Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars
The term Balkan Wars refers to the two wars that took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. The First
Balkan War broke out on 8 October 1912 when Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia (see Balkan League),
having large parts of their ethnic populations under Ottoman sovereignty, attacked the Ottoman Empire, terminating
its five-century rule in the Balkans in a seven-month campaign resulting in the Treaty of London.
The Second Balkan War broke out on 16 June 1913 when Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in
Macedonia, made in secret by its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Their armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and
counter-attacked penetrating into Bulgaria, while Romania and the Ottoman Empire took the opportunity to
intervene against Bulgaria and make territorial gains. In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria lost most of the
territories gained in the First Balkan War.

Background
The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the
Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. The Serbs had gained substantial territory during the
Russo-Turkish War, 18771878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area back to the
Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated the formerly distinct
province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three as well as Montenegro sought additional territories within the large
Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace (see map).

Policies of the Great Powers

Throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the "Eastern Question" and the integrity of
the Ottoman Empire. Russia wished for access to the "warm waters" of the Mediterranean; it pursued a pan-Slavic
foreign policy and thereby supported Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished to deny Russia access to the "warm waters"
and supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a
backup plan in case integrity of the empire was no longer possible. France wished to strengthen its position in the
region, especially in the Levant (today's Lebanon, Syria, the Palestinian territories and Israel).
The Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both
were troubled multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might weaken the other. The Habsburgs also
saw a strong Ottoman presence in area as a counterweight to the Serbian nationalistic call to their own Serb subjects
in Bosnia. Regarding Italy, it has been argued that from that time it wished to recreate the Roman empire; its main
aim at the time seems to have been primarily the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea of another major sea power.
Germany in turn, under the "Drang nach Osten" policy, aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into its own de-facto
colony, and thus supported its integrity.
Bulgaria and Greece sent armed bandits inside the Empire (in Macedonia and Thrace) in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, to protect their own nationals from the forced "Bulgarization" of Greeks by Bulgarians or "Hellinization"
of Bulgars by Greeks. Low intensity warfare had broken out inside Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian
bands and the Ottoman army after 1904 in the Struggle for Macedonia. After the Young Turk revolution of July
1908, the situation changed drastically.

Balkan Wars

The Young Turk revolution

It is no surprise that the "Young Turk" revolution occurred in the troubled European provinces of the Empire. There
the threat to its integrity was the most pronounced, and the need for reforms was most evident. When the revolt
broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire, and forced
Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the long defunct Ottoman constitution of 1877, ushering in the Second
Constitutional Era. Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy, and elections were
held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament. However, following the Sultan's attempted
counter-coup, the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant.
At the same time, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to
annex the de jure Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 (see Bosnian Crisis),
and Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom. The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan State proclaimed
unification with Greece, though the opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical
influence.

Reaction in the Balkan States

Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia with its 975,000 Orthodox Serbs (and many
more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the annexation and restrain
anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb
territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo).
On 15 August 1909 the Military League, a group of Greek officers, took action against the government to reform
their country's national government and reorganize the army. The league found itself unable to create a new political
system, till the league summoned the Cretan politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens as its political adviser.
Venizelos persuaded the king to revise the constitution and asked the league to disband in favor of a National
Assembly. In March 1910 the Military League dissolved itself.[1]
Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of
Russia,[2] also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In August 1910 Montenegro followed
Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.

The Balkan League

Following Italy's victory in the Italo-Turkish War of
1911-1912 the Young Turks fell from power after a
coup. The Balkan countries saw this as an opportunity
to attack and fulfill their desires of expansion.
With the initial encouragement of Russian agents, a
series of agreements was concluded between Serbia and
Bulgaria in March 1912. Military victory against the
Ottoman empire would not be possible while it could
bring reinforcements from Asia. The condition of the
Ottoman railways of the time was primitive, so most
Bulgarian forces waiting to commence their assault on Adrianople
reinforcement would have to come by sea through the
Aegean. Greece was the only Balkan country with a
navy powerful enough to deny use of the Aegean to the Ottomans, thus a treaty became necessary between Greece
and Bulgaria which signed in May 1912.
Montenegro concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria later that year. Bulgaria signed treaties with Serbia
to divide between them the territory of northern Macedonia, but such an agreement was clearly denied to Greece.

