defined

as a shifting of the ideational component of the complications

connected with articulate sounds

(p.

234).

These changes in the sound and meaning of words operate

together in bringiug about the gradual disappearance of the
originally necessary relation

that a

word

ternal

sign of the idea.

finally

comes

to

between sound and meaning, so

be looked upon as a mere ex-

This process

is

so

complete that

even those verbal forms in which this relation seems to be

still

retained,

most
ilative

onomatopoetic words,

appear to be, for the

part, products of a relatively late

process which seeks

between sound and meaning.

to

and secondary assim-

reestablish

the

lost

affinity

302

Psychical Developments.

IV".

this

combined action

to be

found in the fact

Another important consequence of

of changes in

sound and meaning,

many words

that

crete sensible significance,

and means

cepts

and become

the

for

expression

-way

abstract thinking

is

based and

the apperceptive

of

meaning

It

would be im-

words upon which

of

therefore, a product of the psychical

it is,

In

their products.

developed.

possible without the change in

it is

signs of general con-

and comparing functions and

relating
this

is

gradually lose entirely their original con-

and

psycho-physical interactions from which the progressive devel-

opment
6.

of language results.

Just as the components of language, or words, are under-

going a continual development in sound and meaning, so in

though generally more slowly, changes are

the same way,

going on in the combinations of these components into complete

wholes,

that

in

is,

No

sentences.

language can be

thought of without some such syntactic order of

Sentences

and words

are,

therefore,

may

even be called the

more incomplete

its

words.

primitive

as

In a certain sense the sen-

psychological forms of thought.

tence

equally

earlier,

for,

especially in the

stages of language, the words of a sentence

are so uncertainly distinguished that they seem to be nothing

but the products of a breaking up of an originally unitary

thought expressed by the whole sentence.
versal rule for the order of words,

There

is

no uni-

any more than there

for the relation of sound to meaning.

The order

is

that logic

favors with a view to the relations of reciprocal logical de-

pendence between concepts, has no psychological universality

it

appears, in fact, to be a fairly late product of development,

due in part to arbitrary convention, and approached only

by the prose forms

of

some modern languages which are

syntactically nearly fixed.

in apperceptive

The

original

combination of words

is

principle

followed

obviously

this,

the

Development of Mental Communities.

21.

words corresponds

order of the

Especially those parts

succession

the

to

speech

of

3(J3

that

of ideas.

represent

the

ideas

which arouse the most intense feehngs and attract the attenare placed

tion,

Following

first.

In

community.

this

principle,

such a regularity

fact,

certain re-

words are deyeloped in any given

gularities in the order of

is

to be

observed

even in the natural gesture-language of the deaf and dumb.

it is

Still,

easy to understand that the most various modi-

fications in this respect

may

appear under special circumstances,

and that the possible range of these modifications

is

very

In general, however, the habits of association lead

great.

more and more

to the fixation of particular syntactic forms,

so that a certain rigidity usually results.

Apart from the general laws presented in the

and there shown to

of apperceptive combinations,

the general psychical

(p.

functions

of relating

discussion
arise

from

and comparing

264), the detailed discussion of the characteristics of syn-

tactic

in

combinations and their gradual changes, must be

spite

of

their

psychological importance,

chology,

because they depend so

positions

and conditions

The development

of language.

language

lost in

human

fied

itself,

of

myths

upon

consciousness;

and limited by a great

stiQ,

based,

to

of influences.

various

its

mythological ideas,

designated by the

closely related to that

is

be

sure,

these attributes are modi-

variety

kind of apperception belonging to

suitably

is

certain attributes that are never

fundamental function which in

gives rise to all

psy-

specific dis-

MYTHS.

Mythological thought

just as

to social

the

of civilization in a given community.

B.

7.

much on

left,

the

forms of activity

we have a

all

As

characteristic

naive consciousness and

name personifying

apperception.

It consists in the complete determination of the apperceived

IV. Psyehieal Developments.

304

The

objects through the nature of the perceiving subject.

not

subject

only

sees

own

his

sensations,

and

emotions,

voluntary movements reproduced in the objects, but even his

momentary

affective state is in

in determining his view of the

each case especially influential

phenomena

a necessary

and

in

As

existence.

same personal

of such a view the

result

perceived,

own

arousing ideas of their relations to his

attri-

butes that the subject finds in himself are assigned to the

The inner

object.

attributes,

emotion,

of feeling,

etc.,

are

never omitted, while the outer attributes of voluntary action

and other manifestations Hke those of men, are generally

dependent on movements actually perceived. The savage may
thus attribute to stones, plants, and works of

art,

an inner

capacity for sensations and feelings and their resulting effects,

but he usually assumes immediate action only in the case of

moving
In

all

objects,

such as clouds, heavenly bodies, winds,

these cases the personification

may readUy

assimilations which

of fancy
8.

(p.

is

etc.

favored by associative

reach the intensity of illusions

268).

Myth-making, or personifying, apperception

is

not to

be regarded as a special form or even as a distinct sub-form

It

of apperception.

of

apperception

obvious traces of
in

play

(p.

293),

especially fear

is

nothing but the natural inceptive stage

in general.
it,

partly

and

The

child

shows

continually

partly in the activities of his imagination

in

fright,

the
easily

fact

that strong emotions,

arouse illusions of fancy

with an affective character analogous to that of the emotion.

In

this

case,

however, the manifestations of a tendency to

form myths are early checked and soon entirely suppressed

through the influences of the

With savage and

child's

environment and education.

partly civilized peoples

it is different.

There

the surrounding influences present a whole mass of mythological

ideas to the individual consciousness.

These, too, originated

Development of

21.

Mmtal Communiiies.

305

minds of individuals, and have gradually become fixed

some
particular community, and in continual interrelation
in

in the

with language

have,

like the latter,

been transmitted from

generation to generation and become gradually modified in

the transition from savage to

The

9.

is

civilized conditions.

direction in which these modifications take place,

determined in general by the fact that the affective state

of the subject at the time

is,

as above remarked,

the

chief

influence in setthng the character of the myth-making apper-

In order

ception.

which the
the

first

affective

some

gain

to

state

notion

of

way

the

in

subject has changed from

of the

beginnings of mental development to the present,

we must appeal
ical ideas,

development of mytholog-

to the history of the

for other evidences are entirely wanting.

pears that in

all cases

on the one hand,

It

ap-

the earliest mythplogical ideas referred,

to the personal fate in the immediate future,

and were determined, on the other, by the emotions aroused

by the death of comrades and by the memory of them, and
also in a high degree by the memories of dreamy.
This
is

the source of so-called "animism", that

is,

all

those ideas

in which the spirits of the dead take the parts of controllers

of, fortune
life.

and bring about

"Fetishism"

is

either weal

a branch

attribute of abihty to control fate

objects in the environment,

or

woe

animism, in

of
is

in

human

which the

carried over to various

such as animals, plants,

stones,

works of art, especially those that attract the attention on

account of their striking character or of some accidental outer
circumstance.

The phenomena

of

animism

and

fetishism

are not only the earliest, but also the most lasting, productions
of

myth-making apperception.

others are suppressed,

among

civilized peoples,

ments, charms,

They

continue, even after all

in the various forms

of superstitions

such as belief in ghosts, enchant-

etc.

WoNDT, Psychologj.

