Cogeneration

tion of trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling, heating and power (BCHP). Heating and cooling
output may operate concurrently or alternately depending
on need and system construction.
Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations
distributed power, industries generating their own power
used exhaust steam for process heating. Large oce and
apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building
heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these
CHP operations continued for many years after utility
electricity became available.[3]
Trigeneration cycle

1 Overview

Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is

the use of a heat engine[1] or power station to generate
electricity and useful heat at the same time. Trigeneration or combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP)
refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and
useful heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel
or a solar heat collector.
Cogeneration is a thermodynamically ecient use of fuel.
In separate production of electricity, some energy must
be discarded as waste heat, but in cogeneration some of
this thermal energy is put to use. All thermal power plants
emit heat during electricity generation, which can be released into the natural environment through cooling towers, ue gas, or by other means. In contrast, CHP captures some or all of the by-product for heating, either
very close to the plant, orespecially in Scandinavia and
Eastern Europeas hot water for district heating with
temperatures ranging from approximately 80 to 130 C.
This is also called combined heat and power district
heating (CHPDH). Small CHP plants are an example
of decentralized energy.[2] By-product heat at moderate
temperatures (100180 C, 212356 F) can also be used
in absorption refrigerators for cooling.

Thermal power plants (including those that use ssile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat
engines in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into electricity. In most heat engines, slightly more
than half is lost as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics and Carnots theorem). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an eciency
of up to 80%,[4] for the best conventional plants. This
means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the
same amount of useful energy.

The supply of high-temperature heat rst drives a gas or

steam turbine-powered generator and the resulting lowtemperature waste heat is then used for water or space
heating as described in cogeneration. At smaller scales
(typically below 1 MW) a gas engine or diesel engine may
be used. Trigeneration diers from cogeneration in that
the waste heat is used for both heating and cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. CCHP systems can
attain higher overall eciencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants. In the United States, the applica-

Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for extraction of steam at lower pressures after it has passed through
a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed
for nal exhaust at back pressure (non-condensing), or
both.[5] A typical power generation turbine in a paper mill
may have extraction pressures of 160 psig (1.103 MPa)
and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may
be 60 psig (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are
custom designed for each facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for process heating, such as drying

Masned CHP power station in Denmark. This station burns

straw as fuel. The adjacent greenhouses are heated by district
heating from the plant.

2
paper, evaporation, heat for chemical reactions or distillation. Steam at ordinary process heating conditions still
has a considerable amount of enthalpy that could be used
for power generation, so cogeneration has lost opportunity cost. Conversely, simply generating steam at process pressure instead of high enough pressure to generate
power at the top end also has lost opportunity cost. (See:
Steam turbine#Steam supply and exhaust conditions) The
capital and operating cost of high pressure boilers, turbines and generators are substantial, and this equipment
is normally operated continuously, which usually limits
self-generated power to large-scale operations.

TYPES OF PLANTS

absorption chiller.
CHP is most ecient when heat can be used on-site or
very close to it. Overall eciency is reduced when the
heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and
inecient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along
a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.
A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the
reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment
of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat
engine.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) plants often
produce a substantial amount of excess electricity. After
generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam
into heavy oil wells so that the oil will ow more easily, increasing production. TEOR cogeneration plants in
Kern County, California produce so much electricity that
it cannot all be used locally and is transmitted to Los Angeles.

A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The 45MW boiler uses

waste wood biomass as energy source, and provides electricity
and heat for 30,000 dwellings.

Some tri-cycle plants have used a combined cycle in

which several thermodynamic cycles produced electricity, then a heating system was used as a condenser of the
power plants bottoming cycle. For example, the RU-25
MHD generator in Moscow heated a boiler for a conventional steam powerplant, whose condensate was then used
for space heat. A more modern system might use a gas
turbine powered by natural gas, whose exhaust powers a
steam plant, whose condensate provides heat. Tri-cycle
plants can have thermal eciencies above 80%.

CHP is one of the most cost-ecient methods of reducing carbon emissions from heating systems in cold climates [6] and is recognized to be the most energy ecient method of transforming energy from fossil fuels or
biomass into electric power.[7] Cogeneration plants are
commonly found in district heating systems of cities, central heating systems from buildings, hospitals, prisons and
are commonly used in the industry in thermal production
processes for process water, cooling, steam production or
CO2 fertilization.