Balkan Wars

Bulgaria's policy then was to use the agreement to limit Serbia's access to Macedonia, while at the same time
denying any such agreement with Greece, believing that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of Aegean
Macedonia and the important port city of Thessaloniki before the Greeks.
The resulting alliance between Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro became known as the Balkan League; its
existence was undesirable for all the Great Powers. The league was loose at best, though a secret liaison officer was
exchanged between the Greek and the Serbian army after the war began. Greece delayed the start of the war several
times in the summer of 1912, in order to better prepare her navy, but Montenegro declared war on 8 October (25
September O.S.). Following an ultimatum to the Ottomans, the remaining members of the alliance entered the
conflict on 17 October.

The First Balkan War

With the exception of Greece, and in continuation of
their secret prewar settlements of expansion between
them and under close Russian supervision, the three
Slavic allies (Bulgarian, Serbs and Montenegrins) had
laid out extensive plans to coordinate their war efforts:
the Serbs and Montenegrins in the theater of Sandjak,
the Bulgarians and Serbs in the Macedonian and
Thracian theaters. The Ottoman Empire had a massive
pool of manpower of about 26 million people, but it
was handicapped by an army heavily dependent on
reinforcements that had to come mainly from the Asian
part of the Empire where 3/4 of the population and the
majority of the Muslims lived. These had to be
transferred to the Balkans mostly by ship, but this
depended on the result of battles between the Ottoman
and Greek navies in the Aegean. With the outbreak of
the war the Ottoman forces activated three Army HQs,
allocating there most of their available forces per front:
the Thracian with its HQ in Constantinople, the
Western with its HQ in Salonika and the Vardar with
its HQ in Skopje, against the Bulgarians, the Greeks
and the Serbians respectively. Smaller independent
units had been allocated elsewhere, mostly around
heavily fortified cities.
Montenegro was the first that declared war on 8
October. Its main thrust was towards Shkodra, with
secondary operations in the Novi Pazar area. The rest
of the Allies, after giving a common ultimatum,
declared war a week later. Bulgaria attacked towards
Eastern Thrace, being stopped only at the outskirts of
Constantinople at the atalca line and the isthmus of
the Gallipoli peninsula, while secondary forces
captured Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia.

Territorial changes as a result of the First Balkan war, as of April

1913 showing the prewar agreed line of expansion between Serbia
and Bulgaria

The apple of discord: King George I of Greece and Tsar Ferdinand of

Bulgaria at Thessaloniki, December 1912. Despite their alliance,
Greco-Bulgarian antagonism over the city and Macedonia in general
did not abate.

Balkan Wars

Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Monastir and then turned west to present-day Albania, reaching Adriatica,
while a second Army captured Kosovo and linked with the Montenegrin forces. Greece's main forces attacked from
Thessaly into Macedonia through the Sarantaporo strait and after capturing Thessaloniki on 12 November (on 26
October 1912, O.S.) expanded its occupied area and linked up with the Serbian army to the northwest, while its main
forces turned east towards Kavala, reaching the Bulgarians. Another Greek army attacked into Epirus towards
Ioannina.[3]
In the naval front the Ottoman fleet twice exited the Dardanelles and was twice defeated by the Greek Navy, in the
battles of Elli and Lemnos. Greek dominance on the Aegean Sea made it impossible for the Ottomans to transfer the
planned troops from the Middle East to the Thracian (against the Bulgarian) and to the Macedonian (against the
Greeks and Serbians) fronts[4] . According to the E.J.Erickson the Greek Navy also played a crucial, albeit indirect
role, in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three Thracian Corps (see First Balkan War, the
Bulgarian theater of operations), a significant portion of the Ottoman Army there, in the all-important opening round
of the war.[4] After the defeating of the Ottoman fleet the Greek Navy was also free to liberate the islands of the
Aegean.[5] General Nikola Ivanov identified the activity of the Greek Navy as the chief factor in the general success
of the allies.[4] [6]
In January, after a successful coup by young army officers, the Ottoman Empire decided to continue the war. After a
failed Ottoman counter-attack in the Western-Thracian front, Bulgarian forces with the help of the Serbian Army
managed to conquer Adrianople while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after defeating the Ottomans in the
battle of Bizani. In the joint Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operation the Montenegrin army besieged and captured
the Shkodra, ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the atalca line after nearly 500 years. The war ended
with the Treaty of London on 17 May 1913.