20

I^- Psychical Developments.

306
10.

After consciousness reaches a more advanced stage,

personifying apperception begins

to

natural jihenomena which act upon

their changes

clouds,

and through

rivers,

deal with the greater

human

life

their direct influence, such as the

and greater heavenly

winds,

both through

The

bodies.

regularity of certain natural phenomena, such as the alternation of night

and day,

in a thunderstorm,-

of winter

gives

etc.,'

and summer, the processes

occasion for the formation of

poetical myths, in which a series of interconnected ideas are

woven
arises,

of

In

into one united whole.

this

way

the nature- myth

which from its very character challenges the poetic power

each individual to develop

it

further.

becomes

It thus

gradually a component of popular and then of literary poetry,

meaning through the fading out

and tmdergoes a change

of some of the features

in

the appearance of other

new

of

the single mythical figures and

features.

This change, in turn,

makes possible a progressive inner change

of

analogous to the change in words, by which

As

accompanied.

the

process

goes

on,

the

myth,

is

always

it

single

poets

and.

thinkers gain an increasing influence.

In

this

way, there gradually results a division

of

the

whole content of mythological thought into science (philosophy)

and

religion,

at the same time, the nature-gods in

more and more to ethical ideas of deity.

while,

religion give place

After this division has taken place, the two departments influence each other mutually in

many important

these facts must be left to social psychology

civilization, for

ways.

and the

Still,

history of

they must be discussed in the light of special

social conditions as well as of general psychological laws.

C.

11.

myths

CUSTOMS.

The development of customs is related

same way that outer volitional acts

in the

to that of

are related

Development of Mental Communities.

21.

307

Wherever we can trace out the

to inner motives.

origin of

ancient and wide-spread customs with any degree of probability,

we

that

find

monies

of

and the gathering

of the fields,

The custom

to nature-myths.
its

point

to a primitive ancestor-

and ceremonies connected

feasts

witli

with the change of the seasons, the tillage

particular days,

betrays

peoples

civihzed

Numerous

worship.

they are remnants or modifications of

Thus, the funeral feasts and burial cere-

certain cult-forms.

of the harvest, all point

of greeting, in

its

back

various forms,

from the ceremonies of prayer.

direct derivation

This does not exclude the possibility that other motives

also, especially

what were at

those of practical utiHty, have given rise to

first

individual habits, but gradually spread

throughout a community and thus became laws of custom.

The predominant

feature of

this

development, however,

the fact that primitive customs, even

when they

is

incidentally

serve practical needs, as, for example, the custom of wearing

a uniform pattern of clothes, of having meals at a regular time,

etc., still

depend more or

In

it

fact,

less

would be hard

on particular mythological
to think of

it

ideas.

as otherwise at a

time when consciousness was under the complete control of

a myth-making apperception.
12.

With

customs, as with language, the change in meaning

has exercised a modifying influence on their development.

a result of

this change,

have taken place.

has been lost and

As

two chief Mnds of transformation

In the

first,

the original mythical motive

no new one has taken

its

place.

The

custom continues as a consequence of associative habit, but

loses its imperative character and becomes much weaker in
its

outward manifestations.

formations,

a moral-social

In the second

original mytho-religious motive.

may

in

class

of

trans-

purpose takes the place of the

The two kinds

of

change

any single case be most intimately united; and even

20*

I^- Psyehiccd Developments.

308

when a custom does not

directly, as

is

the case,

any particular

serve

social

end

for example, with certain rules of

deportment, of etiquette, on the manner of dressing, eating,

etc.,

still it

common

may do

some

so indirectly in that the existence of

rules for the

members

of a

community

and therefore to

to their united life

their

favorable

is

common mental

development.

The psychological changes

13.

in customs as pointed out,

constitute the preparation for their differentiation into three

namely those of custom, of

spheres,

The

last

laiv,

and

of morality.

two are to be regarded as special forms of custom

The

aiming at moral-social ends.

detailed investigation of

the psychological development and differentiation of customs

in general

is,

however, a problem of social psychology,

and

the discussion of the rise of law and morality belong also to

general history and ethics.

We

14.

have here, in mental communities, and especially

in their development of language, myths,

interconnections

and

and customs, mental

interactions that differ in essential respects

from the interconnection of the psychical compounds in an

individual consciousness,

but

still

as the individual consciousness

In

we may

this sense

the interconnection of the ideas and feelings of a

speak

o:f

social

community as a

common
this we

have just as much reality

itself.

collective

consciousness,

and

voHtional tendencies as a coUective will.

of the

In doing

are not to forget that these concepts do not

mean

something that exists apart from the conscious and volitional

any more than the community

processes of the individual,

itself

this

is

something besides the union of individuals.

union,

however,

Since

brings forth certain mental products,

such as language, myths, and customs, for which only the

germs are present in the individual,

and since

it

deter-

mines the development of the individual from a very early


period,

it

is

21.

Devehpment of Menial Commimities.

just as

much an

object of psychology as the

For psychology must

individual consciousness.

give

of the interactions which give rise to the products

The

facts

arising

an account

and

of collective consciousness and of the collective

14a.

309

attributes

will.

from the existence. of mental com-

munities have only recently come within the pale of psychological

investigation.

These problems were formerly referred either to the

special mental sciences (philology, history, jurisprudence, etc.) or, if

of a

more general

character, to philosophy, that

upon them

is

to metaphysics.

was dominated, as
were the special sciences, history, jurisprudence, etc., by the
reflective method of popular psychology, which tends to treat all
If psychology did touch

at all,

it

mental products of communities, to as great an extent as possible,

as voluntary inventions aimed from the first at certain utilitarian
ends.

This view found

its

chief philosophical expression

in the

doctrine of a social contract, according to which a mental com-

munity

is

not something original and natural, but

the voluntary union of a

is

number

of individuals.

derived from

is

This position

psychologically untenable, and completely helpless in the presence

of the problems of social psychology.

As one

of

its

after-effects

we have even

to-day the grossest misunderstandings of the concepts

collective consciousness and collective will. Instead of regarding

them simply

as expressions

for the actual

action of individuals in a community, some

is

agreement and interstill

suspect that there

behind them a mythological being of some kind, or at least a

metaphysical substance.

PSYCHICAL CAUSALITY
AND ITS LAWS.

22.
1.

CONCEPT OF MIND.

Every empirical science has, as

teristic subject of treatment,

perience whose nature

primary and charac-

and reciprocal

relations

if

of the facts

we

are not to give

up

it

of

ex-

seeks to

is

found to be

entirely

the grouping

In solving these problems

investigate.

necessary,

its

certain particular facts

it

under leading heads, to have general supplemenr-

tary concepts that are not contained in experience

itself,

but

are gained by a process of logical treatment of this experience.

The most general supplementary concept

has found

its

of causality.
all

place in
It

all

of this kind that

the empii'ical sciences,

is

the concept

comes from the necessity of thought that

our experiences shall be arranged accoi'ding to reason

and that we

and consequent,

shall

seco7idary supplementary concepts

of concepts

of

remove,
if

way

by means

of

need be by means

a hypothetical character,

that stand in the

all

contradictions

of the establishment of a consistent

interconnection of this kind.

all the

and

In

this

sense

we may regard

supplementary concepts that serve for the interpretation

of any sphere of experience, as apphcations of the general

principle of causation.