2 Types of plants
Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from
a steam turbine. The exhausted steam is then condensed
and the low temperature heat released from this condensation is utilized for e.g. district heating or water desalination.

Bottoming cycle plants produce high temperature heat

for industrial processes, then a waste heat recovery boiler
feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only
The viability of CHP (sometimes termed utilisation fac- used when the industrial process requires very high temtor), especially in smaller CHP installations, depends on peratures such as furnaces for glass and metal manufaca good baseload of operation, both in terms of an on- turing, so they are less common.
site (or near site) electrical demand and heat demand.
Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and
In practice, an exact match between the heat and elecpower for an industrial site or an entire town. Common
tricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet
CHP plant types are:
the need for heat (heat driven operation) or be run as a
power plant with some use of its waste heat, the latter be Gas turbine CHP plants using the waste heat in the
ing less advantageous in terms of its utilisation factor and
ue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used is typically
thus its overall eciency. The viability can be greatly innatural gas.
creased where opportunities for Trigeneration exist. In
Gas engine CHP plants use a reciprocating gas ensuch cases, the heat from the CHP plant is also used as a
gine which is generally more competitive than a gas
primary energy source to deliver cooling by means of an

2.1

MicroCHP

turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used

is normally natural gas. These plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the sites gas supply, electrical distribution network and heating systems. Typical outputs and eciences see [8] Typical
large example see [9]

voltaic + battery + CHP hybrid systems are technically viable in the continental U.S. to reduce consumer costs,[17]
while reducing energy- and electricity-related greenhouse
gas emissions.[18]

Biofuel engine CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or diesel engine, depending
upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine CHP
plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of
reduced hydrocarbon fuel consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the sites electrical
distribution and heating systems. Another variant is
the wood gasier CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is gasied in a zero oxygen
high temperature environment; the resulting gas is
then used to power the gas engine. Typical smaller
size biogas plant see [10]

Micro combined heat and power or 'Micro cogeneration

is a so-called distributed energy resource (DER). The installation is usually less than 5 kW in a house or small
business. Instead of burning fuel to merely heat space or
water, some of the energy is converted to electricity in
addition to heat. This electricity can be used within the
home or business or, if permitted by the grid management, sold back into the electric power grid.

Combined cycle power plants adapted for CHP

2.1 MicroCHP

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of

global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power
passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[19]
20.000 units were sold in Japan in 2012 overall within
the Ene Farm project. With a Lifetime of around 60,000
hours. For PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at
night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between
ten and fteen years.[20] For a price of $22,600 before
installation.[21] For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units
is in place.[20]

Molten-carbonate fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells The development of small-scale CHP systems has prohave a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating.
vided the opportunity for in-house power backup of
residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.[16] The results
Steam turbine CHP plants that use the heating sys- of a 2011 study show that a PV+CHP hybrid system
tem as the steam condenser for the steam turbine.
not only has the potential to radically reduce energy
Nuclear power plants, similar to other steam turbine waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems,
of solar PV to be expanded
power plants, can be tted with extractions in the but it also enables the share
[16]
by
about
a
factor
of
ve.
In some regions, in order
turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heatto
reduce
waste
from
excess
heat,
an absorption chiller
ing system. With a heating system temperature of
has
been
proposed
to
utilize
the
CHP-produced
ther95 C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for
[22]
mal
energy
for
cooling
of
PV-CHP
system.
These
every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of
130 C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for trigeneration+photovoltaic systems have the potential to
save even more energy and further reduce emissions comevery MWe lost.[11]
pared to conventional sources of power, heating and
cooling.[23]
Smaller cogeneration units may use a reciprocating engine or Stirling engine. The heat is removed from the MicroCHP installations use ve dierent technologies:
exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small microturbines, internal combustion engines, stirling ensizes because small gas and diesel engines are less expen- gines, closed cycle steam engines and fuel cells. One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling
sive than small gas- or oil-red steam-electric plants.
engines is the most cost eective of the so-called microSome cogeneration plants are red by biomass,[12] or generation technologies in abating carbon emissions;[24]
industrial and municipal solid waste (see incineration). A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that
Some CHP plants utilize waste gas as the fuel for elec- MCHP is the most cost-eective method of utilising
tricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from gas to generate energy at the domestic level.[25][26] howanimal waste, landll gas, gas from coal mines, sewage ever, advances in reciprocation engine technology are
gas, and combustible industrial waste gas.[13]
adding eciency to CHP plant, particularly in the bioSome cogeneration plants combine gas and solar gas eld.[27] As both MiniCHP and CHP have been
photovoltaic generation to further improve technical and shown to reduce emissions [28] they could play a large
environmental performance.[14] Such hybrid systems can role in the eld of CO2 reduction from buildings, where
be scaled down to the building level[15] and even individ- more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in
ual homes.[16] More recent results show that solar photo- buildings.[29] The ability to reduce emissions is particu-