Second Balkan War

Though the Balkan allies had fought together against
the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome
their mutual rivalries. The Second Balkan War broke
out on 16 June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked its
erstwhile allies in the First Balkan War, Serbia and
Greece, while Montenegro, Romania and the Ottoman
Empire intervened later against Bulgaria. When the
Greek army entered Thessaloniki in the First Balkan
War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a day,
they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter
the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a
Greek unit to enter the city of Serres.

Cholera was common among the soldiers of the combatant nations

The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out

to be a 48,000-strong division instead of the battalion, something which caused concern among the Greeks, who
viewed it as a Bulgarian attempt to establish a condominium over the city. In the event, due to the urgently needed
reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian Headquarters was soon forced to remove its troops from the city
(while the Greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their units based in Serres) and

Balkan Wars

transport them to Dedeaa (modern Alexandroupolis),

but still it left behind a battalion that started fortifying
its positions.
Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the
stretch of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that
lay in Greek-occupied territory, since Bulgaria
controlled the largest part of this railroad towards
Thrace. After the end of the operations in Thraceand
confirming Greek concernsBulgaria was not satisfied
with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and
immediately asked Greece to relinquish its control over
Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria, effectively
handing over all Aegean Macedonia. These
unacceptable demands together with the Bulgarian
refusal to demobilize its army after the Treaty of
London had ended the common war against the
Ottomans and alarmed Greece, which decided also to
maintain its army's mobilization.
Similarly, in northern Macedonia, the tension between
Serbia and Bulgaria due to later aspirations over Vardar
Macedonia generated many incidents between the
Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War
nearby armies, prompting Serbia to maintain its army's
(19121913)
mobilization. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of
the three countries reduce its army by one fourth, as a
first step to facilitate a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it. Seeing the omens, Greece and Serbia started a
series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 19 May/1 June 1913. With this treaty, a mutual border was agreed
between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a
Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the
upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering
to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria, by making the
acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion and caused Russia to repudiate its
alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902).
The Serbs and the Greeks had a military advantage on the eve of the war because their armies confronted
comparatively weak Ottoman forces in the First Balkan War and suffered relatively light casualties[7] while the
Bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in Thrace. The Serbs and the Greeks had time to fortify their positions in
Macedonia. The Bulgarians also held some advantages, controlling internal communication and supply lines.[7]
On 16 June 1913 General Savov, under direct orders of tsar Ferdinand I, issued attacking orders against both Greece
and Serbia without consulting the Bulgarian government and without any official declaration of war.[8] During the
night of 17 June 1913 they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then the Greek army in Nigrita. The
Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, while most of soldiers did not even know who they are fighting with,
as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbs and were considered allies. Montenegro's forces were just a few
kilometeres away and also rushed to the battle. The Bulgarian attack was halted.
The Greek army was also successful.[7] It retreated according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of
the remaining Bulgarian regiment. Then the Greek army counter-attacked and defeated the Bulgarians at
Kilkis-Lahanas, after which the mostly Bulgarian town was destroyed.[9] [10] However, the Greek army's pace was