They

are justified in so far as they

are required, or at least rendered probable,

by

this principle;

they are unjustifiable so soon as they prove to be arbitrary

22. Conoept of Mind.

from foreign motives,

resulting

fictions

311

and

contributing

nothing to the interpretation of experience.

In

2.

sense the

this

concept matter

a fundamental

is

supplementary concept of natural science. In

significance

most general

its

designates the permanent substratum assumed

it

to vrhose

as existing in universal space,

In

attribute all natural phenomena.

the concept matter

is

activities

must

vre

most general sense

indispensable to every explanation of

The attempt

natural science.

this

in recent times to raise energy

to the position of a governing principle, does not succeed in

doing away with the concept matter, but merely gives

different content.

This content,

however,

is

given

it

to

the

concept by means of a second supplementary concept, which

relates

to

causal activity of matter.

the

The concept

of

matter that has been accepted in natural science up to the

present time,

and uses

based upon the mechanical physics of Galileo,

is

as its secondary supplementary concept the concept

of force, which

momentary

is

defined as the product of the mass

acceleration.

A physics

of energy

and the

would have

to

use everywhere instead of this the concept energy, which in

the special form of mechanical energy

is

defined as half the

product of the mass multiplied by the square of the

velocity.

Energy, however, must, just as well as force, have a position

in objective space,

and under certain particular conditions the

points from which energy proceeds may,

just as well as the

points from which force proceeds, change their place in space,

so that the concept of matter as a substratum contained in
space,
it is

is

retained in both cases.

indeed an important one,

we presuppose

cept force,

phenomena

is

the

The only difference, and

that when we use the conreducibility

of

all

natural

to forms of mechanical motion, while when we

use the concept of energy,

the property

of

we

attribute to matter not only

motion without a change in the form of

v. Psychical

312

CausalHy and

Laws.

its

energy, but also the property of the transformability of quaUtatively different

forms of energy into

another without

oiie

a change in the quantity of the energy.

The concept

3.

oi

mind
way

psychology, in the same

is

a supplementary concept of

that the concept matter

supplementary concept of natural science.

too

It

is

indis-

is

pensable in sO far as we heed a concept which shall express

in

a comprehensive way the totality of psychical experiences

in an individual consciousness.

concept, however,

The

particular content of the

in this case also entirely dependent

is

on

the secondary concepts that give a more detailed definition of

In the

psychical causality.

chology shared at

Both the concept

of

much from

not so

content psy-

definition of this

the fortune of the natural sciences.

first

mind and that

of matter arose primarily

the need of explaining experience as from

the effort to reach a systematic doctrine of the general inter-

connection of

But while the natural

all things.

sciences have

long since outgrown this mythological stage of speculative

definition,

and make use

of

some

of the single ideas

that

originated at that time, only for the purpose of gaining definite

starting-points for a strict methodical definition of their con-

psychology has continued under the control of the

cepts,

mythological, metaphysical

modem
control.

tary

times,

and

still

This concept

concept that

concept of mind

down

most

to

remains, in part at least, under its

is

not used as a general supplemen-

serves primarily

to

gather together the

psychical facts and only secondarily to give a causal interpretation of them, but

it

is

employed as a means to

so far as possible the need Of a general universal

satisfy

system,

including both nature and the individual existence.

4.
is

The concept of a mind-substance

in its various

rooted in this mythological and metaphysical need.

development there have not been wanting

efforts

to

forms

In

its

meet

22. Concept of Mind.

from

this position,

so far as possible,

psychological causal explanation,

cases been afterthoughts; and

all

psychological

still,

313
the

demand

such

efforts

have in

perfectly obvious that

it is

independent of

experience alone,

for

all

foreign

metaphysical motives, would never have led to a concept of

This concept has beyond a doubt exercised

mind-substance.

a harmful influence on the treatment of experience.

The

view,

for example, that all the contents of psychical experience are

ideas,
jects,

and that these ideas are more or less permanent obwould hardly be comprehensible without such presupThat

positions.
is

this

concept

is

really foreign to psychology,

further attested by the close interconnection in which

stands to the concept of material substance.

It

is

it

regarded

either as identical with the latter, or else as distinct in nature,

but

still

reducible in

its

to one of the particular

most general formal

characteristics

forms of the concept matter, namely

to the atom.
5.

Ttvo forms

of

concept mind- substance

the

may be

distinguished, corresponding to the two types of metaphysical

psychology

out

pointed

above

2,

p. 6).

The one

is

materialistic and regards psychical processes as the activities

of matter

of

or

brain-elements.

certain

material

The other

is

complexes,

spiritualistic

such

as

these processes as states and changes in an unextended

therefore

indivisible

spiritual nature.

In

and permanent being of a

matter

this case

is

the

and looks upon

and

specifically

thought of as made up

of similar atoms of a lower order (monistic, or monado-logical

spiritualism),

different

or the

mind -atom

from matter proper

In both

its

materialistic

is

regarded

as

specifically

(dualistic spiritualism) (comp. p.

and

7).

spiritualistic forms, the con-

cept mind-substance does nothing for the interpretation of

psychological experience.

Materialism does away with psy-

chology entirely and puts in

its

place an imaginary brain-

V. Psyehioal Causality

314

physiology of the future, or

theories, falls into douhtful

when

Laws.

its

tries

it

positive

give

to

and unreliable hypotheses of cere-

In thus giving up psychology in any proper

bral physiology.
sense,

and

up

this doctrine gives

entirely the attempt to furnish

any practical basis for the mental

Spiritualism

sciences.

allows psychology as such to continue, but subordinates actual

experience

to

processes

the

unprejudiced

observation

This appears

obstructed.

is

metaphysical

arbitrary

entirely

through which

first of

hypotheses,
psychical

of

all in

the in-

correct statement of the problem of psychology, with which

the metaphysical theories start.

They regard inner and outer

experience as totally heterogeneous, though in some external

way

interacting, spheres.

6.

has

It

been shown

p. 3)

( 1,

that

and

dealt with in the natural sciences

experience

the

in psychology

nothing but components of one experience

regarded from

different points of view: in the natural sciences as

connection of objective phenomena and,

the abstraction from the knowing

perience;

psychology

in

as

are

an

inter-

in consequence of

subject,

as

mediate

ex--

immediate and underived ex-

perience.

When

this relation is

once understood, the concept of a

mindr-substance immediately gives place to the concept of the

actuality of

mind

chical processes.

perience
that

it

is

as a basis for the comprehension of psy-

Since the -psychological treatment of ex-

supplementary to that of the natural sciences, in

deals with the

immediate reality of experience,

follows naturally that there

is

no place in psychology for

hypothetical supplementary concepts

such as are necessary

in the natural sciences because of their concept of

independent of the subject.

the

actuality

of

In

it

this

sense,

an object

the concept of

mind does not require any hypothetical

(loterminants to define

its

particular contents, as the concept

 22. Concept of Mind.

315

of matter does, but quite to the contrary,

hypothetical elements from the

of

mind as the immediate

Still,

reality of the processes themselves.

one important component

since

excludes such

it

by defining the nature

first

of

namely the totality of ideational objects,

is

these

processes,

at the

same time

the subject of consideration in the natural sciences,

ne-

it

substance and actuality are concepts

cessarily follows that

that refer to one and the same general experience, with the
difference that in each case this experience is looked at

different point of view.

we

If

subject in our treatment of the world of experience,

as a manifold of interacting substances;

we regard

it

from

abstract from the knowing

it

appears

on the contrary,

if,

as the total content of the experience of the

subject including the subject

itself,

it

In the

of interrelated occurrences.

appears as a manifold

phenomena

case,

first

are looked upon as outer phenomena, in the sense that they

would take place

were not there at

just the same, even

all,

if

we may

so that

the knowing subject

the form of ex-

call

perience dealt with in the natural sciences outer experience.