COMPARISON WITH A HEAT PUMP

larly strong for new communities in emission intensive that may represent a signicant percent of either steam
grids that utilize a combination of CHP and photovoltaic or power demand.
systems.[30]

2.5 Heat recovery steam generators

2.2

Trigeneration

2.3

HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from

conventional steam generators by the following main feaCombined heat and power district tures:

A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is a steam

A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is called a boiler that uses hot exhaust gases from the gas turbines
trigeneration[31] or polygeneration plant. Cogeneration or reciprocating engines in a CHP plant to heat up water
systems linked to absorption chillers use waste heat for and generate steam. The steam, in turn, drives a steam
turbine or is used in industrial processes that require heat.
refrigeration.[32]

heating
See also: District heating
In the United States, Consolidated Edison distributes
66 billion kilograms of 350 F (180 C) steam each
year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000
buildings in Manhattanthe biggest steam district in the
United States. The peak delivery is 10 million pounds per
hour (or approximately 2.5 GW).[33][34]

2.4

Industrial CHP

The HRSG is designed based upon the specic features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that
it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low,
heat transmission is accomplished mainly through
convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to
keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission coefcient is low, which calls for a large heating surface
area.
Since the temperature dierence between the hot
gases and the uid to be heated (steam or water) is
low, and with the heat transmission coecient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are
designed with plate n heat exchangers.

Cogeneration is still common in pulp and paper mills, reneries and chemical plants. In this industrial cogeneration/CHP, the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100 deg C) and used for process steam
or drying duties. This is more valuable and exible than
low-grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power
generation. The increased focus on sustainability has 3 Comparison with a heat pump
made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially
reduces carbon footprint compared to generating steam
A heat pump may be compared with a CHP unit, in that
or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from
for a condensing steam plant, as it switches to produce
the grid.
heat, then electrical generation becomes unavailable, just
as the power used in a heat pump becomes unavailable.
2.4.1 Utility pressures versus self generating indus- Typically for every unit of electrical power lost, then
about 6 units of heat are made available at about 90 C.
trial
Thus CHP has an eective Coecient of Performance
[35]
It is noteworIndustrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much (COP) compared to a heat pump of 6.
thy
that
the
unit
for
the
CHP
is
lost
at
the
high voltage
lower boiler pressures than utilities. Among the reanetwork
and
therefore
incurs
no
losses,
whereas
the heat
sons are: 1) Cogeneration plants face possible contampump
unit
is
lost
at
the
low
voltage
part
of
the
network
ination of returned condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates and incurs on average a 6% loss. Because the losses are
than 100% condensing power plants, industries usually proportional to the square of the current, during peak pehave to treat proportionately more boiler make up water. riods losses are much higher than this and it is likely that
Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de- widespread (i.e. city-wide application of heat pumps)
mineralized, and the higher the pressure the more critical would cause overloading of the distribution and transmisthe level of purity of the feed water.[5] 2) Utilities are typ- sion grids unless they are substantially reinforced.
ically larger scale power than industry, which helps oset
the higher capital costs of high pressure. 3) Utilities are
less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down or starting up units

It is also possible to run a heat driven operation combined

with a heat pump, where the excess electricity (as heat demand is the dening factor on utilization) is used to drive
a heat pump. As heat demand increases, more electricity

5
is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat Wout
also heating the heating uid.
Qin