Balkan Wars
not quick enough to prevent the massacre of Greek peaceable inhabitants at Nigrita, Serres, Drama and Doxato.[11]
The Greek army then divided its forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded east and occupied Western
Thrace. The rest of the Greek army advanced up to the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the
battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles, and continued its advance to the north towards Sofia. In the Kresna straits the
Greeks were ambushed by the Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Army newly arrived from the Serbian front that had already
taken defensive positions there following the Bulgarian victory at Kalimanci.
By 30 July the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army, which attempted to encircle
the Greeks in a Cannae-type battle, by applying pressure on their flanks.[12] The Greek army resisted successfully
however, launching local counter-attacks. The battle was continued for eleven days, between 29 July and 9 August
over 20km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion. The Greek King, seeing that the units he fought
were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front ahead them was now
thinner, but the Serbs rejected it. By then, news came of the Romanian advance toward Sofia and its imminent fall.
After that, Constantine, realizing the futility of continuing the counterattack, agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos'
proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for armistice as this had been communicated through Romania.
Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on 27 June as it had from 15 June officially warned
Bulgaria that it would not remain neutral in a new Balkan war, due to Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of
Silistra as promised before the First Balkan war in exchange for Romanian neutrality. Its forces encountered little
resistance and by the time the Greeks accepted the Bulgarian request for armistice they had reached Vrazhdebna, 7
miles from the center of Sofia.
Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army the Ottomans decided to intervene. They attacked and finding no
opposition, managed to recover eastern Thrace with its fortified city of Adrianople, regaining an area in Europe
which was only slightly larger than the present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey.

Reactions among the Great Powers during the wars

The developments that led to the First Balkan War did not go unnoticed by the Great Powers, but although there
was an official consensus between the European Powers over the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which
led to a stern warning to the Balkan states, unofficially each of them took a different diplomatic approach due to their
conflicting interests in the area. As a result, any possible preventive effect of the common official warning was
cancelled by the mixed unofficial signals, and failed to prevent or to stop the war:
Russia was a prime mover in the establishment of the Balkan League and saw it as an essential tool in case of a
future war against its rival, the Austro-Hungarian Empire[13] . But it was unaware of the Bulgarian plans over
Thrace and Constantinople, territories on which it had long-held ambitions, and on which it had just secured a
secret agreement of expansion from its allies France and Britain, as a reward for participating in the upcoming
Great War against the Central Powers.
France, not feeling ready for a war against Germany in 1912, took a totally negative position against the war,
firmly informing its ally Russia that it would not take part in a potential conflict between Russia and
Austria-Hungary if it resulted from the actions of the Balkan League. The French however failed to achieve
British participation in a common intervention to stop the Balkan conflict.
The British Empire, although officially a staunch supporter of the Ottoman Empire's integrity, took secret
diplomatic steps encouraging Greek entry into the League in order to counteract Russian influence. At the same
time it encouraged Bulgarian aspirations over Thrace, preferring a Bulgarian Thrace to a Russian one, despite the
assurances the British had given to the Russians in regard to their expansion there.
Austria-Hungary, struggling for a port on the Adriatic and seeking ways for expansion in the south at the expense
of the Ottoman Empire, was totally opposed to any other nation's expansion in the area. At the same time, the
Habsburg empire had its own internal problems with significant Slav populations that campaigned against