In the second
experience
knovring
attitude
this

are

subject,

on the contrary,

regarded
so

as

that

all

belonging

we may

call

the contents
directly

outer

and inner experience are

and immediate,

forms of experience.

or

They

with

objective

of

the

to

psychological

the

towards experience that of inner experience.

sense

mediate

case,

identical

and

all serve to designate,

In
with

subjective

not different

spheres of experience, but different supplementary points of

view in the consideration of an experience which

to us as
7.

an absolute

is

presented

unity.

That the method

of treating experience

natural science should have reached

employed in psychology,

is easily

its

employed

in

maturity before that

comprehensible in view of

the practical interest connected with the discovery of regular

316

Psychical Catosality and

V^.

its

Laws.

natural phenomena thought of as independent of the subject;

and

it

was almost unaroidable that

sciences should, for a long time,

two points of view.

this priority of the natural

lead to a confusion of the

we

This did really occur as

see

different psychological substance-concepts. It is for this

by the
reason

that the reform in the fundamental position of psychology,

which looks for the characteristics of

and for

this science

problems, not in the specifically distinct nature of

but in

its

method

its

its

sphere,

contents presented

of considering all the

to us in experience in their immediate reality, unmodified

any hypothetical supplementary concepts

not

with

originate

mental

sciences.

The view

concept of actuality,
fore

was accepted

it

psychology

this

but with the dngle

itself,

of mental processes based

was familiar

by

reform did

upon the

in these sciences long be-

in psychology.

This inadmissible

dif-

ference between the fundamental position of psychology and

the mental sciences

is

what has kept psychology

present time from fulfilhng

dation for
8.

all

its

until

the

mission of serving as a foun-

the mental sciences.

"When the concept

of actuality is adopted, 'a question

upon which metaphysical systems of psychology have been

long divided

is

immediately disposed

and mind.

of the relation of body

mind are both regarded

as

of.

This

is

the question

So long as body and

substances,

this

relation

must

remain an enigma, however the two concepts of substance

may be

defined.

If they are like substances, then the different

contents of experience as dealt with in the natural sciences

and
is

in psychology can

no longer be understood, and there

no alternative but to deny the independence of one of

these forms of knowledge. If they are unlike substances, their

connection

is

a continual miracle.

of the actuality of mind,

the

phenomena

we

If

we

start with the theory

recognize the immediate reality of

in psychological experience.

Our

physiological

22. Concept of Mind.

31

concept of the bodily organism, on the other hand,

is

nothing

but a part of this experience, which we gain, just as we do

all

the other empirical contents of the natural sciences, by

assuming the existence of an object independent

knowing

may

the

of

Certain components of mediate experience

subject.

correspond to certain components of immediate experience,

without

its

being necessary, for this reason, to reduce the

one to the other or to derive one from the other.

such a derivation

different points

totally

StiU,

the fact that

In

because

impossible

absolutely

is

fact,

the

of

view adopted in the two cases.

of

we have here not

different objects

of

experience, but different points of view in looking at a uni-

tary experience, renders'necessary the existence at every point

At

of relations between the two.

be remembered that there

the same time

an, infinite

is

number

it

must

of objects

that can be approached only mediately, through the method

of the natural sciences
that

we

here belong
.

all

those

phenomena

are not obHged to regard as physiological substrata

of psychical processes.
large a

number

immediately,

or

On

the other hand,

there

is

just as

of important facts that are presented only

in

psychological

experience:

these are all

those contents of our subjective consciousness which do not

have the character of ideational

objects, that

is,

the character

of contents which are directly referred to external objects.

9.

As a

result of this relation,

be a necessary relation between

all

it

follows that there

must

the facts that belong at

the same time to both kinds of experience, to the mediate

experience of the natural sciences and to the immediate experience of psychology, for they are nothing but components

of a single experience which

from

different points of view.

spheres, there
side,

is

merely regarded in the two cases

Since these facts belong to both

must be an elementary process on the physical

corresponding

to

every such process

on the psychical

318
side.

V- Psyehical

GausaMy and

This general principle

psyclm-physical parallelism.

and

significance

is

its

known

Laws.

the

as

prirmpleof

It has an empirico-psychological

thus totally different from certain meta^

is

physical principles that have sometimes been designated

the same name,

meaning.

but in reality have

an

entirely

These metaphysical principles are

the hypothesis of a psychical substance.

different

based on

all

They

by

all

seek to

problem of the interrelation of body and mind, either

by assuming two real substances with attributes which are
solve the

but parallel in their changes, or by assuming one

different,

substance with two distinct attributes that correspond in their

modifications.

In both these cases the metaphysical principle

of parallelism

is

has

process

or

versa;

based on the assumption that every physical

corresponding

psychical

process

and

on the assumption that the mental world

mirroring of the bodily world, or that the bodily world

objective

realization

the

of

This

mental.

vice
is
is

assumption

a
an
is,

however, entirely indemonstrable and arbitrary, and leads in

its

psychological application to an intellectuahsm contradictory

to all experience.

The

psychological principle, on the other

hand, as above formulated, starts vdth the assumption that

there

is

only one experience, which, however, as soon as

becomes the subject of

scientific analysis,

components, open to two different kinds of

to a mediate

is,

in

some

scientific

it

of its

treatment:

form of treatment, which investigates ideated

objects in their objective relations to one another,

and

to an

immediate foim, which investigates the same objects in their

directly

known

character,

and in

their relations to all the other

contents of the experience of the knowing subject.

So

far as

there are objects to which both these forms of treatment are

applicable, the psychological principle of parallelism requires,

between the processes on the two

point.

This requirement

is

sides,

justified

a relation at every

by the fact that both

22.

Concept of Mind.

forms of analysis are in these two cases really analyses of

one and the same content of experience.

from the very nature of the

On

the other hand,

case, the psychological principle

of parallelism can not apply to those contents of experience

which are objects of natural-scientific analysis alone, or to

make up

those which go to

characteristic combinations

and compounds. To he
ical

the specific character of psy-

Among

chological experience.

and

the latter

we must reckon

the

relations of psychical elements

sure, there are combinations of phys-

processes running parallel to these, in so far at least

must

as a direct or indirect causal relation

exist

between the

physical processes whose regular coexistence or succession

is

indicated by a psychical interconnection, but the characteristic

content of the psychical combination can, of course, in

no way be a part

of the causal relation

between the physical

Thus, for example, the elements that enter into

processes.

a spacial or temporal idea, stand in a regular relation of

coexistence
also;

and succession

in

their physiological substrata

or the ideational elements that

make up a

process of

relating or comparing psychical contents, have corresponding

combinations of physiological excitation of some kind or other,

which are repeated whenever these psychical processes take

place.