Distributed generation

Trigeneration has its greatest benets when scaled to t

buildings or complexes of buildings where electricity,
heating and cooling are perpetually needed. Such installations include but are not limited to: data centers,
manufacturing facilities, universities, hospitals, military
complexes, and schools. Localized trigeneration has addition benets as described by distributed generation.
Redundancy of power in mission critical applications,
lower power usage costs and the ability to sell electrical power back to the local utility are a few of the major benets. Even for small buildings such as individual
family homes trigeneration systems provide benets over
cogeneration because of increased energy utilization.[36]
This increased eciency can also provide signicant reduced greenhouse gas emissions, particularly for new
communities.[37]
Most industrial countries generate the majority of their
electrical power needs in large centralized facilities with
capacity for large electrical power output. These plants
have excellent economies of scale, but usually transmit
electricity long distances resulting in sizable losses, negatively aect the environment. Large power plants can
use cogeneration or trigeneration systems only when sufcient need exists in immediate geographic vicinity for an
industrial complex, additional power plant or a city. An
example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications
in a major city is the New York City steam system.

Typical trigeneration models have losses as in any system.

The energy distribution below is represented as a percent
of total input energy:[39]
Electricity = 45%
Heat + Cooling = 40%
Heat Losses = 13%
Electrical Line Losses = 2%
Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert only about 33% of their input heat to
electricity.[40] The remaining 67% emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat with no signicant local
uses so it is usually rejected to the environment. These
low conversion eciencies strongly suggest that productive uses could be found for this waste heat, and in some
countries these plants do collect byproduct heat that can
be sold to customers.
But if no practical uses can be found for the waste heat
from a central power station, e.g., due to distance from
potential customers, then moving generation to where the
waste heat can nd uses may be of great benet. Even
though the eciency of a small distributed electrical generator may be lower than a large central power plant, the
use of its waste heat for local heating and cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply as great
as 80%.[40] This provides substantial nancial and environmental benets.

6 Costs
5

Thermal eciency

Typically, for a gas-red plant the fully installed cost per

kW electrical is around 400/kW ($577 USD), which is
Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical eciency
comparable with large central power stations.[10]
limits of the Carnot cycle. When the fuel is natural
gas, a gas turbine following the Brayton cycle is typi- See also Cost of electricity by source
cally used.[38] Mechanical energy from the turbine drives
an electric generator. The low-grade (i.e. low temperature) waste heat rejected by the turbine is then applied to 7 History
space heating or cooling or to industrial processes. Cooling is achieved by passing the waste heat to an absorption
7.1 Cogeneration in Europe
chiller.
Thermal eciency in a trigeneration system is dened as:

th

Wout
Qin

Where:

th

The EU has actively incorporated cogeneration into its

energy policy via the CHP Directive. In September 2008
at a hearing of the European Parliaments Urban LodgOutput Cooling + Output Heat + Output Power
ment Electrical
Intergroup, Energy Commissioner Andris Piebalgs

Input Heat Total

is quoted as saying, security of supply really starts with
energy eciency.[41] Energy eciency and cogeneration
are recognized in the opening paragraphs of the European Unions Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This
directive intends to support cogeneration and establish a
method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country.

HISTORY

ganization representing the interests of the cogeneration

industry.
The European publicprivate partnership Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Undertaking Seventh Framework Programme project ene.eld deploys in 2017[47] up 1,000
residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (microCHP) installations in 12 states. Per 2012 the rst 2 installations have taken place.[48][49][50]

7.2 Cogeneration in the United Kingdom

A cogeneration thermal power plant in Ferrera Erbognone (PV),

Italy

The development of cogeneration has been very uneven

over the years and has been dominated throughout the last
decades by national circumstances.

In the United Kingdom, the Combined Heat and Power

Quality Assurance (CHPQA) scheme regulates the
combined production of heat and power. CHPQA was
introduced in 1996. It denes, through calculation of inputs and outputs, Good Quality CHP in terms of the
achievement of primary energy savings against conventional separate generation of heat and electricity. Compliance with CHPQA is required for cogeneration installations to be eligible for government subsidies and tax
incentives.[51]

The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration.[42] However, there is large dierence
between Member States with variations of the energy
savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three 7.3
countries with the worlds most intensive cogeneration
economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.[43]
Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by
conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012,
81.80% was cogeneration.[44]