Balkan Wars
German-Hungarian control of the multinational state. Serbia, whose aspirations in the direction of Austrian-held
Bosnia were no secret, was considered an enemy and the main tool of Russian machinations that were behind the
agitation of Austria's Slav subjects. But Austria-Hungary failed to secure German backup for a firm reaction.
Initially, Emperor Wilhelm II told the Archduke Franz Ferdinand that Germany was ready to support Austria in
all circumstanceseven at the risk of a world war, but the Austro-Hungarians hesitated. Finally, in the German
Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912 the consensus was that Germany would not be ready for war until at
least mid-1914 and passed notes about that to the Habsburgs. Consequently no actions could be taken when the
Serbs acceded to the Austrian ultimatum of 18 October and withdrew from Albania.
Germany, already heavily involved in internal Ottoman politics, officially opposed a war against the Empire. But
in her effort to win Bulgaria for the Central Powers, and seeing the inevitability of Ottoman disintegration, was
toying with the idea of replacing the Balkan area of the Ottomans with a friendly Greater Bulgaria in her San
Stefano bordersan idea that was based on the German origin of the Bulgarian King and his anti-Russian
sentiments.
The Second Balkan war was a catastrophic blow to Russian policies in the Balkans, where Russia had focused its
interests for access to the "warm seas" for centuries. First, it marked the end of the Balkan League, a vital arm of the
Russian system of defense against Austria-Hungary. Second, the clearly pro-Serbian position Russia had been forced
to take in the conflict, mainly due to Bulgaria's uncompromising aggressiveness, caused a permanent break-up
between the two countries. Accordingly, Bulgaria reverted its policy to one closer to the Central Powers'
understanding over an anti-Serbian front, due to its new national aspirations, now expressed mainly against Serbia.
As a result, Serbia was isolated militarily against its rival Austria-Hungary, a development that eventually doomed
Serbia in the coming war a year later. But most damaging, the new situation effectively trapped Russian foreign
policy: After 1913, Russia could not afford losing its last ally in this crucial area and thus had no alternatives but to
unconditionally support Serbia when the crisis between Serbia and Austria broke out in 1914. This was a position
that inevitably drew her, although unwillingly, into a World War with devastating results for her, since she was less
prepared (both militarily and socially) for that event than any other Great Power.
Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory at the expense of its national aspirations in the
region, as well as Serbia's rising status, especially to Austria-Hungary's Slavic populations. This concern was shared
by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia. This contributed significantly to the two Central Powers'
willingness to go to war as soon as possible.
Finally, when a Serbian backed organization assassinated the heir of the Austro-Hungarian throne, causing the 1914
July Crisis, nobody could stop the conflict and the First World War broke out.

Aftermath
Urlanis estimated in Voini I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi (1960) that in the first and second Balkan wars there were
122,000 killed in action, 20,000 dead of wounds, and 82,000 dead of disease.

Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

"Military League" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9052680), Encyclopdia Britannica Online
"THE BALKAN WARS" (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ bulgaria/ 12. htm). US Library of Congress. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-04-15.
Balkan Wars (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9011972) Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Erickson (2003), p. 333
"History of Greece" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-26429) Encyclopdia Britannica Online
Hall (2000), p. 65
Hall (2000), p. 117

[8] George Phillipov (Winter, 1995). "THE MACEDONIAN ENIGMA" (http:/ / macedonia-istinata. hit. bg/ MacEnigma. html). Magazine:
Australia &World Affairs,. . Retrieved 2008-04-15.
[9] Hugh Poulton, "Who are the Macedonians?", 2000, p.75
[10] "Balkan Forum", Volume 5, Issues 1-2, 1997, p.132

Balkan Wars
[11] The Great Events by Famous Historians, Charles F. Horne, 2006, ISBN 978-1426441073, p. 420
[12] Hall, Richard (2000). The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War. Routledge. p.121. ISBN0415229464.
[13] Stowell, Ellery Cory (2009). The Diplomacy Of The War Of 1914: The Beginnings Of The War (1915). Kessinger Publishing, LLC.. p.94.
ISBN978-1104487584.

External links
Wikisource: The New Student's Reference Work/The Balkans and the Peace of Europe
Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 19121913, by Jacob Gould Schurman (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/
11676/11676.txt)
US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars (http://countrystudies.us/bulgaria/12.htm)
The Balkan crises, 19031914 (http://cnparm.home.texas.net/Wars/BalkanCrises/BalkanCrises00.htm)
Military uniforms and insignia of the Balkan Wars (http://forum.uniforminsignia.net/viewtopic.php?t=3656)
Balkan Wars: An Overview (http://www.lahana.org/blog/Balkan Wars.htm)
Facts and historical notes about Macedonia and Bulgaria, contemporary historians obejectivism issues, etc. (http:/
/www.mak-truth.com/)
Balkan Wars from a Turkish perspective (http://www.turkeyswar.com/prelude/balkanwars1.htm)

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DIREKTOR, Jak, Juiced lemon, Jungpionier, OttomanReference, OwenBlacker, Quadell, Thuresson, Ulner, 1 anonymous edits

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