But

the physiological processes can not contain any-

thing of that which goes most of

all

to

form the

specific

nature of spacial and temporal ideas, or of relating and comparing processes, because natural science purposely abstracts

from
cepts

all

that

that

together

is

here concerned.

with

Then, too, there are two con-

from the psychical combinations, which,

result

their

related

affective

elements,

lie

entirely

outside the sphere of experience to which the principle of

parallelism
end.

applies.

The forms

of

There are the concepts of

valiie

and

combination that we see in processes

of fusion or in associative

and apperceptive processes,

as well

320

y^-

Psychieal Causality and

its

Laws.

as the values that they possess in the whole interconnection

of psychical development,

can only be understood through

psychological analysis, in the same

way

nomena, such as those of weight, sound,

that objective phelight,

heat, etc., or

the processes of the nervous system, can be approached only

by physical and physiological

analysis, that

is,

analysis that

makes use of the supplementary substance-concepts

of natural

science.
10.

Thus, the principle of psycho-physical parallelism in

the incontrovertible empirico-psychologicai significance above

attributed to

it,

the recognition of an

leads necessarily to

independent psychical causality, which

is

related at all points

with physical causality and can never come into contradiction

with

it,

but

is

from

just as different

this physical causality

as the point of view adopted in psychology,

mediate, subjective experience,

is

different

or that of im-

from the point of

view taken in the natural sciences, or that of mediate, objective experience

And

due to abstraction.

just as the nature

of physical causality can be revealed to us only in the fun-

damental laws of nature, so the only way that we have of

accounting for the characteristics of psychical causality
certain fundamental laws

from the

totality of psychical processes.

The laws

to

of psychical phenomena

abstract

two classes of such laws.

is

We may distinguish

of one class

show them-

which condition the

rise

and

immediate interaction of the psychical compounds; we

call

selves primarily in the processes

these the psychological laws of relation.

class are derived laws.

They

Those of the second

consist in the

complex

effects

that are produced by combinations of the laws of relation

within more extensive series of psychical facts; these
the psychological laws of development.

we

call

23. Psychological Laws of

23.

321

PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS OP RELATION.

There are

We

Relation.

three general psychological laws of r'plation.

them

designate

as the laws of psychical resultants,

of

psychical relations, and of psychical contrasts.

The law of psychical

2.

the fact that every psychical

may

resultants finds its expression in

compound shows

attributes

indeed be understood from the attributes of

its

which

elements

after these elements have once been presented, but which are

by no means

to

be looked upon as the mere sum of the

attributes of these elements.

its

and

ideational

affective

compound clang

is

more

in

sum

of

In spacial and temporal ideas the spacial and

single tones.

temporal arrangement
fectly regular

make up

attributes than merely a

is

way by

the idea, but

means be regarded

conditioned,

to

be sure, in a per-

the cooperation of the elements that

still

the arrangement

can by no

itself

as a property belonging to the sensational

elements themselves.

The

nativistic theories that

assume

this,

implicate themselves in contradictions that cannot be solved;

and

besides,

in so far as they admit subsequent changes in

the original space-perceptions and time-perceptions, they are

ultimately driven to the

extent at least, of

and

functions

new

in the

assumption

attributes.
activities

of the rise,

to

some

Pinally, in the apperceptive

of imagination

and under-

standing, this law finds expression in a clearly recognized form.

Not

only do the elements united by apperceptive synthesis

gain, in the aggregate idea that results

a new

but what

state,

idea

significance

itself is

to be

from

their combination,

which they did not have in

is of stiU greater importance,

new

psychical content that was

their isolated

the aggregate

made

in them.

poss,i,ble,

by these elements, but was by no means contained

This appears most strikingly in the more complex

sure,

Wdmdt, Psychology.

21

322

T^-

Psychical Causality and

productions of apperceptive synthesis,

work

for example,

as,

in

of art or a train of logical thought.

The law

3.

of psychical resultants thus expresses a prin-

which we may designate, in view of

ciple

principle of creative synthesis.

in the

as a

but generally not

In

other psychical processes.

to the

results,

its

This has long been recognized

of higher mental creations,

case

applied

fact,

through

unjustifiable confusion with the laws of physical causahty,

an
it

Laws.

its

A similar confusion

has even been completely reversed.

responsible for the notion that there

is

is

a contradiction be-

tween the principle of creative synthesis in the mental world

and the general laws

of the natural world, especially that of

the conservation of energy.

Such a contradiction

is

impossible

from the outset because the points of view for judgment,

and therefore for measurements wherever such are made, are

different in the two cases, and must be different, since natural
science

and psychology

deal,

and the same content viewed from

experience, but with one

different

sides

do

objective

with

supplementary

( 1, p. 3).

masses,

concepts

not with different contents of

measurements have to

Physical

and

forces,

which we

These are

energies.

obhged

are

to

use

in

judging objective experience; and their general laws, derived

they

as

by any

wMch

are
single

from experience,
case

must

of experience.

be

not

contradicted

Psychical measurements,

are concerned with the comparison

of psychical

com-

ponents and their resultants, have to do with subjective values

and

ends.

The

subjective value

of a

may

whole

in comparison with that of its components;

its

increase

purpose

may

be different and higher than theirs without any change in

the masses, forces,

movements

of

and energies concerned.

an external vohtional

act,

The muscular

the physical processes

that accompany sense-perception, association, and apperception,

all

follow invariably the principle of the conservation of energy.

But

mental

the

present

23. Psychological Laivs of Relation.

values

may be

323

and ends that these energies

very different in

even

cxuantity

re-

the

while

quantity of these energies remains the same.

4.

ment
that

The

differences pointed out

show that physical measure-

deals with quantitative values, that

admit

of

variation

lation of the quantity of the

measurement,

with quantities

is,

only

value

in

one

the

in

phenomena measured.

on the other hand, deals in the

in every case with qualitative values, that

Psychical

last instance

values that vary

is,

The

in degree only in respect to their qualitative character.

tihiUty to

produce purely quantitative

effects,

which we designate

accordingly, to be clearly distinguished

as physical energy

is,

from the

produce qualitative

ability to

re-

or the ability to

effects,

produce values, which we designate as psychical energy.

On

this basis

we can not only

psychical energy with

accepted

in

reconcile the increase of

the constancy of physical

we

the natural sciences, but

find

energy as
in

the two

reciprocally supplementary standards for the judgment of our

total experience.
in

its

The

increase of psychical energy

right hght until

it

is

The

jective side of physical constancy.

is indefinite,

since the

different conditions,

is

not seen

recognized as the reverse, subformer,

measure may be very

being as

different

it

under

holds only under the condition that the

psychical processes are continuous.

relate of this increase

we have

As

the

the psychological cor-

fact

which forces

itself

iipon us in experience, that psychical values disappear.

5.

The law of

resultants;

it

psychical relations

supplements

refers not to the relation of the

that

of

components of

a psychical interconnection to the value of the whole, but

rather to their reciprocal relation.

The law

of resultants thus

holds for the synthetic processes of consciousness, the law

of relations for the analytic.

content into

its

single

Every resolution of a conscious

members

is

an act of relating
21*

analysis.