Cogeneration in the United States

Other European countries are also making great eorts

to increase eciency. Germany reported that at present,
over 50% of the countrys total electricity demand could
be provided through cogeneration. So far, Germany has
set the target to double its electricity cogeneration from
12.5% of the countrys electricity to 25% of the countrys
electricity by 2020 and has passed supporting legislation
accordingly.[45] The UK is also actively supporting combined heat and power. In light of UKs goal to achieve a
60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, the
government has set the target to source at least 15% of its
government electricity use from CHP by 2010.[46] Other
The 250 MW Kendall Cogeneration Station plant in Cambridge,
UK measures to encourage CHP growth are nancial inMassachusetts
centives, grant support, a greater regulatory framework,
and government leadership and partnership.
Perhaps the rst modern use of energy recycling was done
According to the IEA 2008 modeling of cogeneration ex- by Thomas Edison. His 1882 Pearl Street Station, the
pansion for the G8 countries, the expansion of cogener- worlds rst commercial power plant, was a combined
ation in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would heat and power plant, producing both electricity and thereectively double the existing primary fuel savings by mal energy while using waste heat to warm neighboring
2030. This would increase Europes savings from todays buildings.[52] Recycling allowed Edisons plant to achieve
155.69 Twh to 465 Twh in 2030. It would also result in a approximately 50 percent eciency.
16% to 29% increase in each countrys total cogenerated By the early 1900s, regulations emerged to promote ruelectricity by 2030.
ral electrication through the construction of centralized
Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors
by organizations like COGEN Europe who serve as an
information hub for the most recent updates within Europes energy policy. COGEN is Europes umbrella or-

plants managed by regional utilities. These regulations

not only promoted electrication throughout the countryside, but they also discouraged decentralized power generation, such as cogeneration.

8.2

Renewable

By 1978, Congress recognized that eciency at central 8.2 Renewable

power plants had stagnated and sought to encourage improved eciency with the Public Utility Regulatory Poli Solar powerboth solar thermal and photovoltaic
cies Act (PURPA), which encouraged utilities to buy
power from other energy producers.
Biomass
7.3.1

Diusion

Cogeneration plants proliferated, soon producing about

8% of all energy in the United States.[53] However, the
bill left implementation and enforcement up to individual
states, resulting in little or nothing being done in many
parts of the country.
The United States Department of Energy has an aggressive goal of having CHP constitute 20% of generation capacity by the year 2030. Eight Clean Energy Application
Centers[54] have been established across the nation whose
mission is to develop the required technology application knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary
to lead clean energy (combined heat and power, waste
heat recovery and district energy) technologies as viable
energy options and reduce any perceived risks associated
with their implementation. The focus of the Application
Centers is to provide an outreach and technology deployment program for end users, policy makers, utilities, and
industry stakeholders.
High electric rates in New England and the Middle Atlantic make these areas of the United States the most benecial for cogeneration.[55][56]
Outside of the United States, energy recycling is more
common. Denmark is probably the most active energy
recycler, obtaining about 55% of its energy from cogeneration and waste heat recovery. Other large countries, including Germany, Russia, and India, also obtain
a much higher share of their energy from decentralized
sources.[53][57]

Applications in power generation

systems

8.1

Non-renewable

Any of the following conventional power plants may be

converted to a CCHP system:[58]
Coal
Microturbine

Fuel cell
Any type of compressor or turboexpander, such as
in compressed air energy storage

9 See also
Air separation
Carnot cycle
Carnot method
CHP Directive
Cost of electricity by source
Distributed generation (more general term encompassing CHP)
District heating
Electricity generation
Electrication
Energy policy of the European Union
Environmental impact of electricity generation
European Biomass Association
Euroheat & Power
Industrial gas
Micro combined heat and power
New York City steam system
Rankine cycle

Natural gas
Nuclear power
Oil
Small gas turbine

10 Further reading
Steam, Its Generation and Use (35 ed.). Babcock &
Wilson Company. 1913.

11

11

References

[1] Cogeneration
and
Cogeneration
Schematic,
www.clarke-energy.com, retrieved 26.11.11
[2] What is Decentralised Energy?". The Decentralised Energy Knowledge Base.
[3] Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730-1930, Vol. 3:
The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
London: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-08198-9.