Such a

general way, a process which

and then

associations,

Laws.

an

is

ideated at

is

to he seen in sense- perceptions

is

form

process whose two factors

analytic

processes

The

all others.

what produces

is

latter

upon which

more

especially,

the law of relations

content receives

its

is

it

is

we

is

this

based

law

(p.

6.

(p.

are the

off of this

two partial

second

208,

4).

is

what

The most

found in the processes

the simple relating

and comparing

250 and

260).

In the

see that the essential content of

the principle that every single psychical

significance

from the relations in which

When

principle takes the

relative quantitative

(p.

to be

stands to other psychical contents.

quantitative,

the

clearness,

complete expression of this law

of appercepti,ve analysis and

of these

first

produces distinctness of apperception

functions

in the

In the same way, every apper-

emphasizing of one single content and the marking

one content from

only in a

first

in clearly recognized

division of aggregate ideas.

ception

its

resolution takes place in the successive apperception

of the parts of a whole which

and

and

V. Psychical Gaitsality

324

comparison such as

it

these relations are

form of a principle of
is

expressed in Weber's

254).

The law of psychical

to the law of relations.

contrasts

is,

in turn,

supplementary

It refers, like the latter, to the relations

of psychical contents to one another.

It is itself

based on the

fundamental division of the immediate contents of experience

into
is

objective

and

subjective

components, a division which

due to the very conditions of psychical development. Under

subjective components are included all the elements

binations of elements which, like the feelings

are essential constituents of volitional processes.

and com-

and emotions,
These are

all

arranged in groups made up of opposite qualities corresponding

to

the

chief

pleasurable,
feelings

affective

exciting

(p. 83).

directions

of

pleasurable

and un-

and depressing, straining and relaxing

These opposites obey in their succession the

Laws of

24. Psychological

325

Development.

In

general law of intensificatiuii thtough contrast.

crete application, this law is

its

con-

always determined in part by

special temporal conditions, for every subjective state requires

a certain period for

reached
its

its

its

maximum,

development; and
it

with the other, that there

it

This fact

is

is

has once
it

loses

connected

a certain medium, though greaitly

rate of psychical processes most favorable for the

intensity of all feelings

and emotions.

This law of contrast has

its

origin in the attributes of

the subjective contents of experience, but

to the ideas

and

own

is

secondarily applied

their elements also, for these ideas are always

accompanied by more or
to their

when

continues for a long time,

ability to arouse the contrast-effect.

varying,

if,

less

emphatic feelings due either

content or to the character of their spacial and

temporal combination.

through contrast finds

Thus the
its

principle of intensification

broader application especially in the

case of certain sensations, such as those of sight, and in the

case of spacial' and temporal ideas.
7.

The law

preceding laws.

of contrast stands in close relation to the

On

the one hand,

it

two

may be regarded

as

the application of the general law of relations to the special

case

where the

opposites.

On

rela,ted

psychical

range' between

contents

the other hand, the fact that under sidtable

circumstances antithetical psychical processes

may

each other, while falling under the law of contrast,

same time a

intensify
is

at the

special appMcation of the principle of creative

synthesis.

24.
1.

as

we

PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT.

"We have

as

many

psychological laws of development

had laws of relation, and the former

may be regarded

as the application of the latter to more comprehensive psychical

326

V'

Psychical Causality and

We

interconnections.
of mental growth,

Laws.

its

designate the laws in question as those

and of development

of heterogony of ends,

towards opposites.
2.

The law of mental

groivth

is

as little applicable to all

contents of psychical experience as any other psychological

law of development.
dition
it is,

It holds

only under the limiting con-

under which the law of resultants, whose apphcation

namely under the condition

holdSj

the processes

(p.

323).

But

of the continuity

to prevent the realization of this condition,

much more

of

since the circumstances that tend

of course,

are,

when the mental developments concerned

number of psychical syntheses, than they

frequent

include a greater

are in the single syntheses themselves,

it

follows that the law

of mental growth can be demonstrated only for certain develop-

ments taking place under normal conditions, and even here

only within certain limits.

Within these

more comprehensive developments,

as,

limits,

however, the

for example, the mental

development of the normal individual and the development of

mental communities, are obviously the best exemplifications

of the fundamental law of resultants which lies at the basis
of this development.
3.

The law of heterogony of ends

nected with the law of relations, but

law of resultants, which

when

is

dealing with the

development.

In

fact,

is

it is

most closely conalso

based on the

always to be taken into consideration

larger interconnections

we may regard

this

of

psychical

law as a principle

of development which controls the changes arising, as results

of successive creative syntheses, in the relations between the
single partial contents of psychical

compounds.

The

result-

ants arising from united psychical processes include contents

that were not present in the components,
tents

may

and these new- con-

in turn enter into relation with the old components,

thus changing again, the relations between these old components^

Laws of Development.

2d. Psychological

and consequently the new resultants that

arise

This principle of continually changing relations

when an

idea of ends

relations.

Here the

another

is

is

is

327

from them.
most striking

formed on the basis of the given

relation

the

of

single

factors

has for the end

aimed

The

interconnection.

product

the

at,

is

These new

The

principle of heterogony of ends in

ical coloring

which has given

it its

found primarily in the sphere of

the ideas

of

chology

it is

broadest sense

name, however,

it is

to be

volitional processes, for here

end attended by their

the chief importance.

its

In the special teleolog-

psychical processes.

all

first ideas,

new series of motives,

add new ones to them.

effects enter into

and thus modify the old ends or

dominates

effects in

such that secondary

always arise that were not thought of in the

of end.

from the

arising

relation between the actual

such a case and the ideated ends

effects

to one

regarded as an interconnection of means which

affective motives are of

In the various spheres of applied psy-

therefore especially ethics for which this law

is

of great importance.

The

of development toivards opposites is an application of the law of intensification through contrast, to more
4.

laiv

comprehensive interconnections which form in themselves series

series,

in accordance with the fun-

damental law of contrasts, are

of such a character that feel-

of developments.

These

ings and impulses which were of small intensity at

first,

in-

crease gradually in intensity through contrast with feelings of

opposite quality that were for a time predominant, until, finally,

they gain the ascendency over the formerly predominant

feel-

ings and are themselves for a longer or shorter time in control.

same alternation may be once or even

several times repeated. But generally the principles of men-

From
tal

this point the

growth

and heterogony

of such an oscillation,

so

of

ends operate

in

the

case

that succeeding phases are like

328

T'.

antecedent

GorresiDonding

but

direction,

Psychical Causality

still

phases

and

Laws.

its

their

in

general affective

essentially different in their special

com-

ponents.

The law

of development towards opposites shows itself in

the mental development of the individual, partly in a purely

way

individual

within shorter periods of time,

and partly

in

certain universal regularities in the relation of various periods

It has long been recognized that the predominating

of Hfe.

temperaments of different periods of

trasts.
is

Thus, the

light,

seldom more than

present certain con-

life

sanguine excitability of childhood, which

superficial,

is

followed by the slower

but more retentive temperament of youth with

frequent

its

Then comes manhood with its mature

quick and active in decision and execution,

touch of melancholy.
character, generally

and

last of

quiet.

of

all,

old age with

Even more than

antithesis

find

expression

tendencies that appear

communities,
civilization

ment.
of

and

in

its

leaning toward contemplative

in the individual does this principle

in

in the

alternation

the social

the reactions

and customs and on

of

social

and

of

mental

historical life of

these tendencies

and

on

political develop-

In the same way that the principle of heterogony

ends applied chiefly to the domain of moral

principle

of

development towards opposites finds

significance in the

more general sphere

this

life,

its

of historical

chief

life.

GLOSSARY.
Accord

chord,

Affect

emotion,

angeborea
Anschaulich

perceptual

Anschauuug

perception,

connate.

Raum-

space-p.

Zeit-

time-p.

Apperception

(p. 5).

apperception,

-function

apperceptive function,

personifioirende

personifying.

-verbindung

apperceptive combination,

Assimilation

assimilation,

Association

association,

Aehnlichkeits-

BeruhrungsGleichheits-

reihweise

by
by
by

similarity,

contiguity,
identity,

serial.

Auffassung

apprehension, perception, or ap-

Aufmerksamkeit
AufrecMsehen

attention,

Bedinguhg

condition.

B egleiters oheinung

concomitant

perception (see Perception),

erect vision.

or

accompanying

phenomenon,
Begriff

(sometimes

concept,

in

looser

sense] deiinition.

Actualitats-

der Seeje

concept of the actuality of mind,

Allgemein-

general

Hulfs-

supplementary

WerthZweck-

c.

of value,

c.

of end.

begrifflich

Beobachtung
Selbst-

c.

conceptual,
observation,
introspection.

c,

330
Beweggrund
Bewegung
Ausdrucksmimische
pantomimische
Bewusstsein

Glossary.

reason for action,

movement,
expressive m.
mimetic m.
pantomimetic m.
consciousness,

Gesammt-

collective

Selbst-

self-c.

c.

Bezieliung

relation.

Complication
Contrast
Farben-

complication,
contrast,
color-c.

Licht-

light-c.

Rand-

marginal

Dauer
Nach-

c.

duration.
persistence,

Deutlichkeit

distinctness,

Doppelbilder

double images,

Druck

pressure,

-punkt

p. -spot.

Eigenschaft

attribute or property.

Ein druck

impression.

Elemente

elements.

Empfindlichkeit

sensitivity.

Empfindung

sensation.

DruckParbenfarblose

s.

of pressure or pressure-s.

color-s.

or

s.

achromatic

s.

of chromatic light.
or

s.

of achromatic

light,

Helligkeits-

s.

of brightness,

Geruchs-

s.

of smell.

s.

of taste,

GeschmacksHauptHaut-

principal

cutaneous

Kalte-

s.

Licht-

light-s. or

Schall-

s.

SchmerzTon-

tonal

Warme-

s.

s.

s.

of cold.
s.

of light.

of sound or sound-s.

pain-s. or
s.

s.

of pain,

or tone-s.

of hot.

Glossary.

Entscheidung
EntscHiessung
Entstehung
Entwickelung
regressive

Erfahrung

331

resolution.

decision
rise.

development.
retrogradation.

experience.

mittelbare

mediate.

unmittelbare
Erinnerungsbild

immediate.

Erinnerungsvorgang

memory-process.

Erkennung

cognition.

Farben
Erg^nzungs-

colors.

memory-image.

complementary

-ton

c.-tone.

GegenGrund-

fundamental

opposite

c.

c.
c.

Fixationslinie

line of fixation.

Pixationspunkt

fixation-point or point of fixation.

Gebilde
Gedachtniss

compound.
memory.

Gefallen

agreeable feeling.

Gefiihle

feelings.

allmaUicli ansteigende

gradually arising.

Anfangs-

inceptive

BegrifFs-

conceptual

Bekanntheits-

f.

beruhigende

c[uieting

Contrast-

contrast-f.

f.
f.

of familiarity.
f.

deprimirende

depressing

End-

terminal

Erinnerungs-

f.

of remembering.

Erkennungs-

f.

of cognition.

Erieiden

f.

of passive receptivity.

(G. des)

f.

f.

excitirende

exciting

Form-

f.

-ton

affective tone.

f.

of form.

Gemein-

common

f.

losende

relaxing

f.

Lust-

pleasurable

rhythmische

f.

sinnliche

sense-f.

f.

of rhythm.

332
Gefiihle,

Olossary.

spannende

Qlossary.

Methode

333

334
Sehsoharfe

Olossary.

Glossary.

Vorstellung, G-esichts-

335

INDEX.
page

A.

Abnormities in
apperception

page

Assimilation, of auditory ideas 228

of intensive feelings
229
.

271

270

association

psychical elements

Abstract thinking
Accentuation

....

267

302

152

Acquired attributes

282

314

laws of
mediate

257

serial

Adjustment-methods

....

...

92, 158

states, unity of
tone
After-image

168
75, 77

68

Aggregate ideas

260

by

Animal marriage

279

279

states

Animism

305

Aphasia
Apperception

205
206, 209

218

active
in child

...

...

206

centre of
feeling of activity in

passive

217

217

personifying
as volitional process

293

303
.

218

245

....

225
243

225

235
209

Attention

287
210, 211

219

B.

281

......

successive

276

man

225, 245

227

Animals
psychical relation to

....

simultaneous

scope of
voluntary

262

230

by succession

in child

269-

236

268

225, 246

Anaesthesia
Analysis

similarity

264

discursive division of

224

by contiguity
by contrast

Association

Actuality, concept of
Affective processes

of spacial ideas
of visual ideas

Basilar

membrane

40, 101

Beats
tonal

100
100

Beat-tones (Koenig's)

....

Bisonance
Black
Blind-alphabet
Blindness

99
100

54,

59
107
107

Blind-spot

126

Brightness

55, 58

negative

59

positive

58

Apprehension

209

Aristotle

224

Causality (psychical)

Assimilation

228

Chemical sense.

C.
.

...

27, 320

42, 53,

68

Index.

337
page

283

Child
Choice

Chronometrio apparatus
Clang

69

188

color

201

law of psychical

95, 97

single

95

-color

95
208, 324

Clearness

240

Cognition, sensible

47

Cold-spots

Color
-blindness

77

complementary colors

66

69

-contrasts

names of

colors

.67
.... 62

61

-sphere
theories of colors

72

67

-triangle

Combination-tone (Helmholtz's) 98

Comfort
Communities, mental
Comparison
Complications

161

....

251

234

Compounds, psychical
interconnection of

296

...

25,
.

names of

90
25
90

263

Concepts

265

classes of

of end

319

general

265
319

of value

Conceptual knowledge
Cones
Consciousness
collective

grades of
scope of

...

115

203
204, 308

207
211, 214

social

204

threshold of

209

Consonants
PByeliology.

100

69,

...

psychological

258

69, 258

Coordination of eyes in child 285

Creative synthesis
322
.

Customs

40

Cochlea

fundamental colors

324

physiological

compound

WuNDT,

Contrasts

D.

Dance

...

306

Index.

338

page

page

Emotions, asthenic
classification of

....
.

171

174

component

.159

158

composite
conceptual

265

178

contrast-

163

178

depressing

181

directions of

depressing

178

exciting

forms of
gradually arising
inceptive feeling in

Feeling,

83

171

disagreeable

82
164

...