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10

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Cogeneration Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration?oldid=744459906 Contributors: Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Ray Van De

Walker, Andres, Samw, Smack, LMB, Kizor, Antonin~enwiki, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Ich, LLarson, Beland, Mako098765,
Ouro, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Bender235, Jensbn, El C, RoyBoy, Billymac00, Vortexrealm, Giraedata, Cavrdg,
Slambo, Pearle, Espoo, Rd232, Wtshymanski, BLueFiSH.as, Bsadowski1, Markaci, Dtobias, Crosbiesmith, Bobrayner, TSP, Linas,
Armando, MGTom, Mandarax, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Salix alba, Smithfarm, Vegaswikian, RobertG, Old Moonraker, Monkofthetrueschool, Bgwhite, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Jamesmorrison, Midgley, RussBot, Arado, Leifhille, Sandpiper, Adamrush, Moe Epsilon,
Deeday-UK, JDspeeder1, NeilN, SmackBot, Rex the rst, Lawrencekhoo, Gunnar.Kaestle, Timeshifter, Oliver.gouldthorpe, Commander
Keane bot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, Wykis, Jmax-, Nick Levine, Claush66, Mion, Pekiro, J. Finkelstein, Euchiasmus,
Peterlewis, TAXman, Ckatz, Beetstra, Kvng, Amberger~enwiki, Hu12, Otdu, Blehfu, Hyperman 42, Americasroof, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Chp109, Article editor, Fletcher, CumbiaDude, Cydebot, JEdlund, Krzysiu Jarzyna, Teratornis, Pege.founder, Gralo, TuvicBot,
Ioeth, JAnDbot, Yeliseyev, Z22, Rich257, Engineman, Farpointer, Cgingold, Beagel, Sustainableyes, User A1, Mattcguy, STBot, J.delanoy,
Qonline, Dispenser, Totsugeki, Fooghter20x, Deor, VolkovBot, Helloitsonlyme, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Jjjbell, Gueneverey, Drestros power, Richtman, Billinghurst, Phmoreno, MuddyDave, Fahidka, Jojalozzo, Animagi1981, Season21, ClueBot, Onthetopofthehill,
Pakaraki, Jan1nad, Sylvain.quoilin, Niceguyedc, Cirt, Rockfang, Jespernoes, Eeekster, SchreiberBike, ShadowInfernoBlitz, Speakforthose,
Erodium, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Stickee, Vegas949, Addbot, Mortense, Phlow1979, SpBot, Howard Hall Farm, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, GGByte, Shore3, Mattia Luigi Nappi, Thameshead, AnomieBOT, Jzoch2, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, LilHelpa,
Enercon Engineering Inc., Chpfocus, Rcandamoonpie, Ita140188, TolarisTango, Propagator, Mnmngb, Energee5, FrescoBot, Redrose64,
Pinethicket, Dgdeckard, Folifo, Jetam2, Enerjiturk, Biomanuk, Elekhh, Intern8, , Reaper Eternal, Akkamaan, CanadianPenguin, TGCP, Tandorf, Pahazzard, OilAndGasExpert, Gdnumber1, Oakmedia, Sfreyer, Alcea setosa, Essicajay, Druzhnik, Bava Alcide57,
Yerocus, Djdiablo79, Munay09, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, CHPfactchecker, Catlemur, Delusion23, Zyads, ScottSteiner, Dougmcdonell, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Bogdan 007, Skobayas, BattyBot, Justincheng12345-bot, Cyberbot II, Joeknight1, Timelezz, Dexbot,
Mogism, Joeinwiki, Rfassbind, Epicgenius, Wendydi, Zenibus, Hamm1344, Mostafa9971, Trent247, Monkbot, Trackteur, HenriDeNys,
JC713, KH-1, Lynher1, Progressingamerica, Alo sanchez, Aegisenergy, My Chemistry romantic, Orielno, Guill8, Toasty22, Jeanb1000
and Anonymous: 184

12.2

Images

File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.

jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz
File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhateld
File:Masned_power_station.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Masned%C3%B8_power_station.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Sandpiper assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: Bava Alcide57
File:Mirant_Kendall_Cogeneration_Station.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Mirant_Kendall_
Cogeneration_Station.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fletcher6
File:Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Power_plant_at_sunset.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mattia Luigi Nappi
File:Sustainable_development.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Inspired from Developpement durable.jpg Original artist:
original: Johann Dro (talk contribs)
File:Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Trigeneration_Cycle.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jonnathan McForlan
File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lukipuk

12.3

Content license

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