171

elementary aesthetic

intensity of

178

exciting

intermittent

181

extensive

164

ideational process in

mode

of occurrence of 178, 181

163

83

of familiarity

237

names of

179

of form

166

pleasurable

178

intensity

78

quality of

179

intensive

164

rapid

174

quality of

relaxing

178

partial

sluggish

174

names

sthenic

173

pleasurable

78

159
81

of

83, 162

straining

178

of receptivity

strong

180

of relaxation

sudden

181

of

171

resultant

178

of

180

simple

terminal feeling in

unpleasurable

weak
Empirism

83

remembering

245
159

rhythm

of strain

114, 140

217

167
29,

End, concept of

319

subduing

Energy

311

total

physical

323

psychical

323

unitary character of
unpleasurable

Exaltation, state of

269

Expectation in active apperception

218

Experiment

19

F.

Fechner's law

Peeling

...;...

Fetishism
Field of consciousness

36

of activity

189

agreeable

164

arousing

83

of cognition

241

common

161

83,

36
162

305
.

209
117

of vision

Fixation-point

118

of consciousness
'

256

83
159

....

74
83

inner

209
155

Force
Frontal brain

311

206

Fusion

94

G.

General sense
Genetic theory.

45
.

114, 141, 158

Index.

339
page

Goethe
Golden section
Grey

82
166

.54

Intensification of emotions

Introspection, pure

177
9

Isochronism

145
J.

H.
Hallucination

268

Hartley
Bering's hypothesis

224

....

Heterogony of ends, law

of.

Hot-spots

72

326

Judgment

264, 265

K.
Keenness of localization

297

Hume

.224

Hyperaesthesia
Hypnosis
theory of

268
277

274

Ideas

92

117

119

L.

Language
articulate

173

........

gesture-

299
299

Law^

308

Light-contrasts

69

-stimulations

].

vision

47

Humanity, idea of

64,

70

Lines of fixation

135

118

conceptual

264

of depth

135

Line of orientation
of regard

of direction

134

Localization of brain-functions 205

extensive

102

Localization of touch-stimuli 104

of imagination

261

Local signs

intensive
of

93

movement

Ill,

113

of position

113

spacial.

102

131

105

complex

134

of eye

127

of depth

138

M.

...

Illusions, optical

123

of direction

123

Magnetism, animal
Marching
Marginal contrast

123

Materialism

of fancy
Imagination

268

Matter, concept of
Measurements, physical.

in child

293

temporal

of

142

magnitude

262

images of
Immediate experience

261
.

Impelling force
Impulsive acts
Indifference-zones

86
187
.

34, 78

275
147

69
313

psychical

311
.

322

252, 322

Mechanical processes

....

193

42

senses

Mediate experience

knowledge

memory

243

Inductive thought

266

Instincts

278

Memory

alimentive

278

-ideas

sexual

279

-ideas, character of

239

recognition

247
241

22*

...

246

Index.

340

page

page

Memory

292

Onomatopoetic words.

56

-image

241

Opposite colors

-processes

241

Otoliths

40

326

Overtones

95

Mental growth, law of

sciences

P.

Method
of average error

257

expression-

impression-

Pain

48

86

Parallax, binocular

86

Parallelism, principle of

138

psycho-physical

256

Perceptual knowledge
Personality (psychical)

reckoning-

257

Perspective

257

Pitch

Mind

312

Mind-substance
Mistakes in child-psychology
Morality
Motives

312

185

Plane figures
Play-impulse
Point of orientation
of regard
Posthypnotic effects

MovabUity
Movements
of accommodation

102

Pressure-spots

140

of minimal differences

of right

254

and wrong cases

296

308

45
26

140
50
137

293

....

131

....

273

118

47

arrhythmical

145

Problem of psychology
Products, mental
Proportionality, law of

automatic

193

Psychology

....

...
...

...

23

256

224

expressive

172

association-

mimetic

172

descriptive

ocular

120

empirical

173
145

experimental
explanatory

186

faculty-

122

intellectualistic

198

materialistic

303

metaphysical
relation to mental sciences

16

relation to natural science

16

relation to philosophy

16

pantomimetic
rhythmical
Moving reason
Muscles of eye
Muscular reaction

...

Myths
N.
Nativism
Natural selection

'.
.

114, 140

282

Nature-myth

306

Noise

99

0.

Objects

a,

4,

....

.23
11

11

....

13
7

Science of immediate experience

Science of inner sense
social

Observation
pure

11

10,

9
8

23

19

spiritualistic

22

voluntaristic

14

220, 222

Pulse

73, 87,

176

Index.

341

page

pnge

Sensations, colorQuality, systems of

31

complex
homogeneous.
many-dimensional
.

one-dimensional

two-dimensional

46

....

32

common

32

disparate character of
of hot

32

32

of light

of metallic

32

252

Quantities, psychical

55

of cold

of

46
.

54
53

movement

107

of noise

Reaction-experiments

Reckoning-methods
Recognition
mediate

197, 201

sensible

Reflex processes

49

46

of pain

B.

35

46

68

'persistence of

46

257

of pressure

239

principal color-

239
237

pure
of pure brightness

193

rise of

38
53

61
37, 38

....

55

193

of saline

Relation of body and mind

316

of smell

52

Relations, law of psychical

323

of sound

48

251

of sour

53

purposive character of

Relating fuiiction
Relativity,

law of

(v.

Weber's

law].

Reproduction of ideas
Resolution

Resonants

53

of taste

52

225

tone-

50

188

tactual

46

Sense-feelings

Resonance hypothesis (Helmholtz's)

of sweet

75

101

Sense-stimuli

100

Sensorial reaction

198

302

38

Respiration

173

Sentences

Resultants, law of psychical

321

Sine-curve

200

Sleep-walking
Space-threshold of touch

Retrogradation

...

192,

Rods

115

51

Spacial ideas
S.

Saturation

57

of sight

Selective acts

188

of touch

Self-consciousness

221

Specific character

287

Specific energy

in child

Sensations

achromatic light-

28,
.

36

.54

of alkaline

53

of bitter

53

chromatic light-

54

.105
102

285

in child

...

272

115

104

Speech

...

.29
42
298

-centre

205

child-

291

Spiritualism

monadological

313
313

342

Index.
page

Spiritualism, monistic

Squinting

313
120

States, psychical

...

267

Stereoscope

page

Touch
synthetic

108

Transformation of stimuli

41

139

Stimulus
physical

38

physiological

38

...

physiological central

physiological peripheral

38

38

254

-threshold

Subject

4,

220, 222

Suggestion
Synthesis (apperception)

272

3,

260

T.

Talent

267

Temporal ideas

142

U.
Unconscious state
Understanding

203
263

in child

295

T.
Value, concept of

319

Vertical lines, illusion with

123

Vision
angle of

117

direct

118

erect

137

indirect

118

Visual purple
Volition

73

auditory

148

in child

286

internal

191

tactual

144

theories of

194

144

Volitional acts

Temporal modes
signs

156

183

processes

183

stages

144

Voluntary acts

188

Thought

265

Vorstellmig

224

209

Vowels

100

Threshold of consciousness

Tickling

163

Tonal line

51

51

scale

Tones
fundamental
lowest
principal
Torsibility

57

.290

54, 59

57

95
95

in child

collective

Weber's law
Word-ideas

289
308

theories of

194
.

254, 255, 256

266

102

Touch
analytic

to

Will
96

highest
partial

W.
Walk, learning
White

Y.
108

Young-Helmholtz theory

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72